Chapter 7 - Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes

CLASSIFICATION OF NON TRADITIONAL MANUFACTURING PROCESS

A. Electro Discharge Machining

B. Laser Beam Machining
C. Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
D. Electron Beam Machining
E. Chemical Machining Process (CHM)

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 A. Electro Discharge Machining

Definition:
• It is a process in which electrical energy is used to generate the Spark between the tool
and workpiece submerged under the dielectric medium so that material removal takes
place from the surface of the workpiece by local melting or Vaporization called as
Electric Discharge Machining.

Parts of Electro Discharge Machining:

1. A pulse generator (DC). 2 Workpiece. 3 Fixture. 4 dielectric fluid. 5 Pump. 6 Filter. 7 Tool
holder. 8 Spark. 9 Tool.

1. Pulse Generator (Power Supply):

• The power supply is given to the EDM process i.e. Negative terminal is given to the tool
and a Positive terminal is given to the workpiece.

2. Workpiece

• The workpiece is fixed in the dielectric container using a fixture and is given the positive
terminal of the power supply.

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3. Fixture:

• The fixture is used to hold the workpiece properly in a dielectric container.

4. Dielectric Fluid:

• The workpiece and the tool are separated using dielectric fluid and an optimum gap is
maintained between them.

• At normal conditions, the dielectric fluid acts as an insulator. In this sense, no electrical
conductivity is taking place.
But, by an increase of high pressure, the dielectric fluid ionizes into Negative and
Positive Ions and now it is ready to conduction.

Properties of the Dielectric Fluid/Medium:

• Low viscosity.

• Remain electrically non-conductive up to the desired voltage breakdown takes place.

• It can act as a good cooling medium.

• It can carry away all the metal particles produced during the spark erosion.

Electrolyte used:

• Kerosene acts as a Dielectric Fluid in Electrical Discharge Machining process.

Optimum Gap:

• The Optimum gap between the tool and the workpiece is 0.03 mm.

5. Pump:

• A pump is used to send the dieclectric fluid from the base of the container to the tool and
workpiece such that more MRR takes place.

6. Filter:

• A filter was situated just above the pump to remove any irregularities or dust particles
present in the diectric medium.

7. Tool Holder:

• It is used to hold the tool properly.

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8. Spark generation:

• A spark is geerated between the tool and workpiece in the presence of dielectric medium
and thereby material removal takes place from the surface of workpiece.

9. Tool:

• The tool used in the Electric Discharge Machining process is either Copper or Tungsten
or Copper-Tungsten Alloy.

Properties Possessed by the Tool:

• It must possess high Melting Point

• Electrical Conductivity.

MRR (Material Removal Rate):

• Out of all the non-traditional machining methods, the Electric Discharge Machining will
remove more material. In this sense, the MRR is higher for EDM.

Working Principle of Electrical Discharge Machining Process:

• The workpiece is fixed in the dielectric container using a fixture.

• The tool is fed up by the Servo Feed Unit which can move downward in a vertical
direction.
The power supply is given to the electrical discharge machining process i.e. Positive
terminal is given to the workpiece and a Negative terminal is given to the tool.

• The tool and workpiece are separated using dielectric fluid and an optimum gap is
maintained between them.

• As stated above, that at normal conditions, the dielectric fluid acts as an insulator. In this
sense, no electrical conductivity is taking place.
But, by an increase of high pressure, the dielectric fluid ionizes into Negative and
Positive Ions.

• The positive ions are attracted to negative ions and negative ions are attracted to positive
ions and thereby the heat is generated.

• When positive and negative ions collide with each other then the spark is generated
between the tool and workpiece which can remove the material from the surface of the
workpiece.

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 • When there is no spark in the container, then the dielectric fluid again turns as an
insulator
The same procedure is repeated to remove the material from the surface of the workpiece.

• This is a detailed explanation of the Electrical Discharge Machining process along with
the basic terms and working.

Advantages of EDM:
• These are some advantages of using Electrical Discharge Machining:

• The machining process does not depend on the mechanical properties of the workpiece.

• No residual stresses will be generated because no forces are acting.

• The deeper hole is possible to produce (L/D) up to 20.

• Out of all the non-traditional machining methods, EDM is the method with higher
Material Removal Rate (MRR).

• The surface finish is better due to melting and vaporization.

Limitations of EDM:
• However, EDM has some limitations too, here are those:

• Workpiece material must be electrically conductive.

• Perfect square corner holes are not possible to produce.

• Hardening of the workpiece is taking place near to the hole.

Applications of EDM:
• Here are some applications of Electrical Discharge Machining:

• It is used for producing hole size less than 0.1 mm

• Used for die sinking or die manufacturing.

• holes in the air brakes or Pneumatic Brakes were done by an electrical discharge
machining process.

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 B. Laser Beam Machining
The full form of LASER is Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Laser beam machining (LBM) is a non-conventional Machining manufacturing process, a form
of machining, in which a laser is directed towards the workpiece for machining. This process
uses thermal energy to remove material from metallic or nonmetallic surfaces.

The high frequency of monochromatic light will fall on the surface then heating, melting and
vaporizing of the material take place due to impinge of photons. Laser beam machining is best
suited for brittle materials with low conductivity, but can be used on most materials.

Main Parts of Laser Beam Machining

1) Power Supply

A high voltage is required for Laser. The power is supplied to the system for the excitation of
electron from lower energy level to higher energy level. When the power is supplied the electron
gets in an excited state that means ready to work.

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2) Flash Lamp:-

Flash lamps is used for providing white and coherent light for the very short duration.
Laser material is filled in laser discharge tube. The excitation of electron and coming
back to its original state takes place inside this laser discharge tube.

3) Capacitor

In general, we know the work of capacitor, it is used for storing and releasing the charge. Here it
is used during the flashing process.

4) Reflecting Mirror

Reflecting Mirror is used here to reflect the light directly to the workpiece. It is of two types
Internal and external.

One side of discharge tube is partially transparent and other side is 100% reflected.
It is situated between the xenon lamps.

5) Focusing lens :

Focusing lens is used to focus the light at the workpiece. It is a convex lens.

6) Workpiece

Work piece is like the object in which the operation is to be carried out. Example if body needed
any laser operation then we are the work piece for this machine, same like manufacturing the
objects needs to be drill or hole the Laser machine carried out the operation.

Types Of Lasers material

There are many different types of lasers including gas, solid states lasers, and excimer.

Some of the most commonly used gases consist of; He-Ne, Ar, and Carbon dioxide laser.
Solid-state lasers are designed by doping a rare element into various host materials. Ruby is one
of the frequently used host materials in this type of laser. The ruby rod is optically pumped using
a xenon flashtube before it is used as an active laser medium.

YAG is an abbreviation for yttrium aluminum garnet which are crystals that are used for solid-
state lasers while Nd: YAG refers to neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet crystals that
are used in the solid-state lasers as the laser mediate.

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Working Principle of Laser Beam Machining
These are the steps involved in laser beam machining:-

At first the Laser Crystal (Ruby) is in the form of a cylinder as shown in the above figure with
flat reflecting ends which are placed in a flash lamp coil of about 1000W. After that the power
supply is switched on which is used to light up the flash lamp.

The Flash is simulated with the high-intensity white light from Xenon. Then the atoms of laser
material absorb energy from the light energy produced by flash lamp.

By absorbing the energy these electrons of atoms jump from their original energy level to higher
energy level. The light from flash lamp is used to excite the electrons of atom. But this is
unstable condition of atom.

When the atom reaches its absorbtion limit, it starts emitting energy continuously. The atom will
emit double energy if it is already at higher energy level and it again absorbs energy. This energy
is emitted in the form of highly amplified same frequency and same wavelength coherent light.

This laser light released by atom is collected in the convex lens and is directed towards the
workpiece. As the laser falls on workpiece, it starts the machining process by melting or
vapourising material from contact surface of workpiece.

Laser machining can be used to cut and remove material from even the hardest material present
which is damond.

In this process, the Laser Beam is called monochromatic light, which is made to focus on the
workpiece to be machined by a lens to give extremely high energy density to melt and vaporize
any material.

The beam produced is extremely narrow and can be focused to a pinpoint area with a power
density of 1000 kW/cm2. Which produces high heat and the portion of the metal is melted and
vaporizes.

Application of Laser Beam Machining

The following application of Laser beam machining is:

 The laser beam machining process is used for making very small holes.
 Mass macro machining production.
 LBM is used in surgery.
 Selective heat treating of materials.
 Complicated welding of non-conductive and refractory materials.
 Micro-drilling operation.
 Photography in medical science.

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  Spectroscopic Science.

Advantages Of Laser Beam Machining

The following advantages of laser beam machining are:

 It can be used to cut any material.
 Soft materials like rubber, plastic can be machined.
 No tool cost because no physical tool is required and hence no cost for mantenance and
replacement of tools.
 It can be easily automated and is very flexible.
 No mechanical force on the work.
 The heat-affected zone is very small.
 Complex shapes of different sizes can be machined as laser can be moved in any path.
 It gives very good surface finish.
 Micro holes can be drilled in workpiece with high accuracy.

Disadvantages of Laser Beam Machining

The following disadvantages of laser machining are:

1) Very high capital and maintenance cost.
2) Not able to drill too deep holes.
3) It can lead to safety hazards.
4) The life of the flash lamp is short.

https://www.engineeringchoice.com/what-is-laser-beam-machining/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQuAr4bs-Mc

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QuZ-qkthCCY

https://themechanicalengineering.com/laser-beam-machining/

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 C. Electro Chemical Machining (ECM)
Eectrochemical Machining process, the combination of electrical energy and chemical energy
makes the removal of material from the surface of a work-piece. It works on the principle of
Faraday's law of electrolysis.

Principle-Faraday's law of electrolysis:

The mass of a substance deposited or liberated at any electrode on passing a certain amount of
charge is directly proportional to its chemical equivalent weight.

o In ECM the removal of metal is controlled by the anodic dissolution in the

electrolyte.

In ECM -
o The workpiece acts as the anode
o The tool act as cathode.
o The electrodes should be placed closely with a gap of about 0.5 mm.
o The anodes and cathodes should be immersed into electrolyte. (Here
Sodium Chloride)

Electrolyte used: NaCl (Conducting Electrolyte).

Functions of Electrolyte
o The current is carried between the tool and the w/p through electrolyte.
o The produced heat is dissipated by the liquid electrolytic solution.
o The product of machining is removed by the solution.

MRR (Material Removal Rate):

The initial Material Removal Rate (MRR) mainly depends upon the number of Ions displaced
from the workpiece.

The number of Ions displaced is directly proportional to

 The current passing through the circuit

 The gram atomic weight of workpiece materials.
 The electrical conductivity of the electrolyte.

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Diagram of Electrochemical Machine:

Parts of Electrochemical Machining:

Fixture:
The fixture is used to hold the table firmly.

Table:

The table is used to hold the work piece properly.

Workpiece:

It is the material on which machining is carried out to remove the material from the surface of
the workpiece. Here, the workpiece acts as an anode.

Tool Used:

The tool used in the ECM Process is either Copper or Brass or Stainless steel etc.

Properties Possessed by the Tool:

It must possess high

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  Thermal Conductivity
 Electrical conductivity and
 Corrosion resistance.

Optimum Gap: The optimum gap maintained between the tool and workpiece is 0.5 to 2 mm.

Electrolyte: The electrolyte acts as a medium for the flow of ions and leads to the removal of
material from the surface of workpiece.

Pump: It pumps the electrolyte from the sump to all the parts of the system.

Filter: It removes the impurities present in the electrolyte which is being pumped to the system
or work region.

Pressure gauge: It is used to check the pressure of the electrolyte coming from the pump via a
filter to the work region.

Flow meter: It is used to measure the discharge or mass flow rate of the fluid (electrolyte).

Feed Unit: To give the feed to the tool, servomotor is used such that whenever material removal
takes place from the workpiece, the servomotor gives the necessary amount of feed to the tool.

DC Power Supply: (3-30)V

The Positive terminal is given to the Workpiece and the Negative terminal is given to the Tool.

Working of Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Process:

The electrolyte is pumped to the work region by the pump via a filter, pressure gauge, flow meter
and finally, it enters into the work region from the passage.

When the Power supply is given, an optimum gap is maintained between the tool and workpiece
because of Faraday's laws of electrolysis, the ions have started displacing from the workpiece
and trying to deposit over the tool.

Conventionally positively charged ions are attracted towards the cathode and negative ions
are attached towards to the anode. And thus flow of current is initiated in the electrolyte.
The set-up is kept stationary and tool is fed linearly.
The desired amount of metal is removed because of ion migration towards the tool.

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Before the ions are depositing on the tool, the electrolyte present between tool and workpiece is
pumped out. Then, the ions also moving along with electrolyte without depositing on the tool.

During electrochemical machining process, the reactions take place at the electrodes i.e. at the
anode (workpiece) and cathode (tool) and within the electrolyte.

Let’s take an example of machining low carbon steel which is mainly composed of ferrous alloys
(Fe). We generally use neutral salt solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) as the electrolyte to
machine ferrous alloys. The ionic dissociation of NaCl and water takes place in the electrolyte as
shown below.

As the potential difference is applied across the electrode, the movement of ions starts in
between the tool and w/p. The positive ions moves towards the tool (cathode) and negative
ions move towards the workpiece.

In the same way the iron atoms comes out from the anode (w/p) as Fe++ ions.

Within the Electrolyte, the sodium ions combines with Hydroxyl ions and form sodium
hydroxide and ferrous ion combine with Chloride ions and forms ferrous chloride. Also
iron ions combine with hydroxyl ions and form Iron hydroxide.

In the electrolyte, the FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 produced and gets precipitated in the form of
sludge and settle down. In this way material is removed from the workpiece as sludge.

Advantages of ECM Process:

 In this process the temperature generated is very low and no spark is produced and
thus there isn't any scope of metallurgical changes in the job.
 In Electrochemical Machining the tool and workpiece doesn't come in direct
contact with each other so negligible wear and tear is observed.
 Metal removal rate is high and voltage supplied is very low.
 The metallic workpiece is not damaged due to thermal stresses.
 Dimensions up to 0.05 mm can easily machined
 Complex Concave curvature components can be easily produced by using Complex
Concave curvature tools.
 Because of ion displacement, the surface finish produced is excellent.
 Because no forces are acting, no residual stresses will be present. Because of no heat
generation, no thermal effects are present on the workpiece.
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  Because of no tool wear, the same tool can be used for producing an infinite number of
components.

Disadvantages of ECM Process:

 Workpiece material must be electrically conductive.

 Out of all the Non-traditional machining methods, electrochemical machining requires
the highest specific cutting energy Therefore, the cost of machining will be high.
 This is preferable for producing contours only but not for holes.

Applications of Electrochemical Machining Process:

 It is mainly used for producing Complex concave curvature components such as Turbine
blades etc.
 The ECM process is used for profiling and contouring, die sinking operation, drilling,
trepanning, and micromachining.

Examples of parts made by ECM

Different parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade material: nickel alloy
(b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b1nX7WVIN7U

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 D. Electron Beam Machining

Working Principle:

This machining process works on basic principle of conversion of kinetic energy of electron into
heat energy. When a high speed electron impinges on a work piece, they convert its kinetic
energy into heat energy. This heat energy used to vaporize material at contact surface. This
process is carried out in vacuum otherwise the electron will collide with air particle and loses its
energy before impinging on work material. This is basic principle of EBM machining.

Construction of EBM:
The various equipment used in EBM machine are

1. Cathode
The cathode is negatively charged and it is used to produce Electrons.

2. Annular Bias Grid

It is present next to the cathode. Annular bias grid is a circular shaped bias grid and prevents the
diversion of electrons produced by the cathode. It works as a switch and makes the electron gun
to operate in pulse mode.

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3. Anode
It is placed after the annular bias grid. It is positively charged. Annular anode attracts the beam
of electron towards it and gradually the velocity of the electron increases. As the electron beam
leave the anode section, its velocity becomes half of the velocity of light.

4. Magnetic Lenses
The magnetic lenses reduce the divergence of electron beam and shape them. It allows only
convergent electrons to pass and captures the low energy divergent electrons from fringes. It
improves the quality of the beam.

5. Electromagnetic Lens
It helps the Electron beam to focus on the desired spot.

6. Deflector Coils
The deflector coil carefully guides the high velocity electron beam to a desired location on the
workpiece and improves the shape of the holes.

7. Work piece and work holding device:

It can machine both metallic and non-metallic material. The work piece is hold by suitable
fixture. This table can be move in all three direction which control the shape of machining.

Working of EBM:

 When the high voltage DC source is given to the electron gun, tungsten filament wire gets
heated and the temperature raises up to 2500°C.
 Due to this high temperature, electrons are emitted from tungsten filament. These electrons
are directed by a grid cup to travel towards downwards and they are attracted by the anode.
 The electrons passing through the anode are accelerated to achieve high velocity as half the
velocity of light (i.e., 1.6 x 10 ^8 m /s) by applying 50 to 200 kV at the anode.
 The high velocity of these electrons are maintained until they strike the workpiece. It becomes
possible because the electrons travel through the vacuum.
 This high-velocity electron beam, after leaving the anode, passes through the tungsten
diaphragm and then through the electromagnetic focusing lens.
 Focusing lenses are used to focus the electron beam on the desired spot of the workpiece.
 When the electron beam impacts on the workpiece surface, the kinetic energy of high-velocity
electrons is immediately converted into the heat energy. This high-intensity heat melts and
vaporizes the work material at the spot of beam impact.
 Since the power density is very high (about 6500 billionW/mm ^2), it takes few microseconds
to melt and vaporize the material on impact.
 This process is carried out in repeated pulses of short duration. The pulse frequency may
range from 1 to 16,000 Hz and duration may range from 4 to 65,000 microseconds.

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  By alternately focusing and turning off the electron beam, the cutting process can be
continued as long as it is needed.
 A suitable viewing device is always incorporated with the machine. So, it becomes easy for
the operator to observe the progress of the machining operation.
Application:

 It is used to produce very small size hole about 100 micro meters to 2 millimeter.
 It is used to produce holes in diesel injection nozzle.
 Used in aerospace industries for producing turbine blade for supersonic engines and in nuclear
reactors.

Advantages:

 It can be used for produce very small size hole in any shape.
 It can machining any material irrespective its hardness and other mechanical properties.
 It provides good surface finish. No any surface finishing process is require after EBM.
 Highly reacting material can be machine easily because machining is done under vacuum.

Disadvantages:

 High capital cost.

 High skill operator required.
 Low material removal rate.
 Regular maintenance is required
 Material removal rate is very low compare to other conventional process.
 It is difficult to produce perfect vacuum.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QuZ-qkthCCY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xYi2x0o--34

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 E. Chemical Machining Process (CHM)
Chemical machining is the material removal process for the production of desired shapes and
dimensions. It is done by selective or overall removal of material by a controlled chemical attack
with acids or alkalies.

The chemical machining process is widely used to produce micro-components for various
industrial applications like micro electrochemical systems and semiconductor industries.

There are two substances mainly used in the machining process: maskant and etchant.

1) Maskant:
Maskants are chemical resistant coatings that are used to cover the surfaces which are not to be
machined. Maskant do not allow etchant to penetrate through it and reach the material which is
not to be dissolved.
This technique is very useful for produce complex configuration in delicate parts which can not
be done by the conventional machining processes.

Choice of Maskant: The maskant is chosen by keeping the following points in mind :
1) The maskant should be resistant to the etchant.
2) It should be easily removable after the machining is over.
3) The maskant should not have any chemical effect on the workpiece.
4) It should be completely stable at a high temperature of the etchant bath.

2) Etchant:
The etchant is the chemical used in the chemical machining process which dissolves the
workpiece and removes material by chemical reaction.
To avoid uneven material removal from the workpiece – fresh etchant is continuously sprayed or
the workpiece is submerged in an etchant tank.
To increase the material removal rate (MRR), the etchant is agitated, and if necessary etchant is
heated.

The strength of etchant can be maintained by proper filtration, the addition of new chemicals,
replace some percentage of used etchant by fresh one regularly.
Different etchants are used for machining different materials. Some of the etchants are FeCl3 (It
is used for Al, Cu, Ni, and their alloys), FeNO3 ( for Ag ), HF ( for Ti ), and HMO (for tool
steel). Apart from these, other etchants used are chromic acid and ammonium persulphate.

Points to consider while choosing an etchant:

i) It should give a good surface finish.
ii) It should have a good material removal rate.
iii) It should have a high depth of penetration.
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iv) It should not damage the workpiece.
v) It should be easily available.
vi) It should not be very costly.

Working Of Chemical Machining:

Different processes of chemical machining are given below:

1) Cleaning:

• In the cleaning process, the workpiece is cleaned to remove the oil, grease, dust, or any
substance from the workpiece so that further process is accomplished properly.
• Cleaning is necessary to ensure proper adhesion of the masking material on the
workpiece.

2) Masking:

• Masking is done using maskants. These maskants are inert in nature and do not react
with chemicals used in the machining process.
• In this masking process, the part of the workpiece which is not to be machined is masked
using the maskants so that only the part to be machined comes in contact with a chemical
used in the machining process. But when the masking process is done, the whole
workpiece is masked.

3) Scribing:

• After the masking process, scribing is done to remove the maskant from the area of the
workpiece which is to be machined so that the chemical reaction can take place on that
part of the workpiece.
• After the scribing process, only those areas are exposed to the chemical machining which
are to be machined.

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4) Etching:

• After scribing the workpiece is immersed in a container containing the chemical which
undergoes the chemical reaction with the workpiece.
• When the workpiece is dipped inside the chemical, the area which is masked does not
undergo any chemical reaction and the area which is not masked undergoes a chemical
reaction with the chemical and the material will start getting removed from the unmasked
area of the workpiece.
• The process of etching is generally carried out at an elevated temperature.

5) Demasking:

• After the etching process, the masked is removed from the area of the workpiece which is
not machined, and also the oxide layer is removed from the area of the workpiece which
is machined.

6) Washing:

• After the demasking process, the workpiece is washed thoroughly under fresh water to
remove the etchant or any substance completely from the workpiece surface.

Apart from all these steps, a step is optionally used which is

Heating and Cooling Of Etchant:
According to temperature, the temperature of the etchant in the container is maintained using the
heating or cooling rod.

Advantages of Chemical Machining:

1) This machining process removes material uniformly.

2) In this machining process, it is possible to make tapered sheets and structural members with
close tolerances and a good surface finish.
3) High skill labours are not required for chemical machining process.
4) It is suitable for low production runs.

Disadvantages of Chemical Machining:

1) Very few metals can be machined using this machining process.

2) Sometimes evolved gases get collected under the maskant and result in uneven itching of the
material.
3) The material removal rate is very low.
4) Chemicals used in the process are corrosive in nature and can also be toxic.
5) In the case of machining of alloys, different machining rates results in poor surface finish. The
machining rate goes down as the etchant gets contaminated with the reaction product.

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Applications of Chemical Machining:

1) It is used for producing complex configurations in delicate parts.

2) It is also used in aviation industries for making aircraft wing panels.
3) It is used to manufacture very thin laminations without burrs.
4) It is used for Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).
5) Some sheet metals are also produced by Chemical Machining to be used in welding or
riveting.
6) Industrial applications include fine screens and meshes.

Common types of Chemical Machining:

The two most common type of chemical machining is chemical milling and chemical blanking.

In chemical milling, the material is removed to produce blind details like pockets, channels, etc,
or to reduce the weight.

Chemical blanking is used for the production of cavities like holes, slots, etc. It is also used for
blanking complete parts from sheets by chemically etching the periphery of the desired shape.

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