Kist Brandox lm35 Based Digital Room Temperature Meter

TRADE PROJECT
KIAMBU INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE: DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(POWER OPTION)
NAME: EDWARD BRANDOX OMONDI
INDEX NUMBER: 2051012812
PAPER NUMBER: 2601/306
PROJECT TITLE: LM35 BASED DIGITAL ROOM TEMPERATURE METER
SUPERVISOR: MR.PETER
PRESENTED TO: THE KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (POWER
OPTION)
SERIES: OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2021

DECLARATION
I Edward Brandox Omondi declare that this is my original work and has not been written and submitted to the any
examination body for examination purpose. I therefore submit document for the award of a Diploma in Electrical and
Electronic Engineering (Power Option).
Name : EDWARD BRANDOX OMONDI

Signature : ……………………………….
Date : ……………………………….
Name : MR.PETER
Signature : ……………………………….
Date : ……………………………….
Acknowledgement.
I would like to acknowledge my project supervisor Mr.Peter for directing me all through the success of the project.
I also thank my parents for financial support they gave me all through. Lastly I thank the almighty God for giving me
good health and strength during this period.
Dedication
I dedicate this project to my beloved parents, my uncles and all those who have financially and morally supported me
to complete this project.
TABLE OF CONTENT.
Declaration.......................................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................................3
Dedication........................................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................7
1.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................7
1.2 AIM.......................................................................................................................................8
1.3 OBJECTIVES.......................................................................................................................9
1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION.....................................................................................10
 Power supply......................................................................................................................10
 Temperature sensor.............................................................................................................10
1.4 Micro-controller..............................................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................13
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANALYSIS......................................................................13
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................13
2.2 POWER SUPPLY...........................................................................................................14
2.2.1 TRANSFORMATION................................................................................................15
2.2.2 RECTIFICATION.......................................................................................................16
a) Half wave rectification.......................................................................................................16
b) Center tapped full wave rectification..................................................................................17
 Positive Half cycle..........................................................................................................18
 Negative Half cycle.........................................................................................................18
c) Full wave Bridge Rectification...........................................................................................19
 During the First Half Cycle.............................................................................................20
 During the Second Half Cycle........................................................................................21
d) Controlled Rectifiers...........................................................................................................22
2.2.3 SMOOTHING.................................................................................................................22
a) Capacitor smoothening basics.........................................................................................23
b) Smoothing Capacitor Value............................................................................................24
a) Smoothing Capacitor Ripple Voltage.............................................................................25
b) Ripple Current.................................................................................................................26
c) Capacitor Discharge Current...........................................................................................26
d) Capacitor Charging Current............................................................................................26
2.2.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION............................................................................................27
a) Electronic Voltage Regulator..........................................................................................27
1.5 2.3 MICRO-CONTROLLER..........................................................................................30
1.6 2.4 LM35 TEMPERATURE SENSORS........................................................................30
2.5 12V DC MOTOR FAN........................................................................................................31
1.7 2.6 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)..................................................................................33
CHAPTER THREE.......................................................................................................................35
1.8 3.1 PROJECT DESIGN..................................................................................................35
1.9 Introduction.....................................................................................................................35
1.10 3.2 POWER SUPPLY.....................................................................................................36
3.3 RECTIFICATION...............................................................................................................37
1.11 3.4 SMOOTHING...........................................................................................................38
3.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR.....................................................................................................39
1.12 3.6 LCD DISPLAY.........................................................................................................40
1.13 3.7 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM...............................................................................................41
1.14 3.8 CIRCUIT OPERATION...........................................................................................42
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................43
1.15 4.1 TEST AND RESULT TABLE.................................................................................43
1.16 4.2 COSTING.................................................................................................................43
1.17 4.6 CONCLUTION.........................................................................................................47
1.18 4.8 RECOMMENDATION............................................................................................48
ABSTRACT
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Microcontroller 13
Figure 3. 2 LM 35 Temperature sensor 14
Figure 3. 3 Structure and configuration of Gas sensor MQ-2 16
Figure 3. 4 BC548 Pin Diagram 16
Figure 3. 5 DC Relay 17
Figure 3. 6 16X2 LCD display 18
Figure 3. 7 SIM900A GSM module 19
Figure 3. 8 System power supply 19
Figure 3. 9 Buzzer 20
Figure 3. 10 DC motor 21
Figure 3. 11 Servo motor 21
Figure 3. 12 GPS Module 22
Figure 4. 1 System block diagram 23
Figure 4. 2 Block diagram of smart appliance system 24
Figure 4. 3 Architect of the project without GSM Flowchart 25
Figure 4. 4 program creation steps 27
Figure 4. 5 generating hex file 27
Figure 4. 6 Arduino sketch simple function 28
Figure 4. 7Interfacing ARDUINO Programmer with PC 28
Figure 4. 8 Upload Boot loader to ARDUINO Programmer 29
Figure 4. 9 Overall system design 30
Figure 5. 1 Fire and smoke detection 31

Figure 5. 2 SMS message form SIM900 GSM module 32
List of Tables
Table 3. 1 part list for system power supply circuit diagram 19
Table 5. 1 Overall output of the system 32

List of Acronyms
i. GSM – Global System for Mobile

ii. SMS – Short Message Service
iii. SIM – Subscriber Identity Module
iv. LCD – Liquid Crystal Display
v. AVR – Advanced Virtual RISC
vi. PFP – Passive Fire Protection
vii. LED – Light Emitting Unit
viii. UV – Ultraviolet
ix. IR – Infrared
x. NFPA – National Fire Protection Association
xi. CPU – Central Processing Unit
xii. ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
xiii. ROM – Read-Only Memory
xiv. PIC – Programmable Intelligent Computer
xv. RISC – Reduced Instruction Set Computer
xvi. EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
xvii. RAM – Random-Access Memory
xviii. MIPS – Millions of Instructions per Second
xix. CMOS – Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
xx. IC – Integrated Circuit
xxi. GND – Ground
xxii. DC – Direct Current
xxiii. AC – Alternative Current
xxiv. NO – Normal Open
xxv. NC – Normal Closed
xxvi. RS – Register Select
xxvii. R/W – Read/Write
xxviii. IMEI – International Mobile Equipment Identity
xxix. GPS – Global Positioning System
xxx. USB - Universal Serial Bus
xxxi. IDE – Integrated Development Environment
xxxii. PWM – Pulse-Width Modulation
ABSTRACT
Temperature measurement in today’s industrial environment encompasses a wide variety of needs and applications.
To meet this wide array of needs the process controls industry has developed a large number of sensors and devices
to handle this demand. Temperature is a very critical and widely measured variable for most mechanical engineers.
To medical practitioner’s temperature is a fundamental quantity that must be measured in order to attain healthy life
in the world of medicine but to the world of engineering temperature is either conserved for the purpose of effective
work or release not to damage the job. The need to measure and quantify the temperature of something started
around 150 A.D. when Galen determined the ‘complexion’ of someone based on four observable quantities. The
actual science of ‘thermometry’ did not evolve until the growth of the sciences in the 1500’s the first actual
thermometer was an air-thermo scope described in Natural Magic (1558, 1589), which all lead to the development of
thermometer. The first calibrated thermometer was the liquid in glass thermometer which was later divided in
mercury in glass thermometer and alcohol in glass thermometer. During the invention of this thermometer some facts
were not in place which lead to their disadvantages and with the aid of technology advancement digital thermometer
came into existence. Digital thermometer brings together the likes of microcontroller to be interfaced with Lm35
temperature sensor all together working with an embedded C programming language. In advancement in technology,
digital thermometer can be added to home automation utilizes, IOT service for medical records, industrial jobs and
many more.
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................................................II
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................................III
List of Figures..........................................................................................................................................VI
List of Tables...........................................................................................................................................VI
List of Acronyms....................................................................................................................................VII
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background.....................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Description of the project................................................................................................................1
1.3. Statement of the Problem................................................................................................................2
1.4 Objective of the project....................................................................................................................3
1.4.1 General objective......................................................................................................................3
1.4.2 Specific objective......................................................................................................................3
1.5 Project Scope...................................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................4
LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................................................4
2.1 Review of the components and theories..........................................................................................5
2.1.1 The Need for a Fire Detection System......................................................................................5
2.1.2 Fire Triangle..............................................................................................................................6
2.1.3 Types of Fire Protection............................................................................................................6
2.2.4 Fire Detectors Review...............................................................................................................8

2.2.5 Fire Protection Systems..........................................................................................................10
CHAPTER THREE.................................................................................................................................12
METHIDOLOGY....................................................................................................................................12
3.1 Basic Overview..............................................................................................................................12
3.2 Hardware Requirement..................................................................................................................12
3.2.1 Microcontroller.......................................................................................................................12
AVR family microcontrollers..........................................................................................................13
ATmega328P Microcontroller.........................................................................................................14
3.2.2 Temperature Sensor (LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensor)...............................14
3.2.3 MQ-2 Smoke Sensor...............................................................................................................15
3.2.4 BC548 NPN transistor............................................................................................................16
3.2.5 Relay.......................................................................................................................................17
3.2.6 LCD Display (16X2 LCD)......................................................................................................18
3.2.7 GSM Modem..........................................................................................................................18
3.2.8 Power Supply..........................................................................................................................19
3.2.9 Buzzer.....................................................................................................................................20
3.2.10 DC motor..............................................................................................................................20
3.2.11 Servo motor...........................................................................................................................21
3.2.12 GPS Module..........................................................................................................................21
3.3 Software Requirements..................................................................................................................22
4.4 System Testing...............................................................................................................................29
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND DISCUSION..................................................................................................................31
5.1 Result.............................................................................................................................................31
5.2 Discussion......................................................................................................................................33
5.3 Drawbacks / Limitation of the thesis.............................................................................................34
6.1 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................35
6.2 Recommendations..........................................................................................................................35
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................36
Appendix A..............................................................................................................................................37
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Introduction Microcontroller based temperature measurement in today’s environment encompasses a wide variety of
needs and applications. To meet this wide array of needs the process controls industry has developed a large number
of sensors and devices to handle this demand. In this project you will have an opportunity to understand the concepts
and use of the LM35 sensor, and actually run an experiment using a selection of this device (Colins, 2008).
Temperature is a very critical and widely measured variable for most conditions or a particular covering.
Temperature measurement varies in different location judging by the temperature needs to be met at that location.
Many processes must have either a monitored or controlled temperature. More difficult measurements such as the
temperature of smoke stack gas from a power generating station or blast furnace or the exhaust gas of a rocket may
be need to be monitored. Much more common are the temperatures of fluids in processes or process support
applications, or the temperature of solid objects such as metal plates, bearings and
A digital thermometer can be easily made by interfacing a temperature sensor to the microcontroller AT89C51.
The temperature sensor used in the project isLM35. The LM 35 IC generates a 10mV variation to its output
voltage for every degree Celsius change in temperature.
The Output of the temperature sensor is analog in nature so we need an analog to digital convertor for converting
the analog input to its equivalent binary output.
ADC 0804 is an analog to digital convertor IC used in the project. 0804 is a single channel convertor which
converts the analog input up to a range of 5V to an equivalent 8-bit binary output.
The step size is defined by the voltage applied at the Vref/2 pin of the ADC IC. For example, if the voltage at
Vref/2 pin is set to 1.28V then ADC has a step size of 10 mV. So if the input voltage is 1V the equivalent binary
output of ADC will be 100 or 0110 0100 in binary.
The 8 bit binary output of the ADC is incremented by one for every 10 mV rise of input voltage. Different
step size can be selected by changing the voltage input to the Vref/2 pin. The step size of the ADC is calibrated using
a preset to match the actual temperature. The circuit is based on LM35 analog temperature sensor, and AT89S51
microcontroller. LM35 is an analogue temperature sensor IC which can measure a temperature range of -55 to 150°C.
Its output voltage varies 10mV per °C change in temperature.
Celsius scale thermometer displays the ambient temperature through a LCD display. It consists of two sections.
One is that which senses the temperature.
This is a temperature sensor LM 35. The other section converts the temperature value into a suitable number in
Celsius scale which is done by the ADC0804.Once the ADC is calibrated it will give the correct output further.
The binary output of ADC is fed parallel to a port of the microcontroller .The microcontroller reads the input
through ADC and displays the corresponding decimal value on LCD indicating the temperature.
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Statement of the Problem The microcontroller based system developed will automatically detect the temperature of a
particular atmosphere or a room. Noticing or taking into consideration the results of an operation being carried out
due to the temperature of the room or atmosphere. For instance, in a laboratory where experiments are being carried
out on different items, a certain temperature is required and needs to be maintained in order to achieve a good result
on the experiment being carried out.
1.2 AIM
The aim of this project is to design, construct, test a digital thermometer.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
i. To use a temperature sensor to detect the temperature.
ii. To incorporate a microcontroller to analyse the input data from the temepearture sensor.
iii. To use a lcd to display the temperature readings.
1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM
Lcd
Temperature Microcontroller Buzzer

sensor
Power
supply
Figure 1.00: Microcontroller based digital thermometer

1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTIOM
a) Microcontroller
Micro-controller is the heart of the circuit as it controls all the functions. The temperature sensor senses the
temperature and converts it into an electrical signal, which is forwarded to the controller. The sensed and set values
of the temperature are displayed on the LCD.
The microcontroller is a low-power complementary metal oxide semiconductor device based on reduced instruction
set computer architecture. The microcontroller communicates with the input sensors through a serial communication,
it receives signals sent from the smoke or heat detectors and analyzes the input to give a logical output. Its powered
from a 5v dc supply. The output of the microcontroller is directly connected to the output devices in order to trigger
an output signal.
b) Temperature Sensor
The temperature sensors are sophisticated semiconductor device which detect the temperatures in the surrounding
environment in this case fire, and converts it to an electrical signal which is linearly proportional to the temperature.
These output signal from the temperature detector is fed to the microcontroller for processing.
c) Liquid Crystal Display
A liquid crystal display is a display unit built using liquid crystal technology. It’s a flat electronic display panels that
use light modulation property of liquid crystals. Liquid crystal display does not emit light directly. The principle of
lcd depends on two sheets of polarized material with a liquid crystal solution each crystal is like a shutter, which
either blocks the light or allows it to pass through. The main function is to display output values as detected by the
input sensors.
d) Power Supply
To ensure operation of the entire circuit a stable power supply is required which is input to the circuit from a
regulated power supply. The input alternating voltage from the mains supply is stepped down by the transformer to a
low voltage and fed to a rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage, in order to get a
pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even
after rectification, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage. An alternate supply
can be provided the USB port of a lap top or a portable battery supply.
e) Buzzer
This is a transducer that converts electrical signals into audible sound. The device is directly connected to the
microcontroller output pins, once an input variable is detected the buzzer is activated by the small signal available at
the output of the microcontroller. A small time delay can be provided in the software program code to avoid false
alarms.
1.5 SPECIFICATIONS
1. Operating voltage - 5v d.c
2. Maximum operating current – 0.5mA
3. Delay time - 5sec
4. Power consumption at reference temperature( 25°C) - 3mW
5. Input a.c supply voltage - 240V AC
6. Supply Frequency - 50 Hz
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANALYSIS

2.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the literature from various sources about components, circuit or device used in various blocks.
In the engineering domain various approaches have been given to explain the concepts that exist, therefore there is
need of the author to be conversant with the research that he/she is undertaking. Thus the purpose of this chapter is to
bring out the facts concerning the general information of this project.
In the design of a project several approaches can be used. It is the responsibility of the author to mention a particular
type or circuit device or components that will be chosen to be used among many. The block diagram of chapter one
needs to be opened up so that the components that are in it are seen. For the purpose of this chapter, components are
identified by their symbols in the circuit diagram. The operation or the circuit needs to be explained and design
formula for the components or device has to be stated.
2.1 POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electrical device that supplies electric power to an electrical load, it comprises of a step down
transformer, bridge rectifier, smoothing and regulator IC.
TYPES OF POWER SUPPLIES

i) Unregulated linear power supply
ii) Regulated linear power supply
iii) Switch mode power supply
iv) Un-interruptible power source.
i) Unregulated linear power supply

It consists of a stepdown transformer, rectifier, and filter capacitor and voltage regulator. The output voltage of this
power supply varies with change in input voltage and load current.
ii) Regulated linear power supply

This type of power supply is made up of stepdown transformer, rectifier, filter capacitor, and voltage regulator. Its
output voltage is always constant regardless of changes in load current or its input supply voltage.
iii) Switch mode power supply

It is made up of two rectifier, filter, regulator, blended resistors and transformer. Due to presence of such components
this type of power supply is more to regulated and unregulated.
iv) Un-interruptible power source.

It is such that in case of power failure or fluctuation, it allows through time for an orderly shutdown of the system or
for standby generation to start up it consists of a bank of rechargeable batteries and power sensing and conditioning
circuitry. Therefore, the cost of constructing or purchasing this type of power supply is high compared to the above
mentioned. Therefor regulated linear power supply will be used for the project since it give out low power.
2.1.0 Transformer
A transformer is a static electrical device which works by the principle of electromagnetic induction, it couples
electrical energy from one electric circuit to another without changing the frequency. This energy transfer usually
takes place with change of voltage and current.
It consists of two coils with mutual inductance that are electrically separate but have common magnetic circuit,
primary coil is connected to a.c supply while the secondary coil is connected to the load.
Figure 2.00 transformer diagram

The number of turn’s ratio is so adjusted to obtain the required voltage value. The output of the transformer is so
given as an input to the rectifier circuit.
Figure 2.01 Transformer equivalent circuit
TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
Transformers can de classified of two types based on their construction;
i. Shell type transformer.
ii. core type transformers
i)Shell type transformer.

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A shell type transformer
has a simple rectangular form or it may as well have a distributed form.
Figure 2.02: core type and Shell type transformer
Applications
Low voltage applications which include electronic circuits as well as converters in power electronics.
ii) core type transformers

In core type transformer winding are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core limbs different layers is
insulated from each other material like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Voltage winding is placed
near for insulation low voltage windings are placed near to core as they are easier to insulate.
Shell type transformer will be used for this project application due to its versatile advantages.
THE EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

Let ∅ m ¿ maximum value of flux in weber
f ¿ supply frequency in Hz
N1 ¿ number of turns in the primary winding
N2 = number of turns in the secondary winding
e1 = emf induced in the primary winding
e2 = emf induced in the secondary winding
T = periodic time
𝜙 cycle
𝜙m
t
1f
4
Fig. 2.04: A graph of magnetic flux and time characteristics

Maximum e.m.f induced in ¼ cycle,
ϕ
Since e= (i)
1/ 4
1
and periodic time T = (ii)
f
Flux is given by;
𝜙=𝜙msinwt (iii)
Where: t=time (seconds)

f=frequency (Hertz)
𝜙=magnetic flux (webers)

Substituting equations (iii) and (ii) in (i);
We have;
ϕmsinwt
e¿
1 /4 f
e= 4f𝜙msinwt(average value)
R . m . s value
Form factor=
Average value
R .m . s value
1.11=
Average value
R .m . s value
Since the induced emf is the average value Form factor1.11=
Average value
R.m.s value of the induced e.m.f,

e= 4.44f𝜙msinwt,
The induced e.m.f is proportional to the number of turns.
e= 4.44Nf𝜙msinwt,
For primary voltage,
ep= 4.44Npf𝜙msinwt,
And Secondary voltage,
es= 4.44Nsf𝜙msinwt,
where: Np=primary number of turns

Ns=secondary number of turns
e=instantaneous e.m.f
ep Np
The ratio; =
es Ns
d∅
And e=N ,
dt
𝜙= 𝜙msinwt,
d
∅=N ∅ msinwt
dt
=N𝜙m (w)
e2 N2
= =k
e1 N1
In an ideal transformer on no load,v1=E1 and v2=E2
Hence;
v 1 N 1 E1
= = =K
v2 N 2 E2
Where
v1
=¿ voltage ratio
v2
and
N1
=turns ratio
N2
2.1.2 RECTIFICATION
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current in to corresponding direct current DC.
Rectifier is an electronic switch consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification process. The output to a
rectifier is alternating current it output is unidirectional pulsating direct current.
There are three types of rectifiers;
i. Half wave rectifier
ii. Full wave Bi-phase rectifier
iii. Full wave bridge rectifier
i) Half wave rectifier

Half wave rectifier is a circuit designed using a diode which is used for converting alternating current voltage into
direct current voltage. The half wave rectifier only passes the one half of the input sine wave (either positive or
negative) and rejects the other half. The output of the rectifier is pulsating direct current.
Figure 2.04: Half wave rectifier
ii) Full wave Bi-phase rectifier

A full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal
into pulsating DC signal using only two diodes.
Fig. 2.05: Full wave bi-phase rectifier
iii) Full wave bridge rectifier

In full wave bridge rectifier, four diodes are arranged in systematic form as to rectify both the positive and negative
half cycle of the transformer secondary voltage. It is usually more less costlier than center tapped rectifier.
Full wave bridge rectifier is employed for this project because it converts both polarities of the input
waveform to direct current and is more efficient if used for power transfer.
Figure 2.06 circuit diagram of voltage regulator
RECTIFIER COMPONENTS DESIGN FORMULAS

Diode Equation for I-V Curve
The I-V curve (diode characteristic curve) can be find by the following no linear equations. This equation is also
known as Ideal Equation of Diode or Diode Law.
i = IS ( eqv/kT – 1 )
Where:
i = Current flowing through the diode
Is = Reverse or dark saturation current (Typical value for silicon is 10-12 Amperes)
e = Base of the neutral logarithm (2.71828)
q = Charge on electron (1.602 x 10-19) in coulombs (Absolute Value of electron charge).
v = Applied voltage across the diode
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.380 x 10-23 jouals/Kelvin)
T = Absolute Temperature in Kelvin (Typical Room Temp is 300 Kelvin)
The smoothing capacitor formula,

C=I⋅ΔtΔU
Alternatively:
I=C⋅ΔUΔt
Clarification:
C = capacity of the capacitor in μF
I = Charge current in mA
Δt = half-period in ms
ΔU = ripple voltage in V
Also:
value for smoothing capacitor.
I
C=
F∗VS
Where:
C=capacitance
F=frequency
Vs=dc.output voltage
2.1.3 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
It is a device which is used to stabilize the output voltage for a given circuit. It is designed in such a way that even if
the amount of load is varied or the supply input voltage changes, it still maintains its output voltage constant.
Types of voltage regulators

i. Shunt voltage regulator
ii. Switching voltage regulator
i) Shunt voltage regulator
This regulator works by providing a path given the supply voltage to ground through a variable resistance. The
current through the shunt regulator is divided away from the load and flows uselessly to the ground. The variable
resistor varies which changes of the load hence the voltage across the land is maintained constant.
ii) Switching voltage regulator
This type of voltage regulator switches a series device ON and OFF. The switches duty cycle sets the amount of
change transparent to the load. This is controlled by a feedback mechanism which is similar to that of a linear
regulator. Switching regulators are able to generate output voltages that are higher or lower than the input voltage or
even of the opposite polarity.
This project intend to employ switching voltage regulator because the value of voltage needed for the project
circuiting is low than output of the rectification unit of the power supply. The constant voltage obtained from the
voltage regulator in I.C form enables convenient operation of a microcontroller and a display unit by maintaining the
supply voltage at suitable load. By eliminating voltage fluctuations from the main supply ensure safety of the
component against over voltage damages.
Figure 2.07 IC voltage regulator

The I.C voltage regulator is designed by the manufacture in such a way that it can produce output voltage only when
the input voltage exceeds its rated output by two volts. The output voltage value is maintained constant even if the
load or input voltage varies. The output value of voltage is indicated by the last two digits of its name for instance
LM7805 voltage produces an output voltage of 5 volts.
The regulated output voltage is;
R2
Vout = Vref(1+ )+ IR2
R1
Where:
Vo=variable output voltage
Vref=set input voltage
I=current
R1=fixed resistor
R2=variable(adjustable) resistor
2.1.4 SMOOTHING
This is the process of removing ripples at the output of rectifier and produce a smooth DC power supply to be used
to power electronic circuits without large levels of voltage regulations.
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the D.C supply to act as a reservoir,
supplying current to the output when the varying D.C voltage from the rectifier is falling. Smoothing significantly
increases the average D.C voltage to almost the peak value (1.4*RMS value).
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small ripple voltage,
therefore the voltage of the capacitor should be maintained at a suitable range as capacitor is one of the type of
smoothing circuit is employed in this project because; this method offers the best smoothing where large currents are
consumed by the circuit. Besides, it is economical since only a capacitor is required.
Figure 2.08 Capacitor smoothing waveform
The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying D.C, and then discharges as it supplies current to the
output for many circuits a ripple which is 10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the
required value for the smoothing capacitor. A large capacitor will give les ripple. The capacitor value must be
doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C = (5*Io)/(Vs*f),
Where; C- Smoothing capacitance

Io- Output current from the supply
Vs- Supply voltage in voltage
f- Frequency of the A.C supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz
TYPES OF SMOOTHING
i. Capacitive Filters
ii. L-section Resistive Filters
iii. L-section Inductive Filters
iv. Pi-Section Filters
(i) Capacitive Filters

A capacitive filter is a circuit consisting of a capacitor and a resistor connected in parallel. The capacitive filter
provides a maximum voltage output to a load.
Since a large capacitor is needed, an electrolytic capacitor is typically used. As pulsating DC voltage from a rectifier
is applied across capacitor C1, it charges to the peak voltage.
Fig. 2.10: A capacitive filter circuit diagram and output waveform.

Working of capacitive filters
Between peaks, the capacitor discharges through the resistive load RL, and the voltage gradually drops.
Ripple voltage is the amount of varying voltage present in a DC power supply.
In a capacitive filter, the ripple voltage is the voltage drop before the capacitor begins to charge again. The amount of
discharge between voltage peaks is controlled by the resistor-capacitor (RC) time constant of the capacitor and the
load resistance.
If the load resistance is large and the capacitance is large, the ripple voltage will be small, resulting in a smooth
output. Ripple voltage increases when the load increases on the capacitive filter.
ii) L-section Resistive Filters

An L-section resistive filter is a filter that reduces or eliminates the amount of DC ripple at the output of a circuit by
using a resistor and capacitor as an RC time constant.
An L-section resistive filter reduces surge currents by using a current-limiting resistor (R1).
R1 controls surge currents by limiting the current flow to slow the charging of the capacitor. R1 should always be
used in series with the rectifier and the input capacitor of the filter system. This protects the rectifier from the high
surge of charging current that flows through the rectifier from the input capacitor C1 when the circuit is first
energized.
A low-value resistor of about 50 Ω or less is typically used in the application. The filtering of the resistor is not as
good as other filters, but it is less expensive.
Fig. 2.11: A L-section resistive filter circuit diagram and output waveform
iii) L-section Inductive Filters

An L-section inductive filter is a filter that reduces surge currents by using a current-limiting inductor and a
capacitor.
An inductor (L1) in series opposes a change in current by creating a counter electromotive force (CEMF) or counter
voltage. Surge current is greatly reduced and the capacitor charges slowly.
The inductor also aids the filtering effect of the capacitor since the CEMF of the inductor tends to cancel out the
effects of the ripple voltage.
Fig.2.12:A L-section inductive filter circuit diagram and output waveform
The operation of an L-section inductive filter can also be seen through the effect that inductive reactance has on the
circuit.
When the pulsating DC voltage is applied to the inductor, the changing voltage produces a high inductive reactance.
Therefore, the inductor tends to block the pulsating DC voltage. The DC portion of the signal is allowed to pass
through the inductor. The pulses not blocked by the inductor are bypassed by the capacitor.
iv) Pi-Section Filters
A pi-section filter is a filter made with two capacitors and an inductor or resistor to smooth out the AC ripple in a
rectified waveform.
Pi-section filters get their name from the Greek letter pi (π) because the filter configuration resembles the symbol for
pi. The two types of pi-section filters are inductive and resistive.
A pi-section filter consists of three elements. In a pi- section inductive filter, there is a shunt input capacitor, C1; a
series inductor (choke), L1; and a shunt output capacitor, C2. See Figure 4.
As the input voltage reaches the first capacitor (C1), the capacitor shunts most of the AC ripple current to the ground.
This presents a much smoother current to L1. Since L1 presents a high inductive reactance to the remaining AC
ripple, L1 tends to block the AC ripple much better than a resistor in a resistive pi-section filter. Finally, C2 shunts to
ground any remaining AC ripple. The result is a relatively smooth DC voltage.
Fig. 2.13: A pi-section filter circuit diagram and output waveform

Full-wave rectifiers are used to produce unfiltered DC voltage. Filtering helps produce a purer DC voltage, but a
small amount of fluctuation, called ripple, can still remain.
A 12 VDC rated power supply that fluctuates between 11.8 V and 12.2 V has a 0.4 V ripple. The lower the rated
power supply ripple, the better.
To remove the ripples, the power terminal output is used. Since the rectified voltage waveform is ripple
wave, it must be plated to obtain DC output.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it discharges, giving a small
ripple. Voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the required value for smoothing capacitor.
I
C=
F∗VS
Where:
C=capacitance
F=frequency
Vs=dc.output voltage
2.2 SENSORS
A device which gives an output by detecting the changes in quantities or events can be defined as a sensor. Generally,
sensors produce an electrical signal or optical output signal corresponding to the changes in the inputs. There are
different types of sensors, for example, consider a thermocouple which can be considered as temperature sensor that
produces an output voltage based on the input temperature changes.
Types of Sensors
i. Temperature Sensor
ii. IR Sensor
iii. Ultrasonic Sensor
iv. Smoke and Gas Sensors
Temperature sensors, smoke sensors, IR sensors, ultrasonic sensors, pressure sensors, proximity sensors, and touch
sensors are frequently used in most of the electronics applications.
2.2.0 Temperature Sensor

These types of temperature sensor vary from simple ON/OFF thermostatic devices which control a domestic hot
water heating system to highly sensitive semiconductor types that can control complex process control furnace plants.
There are many different types of Temperature Sensor available and all have different characteristics depending upon
their actual application. A temperature sensor consists of two basic physical types:
 Contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor are required to be in physical contact
with the object being sensed and use conduction to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to
detect solids, liquids or gases over a wide range of temperatures.
 Non-contact Temperature Sensor Types – These types of temperature sensor use convection and radiation to
monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat
rises and cold settles to the bottom in convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from
an object in the form of infra-red radiation (the sun).
2.2.1Thermostat
The Thermostat is a contact type electro-mechanical temperature sensor or switch, that basically consists of two
different metals such as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc, that are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic
strip. The different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a mechanical bending movement
when the strip is subjected to heat.
The bi-metallic strip can be used itself as an electrical switch or as a mechanical way of operating an electrical switch
in thermostatic controls and are used extensively to control hot water heating elements in boilers, furnaces, hot water
storage tanks as well as in vehicle radiator cooling systems.
i) Bi-metallic Thermostat
The thermostat consists of two thermally different metals stuck together back to back. When it is cold the contacts are
closed and current passes through the thermostat. When it gets hot, one metal expands more than the other and the
bonded bi-metallic strip bends up (or down) opening the contacts preventing the current from flowing.

ii) On/Off Thermostat
There are two main types of bi-metallic strips based mainly upon their movement when subjected to temperature
changes. There are the “snap-action” types that produce an instantaneous “ON/OFF” or “OFF/ON” type action on the
electrical contacts at a set temperature point, and the slower “creep-action” types that gradually change their position
as the temperature changes.
Snap-action type thermostats are commonly used in our homes for controlling the temperature set point of ovens,
irons, immersion hot water tanks and they can also be found on walls to control the domestic heating system.
2.2.2 Thermistor
Thermistors are generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or cobalt coated in glass
which makes them easily damaged. Their main advantage over snap-action types is their speed of response to any
changes in temperature, accuracy and repeatability.
Most types of thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or (NTC), that is their resistance
value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature, and of course there are some which have a Positive
Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance value goes UP with an increase in temperature.
2.2.3 Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD).

RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity conducting metals such as platinum, copper or
nickel wound into a coil and whose electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the
thermistor. Also available are thin-film RTD’s. These devices have a thin film of platinum paste is deposited onto a
white ceramic substrate.
Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC) but unlike the thermistor their output is
extremely linear producing very accurate measurements of temperature.
However, they have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in temperature only produces a very small output
change for example, 1Ω/oC.
2.2.3 Thermocouple
The Thermocouple is by far the most commonly used type of all the temperature sensor types. Thermocouples are
popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of response to changes in temperature, due mainly to their
small size.
Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals, such as copper
and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the
reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot) junction. When the two junctions are at different
temperatures, a voltage is developed across the junction which is used to measure the temperature sensor as shown
below.

This project will use resistance temperature sensors due to its linear temperature –resistance characteristics.
2.3 MICROCONTROLLER
A microcontroller unit is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. It also an open source electronic platform
based on easy to use hardware and software. It microcontroller contains a CPU's (process core) along with memory in
the form of input /output peripherals microcontroller are basically employed in devices, that need a degree of control
to be applied by the user of the device.
A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory, various I/O interfaces such as serial
port, parallel port timer or counter, interrupt controller, data acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital converter,
Digital to Analog converter, integrated on to a single silicon chip. If a system is developed with a microprocessor, the
designer has to go for external memory such as RAM, ROM, EPROM and peripherals. But controller is provided all
these facilities on a single chip. Development of a Micro controller reduces PCB size and cost of design.
2.3.0 TYPES OF MICROCONTROLLER

i. PIC Microcontroller
ii. ARM Microcontroller
iii. 8051 Microcontroller
iv. AVR Microcontroller
v. MSP Microcontroller
i)PIC Microcontroller
PIC Stands for Peripheral Interface Controller is a kind of microcontroller components was used in the development
of electronics, computer robotics, and similar devices. Even though the PIC was produced by Microchip technology
and based on hardware computing architecture, here the code and data are placed in separate registers to increase the
input and output. Pic has a built-in data memory, data bus and dedicated microprocessor for preparing all I/O
purposes and methods.
ii) ARM Microcontroller
ARM stands for Advanced RISC Machine. It’s the most popular Microcontrollers Programming in the digital
embedded system world, and most of the industries prefer only ARM microcontrollers since it consists of significant
features to implement products with an excellent appearance. It is cost sensitive and high-performance device which
has been used in a wide range of application such as Industrial Instrument control systems, wireless networking and
sensors, and automotive body systems, etc.
iii)8051 Microcontroller
Intel created 8051 microcontrollers in 1981. It is an 8bit microcontroller. It’s made with 40 pins DIP (Dual inline
package), 4kb if ROM storage and 128 bytes of RAM storage, 2 16 bit timer. It consists of are four parallel 8 bit
ports, which are programmable as well as addressable as per the specification.
iv)AVR Microcontroller
AVR stands for Alf and Vegard's RISC Processor. It was the modified Harvard architecture machine, where program
and data were stored in the separate physical memory system that appears in different address spaces, but having the
ability to browse information things from program memory victimization particular directions. AVR isn't associate
degree signifier and doesn't symbolize something specially.
v)MSP Microcontroller
MSP stands for Mixed Signal Processor. It’s the family from Texas Instruments. Built around a 16 -bit CPU, the
MSP is designed for low cost and respectively, low power dissipation embedded statements. It’s the controller's
appearance is directly related to the 16-bit data bus, and seven addressing modes and the decreased instructions set,
which allows a shorter, denser programming code for fast performance.
The Range of Microcontroller is an IC chip that executes programs for controlling other device or machines. It is a
micro-device which is used for control of other device machines that’s why it’s called Microcontrollers
Programming.
2.5 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials, which combine the properties of both liquids and crystals. It consists
of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal materials and witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass
plates are coated with transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to be displayed
polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal
molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle.
2.5.0 Basic Working Principle of LCD

A LCD display consists of many pixels; this is what the resolution stands for, the number of pixels. Each of these
pixels is an LCD panel, and it is seen as a multi-layer sandwich supported by a fluorescent backlight. At the 2 far
ends of the LCD panel are non-alkaline, transparent glass substrates with smooth surface and free of surface
scratches. The glass substrates are attached to polarizer film that transmits or absorbs a specific component
of polarized light. In between the 2 glass substrates is layer of the nematic phase liquid crystals. There is also a colour
filter containing the 3 primary colours (red, green and blue). Each of the polarized glass is arranged at right angles to
each other, so when electric current was passed through the LCD panel, the liquid crystals are aligned with the first
polarized glass encountered and will make a 90o twist when approaching the other polarized glass at the end. When
this happens, the light from the fluorescent backlight is able to pass through and thus giving us a lighted pixel on the
monitor. When there is no electric current, the liquid crystals will not twist and thus the light will not pass through
and a black pixel will be shown. The reason we see the collared images are due to the colour filter, light passes
through the filtered cells creates the colours.
2.5.1 LCD Pin Description

The LCD discussed in this section has 14 pins. The function of each pin is given in table.
Table 2.00: Pin Symbol I/O Description Pin

Description 1 Vss -- Ground for LCD
2.6 Buzzer 2 Vcc -- +5V power supply
This is a 3 VEE -- Power supply to control contrast transducer
that converts 4 RS I RS=0 to select command register RS=1 to select data electrical
signals into register audible
sound. The 5 R/W I R/W=0 for write ,R/W=1 for read device is
directly 6 E I/O Enable connected to
the 7 DB0 I/O The 8-bit data bus
8 DB1 I/O The 8-bit data bus
microcontroller output pins, once an input variable is detected the buzzer is activated by the small signal available at
the output of the microcontroller. A small time delay can be provided in the software program code to avoid false
alarms.
For alarm purposes a lot of electric bells, alarms and buzzers are available in the market that has got different prices
and uses. The buzzer being used in this project is a 5-12 V buzzer and has got enough alarm sound to be used in a fire
alarm system. Louder buzzer would have been even better but then their operating voltages are high as we had a
supply of maximum up to 12V available with us on the board.
Fig 2.13: Buzzer
2.6.0 Types of buzzers
i. Piezoelectric buzzers
ii. Magnetic buzzers
iii. Electromagnetic buzzers
iv. Mechanical buzzers
v. Electromechanical buzzers
Piezoelectric and magnetic buzzers are most commonly used in electronic applications. The buzzers are designed to
be used as a transducer or indicator in any circuit.
Piezoelectric buzzers
A piezoelectric buzzer operates on the principle of the piezoelectric effect. The main component of a piezoelectric
buzzer is a piezoelectric element. The element is composed of a piezoelectric ceramic and a metal plate. Both the
piezoelectric disc and metal plate are held together with an adhesive. The piezoceramic disc has electrodes attached
to it. The piezoelectric disc expands and contracts diametrically when an alternating current is applied to it. This
produces vibrations in the piezoelectric element and generating the sound of a particular frequency or range of
frequencies.
Fig 2.14: Construction of piezoelectric buzzer
Magnetic buzzer
In a magnetic buzzer, there is a ferromagnetic disc that is attached to a pole. There are magnets around the pole
which maintains the disc in a rest position. There is a coil below the ferromagnetic disc that acts as an electromagnet.
When current is supplied to the coil, the disc is attracted to the coil. When there is no current in the coil, the disc
returns to its rest position. A weight above it controls the vibrations of the disc. When an oscillating signal is applied
to the coil, the electromagnetic field generated from it also fluctuates, causing vibrations in the ferromagnetic disk.
This way, the sound of the frequency same as the frequency of the applied oscillating signal is produced by the
magnetic buzzer. Magnetic buzzers come in both transducer as well as indicator configurations.
Fig 2.15: Construction of magnetic buzzer
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHIDOLOGY PROJECT DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
The chapter endeavor to give specific information of the component and devices used in the project. Every project
system in existence can be reviewed as the consortium of related blocks whose and function and objective is to
achieve a purpose. The building blocks of every system when opened up will show how the electric component and
devices are interconnected to perform specific functions Therefore each block of a system can be single hardly
represent a function of the system of the system.
The stage by stage system design and construction and how it’s achieved through hardware and development of
software is well .All the operations of hardware and software are also included in this chapter.
3.1 POWER SUPPLY DESIGN

A power supply can be broken down to series of blocks like transformer, rectifier, smoothing and regulator, where
each of the blocks perform a particular function.
3.1.0 TRANSFORMER DESIGN

The laminated core transformer is used for the low frequency operation, which is used to seep down 240V A.C to
12V A.C.
Figure 3.00: Transformer circuit diagram

Refering to the transformer data sheet table,the following values are obtained.
P= 50 VA
Vp= 240V
Vs= 12V
Is= 1A
Where:
P=power rating (VA)
Vp=Transformer primary voltage.
Vs= Transformer secondary voltage.
Is= Transformer secondary current.
Therefore; (Vp/Vs)=(Is/Ip)= a
(240/12)= (1/Ip)
I= 20A
ΦM = 1.2 Wb/m2
Turns ratio K= NI/N2=4:1
Frequency f= 50Hz
E1= 4.44fN1 φM Volts
=4.44*50*1*1.2
= 2.66.4 volts
For ideal transformer
I2/I1= V1/V2= 1/K
1/0.05= 240/12= 1/K ; 20= 1/K
K= 0.05.
Thus a step-down transformer of turns ration 1:20 will be used.
3.1.1 DESIGN OF RECTIFICATION UNIT

The rectification design in this project it yields the best results at the most economical level.
Figure: 3.01 Rectifier circuit diagram

Vmax.=1.414Vr.m.s-2Vd
Where:
Vmax=peak voltage of transformer secondary.
Vrms= root mean square values of voltage.
Vd=Forward diode voltage drop for each pair (twice) of conducting diode.
Vm= (Vrms*1.414) - (0.7*2)
= (12*1.414) – 1.4
=15.568 Volts
Vdc av=2vp/π
=2*15.568/π=9.91volts
Therefore, IN 400l diodes will be employed in the project, hence can be purchased since they can withstand the
above conditions (gives out constant voltage).
3.1.2 DESIGN OF SMOOTHING CAPACITOR

Shunt capacitor filter is one used in this project because it offers the best smoothing where large currents are
consumed by the current.
From design equation
C=5*Io/(VS*f) Farads
Figure:3.02 Smoothing circuit diagram

From the data sheet catalogue the rated voltage for capacitor is given as;
F=50Hz
Vs=12V
Io=0.5A
Therefore; C=5*0.5/12*50
=4200µf
But the output of the transformer to fed bridge rectifier is 20volts. The output during negative half circle is unstable
which its ripple is smooth by 4200Uf capacitor. The nearest value of the available is 4200Uf hence it will be
purchased.
3.1.3 DESIGN OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The 78xx voltage regulator is used. This is arrived through positive voltage that can handle up to 14 outputs.
Therefore appropriate for our load is 900mA
Since our required output is 5volts, we use 7805voltage regulator Ic.
Where xx=rated output voltage
=05volts
Therefore 7805 IC
Figure 3.03:Circuit diagram of LM7805 voltage regulator

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The A.C. input i.e, 220V from the mains supply is
step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating D.C
voltage. So in order to get a pure D.C voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any
A.C components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure
constant dc voltage.
Figure 3.04 System power supply circuit diagram
3.2 MICROCONTROLLER
A microcontroller is a self-contained system comprising a processor, memory modules and peripherals. Hence, a
microcontroller can be used as an embedded system. The majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in
other machinery such as automobiles, telephones, appliances and peripherals for computer systems.
Based on the above criteria the PIC16F877 Microcontroller will be used for this project.
Figure 3.05:PIC16F877 Microcontroller
3.2.0 PIC16F73 Microcontroller

Resistance R is used to set pin 4 high.
High input impedance is given out, were resistor R can be limited to 1mA (max)
Therefore R=V/I
=5volts/0.001A
=5KΩ
Fig 3.06: Pin Diagram OF PIC16F877A
3.2.2 CLOCKING CIRCUIT

Time (t)=1.1Rt Ct
Maximum requires to retain the delay of the sensor is 30 seconds
Consider Ct to be 1000µf
Therefore Rt = 30/1.1*0.001
Rt = 27.3KΩ
Collector current should not exceed 12mA
Therefore Rc = 5V/0.012A
=416.67Ω = 0.42Kµ
1KΩ will be purchased to replace 0.42KΩ, which will be available in the market.
Figure 3.07 Clocking circuit diagram
3.3 BUZZER
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric
(piezo for short).
3.4 SENSORS
3.4.0 LM35 TEMPERATURE SENSORS.
The LM35 is a basic, ultra-low-cost digital temperature and humidity sensor. It uses a capacitive humidity sensor
and a thermistor to measure the surrounding air, and out puts a digital signal on the data pin (no Analog input pins
needed).
The Resistance variation with temperature is given by;
RT = Rref[1 + α(T − Tref)]
Where,
RT = Resistance of RTD at given temperature T (ohms)

Rref = Resistance of RTD at the reference temperature Tref (ohms)
α = Temperature coefficient of resistance (ohms per ohm/degree)
Fro temeperature sensor manufacturer`s data sheet.
For a temperature Reference = 0 Degrees(100Ω)
Resistance of RTD at the reference temperature Tref (ohms)
For PT100 RTD the Rref = 100
RT = 100 Ω[1 + (0.00392)(35 − 0)]
RT = 100 Ω[1 + 0.1372]
RT = 100 Ω[1.1372]
RT = 113.72 Ω
Where:
Temperature coefficient of platinum metal 0.00392
3.5 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

Figure 3.11: 16X2 LCD display
3.7 System design flow diagram

The integration of the modules are producing the system which is more or less can be divided into two phase where
the first phase is the output smart Appliance system and the second phase the monitoring system. The
microcontroller, sensory and Appliance modules are in the first phase of the system and LCD module is in the second
phase monitoring system.
.
Figure 3.16: Architect of the project without GSM Flowchart
3.9 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF MICROCONTROLLER BASED DIGITAL THERMOMETER

Figure 3.22: Overall system design microcontroller based digital thermometer
3.9.0 CIRCUIT OPERATION
3.10 PROGRAM CODE

C-language code of the system:
#include<Servo.h>
Servo myservo;
int pos = 0;
int val;
int motor = 8;
#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2);
#include <TinyGPS.h>
#include <SoftwareSerial.h>
SoftwareSerial mySerial(9, 10);
byte tx=1;
TinyGPS gps; //Creates a new instance of the TinyGPS object
const int SPEAKER = 6;
const int LED_RED = 7;
const int LED_YELLOW = 10;
int Relay=7;
int tempC_1 = 0; //set initial tempC 0° for all LM35 int smkC_1 = 0; //set initial tempC 0º for all MQ 2 const int
SensorPin1 = A0; //input sensor pin const int SensorPin2 = A1; String textForSMS;
void setup()
{
pinMode(motor, OUTPUT);
pinMode(tx, OUTPUT);
pinMode(Relay, OUTPUT);
myservo.attach(13);
pinMode(SPEAKER, OUTPUT);
lcd.begin(14, 2);
delay(100);
pinMode(SensorPin1, INPUT);
pinMode(SensorPin2, INPUT);
pinMode(SPEAKER, OUTPUT);
pinMode(LED_RED, OUTPUT);
pinMode(LED_YELLOW, OUTPUT); //Set control pins to be outputs
digitalWrite(LED_RED, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED_YELLOW, LOW);//set both motors off for start-up
mySerial.begin(9600);
Serial.begin(9600); //Start the serial connection with the computer
}
void loop()
{
int tempC_1 = analogRead(SensorPin1);
int SmkC_1 = analogRead(SensorPin2);
tempC_1 = analogRead(SensorPin1); //read the value from the LM35 sensor
tempC_1 = (5.0 * tempC_1 * 100.0) / 1024.0; //convert the analog data to temperature
smkC_1 = analogRead(SensorPin2); //read the value from the MQ 2 sensor
smkC_1 = (5.0 * smkC_1 * 100.0) / 1024.0; //convert the analog data to temperature
delay(50);
bool newData = false;
unsigned long chars;
unsigned short sentences, failed;
for (unsigned long start = millis(); millis() - start < 1000;)
{
while (Serial.available())
{
char c = Serial.read();
if (gps.encode(c))
newData = true;
}
}
if (tempC_1 >= 50)
{
digitalWrite(Relay,HIGH);
val = analogRead(pos);
val = map(val, 0, 1023, 0, 180);
myservo.write(val);
delay(50);
digitalWrite(motor, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED_RED, HIGH);
digitalWrite(LED_YELLOW, HIGH);
lcd.clear();
lcd.setCursor(0, 0);
lcd.print("On FIRE");
lcd.print(" NO SAFE");
delay(100);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("Sending SMS...");
delay(100);
tone(SPEAKER, 1047, 500);
delay(200);
delay(200);
delay(5);
float flat, flon;
unsigned long age;
gps.f_get_position(&flat, &flon, &age);
Serial.print("AT+CMGF=1\r");
delay(100);
Serial.print("AT+CMGS=\"+251928583635\"\r");
Serial.print("FIRE OCCURED!\r");
delay(100);
Serial.print("FIRE OCCURED!\r");
delay(100);
Serial.print("FIRE OCCURED! in\r");
delay(200);
Serial.print("Latitude = ");
Serial.print(flat == TinyGPS::GPS_INVALID_F_ANGLE ? 0.0 : flat, 6); Serial.print(" Longitude = ");
Serial.print(flon == TinyGPS::GPS_INVALID_F_ANGLE ? 0.0 : flon, 6); delay(200);
Serial.println((char)26); // End AT command with a ^Z, ASCII code 26
delay(200);
Serial.println();
}
else
{
digitalWrite(Relay,LOW);
delay(50);
digitalWrite(LED_RED, LOW);
digitalWrite(LED_YELLOW, LOW);
digitalWrite(motor, LOW);
lcd.clear();
lcd.print("NO FIRE");
lcd.print("ALL SAFE");
}
}
3.6 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF LM35 BASED DIGITAL ROOM THERMOMETER TEMPERATURE
METER
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 TEST RESULTS
All the hardware units of the system were tested and it was ensured that in a good working condition or not. Then
each and every unit were interfaced and implemented individually with the microcontroller board and loaded with the
software according to the necessity of the application.
After all of the units were working correctly, the units were assembled together and then the whole system was
developed and tested.
TEST POINT EXPECTED VALUE (VOLTS) ACUAL VALUE
(VOLTS)
1 (Supply voltage) 12V DC 12.1V DC
2 (5V regulator) 5V DC 4.9 V DC
3 (input circuit) 5V 4.9
4(microcontroller 5V 4.3V
output)
LCD 5V
4.2 PROJECT COST
ITEM SPECIFICATION QUANTITY PRICE PER TOTAL

UNIT PRICE
Transformer 1 600 600
Diodes LN 4007 4 30 120

Switch on/off 1 80 80
Capacitors 4200PF 3 60 180
Regulator 7805 IC 1 85 85
Resistors 1kΩ,5kΩ 4 30 120
Push button 1 40 40
switch
IC sockets 40 pins 1 100 100
LCD 16*2 1 2500 2500
Strip board Copper strip board 1 100 100
Solder wire 0.2mm 6 METRES 40 240
Connector wires 0.5mm 8 metres 35 280
Casing 15*10*4 1 750 750
Microcontroller PIC 16F877 1 2500 2500
Crystal 1 150 150
SUB TOTAL 7,845
Bundles 2 500 1000

Typing 12 font size 1 500 500
Printing 12 font size A4 size 2 500 1000
Binding 2 100 200
SUB TOTAL 2700
TOTAL 7845+2700=10554
Table 4.1 project costing
4.3 PROJECT SCHEDULE
SEPTEMBE OCTOBE NOVEMBE JANUAR FEBRUAR MARC APRI

R R R Y Y H L
ROJECT
ESERCH
ONCEPT
APER
ROPOSAL
ESEARCH
AND
WRITTING
ROPOSAL
RESENTATI
ON
ROJECT
EPORT
WRITTING
ROJECT
IMULATIO
N
ROTOTYPE
ABRICATIO
N
ULL
ROJECT
OMPLETIO
4.4 CONCLUSION
The design and construction of a GSM – based Fire and Smoke detection and prevention system was successfully
carried out and tested effectively. The system did not pose extra-ordinary constraint and the components and
materials used conform to engineering standard. A close look at the circuit diagram of the smoke detector reveals that
all the components used were all locally sourced and available. Also, consideration has been made in the area of cost
and size (packaging) compared to other similar designs. In situations where components could not be obtained
exactly, standard values closest to be calculated should be chosen so as to obtain optimum degree of accuracy and
resolution in the design of the units of this device. Finally, project design was challenging because it gave an
exposure into the practical application of theoretical knowledge in solving problems associated with design and
construction most especially in developing countries. Likewise, it gave more exposure to fire issues.
When the trigger button was pressed, and the right time was entered, the system ran alongside the real time for as
long as the circuit was powered. Seconds, minutes and hours were displayed on the LCD. This proved success of the
project.
4.5 RECCOMENDATION
The project can be extended by increasing the number of sensors used along with an increase in the number of
installation places. The remote management of electronic devices can also be extended with the use of different real
electronic devices. Accomplishing tasks needs time and resource which gives smart and persuasive output. But the
time for the project and sources of information is scarce due to lack of access. Even if our electronics LAB has not
anything to support in material to do our project and the free time use of our computer LAB also is not opened in a
time. Therefore such obstacles should be proved for the coming final project. And the department should supply
students particularly for students who are doing there BSC. With relevant information regarding there project.
4.4 REFERENCES
www.electronicshub.com
www.electronictoday.com
REFERENCES
[1].International Journal on Engineering Performance-Based Fire Codes, Number l, p.21-23, 2010
[2].Fire safety design guidelines for federal buildings by George V. Hadjisophocleous and Noureddine Benichou
[3].International Advanced Research Journal in Science, Engineering and Technology Vol. 2, Issue 5, May 2015
[4].Design and Implementation of a Smart Fire Alarm System Using GSM Technologies Via Short Messages
Service.
[5].Fire Alarm System Research ñ Where it’s been and where it’s going Wayne D. Moore, P.E., FSFPE
[6].Embedded C Programing and the Atmel AVR Richard H. Barnett, Sarah fox and Larry o’cull 2 nd edition page
xxi
[7].the AVR microcontroller and embedded system using assembly and C by Muhammad Ali mazidi, sarmad
naimi, and sepehr naimi prentice hall page 42
[8].the AVR microcontroller and embedded system using assembly and c by Muhammad Ali mazidi, sarmad
naimi, and sepehr naimi prentice hall page 45
[9].ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P data sheet page 7
[10]. www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm35.pdf
[11]. AVR 8-bit Microcontrollers Quick Reference Guide February 2009
Appendix A
CHAPTER TWO.
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter explains the literature from various sources about a component, circuit or device. In the engineering
domain various approaches have been given to explain the concepts that exist. The purpose of the project, there is
need to the Arthur is well grounded in the research that he/she is undertaking. Therefore the purpose of this chapter is
to bring out the facts concerning he general information of this project.
In the design a project that are several approaches that can be used. It is the responsibility of the Arthur to mention a
particular type or circuit device or components that will be chosen to be used along many. The block diagram of
chapter one needs to be opened up so that the components that consists it are seen. For the purpose of this chapter,
components are identified by their symbols in the circuit diagram. The operation or the circuit needs to be explained
and design formula for the components or device has to be stated.
2.2 POWER SUPPLY
The purpose of this is to be able to power the electronic circuit.The main requirements of a power supply are:-
 To provide the rated voltages for the circuit to be supplied with a specified tolerance.
 To be able to supply the ratedmaximum current to be supplied to the circuit without the supply voltage falling
outside the specified limits.
 To maintain the supply voltage constant within specified limits as the load changes or the mains supply input
voltage varies or even the ambient temperature changes.
The power supply consists of a step down transformer, rectifier circuit and a smoothening capacitors as well as
voltage regulator IC.
Block diagram of AC Rectifier.
2.2.1 TRANSFORMATION
This process is achieved by use of a transformer. A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from
one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors-the transformers' coil.
A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformers'core and thus
a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or 'voltage' in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.
There are various types of transformer used in the electrical power system for different purposes, like generation,
distribution and transmissionand utilization of electrical power. The different types of transformers are step up
and step-down transformer, power transformer, distribution transformer, instrumental transformercomprising
current and potential transformers, single phase and three phase transformers, Auto-transformer and much more.
My project is specified to use a single phase transformer, which is a static device working on the principle of
Faraday's law of mutual induction. It utilizes single phase alternating current, meaning the transformer relies on a
voltage cycle that operates in a unified time phase.
In its most bases from a transformer consist of:
a) A primary coil or winding.
b) A secondary winding.
c) A core that supports the coil.
2.2.2 RECTIFICATION.
This is the process of converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This involves a device that only
allows one way flow of electric charge. Rectification is required because the electronic circuit operates with DC
while the main power supply is an AC.
There are three typical methods of rectification.
a) Half wave rectification
For most power applications, half wave rectification is insufficient for the task. The harmonic content of the
rectifier's output waveform is very large and consequently difficult to filter. Furthermore, the AC power source only
supplies power to the load one half every cycle, meaning that half of its capacity is unused. Half wave rectification is,
however, a very simple way to reduce power to a resistive load, some two position lamp dimmer switches applies full
AC power to the lamp filament for "full" brightness and then half wave rectifies it for a lesser light output.
In the "DIM" switch position, the incandescent lamb receives approximately one half the powerit would normally
receive operating on full wave rectifier. Because the half wave rectified power pulses far more rapidly than the
filament, has time to heat up and cool down, the lamp does not blink. Instead, its filament merely operates at a lesser
temperature than normal, providing less light output.
The principle of "Pulsing" power rapidly to a slow responding load device to control the electrical power sent to it is
common in the world of industrial electronics. Since the controlling device (the diode, in this case) is either fully
conducting or fully non conducting at any given time, it dissipates little heat energy while controlling load power,
making this method of power control very efficient. This circuit is perhaps the crudest possible 6method of pulsing
power to a load, but it suffices as a proof-of-concept application.
b) Center tapped full wave rectification.
In rectifying AC power to obtain the full use of both half cycles of the sine wave, a different rectifier circuit
configuration must be used. Such a circuit uses a transformer with a center tapped secondary winding and two diodes
as shown.
 Positive Half cycle.
The circuit operation can be easily understood one half cycles at a time. Consider the first half cycle, when the source
voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom. At this time, only the top diode is conducting; the
bottom diode is blocking current, and the load "sees"the first half of the sine wave, positive on top and negative on
bottom. Only the top half of the transformer's secondary winding carries current during this half cycle as in the figure
below.
Full wave center tapped rectifier: Top half of secondary winding conducts during positive half cycle of input,
delivering positive half cycle to load.
 Negative Half cycle.

During the next half cycle, the AC polarity reverses; now, the other diode and the other half of the transformer's
secondary winding carry current while the portions of the circuit formerly carrying current during the last half cycle
sit idle. The load still "sees" half of a sine wave, of the same polarity as before: positive on top and negative on
bottom.
Full wave center tap rectifier: During negative input half cycle, bottom half of secondary winding conductors,
delivering a positive half cycle to the load.
c) Full wave Bridge Rectification.
A full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of both half cycles of input alternating current (AC)
and converts them to direct current (DC). In our tutorial on half wave rectifiers, we have seen that a half wave
rectifier makes use of only one half cycle of the input alternating current.
Thus a full wave rectifier is much more efficient (doublet) than a half wave rectifier. This is process of converting
both half cycles of the input supply AC to DC.
Full Wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways. The first method makes use of a center tapped transformer and
two diodes. The second method uses a normal transformer with four diodes arranges as a bridge.
The transformer secondary is connected to two diametrically opposite points of the bridge at points A and C. The
load resistance RLis connected to bridge through points B and D.
 During the First Half Cycle.
During the first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary winding is positive with
respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes D 1 and D3 are forward biased and current flows
through arm AB, enters the load resistance R L, and returns back flowing through arm DC. During this half of each
input cycle, the diodes, D2 and D4, are reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC.
 During the Second Half Cycle.
During the second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end ofthe transformer secondary winding is positive with
respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D2and D4 become forward biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the
load resistance RL, and returns back to the source flowing through arm DA. Thus the direction of flow of current
through the load resistance RL remains the same during both half cycles of the input supply voltage.
Advantages of a Bridge Rectifier Circuit.
 It does not require a center tapped transformer which is costly.
 The peak inverse voltage in bridge circuit is half of that in full wave circuit using center tapped transformer.
Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier Circuit.
 It requires four diodes as compared to two in other circuits.
 More voltage drop, more losses, poor efficiency and poor voltage regulation as compared to circuit using
center tapped transformer. This is because in a bridge circuit two diodes are always in circuit while in center
tapped only one diode is in circuit at a time. Thus bridge rectifiers are suitable for high voltage.
d) Controlled Rectifiers.
They are rectifiers that are using thyristors. This is due to the reason that by changing the firing angle ofthyristor the
output DC voltage can be controlled. The thyristor can be triggered at any angle in the positive half cycle.
The thyristor blocks during the negative cycle. Just before triggering the voltage across the thyristor is the same as
the input. During conduction the voltage drop across the thyristor is only about 1V. Since thyristors are available in
high voltages, high current rating, controlled rectifiers are mostly used in many high powerdevice.
The uncontrolled rectifier has a higher efficiency, better power factor and lower input current distortion compared
with a controlled rectifier. Rectifier should be properly sized to satisfactorily supply the line at full load.
2.2.3 SMOOTHING.
A power supply unit for electronic circuits is required to provide a DC voltage of minimum ripple waveform. The
output of a bridge rectifier is still not smooth. To reduce the ripple voltage to tolerable level, a filter circuit is needed.
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to circuit as a
resevior, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. In the power
supply using an AC waveform input and diode rectifiers, this raw Rectifiedoutput is normally smoothed using a
reserviorcapacitor.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are ideal for the job as many electrolytic are able to have a sufficiently high
capacitance and ripple current rating to supply the required current to smooth the waveform.
a) Capacitor smoothening basics
The raw DC supplied by a rectifier on its own would consist of services of half sine waves with the voltage varying
between zero and squareroot of two times RMS voltage (ignoring any diode and other losses). A supply of this nature
would not be of any use for powering circuits because any analogue circuits would have the huge level of ripple
Superposed on the output, and any digital circuits would not function because the power would be removed every
half cycle.
To smooth the output of the rectifier a reservoir capacitor is used-placed across the output of the reciter and in
parallel with the load. This capacitor charges up when the voltage from the rectifier rises above that of the capacitor
and then as the rectifier voltage falls, the capacitor provides the required current from its stored charge.
It should be remembered that the only way discharge path for the capacitor, apart from internal leakage is through the
load to the rectifier/smoothing system. The diodes prevent backflow through the transformer etc.
b) Smoothing Capacitor Value.
The choice of the capacitor value needs to fulfill a number of requirements. In the first case the value must be chosen
so that its time constant is very much longer than the time interval between the successive peaksof the rectified
waveform.
R load. C>>1÷f
Where:
R load = the overall resistance of the load for the supply.
C = Value of capacitor in Farads.
F = the ripple frequency, this will be twice the line frequency a full wave rectifier is
used.
a) Smoothing Capacitor Ripple Voltage.
As there will always be some ripple on the output of a rectifier using a smoothing capacitor circuit, it is necessary to
be able to estimate the approximate value. Over-specifying a capacitor too much will add extra cost, size and weight-
under-specifying it will lead to poor performance.
The diagram above shows the ripple for a full wave rectifier with capacitor smoothing. If a half wave rectifier was
used, then half the peaks would be missing and he ripple would be approximately twice the voltage.
For cases where the ripple is small compared to the supply voltage-which is almost always the case-it is possible to
calculate the ripple from knowledge of the circuit conditions.
b) Ripple Current.
Two of the major specifications of a capacitor are its capacitance and working voltage. However for applications
where large levels of current may flow, as in the case of a rectifier smoothing capacitor, a third parameter is of
importance-its maximum ripple current.
The ripple current is not just equal to the supply current. There atetwo scenarios.
c) Capacitor Discharge Current.
On the discharge cycle, the maximum current supplied by the capacitor occurs as the output from the rectifier circuit
falls to zero. At this point all the current from the circuit is suppliedby the capacitor. This is equal to the full current
of the circuit.
d) Capacitor Charging Current.
On the charge cycle of the smoothing capacitor, the capacitor needs to replace all the lost charge, but it can only
achieve this when the voltage from the rectifier exceeds that from the smoothing capacitor.
This only occurs over a short period of the cycle. Consequently, the current during this period is much higher. The
large the capacitor, the better it reduces the ripple and the shorter the charge period.
When selecting a reservoir capacitor for smoothing applications in power supply, not only is the value in terms of
capacitance important to give the required ripple voltage reduction, but it is also very importantto ensure that the
capacitor ripple current rating is not exceeded. If too much current is drawn, the capacitor will heat up and its life
expectancy reduced, or in extreme cases it could fail.
2.2.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION.
A voltage regulator is designed to automatically 'regulate' voltage level. It basically steps down he input voltage to
the desired level and keeps that in the same level during the supply. This makes sure that even when a load is applied
the voltage doesn't drop.
Thus, a voltage regulator is used for two reasons:
 To regulate or vary the output voltage of the circuit.

 To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in-spite of variations in the supply voltage or in the
load current.
Voltage regulators find their applications in computers, alternators, power generator plants where the circuit is used
to control the output of the plant. Voltage regulators may be classified as electromechanical or electronic. It can also
be classified as AC regulators or DC regulators.
a) Electronic Voltage Regulator.
All electronic voltage regulators will have a stable voltage reference source which is provided by the reverse
breakdown voltage operating diode calledzenerdiode. The main reason to use a voltage regulator is to maintain a
constant DC output voltage. It also blacks the AC ripple voltage that cannot be blocked by the filter.
A good voltage regulator may also include additional circuits for protection like short circuits, current limiting
circuits, thermalshutdown and over voltage protection.
Some applications of voltage Regulators.
 Use in all power supplies to electronic gadgets to regulate voltage and save the device from damage.
 Used with the alternator of internalcombustion engines to regulate the alternator output.
 Used for electronics circuits to supply a precise amount of voltage.
Voltage regulators are different from voltage stabilizers. Regulators are used to step down voltages to the desired
levels where as a stabilizer 'stabilizes'the voltage. Regulators are mostly used for DC while stabilizers are mostly for
AC. Stabilizers keep the voltages from going too high or too low as not to damage the device connected to it, like a
TV or fridge.
Advantages of Voltage regulator.
 Output voltage regulation is good (tap switching) to very good (double conversion).
 Ultrafast voltage correction speed.
 No restrictions on the number of correction cycle.
 Versatility of KVA rating, voltage and configuration.
 Very low or no regular maintenance.
 Good line isolation.
Disadvantages of Voltage Regulator.
 Mechanical drive components, brushes and contractors require regular maintenance and/or replacement.
 Frequent overloads can damage brushes.
 Speed of voltage correction correct may not be fast enough for electronic loads.
1.3 2.3 MICRO-CONTROLLER.

Microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern specific operation in an embedded system. It is
used to programme and drives the display. In this project it will be used to run the entire functions. A microcontroller
can take input from the device it is controlling and retain control by sending the device signals to different part of the
device.
1.4 2.4 LM35 TEMPERATURE SENSORS.
The LM35 is a basic, ultra low-cost digital temperature and humidity sensor. It uses a capacitive humidity sensor and
a thermistor to measure the surrounding air, and spits out a Digital signal on the data pin (no Analog input pins
needed) it’s fairly simple to use, but requires careful timing to grab data.
The LM35 calculates relative humidity by measuring the electrical resistance between two electrodes. The humidity
sensing component of the LM35 is a moisture holding substrate with the electrodes applied to the surface.
It features a calibrated Digital signal output with the temperature and humidity sensor capability. It is integrated with
a high performance 8-bit micro controller. Its technology ensures the high reliability and excellent long-term
stability.
2.5 12V DC MOTOR FAN.
The DC motor is the device which converts the direct current into the mechanical work. It works on the principle of
Lorentz law, which states that, "The current carrying conductor places in a magnetic and electric field experience a
force." And that force is called the Lorentz force.
The armature and stator are the two main parts of the DC motor. The armature is the rotating part, and the stator is
their stationary part. The armature coil is connected to the DC supply. It consist the commutators and brushes. The
brushes transfer the current from rotating part of the motor to the stationary external load. The armature is placed
between the north and South Pole of the permanent or electromagnet.
Types of a DC Motors.
 Permanent magnet DC motors. The permanent magnet motor uses a permanent magnet to create field flux.
 Series DC motors. In a series DC motor, the field is wound with a few turns of a large wire carrying the full
armature current.
 Shunt DC motors.
 Compound DC motors.
1.5 2.6 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).

LCD is a combination of two states of matter, the solid and the liquid. It uses a liquid crystal to produce a visible
image. A 16*2 LCD has 16 columns and 2 rows displaying 32 characters in total each having 5*8 pixel Dots.
The principle behind the LCD's is that when an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal module, the module
tends to untwist. This causes the angle of light which is passing through the molecule of the polarized glass and also
cause a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter.
As a result a little light is allowed to pass the polarized glass through a particular area of the LCD. Thus that
particular area will become dark compared to other. The LCD works on the principle of blocking light.
 Vss (Ground) – Ground pin connected to system ground.

 Vdd (+5V) –Power the LCD with +5V (4.7V to 5.3V).
 VE (Contrast V) –Decides the contrast level of display. Ground to get maximum contrast.
 Register Select – Connected to Arduino to shift between command/data register.
 Read/Write – Used to read or write data. Normally grounded to write data to LCD.
 Enable – Connected to Arduino pin and toggled between 1 and 0 for data acknowledgement.
 LED Positive – Backlight LED pin positive terminal.
 Data Pin 0 – Data pins 0 to 7 forms a 8 bit data line. They can be connected to Arduino to send 8 bit data.
These LCD's can also operate on 4 bit mode in such case data pin 4,5,6 and 7 will be left free.
 LED Negative – Backlight LED pin negative terminal.
CHAPTER THREE.
1.6 3.1 PROJECT DESIGN
1.7 Introduction
This chapter endeavours to give specific information for the components and devices used in the project. Every
system in the existence can be viewed as a constituent of related blocks whose functioning objectives is to achieve a
purpose. The building blocks of every system which will be opened up will show how the electronic components and
devices are interconnected to perform specific function. Therefore each block of a system can be single handy
represent a function of the system.
Every device and component used in a given block has to be specific in terms of size, value and function. Electronic
components are manufactured by various companies in different sizes and types. This is to ensure that every need for
a given component in a particular system requires design for one to establish the appropriate value, size and function.
It is the requirement of this chapter to illustrate how a given value and type of a component is arrived at. The design
worker requires that one has to have the electronic data sheet table for you to design a component value. The
formulas stated in chapter two in conjunction with data sheet table should be used to calculate the appropriate value
of the component or device.
1.8 3.2 POWER SUPPLY.

A power supply can be broken into a series of blocks, each performing a particular task.
Transformer
Figure 3.01Transformer circuit diagram
Since the circuit is rated a current of about 300mA, the transformer should handle slightly more than this. Therefore
the transformer rating is 12 volts, 500mA. To get the input current the transformer equation can be used.
To get the input current, the transformer equation can be used.
From here we can get
Vp = 240V
Vs= 12V
Is= 1A
Therefore,
Ip which is the input current to the transformer can be calculated as follows.
The power rating of the transformer can be calculated as follows.
3.3 RECTIFICATION.
Figure 3.02 rectifier circuit diagrams
VP = ( VSr.m.s ×1.414) – ( 0.7 ×2)
= (12 ×1.414) – 1.4
= 15.568 volts
Vdc= 2Vp / π
= 2 ×15.569/π
=9.91 volts
Therefore IN4007 diodes will be used for this project since they can withstand the above conditions.
1.9 3.4 SMOOTHING
Shunt capacitor filter is the one used. This is because; this method offers the best smoothing where large currents are
consumed by the circuit. Besides, it is economical since only a capacitor is required.
Fig 3.03 smoothing.
The value of the capacitor used can be got using the formula shown below.
C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)
Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed DC
f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz).
Io= 500mA= 0.5A
Vs= 12 V
F= 50
Therefore,
C = 0.0042F OR C = 4,200µF
3.5 VOLTAGE REGULATOR.

A voltage regulator is a device designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage supply to a load. The 7805
positive voltage regulator IC is used. This is because our voltage is a positive one and that it can handle up to 1 A
Figure 3.04 IC voltage regulator
Resistor R is used to set pin 4 high. Since input impedance is very high, the current through the resistor R can be
limited to 1mA. It value can therefore be calculated as follows.
R = V/I
R = 5 volts / 0.001A
R = 5kΩ
1.10 3.6 LCD DISPLAY
LCD is a flat panel display electronic display or video display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid
crystal.
A 16*2 character LCD is used due to its reliability and availability.
1.11 3.7 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1.12 3.8 CIRCUIT OPERATION
The transformer is used to step down 240V ac to 12V ac. The bridge rectifier converts the 12 V ac to 12 volts DC.
The DC ripples are then filtered by the 4200 uF smoothing capacitor. The 7805 regulator ensures a stable 5 volts
supplied to the circuit.
The microcontroller has an internal clocking mechanism which when aided by the program generates real time
clocks. These clocks are used to increment internal registers that holds the seconds, minutes and hours. These are
then displayed on the LCD in alpha-numeric form.
CHAPTER FOUR.
1.13 4.1 TEST AND RESULT TABLE.
S NO. TEST POINT EXPECTED MEASURED REMARKS

VALUE VALUE
(VOLTS) (VOLTS)
1 power supply circuit Output 12V 11.8V Good
2 Micro controller Input 5V 4.9V Good
3 Liquid Crystal Display Input 5V 4.7V Good
4 12v dc Motor 12V 11.2 Fair
1.14 4.2 COSTING.
S NO. ITEM QUANTITY PRICE PER TOTAL PRICE

UNIT
1. Micro controller 1 800 1000
2. 2N2222 1 10 10
Transistor.
3. 16*2 LCD 1 250 250
Display.
4. 12V DC Fan. 1 800 800
5. 1N4007 Diode. 1 10 10
6. 1K Resistor. 2 10 10
7. 4200uF 1 10 10
Electrolytic
Capacitor
8. LM35 1 150 150
Temperature
Sensor.
9. Relay 1 500 500
10. Solder wire 3 Meters 120 120
11. Connector wires 3 Meters 105 105

12. Typing and 1,500 1,500
Binding.
TOTAL 4,465
4.2 TIME SCHEDULE.
Task description Time taken (weeks)

Gathering information 3
Purchasing components 2
Soldering components 1
Casing and fabrication 1
Assembling and testing 1
Compiling, printing and binding 2
Total time taken 10 weeks
4.3 RESEARCH END REPORT WRITING.

Research of information concerning the project was the first step in coming up with the complete project.
During this process and report writing, the designer got much of the relevant data from internet and the relevant
electronics text books. The gathered information leaf the designer to know the desired component to buy.
4.4 PURCHASING OF THE COMPONENTS.

This involves buying the components of the desired project. The process turned up to be tiresome, since some of the
exact values required by the designer were not available, which lead to use of equivalent values.
4.5 CONTRUCTION PROCEDULES.

i. Preparation
It involves selection of the correct materials and rating of components to be used to attain the required results at the
output. The tools and equipments required for construction of the project were also made available.
ii. Assembling of the project
This is the process which involves mounting of the project components on the strip board and soldering each
component as per the project circuit.
The leads of components which protrude in the strip board were trimmed a millimeter so that they don’t short-circuit
or act as aerials to interfere with circuit impedance.
After being satisfied with components layout lastly was to fix the whole project in the case.
iii. Casting and fabrication.
Considering the aspect of safety, portability presentation and aesthetics the designer come up with a wooden casing
covered with resin materials. The design of the case was determined by the size of the components, the dimensions
used are as follows.
Lengh-280mm
Width-130mm
Height-100mm
iv. Trouble shooting.
This is the activity of identifying faults in the system. The main objective of trouble shooting is to make effective the
repair in case the system fails to operate as expected, confirm the following to locate the faults.
 If there is voltage across collector and emitter of air transistors.

 If there is voltage across base and emitter of air transistors.
 If voltage regulator has output.
All people the designer interacted with are the root source of the above mentioned concept.
4.6 CONCLUTION
The project works well. However there were challenges:
1. Some of the components available locally were not of the best quality. Therefore the low quality components
lead to deviated targeted timing.
2. Lack of the required programming tools led to use of low quality software. This undermined the targeted
accuracy of the project.
3. Assembling all components was a challenge also due to cost.
The project was tested and worked. Programming of the micro controller was outsourced due to lack of kits and
updated mnemonics.
4.8 RECOMMENDATION
The deviation from the expected values is as a result of the following;

a) The exact calculated values of the resistors were not locally available. This leads to the use of the one whose
values are close to the calculated ones.
b) The inherent problems from the manufacturer of the components used altered with the performance.
c) Scarcity of some important information adversely affected the accuracy of the final operation.
4.9 REFERENCES.
 https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/microcontroller
 https://wiki.eprolabs.com/index.php?title=Temperature_Sensor_LM35
 https://www.metmotors.com/brief-overview-of-a-12v-dc-motor/
 https://www.explainthatstuff.com/howrelayswork.html
 https://researchmaniacs.com/Math/LCD/What-is-the-least-common-denominator-of-6-and-2.html
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
HARDWARE DETAILS OF 8051 CIRCUIT TRAINER:
 On Board Features of 8051 Advance Trainer with P89V51RD2 Microcontroller:
1. RS232 interface
2. 38KHZ RC5 IR receiver
3. Buzzer
4. Light Sensor (LDR)
5. Temperature Sensor
6. Three Analog Inputs via presets
7. All port open 89V51RD2 Microcontroller
8. Four 7-Segment Display
9. Real time clock with DS1307
10. EEPROM 24C256
11. Eight LEDs
12. Two Relays
13. Four Switches
14. Eight bit Analog to Digital Converter
15. Matrix keypad 4x4
16. Stepper Motor driver ULN2803
17. LCD 16 character by 2 lines
18. DC Motor Driver L293D
COMPONENT DESCRIPTION:
 LM35 Temperature Sensor:
LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor with its output proportional to the temperature (in oC). The sensor
circuitry is sealed and therefore it is not subjected to oxidation and other processes. With LM35, temperature
can be measured more accurately than with a thermistor. It also possess low self heating and does not cause
more than 0.1 oC temperature rise in still air.
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit LM35 temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly
proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 sensor does not require any external calibration
or trimming to provide typical accuracies of ±¼°C at room temperature and ±¾°C over a full -55 to +150°C
temperature range.
It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60 µA from its
supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1°C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55° to
+150°C temperature range, while the LM35C sensor is rated for a -40° to +110°C range (-10° with improved
accuracy).
Pin Diagram:
Pin Description:
Pin Function Name

No
1 Supply voltage; 5V (+35V to -2V) Vcc

2 Output voltage (+6V to -1V) Output
3 Ground (0V) Ground
 AT89C51:
AT89C51 is an 8-bit microcontroller and belongs to Atmel's 8051 family. ATMEL 89C51 has 4KB of Flash
programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM) and 128 bytes of RAM. It can be erased and program
to a maximum of 1000 times.
In 40 pin AT89C51, there are four ports designated as P1, P2, P3 and P0. All these ports are 8-bit bi- directional
ports, i.e., they can be used as both input and output ports. Except P0 which needs external pull-ups, rest of the
ports have internal pull-ups. When 1s are written to these port pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
and can be used as inputs. These ports are also bit addressable and so their bits can also be accessed
individually.
Pin Diagram:
Pin Description:
Pin No Function Name

1 P1.0
2 8 bit input/output port (P1) pins P1.1
3 P1.2
4 P1.3
5 P1.4
6 P1.5
7 P1.6
8 P1.7
9 Reset pin; Active high Reset
Input (receiver) for serial
10 RxD P3.0
communication
Output (transmitter) for serial
11 TxD P3.1
communication
12 External interrupt 1 Int0 8 bit input/output P3.2
13 External interrupt 2 Int1 port (P3) pins P3.3
14 Timer1 external input T0 P3.4
15 Timer2 external input T1 P3.5
16 Write to external data memory Write P3.6
17 Read from external data memory Read P3.7
18 Crystal 2
Quartz crystal oscillator (up to 24 MHz)
19 Crystal 1
20 Ground (0V) Ground
21 P2.0/ A8
22 P2.1/ A9
23 P2.2/ A10
8 bit input/output port (P2) pins/High-order address bits when interfacing with
24 P2.3/ A11
external memory
25 P2.4/ A12
26 P2.5/ A13
27 P2.6/ A14
28 P2.7/ A15
29 Program store enable; Read from external program memory PSEN
Address Latch Enable ALE
30
Program pulse input during Flash programming Prog
External Access Enable; Vcc for internal program executions EA
31
Programming enable voltage; 12V (during Flash programming) Vpp
32 P0.7/ AD7
33 P0.6/ AD6
34 8 bit input/output port (P0) pins P0.5/ AD5
35 P0.4/ AD4
36 Low-order address bits when interfacing with external memory P0.3/ AD3
37 P0.2/ AD2
38 P0.1/ AD1
39 P0.0/ AD0
40 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 6.6V) Vcc
 Seven Segment Display:
Pin Diagram:
A seven segment display is the most basic electronic display device that can display digits from 0-9. They find
wide application in devices that display numeric information like digital clocks, radio, microwave ovens,
electronic meters etc.
The most common configuration has an array of eight LEDs arranged in a special pattern to display
these digits. They are laid out as a squared-off figure ‘8’.
Every LED is assigned a name from 'a' to 'h' and is identified by its name. Seven LEDs 'a' to 'g' are used to
display the numerals while eighth LED 'h' is used to display the dot/decimal.
A seven segment is generally available in ten pin package. While eight pins correspond to the eight LEDs, the
remaining two pins (at middle) are common and internally shorted.
These segments come in two configurations, namely, Common cathode (CC) and Common anode (CA).In CC
configuration, the negative terminals of all LEDs are connected to the common pins. The common is connected
to ground and a particular LED glows when its corresponding pin is given high. In CA arrangement, the
common pin is given a high logic and the LED pins are given low to display a number.
 ADC0804:
ADC0804 is a very commonly used 8-bit analog to digital convertor. It is a single channel IC. The digital
outputs vary from 0 to a maximum of 255. ADC0804 needs a clock to operate. The time taken to convert the
analog value to digital value is dependent on this clock source. An external clock can be given at the Clock IN
pin.
Pin Diagram:
Pin Description:
Pin No Function Name

1 Activates ADC; Active low Chip select
2 Input pins Read
3 Input pin; Low to high pulse is given to start the conversion Write
4 Clock Input pin; to give external clock. Clock IN
5 Output pin; Goes low when conversion is complete Interrupt
6,7 Analog non-inverting input & Analog inverting Input. Vin(+) & Vin(-)
8 Ground(0V) Analog Ground
9 Input pin; sets the reference voltage for analog input Vref/2
10 Ground(0V) Digital Ground
11to18 8 bit digital output pins D7 to D0
19 Used with Clock IN pin when internal clock source is used Clock R
20 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
 741 op-amp:
The 741 is a versatile op-amp IC. Commonly available 741 is an eight pin dual-in-line package op- amp IC. It
has only a single op-amp module inside it and it requires dual-power supply.
Pin-outs:
The pin-out of the 741 op-amp is shown below. Pin 2 & 3 are input pins and pin 6 is the output pin. Pin 4 & 7
are provided for dual-power supply.
Pin-out of 741
An op-amp is supposed to have zero output voltage whenever the input difference voltage is zero. But
practically this is hard to achieve, because of certain current mismatch at the input terminals. The 741 has two
terminals for setting the output voltage to zero, when the input voltage is zero. The pins provided for this
function are called offset null. Among the input pins, the pin2 is called inverting input and the pin3 is called
non-inverting input.
 Preset:
A preset is a three legged electronic component which can be made to offer varying resistance in a circuit. The
resistance is varied by adjusting the rotary control over it.The resistance does not vary linearly but rather varies
in exponential or logarithmic manner. Such variable resistors are commonly used for adjusting sensitivity along
with a sensor.The variable resistance is obtained across the single terminal at front and one of the two other
terminals. The two legs at back offer fixed resistance which is divided by the front leg. So whenever only the
back terminals are used, a preset acts as a fixed resistor. Presets are specified by their fixed value resistance.
Working of presets is quite simple. It works by having a resistive track and a small plate having dents to short
the track. This small plate can be rotated using a screw driver or some similar tool. Position of the dents on the
track determines the amount of resistance that is to be used in the circuit.
Pin Diagram:
 RESISTORS:
Resistor is a passive component used to control current in a circuit. Its resistance is given by the ratio of voltage
applied across its terminals to the current passing through it. Resistors can be either fixed or variable. Negative
temperature coefficient (NTC), positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and light dependent resistor (LDR) are
some such resistors. These special resistors are commonly used as sensors. Read and learn about internal
structure and working of a resistor.
Pin Diagram:
How to Read Resistor Color Coding Scheme:
The resistor color code is always read one band at a time starting from left to the right, with the larger width
tolerance band oriented to the right side indicating its tolerance. By matching the color of the first band with its
associated number in the digit column of the color chart below, the first digit is identified and this represents the
first digit of the resistive value. The second digit of the resistance is obtained by matching again the color of the
second band with its associated number in the digit column of the color chart. The tolerance band is usually
gold or silver but some may have none.
 Transistor 2N2222:
Pin Diagram:
2N2222 is an NPN BJT transistor. It is used for general purpose low-power amplification and switching
applications. These are designed for high speed switching application at collector current up to 800mA.It
provides useful current gain over a wide range of collector current.
Other features include, low leakage currents and low saturation voltage. 2N2222A is another variant with
improved characteristics. The emitter leg of 2N2222 is indicated by a protruding edge in the transistor case.
 CAPACITORS:
A capacitor is a passive two terminal component which stores electric charge. This component consists of two
conductors which are separated by a dielectric medium. The potential difference when applied across the
conductors polarizes the dipole ions to store the charge in the dielectric medium. The circuit symbol of a
capacitor is shown below:
Pin Diagram:
As you turn on the power supply, the current begins to flow through the capacitor inducing the positive and
negative potentials across its plates. The capacitor continues to charge until the capacitor voltage equalizes up to
the supply voltage which is called as the charging phase of the capacitor. Once the capacitor is fully charged at
the end of this phase, it gets open circuited for DC. It begins to discharge when the power of the capacitor is
switched off. There are different types of capacitors. The symbol of capacitors from each group is shown below:
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Steps taken while preparing circuit:
(A) PCB DESIGNING:
T he m a in pu rpo se of p r in ted c i r cui t i s i n the r out ing of e lec t r i c cu r ren t s and

s i gn a l t h r o u g h a t h i n c o p p e r l a y e r t h a t i s b o u n d e d f i r m l y t o a n i
n s u l a t i n g b a s e m a t e r i a l sometimes called the substrate. This base is manufactured with an
integrally bounded layer of thin copper foil, which has to be partly etched or removed to arrive at a
pre-designed pattern to suit the circuit connections, or other applications as required.
The term printed circuit board is derived from the original method where a printed pattern is used as the mask
over wanted areas of copper. The PCB provides an ideal baseboard upon which to assemble and hold
firmly most of the small components.
From the constructor’s point of view, the main attraction of using PCB is its role as the mechanical
support for small components. There is less need for complicated and time- consuming metal work
of chassis contraception except perhaps in providing the final enclosure. Most straight forward
circuit designs can be easily converted in to printed wi r i n g la ye r t he thou gh t re qu i red
to c ar r y ou t the i n ver s ion cab f oo ted h i gh l i ght an possible error that would otherwise be
missed in conventional point to point wiring .The finished project is usually neater and truly a work of art.
Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn on the copper board. The board is then immersed in
FeCl3 solution for 12 hours. In this process only the exposed copper portion is etched out by the
solution.
Now the petrol washes out the paint and the copper layout on PCB is rubbed with asmooth sand paper slowly
and lightly such that only the oxide layers over th e Cu arer e m o ved. No w th e ho le s are d r i l l
ed at the resp ect i ve p la ces a cco rd in g to com po nent layout as shown in figure.
(B) PCB L A Y OU T D E S I G N :
W hen des i gn in g the la yout one shou ld o bse r ve the m in im um s i ze ( com ponent bod y
length and weight). Before starting to design the layout we needallth
e r e q u i r e d components in hand so that an accurate assessment of space can be made. Other space
considerations might also be included from case to case of mounted components over the printed circuit board
or to access path of present components.
It might be necessary to turn some components around to a different angular position so that terminals are closer
to the connections of the components. The scale can be checked by positioning the components on the squared
paper. If any connection crosses, then one can reroute to avoid such condition.
All common or earth lines should ideally be connected to a common line routed around the
perimeter of the layout. This will act as the ground plane. If possible try to route the outer supply line to the
ground plane. If possible try to route the other supply lines around the opposite edge of the layout through
the centre. The first set is tearing the circuit to eliminate the crossover without altering the circuit detail in
any way.
P lan the la yout l ook in g at the top s i de to th i s boa rd. F i rs t th i s s hou ld be t
ran s la ted inversely; later for the etching pattern large areas are recommended to maintain good
copper adhesion. It is important to bear in mind always that copper track width must be according to
the recommended minimum dimensions and allowance must be made for increased width where
termination holes are needed. From this aspect, it can become little tricky to negotiate the route to
connect small transistors.
There are basically two ways of copper interconnection patterns underside the board. The first is the removal of
only the amount of copper necessary to isolate the junctions of the components to one another. The second is to
make the interconnection pattern looking more like conventional point wiring by routing uniform width of
copper from component to component.
(C) ETCHING PROCESS:
Etching process requires the use of chemicals. Acid resistant dishes and running water s u ppl
y. Fer r i c c h lo r ide i s m ost l y u sed so lu t io n bu t o the r etch in g m ate r ia l s s uch as
ammonium per sulphate can be used. Nitric acid can be used but in general it is not used due to poisonous
fumes. The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the board using a latex type of adhesive
that can be cubed after use. The pattern is laid firmly on the copper using a very sharp knife to cut round the
pattern carefully to remove the paper corresponding to the required copper pattern areas.
Then apply the resistant solution, which can be a kind of ink solution for the purpose of maintaining
smooth clean outlines as far as possible. While the board is drying, test all the components. Bef ore go in
g t o ne xt s tage , che ck t he who le pat te rn and cro ss chec k wi t h the c i rcu i t diagram. Check
for any free metal on the copper. The etching bath should be in a glass or enamel disc. If using crystal of
ferric- chloride these should be thoroughly dissolved in water to the proportion suggested. There should
be 0.5 lt. of water for 125 gm of crystal.
To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching, agitate the solutions carefully by gently twisting or
rocking the tray. The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer than is needed to remove
just t h e r i g h t a m o u n t o f c o p p e r . I n s p i t e o f t h e r e b e i n g a r e s i s t i v e c o a t i n
g t h e r e i s n o protection against etching away through exposed copper edges. This leads to over etching.
Have running water ready so that etched board can be removed properly and rinsed. This will halt
etching immediately.
Drilling is one of those operations that call for great care. For most purposes a 0.5mmdrill is
used. Drill all holes with this size first those that need to be larger can be easily drilled again with the
appropriate larger size.
(D) COMPONENT ASSEMBLY:
From the greatest variety of electronic components available, which runs into thousands of different types it is
often a perplexing task to know which is right for a given job. T her e cou ld be dam age s uch a s hai r l ine cr
ac k on P CB. I f the re a re, th en the y ca n be repaired by soldering a short link of bare copper wire over the
affected part. The most popular method of holding all the items is to bring the wires far apart after they have
been inserted in the appropriate holes. This will hold the component in position ready for soldering.
Some components will be considerably larger .So it is best to start mounting the smallest first and
progressing through to the largest. Before starting, be certain that no further drilling is likely to be
necessary because access may be impossible later. Next will probably be the resistor, small signal diodes or
other similar size components. Some capacitors are also very small but it would be best to fit these
afterwards. When fitting each group of components mark off each one on the circuit as it is fitted so that if we
have to leave the job we know where to recommence.
Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items there are good reasons for leaving
the soldering of these until the last step. The main point is that these components are very sensitive to heat and
if subjected to prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could be internally damaged. All the
components before mounting are rubbed with sand paper so that oxide layer is removed from the
tips. Now they are mounted according to the component layout.
(E) SOLDERING :
This is the operation of joining the components with PCB after this operation the circuit will be ready to use to
avoid any damage or fault during this operation following care must be taken.
 A longer duration contact between soldering iron bit & components

l e a d c a n exceed the temperature rating of device & cause partial or total damage of the device.
Hence before soldering we must carefully read the maximum soldering temperature & soldering
time for device.
 T he w atta ge of sol de r i n g i ron shou ld be se lect ed as m in im um a s pe rmi s s i b le f
or that soldering place
 To protect the devices by leakage current of iron its bit should beeart
h e d properly.
 We shou ld se lec t t he so lde r i n g wi re wi th p rope r rat io of Pb & T n to pr o v ide th
e suitable melting temperature.
 P rope r am oun t of good qual i t y f lu x m us t be app l ied on t he so lde r in g po in t to
avoid dry soldering.
2. Types of PCB:
PCBs can be divided into three main categories:
Single Sided.
Double Sided.
Multi Layered.
 SINGLE SIDED PCB:

A single sided PCB contains copper tracks on one side of the board only. Holes are drilled at appropriate
points on the track so that each component can be inserted from the non copper side of the board. Each pin
is soldered to the copper track.
 DOUBLE SIDED PCB:

Double sided PCBs have copper tracks on both sides of the board. The track layout is designed so as not to
allow shorts from one side to another. If it is required to link points between the two sides, electrical
connections are made by small interconnecting holes which are placed with copper during manufacture.
 MULTI LAYER PCB:
In multi layer PCBs, each side contains several layers of track patterns which are insulated from one
another. They are laminated under heat and high pressure.
PCB Manufacturing Process:
It is an important process in the design of electronic equipment. The design of PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards)
depends on circuit requirements like noise immunity, working frequency and voltage levels etc. High power
PCBs requires a special design strategy.
The fabrication process to the printed circuit board will determine to a large extent the price and reliability of
the equipment. A common target aimed is the small series of highly reliable professional quality PCBs with low
investment.
The layout of PCB has to incorporate all the information of the board before one can go on the artwork
preparation. This means that a concept that clearly defines all the details of the circuit and partly defines the
final equipment is prerequisite before the actual layout can start. The detailed circuit diagram is very important
for the layout designer but he must also be familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the
equipment.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
Common applications for digital thermometers include:
 Medicine: Digital thermometers are often used in clinical settings on patients.

 HVAC thermometers are rated for HVAC applications such as duct or flume monitoring.
 Laboratory use includes monitoring experiments and chemical reactions as well as maintaining an
optimal laboratory environment.
 Meteorological thermometers are used to give air, atmosphere and water temperature readings.
CONCLUSION:
The circuit is based on LM35 analog temperature sensor, ADC0804 and AT89S51 microcontroller. It consists
of two sections. One is that which senses the temperature i.e. LM 35. The other section converts the
temperature value into a suitable number in Celsius scale which is done by the ADC0804.
A digital thermometer can be easily made by interfacing a temperature sensor to the microcontroller
AT89C51.The LM 35 IC generates a 10mV variation to its output voltage for every degree Celsius change in
temperature. The Output of the temperature sensor is analog in nature so we need an analog to digital convertor
for converting the analog input to its equivalent binary output.ADC 0804 is an analog to digital convertor IC
used in the project. 0804 is a single channel convertor which converts the analog input up to a range of 5V to an
equivalent 8-bit binary output.

Kist Brandox lm35 Based Digital Room Temperature Meter

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Kist Brandox lm35 Based Digital Room Temperature Meter

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TRADE PROJECT

KIAMBU INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

NAME: EDWARD BRANDOX OMONDI

INDEX NUMBER: 2051012812

PAPER NUMBER: 2601/306

PROJECT TITLE: LM35 BASED DIGITAL ROOM TEMPERATURE METER

PRESENTED TO: THE KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL IN PARTIAL

SERIES: OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2021

Name : EDWARD BRANDOX OMONDI

Figure 3. 2 LM 35 Temperature sensor 14

Figure 3. 3 Structure and configuration of Gas sensor MQ-2 16

Figure 3. 4 BC548 Pin Diagram 16

Figure 3. 6 16X2 LCD display 18

Figure 3. 7 SIM900A GSM module 19

Figure 3. 8 System power supply 19

Figure 3. 11 Servo motor 21

Figure 3. 12 GPS Module 22

Figure 4. 1 System block diagram 23

Figure 4. 2 Block diagram of smart appliance system 24

Figure 4. 3 Architect of the project without GSM Flowchart 25

Figure 4. 4 program creation steps 27

Figure 4. 5 generating hex file 27

Figure 4. 6 Arduino sketch simple function 28

Figure 4. 7Interfacing ARDUINO Programmer with PC 28

Figure 4. 8 Upload Boot loader to ARDUINO Programmer 29

Figure 4. 9 Overall system design 30

Figure 5. 1 Fire and smoke detection 31

Table 3. 1 part list for system power supply circuit diagram 19

Table 5. 1 Overall output of the system 32

i. GSM – Global System for Mobile

1.2. Description of the project................................................................................................................1

1.3. Statement of the Problem................................................................................................................2

1.4 Objective of the project....................................................................................................................3

1.4.1 General objective......................................................................................................................3

1.4.2 Specific objective......................................................................................................................3

1.5 Project Scope...................................................................................................................................3

2.1 Review of the components and theories..........................................................................................5

2.1.1 The Need for a Fire Detection System......................................................................................5

2.1.2 Fire Triangle..............................................................................................................................6

2.1.3 Types of Fire Protection............................................................................................................6

2.2.4 Fire Detectors Review...............................................................................................................8

3.1 Basic Overview..............................................................................................................................12

3.2 Hardware Requirement..................................................................................................................12

AVR family microcontrollers..........................................................................................................13

3.2.2 Temperature Sensor (LM35 Precision Centigrade Temperature Sensor)...............................14

3.2.3 MQ-2 Smoke Sensor...............................................................................................................15

3.2.4 BC548 NPN transistor............................................................................................................16

3.2.6 LCD Display (16X2 LCD)......................................................................................................18

3.2.7 GSM Modem..........................................................................................................................18

3.2.8 Power Supply..........................................................................................................................19

3.2.11 Servo motor...........................................................................................................................21

3.2.12 GPS Module..........................................................................................................................21

3.3 Software Requirements..................................................................................................................22

4.4 System Testing...............................................................................................................................29

5.3 Drawbacks / Limitation of the thesis.............................................................................................34

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Temperature Microcontroller Buzzer

Figure 1.00: Microcontroller based digital thermometer

LITERATURE REVIEW AND ANALYSIS

TYPES OF POWER SUPPLIES

i) Unregulated linear power supply