Solar Charger Design for Electric Vehicles

A THESIS
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by:
AADIL NISSAR
Roll No: - 20-M-EE-026

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

RIMT UNIVERSITY MANDI GOBINDGARH,
PUNJAB – (INDIA)
July 2022
 Solar Charger Design for Electric Vehicles
A
THESIS
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by
Aadil Nissar
Roll No. 20-M-EE-026

Under the Supervision of

Supervisor Co-Supervisor
Er. Krishna Tomar Dr. Satish Saini
Assistant Professor- Deptt of EE Prof. & Head – Deptt of EE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,

RIMT UNIVERSITY MANDI GOBINDGARH,
PUNJAB – (INDIA)
July 2022

i
 DECLARATION

I certify that the thesis report entitled Design of a Solar Charger for Electric Vehicles
submitted by me to RIMT UNIVERSITY, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab for the award of the
degree of Master of Technology in Electrical Engineering under the supervision of
Er. Krishna Tomar is original work. The contents of this thesis, in full or in parts, have not
been submitted before this or any other Institute or University for the award of any degree or
diploma.
I further certify that wherever any database or the work of some other author has

been used, the same has been properly acknowledged.

AADIL NISSAR

Roll No. 20-M-EE-026

___ _____ ______

Day Month Year

ii
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled Solar Charger Design for Electric Vehicles submitted
by Aadil Nissar, bearing registration/roll no 20-M-EE-026 of Electrical Engineering
Department, to the RIMT UNIVERSITY, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab for the award of the
degree of M.Tech (Renewable Energy Engineering) is a bonafide record of research work
carried out by him under my / our supervision. The contents of this thesis,in full or in parts, have
not been submitted to this or any other Institute or University for the award of any degree or
diploma.

(Er. Krishna Tomar) (Dr. Satish Saini)

Supervisor Co-Supervisor

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering

The Master of Technology. Viva-Voce examination of Aadil Nissar

(Roll No. 20-M-EE-026) has been held on…………………………and accepted.

___ _____ ______

Day Month Year

Signature of Supervisor Signature of External Examiner

HOD ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude from the core of my heart to my supervisor
Mr. Krishna Tomar, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, RIMT
University Mandi Gobindgarh for initiating an interesting study, his commitment, interesting
discussion, and valuable advice. He has continuously encouraged me throughout the work and
contributed with valuable guidance and supervision.
Words cannot express my gratitude to Dr. Satish Saini, H.O.D, Department of Electrical
Engineering for your patience, guidance, and support. I have benefited greatly from your wealth
of knowledge and meticulous editing. I am extremely grateful that you took me on as a student
and continued to have faith in me over the years. I would be failing in my endeavor if I do not
place my acknowledgement.

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation Explanation

BEV Battery Electric Vehicle

CPM Charging Point Manager

DC Direct Current

DLM Dynamic Load Management

EV Electric Vehicle

EVSE Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment

GHG Greenhouse Gas

HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle

KW Kilowatt

kWh Kilowatt-hour

PEV Plug in Electric Vehicle

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

ZEV Zero Emission Vehicle

P&O Perturb and Observe

LiOn Lithium Ion Battery

EMS Energy Management System

BMS Battery Management System

MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking

v
Name of the Thesis: Solar Charger Design for Electric Vehicle.
Name of the Candidate: Aadil Nissar
Roll no.: 20-M-EE-026
Name of the Supervisor: Er. Krishna Tomar
The degree to be Awarded: M tech (Renewable Energy).
Year of Award: 2022.
Name of the University: RIMT University, Punjab.

ABSTRACT
As countries and car makers focus on goals like "going green," combating climate change, and
so on, the present worldwide trend toward electric vehicles is expanding. The design of electric
vehicles is an important aspect of this. Electric cars are powered by electricity generated by a
power source, most often batteries. These batteries require charging. A charging station must be
supplied for this reason. The charging stations or points transform the energy they have access
to from a variety of sources into DC electrical energy for the cars. This charger must be capable
of receiving input, like the quantity of power that is given, for the user to pay for what they
need. Solar photovoltaic energy is predominantly used for many applications like heating,
cooling, and power generation. Recent inventions helped in developing vehicles that are driven
by solar energy. This thesis discusses the design and development of a solar charging system
for electric vehicles. Implementation of the proposed system will reduce the electricity cost and
charging and discharging losses. Also, the proposed solar charging system will be one of the
initiatives taken to achieve a green campus. This paper will demonstrate the system design and
performance analysis of a solar-charged electrical vehicle system.

In this report, an electric car is charged using a charging station working on solar energy with
a local battery reserve. This simulation sets the foundation for solar-powered electric vehicle
(EV) charger designs.

Keywords: Electric Vehicles, Charging Station, DC, Batteries, Solar Energy, Converter,

Solar Array, Electricity.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ii

CERTIFICATE iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS v

ABSTRACT vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

LIST OF TABLES x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Objectives 3

1.2 Outline of the Thesis 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 Introduction 4
2.2 Literature Survey 4

CHAPTER 3: SOLAR PV, BATTERIES, CHARGERS 9

3.1 Brief Introduction 9
3.2 Battery 12
3.3 Chargers 16
CHAPTER 4: SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE 19
4.1 System Design 19
4.2 Simulation Circuit 20
4.3 Maximum Power Point Tracking 24
4.4 EV Battery 30

vii
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS & DISCUSSION 31
5.1 Solar Photovoltaic 31
5.2 Battery Storage 32
5.3 Solar Photovoltaic Energy 35
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 36
6.1 Conclusion 36
6.2 Future Scope 37
REFERENCES 38
PUBLICATION 43
APPENDIX A Plagiarism Report 45

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Captions Page No.

3.1 Solar Panels 10

3.1(a) Block diagram of solar photovoltaic system 10
3.2 Solar Panel Array 11
3.1 Configuration of EV Battery 13
3.2 Comparison of different types of batteries 13
3.3 EV Battery Pack 14
3.4 Block BMS Board 15
3.5 The Electric Vehicle charging station 18
4.1 Design of the system 19
4.2 Simulation Circuit 20
4.3 Solar Part of the Simulation 21
4.4 PV Array 21
4.5 Parallel strings 30 and 10 series strings. 22
4.6 DC-DC Boost Converter Usage 23
4.7 Logic Circuit 24
4.8 MPPT block diagram 25
4.9 Power Panel Circuit 25
4.10 Control Switches 26
4.11 Buffer Battery 26
4.12 Control Flow Switch 27
4.13 Charger Design Circuit 28
4.14 Boost Converter 29
4.15 EV Battery Circuit 30
5.1 Solar Photovoltaic 31
5.2 DC Bus Voltage 31
5.3 Storage Battery Inside the Charger 32
5.4 Drop and Increase of Voltage Effects 32
5.5 Power Divided 33
5.6 Current in the Battery 33
5.7 Zoomed picture of Current Curves 34
5.8 Reverse Flow Protection 34
5.9 Solar Photovoltaic Energy Grap 35
5.10 Solar Photovoltaic Energy Curve 35

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Captions Page No.

4.1 Buffer Battery Configuration 27

4.2 Battery Configuration 30

x
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Electric cars first appeared in the late 1800s but were quickly surpassed by electrically powered
engine-powered vehicles launched in the early 1900s. Because of inefficiencies and inadequate
battery technology, this happened.

For starters, the use of renewable energy sources such as solar energy is becoming more
affordable due to the falling cost of PV panels. With their large surface area on flat roofs,
industrial sites and office buildings in the Netherlands have a great potential for photovoltaic
(PV) panels. Warehouses, industrial buildings, universities, factories, and other structures are
examples. This potential is currently largely untapped. Second, when compared to gasoline
vehicles, EVs provide a clean, energy-efficient, and noise-free mode of transportation.
According to current projections, there will be 200,000 electric vehicles in the Netherlands by
2020. This paper investigates the feasibility of developing an electric vehicle charging
infrastructure using PV panels. The system is intended for use in workplaces to charge electric
vehicles.

EVs became a realistic alternative again with the introduction of much more sophisticated
lithium-based very high energy density batteries. By the end of the century, electric vehicles are
expected to replace existing internal combustion engine (ICE) technology. However, because
the energy demand on the grid is quite high, the electric grid and also producing origin would
be considerably stretched with the growing inclusion of such cars. These grid operators migrate
to smart reserves to better maximize power production of producing facilities, these challenges
will further diminish the spinning reserves of generators, which are currently quite low.

Because electric cars will eventually replace ICE-powered vehicles, 10S of millions of EVs will
require charging. The energy required to charge these is not obtained purely by the current
producing capacity.

Electric cars are nothing new. Interest in motor vehicles increased greatly around the 1900s and
at that time there were about twice as many electric cars on the road as petrol/diesel cars. It

1
wasn’t until the 1920s that interest in electric cars dwindled. The reason was that electric cars
were limited by their low top speeds and low range (just a few miles). In addition, in

1912 the electric starter motor was developed for petrol cars, eliminating the traditional
drawback of petrol cars: having to use a hand crank to get the car moving! It was Henry Ford
who put the nail in the electric car coffin when his company began to mass-produce the Model.
This slashed the price of petrol cars to about half that of an electric car and so in the early 1900s
almost all electric car manufacturers began to cease making them.

The limited maximum speed of electric cars (up to 30mph) limited their practicality. For most
of the 20th century, British milk floats made up most of the world’s number of electric vehicles.

Interest in electric cars returned following the energy crises of the 1970s and 80s; with the
availability and price of oil being shown to be increasingly volatile, people could see the
potential benefits of battery-powered cars. A few big car companies brought out models and
some were sold to environmentally-minded members of the public. However, General Electric
vehicles were still losing out to the style and lower price of their petrol-fuelled cousins.

We have numerous options for addressing this, including microgrid-based designs, distributed
generation, and the usage of renewables. Renewable energy is especially crucial since it is the
next major generating source that has yet to be fully used. The utilization of solar photovoltaics
will be investigated in this paper by using a simulation in Simulink, a block programming
component in MathWorks' MATLAB software.

A charger, a solar array, a storage battery for the charger, and a battery to simulate an EV
battery will be included in the simulation. The major concern around the globe is about the
release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causing innumerous damage to life on earth and
life under water. With the growing demand of electric vehicles around the globe there has been
a surge in the demand of electricity thus resulting in generation of more electricity by use of
excess fossil fuels. To reduce the grid, stress a model has been developed where we can use the
energy of sun for charging the electric vehicles. Sun being the ultimate source of energy is the
best alternative available for reducing the carbon emissions. This will drastically reduce the
number of harmful gases that are being released in the atmosphere by providing an alternative
to conventional grid system charging.

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 1.1 Objectives

Electric cars are a more environmentally-friendly option than traditional cars because they
produce no tailpipe emissions. However, they are not considered carbon neutral unless the
electricity they run on is generated from a renewable source.

➢ The main aim of this research work is to provide a system model that can be used to brainstorm
both innovative ideas and solutions to current problems in the research area and also to serve as
eye opener for future research design and development.

➢ The main objective of our research work is to outline a conceptual design based on how solar
energy from sun (photovoltaic energy) can be used for charging electric vehicles. We also wish
to explore conceptually how existing parking lots can be modified into solar energy charging
points for charging the cars.

1.2 Outline of the Thesis

Chapter 1: - This chapter gives the general overview of the content of the thesis report and the
main objectives of thesis report.

Chapter 2: - This chapter includes the review of the literature work done by the researchers
across the globe and the comments made by them have been analyzed thoroughly.

Chapter 3: - This chapter gives the information about the various devices that have been used in
the thesis work.

Chapter 4: - This chapter provides for the simulation design that we are using in the thesis for
running a model that suits our purpose.

Chapter 5: - This chapter is based upon the results generated from running the simulation model
and depicts various graphs of different parameters.

Chapter 6: - This chapter discusses about the conclusion of the thesis and the future scope of the
thesis work carried.

3
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of previous research on knowledge sharing and intranets. It
introduces the framework for the case study that comprises the main focus of the research
described in this thesis.

It is important to set the context of the literature review work by first providing:

· An explanation of its specific purpose for this particular case study;

· Comments on the previous treatment of the broad topic of knowledge sharing.

· An indication of scope of the work presented in this chapter.

2.2 Literature Survey

A process known as global warming is being blamed for the substantial switch in weather
conditions from the previous hundred years. From research, this is a result of altering human
technology, particularly the increased emission of gases that retain heat in the atmosphere, such
as co2 and no2 [1-2]. Renewable energy has been advocated as a way to mitigate the impact by
limiting the input of toxic gases into the atmosphere. The wind- and solar-based energy
systems are particularly appealing. People will be able to find new employment opportunities
as they labor to maintain, develop, and operate these new energy resources. The cost of these
renewable energy sources has also dropped dramatically in the last 10 years making them a
viable substitute for traditional energy-producing ways. [3-4]

This concept of using renewable energy to charge electric vehicles is the older method. The
pattern of the chargers, on the other hand, has not yet been investigated properly. They looked
at the place, schedule, and impact of climate on the usage of sources of energy that are
renewable for charging. [5-6]

Previously, research focused on maximizing the use of historically available electricity sources
for charging electric vehicles, such as thermal power, hydropower, and so on. [7-9]

We're considering solar photovoltaic (SPV) charging because the sun is the planet's

4
largest source of energy, providing over 100 TWH. This has the potential to significantly
reduce grid stress caused by the increasing number of electric vehicles on the road. [10-11],
reducing its carbon footprints, and reducing pollution have been discussed, and conclusions
about India following its global peers into the EV space have been reached [12-14].
Furthermore, new energy storage and transfer technologies that can be used to implement the
charging infrastructure have been researched [15–16]. It is essential to differentiate between
what ‘looks sustainable’ and what ‘is sustainable’ to implement sustainability.

EVs are a powerful example of reducing instantaneous emissions, but they shift energy
demand away from crude oil and toward electricity. This ultimately increases the pressure on
the grid infrastructure that is already facing an energy deficit [17-18]. In India, nearly 61
percent of grid electricity is generated by coal-fired thermal power plants,15 percent by
hydropower, 8 percent by solar PV, 5 percent by wind energy, 9 percent by natural gas, and 2
percent by nuclear energy [19-20].

Considering three types of vehicles, EVs powered by grid electricity, ICEVs powered by
internal combustion engines, and EVs powered by solar photovoltaics (PV), and calculating
their well-to-wheel CO2 emissions, EVs powered by solar PV proved to be the least polluting
[21-22].

Such an EV would emit only 0.6 kg of CO2 per 100 kilometers traveled. In comparison,
a 5-seater gasoline-powered ICEV would emit about 13 kg of CO2 over the same distance,
while an EV powered by grid electricity would emit 10 kg of CO2 per 100 km traveled.
(Considering a similar share of the different sources, as listed above) [23-24]. The
unavailability of charging stations at regular intervals is another matter of concern, and nearly
all of the available ones are grid-tied. Hence, grid availability becomes a crucial point when
deciding the location of a charging station. India is a sun-drenched land, which makes it ideal
for the utilization of solar energy for electricity production. When almost all energy
requirements revolve around electricity, solar PV proves to be an excellent solution in case of
localized generation of electricity, for large-scale applications also. [25-26]

Although renewables such as solar are climate dependent, and climate in India varies by
geography, the flexibility of solar PV as stand-alone systems with battery backup makes them
indispensable for remote cities. Furthermore, combining solar PV with charging stations can

5
help us achieve power autonomy, generate electricity more responsibly, and protect the land
and marine ecosystem from coal and crude oil mining [27]. Using solar energy to charge
electric vehicles is a growing trend that has gained traction in recent years [28]. However, EVs
have been on the market since the 1990s, and the literature on charging station designs indicates
that grid availability is a concern when designing and locating charging stations. Over the last
ten years, scientists have attempted [29].

However, the majority of them are for charging 2-wheelers, which have a smaller battery bank
than 4-wheeler EVs [30]. Moreover, these plans and designs are suited to urban commercial
buildings. In the situation of the previous literature reported, it is clear that there is a
considerable distance in designing the aspects of a sun-powered EV charging station.
Feasibility analysis is done on the Indian market for EVs, and that proves the viability of a
charging station that is renewable for the country. [31]

Although renewables such as solar are climate dependent, and climate in India varies by
geography, the flexibility of solar PV as stand-alone systems with battery backup makes them
indispensable for remote cities. Furthermore, by combining solar PV with charging stations can
Electric vehicles have rapidly penetrated the transportation sector in recent years (EVs).

The goal is to ensure the system's long-term viability. It was propelled by advances in battery
technology and the electric drivetrain. However, as electric vehicle penetration grows, EV
demand rises, putting additional strain on power systems [32].

To address the overloading issue and integrate renewable energy sources (RESs), the
electricity distribution systems must be upgraded and expanded. In addition, meeting the ever-
increasing EV demands through optimum sizing and operation of the EV charging stations is
the most challenging task. Several studies have been reported about addressing the
aforementioned challenges and are presented as follows. In, an EV charging station was
designed with solar-wind hybrid power sources. The Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric
Renewables (HOMER) software was employed for sizing the renewable energy source and for
power-sharing the loads [33]. Although renewables such as solar are climate dependent, and
climate in India varies by geography, the flexibility of solar PV as stand-alone systems with
battery backup makes them indispensable for remote cities. Furthermore, combining solar PV
with charging stations can A total annual energy generation of 843,150 kWh was realized using

6
one 200 kW capacity WT unit and PV panels with a total power of 250 kW. The charging
station can charge five EVs in one hour. Similarly, the MATLAB environment was used to
develop a mathematical model of optimal sizing and capacity allocation for a wind energy
system that is integrated with an EV battery exchange station [34]. A 200-kW wind turbine and
a 10-kW charge

Although renewables such as solar are climate dependent, and climate in India varies by
geography, the flexibility of solar PV as stand-alone systems with battery backup makes them
indispensable for remote cities. Furthermore, by combining solar PV with charging stations can
in MATLAB, the efficiency of various methods is calculated for various grids. The results show
that charging stations should be sized appropriately for electric vehicles with an improved
voltage profile. Similarly, for the optimal sizing of renewable energy sources (RES) and EV
charging demand, a hybrid improved optimization algorithm based on Genetic Algorithm-
Particle Swarm Optimization (GA-PSO) was used.[35]

Although renewables such as solar are climate dependent, and climate in India varies by
geography, the flexibility of solar PV as stand-alone systems with battery backup makes them
indispensable for remote cities. Furthermore, combining solar PV with charging stations
Several previous studies [36] investigated the design of an EV charging station based on PV.
The mutual benefit of charging electric vehicles with solar energy has been highlighted in
[18,19], where the ability to charge electric vehicles with solar allows for greater penetration of
both technologies. According to [37], the negative effects of excess solar generation from PV
on a national scale can be mitigated by using it to charge EVs. This is especially true for
workplace charging, as demonstrated in.

In [38], the economic incentive and CO2 offsets for PV charging are shown to be
greater than charging the EV from the grid in the cases of Columbus and Los Angeles, USA.
The variability in PV production is a major disadvantage of charging EVs with PV. Smart
charging allows for EV charging flexibility to closely match PV production. [39] demonstrated
that smart charging in conjunction with V2G has the dual benefit of increasing PV self-
consumption while decreasing peak grid demand.

In [40], the EV charging profile is varied over time to maximize PV utilization. The
excess PV energy decreases as EV penetration increases. Alternatively, the total number of

7
vehicles charging at a constant power can be dynamically varied so that the net charging power
follows the PV generation, as shown in. This type of sequential charging outperforms
simultaneous EV charging, as demonstrated in [41] by examining 9000 different cases.

[42] employs time shift scheduling to manage the charging of e-scooters so that the net
charging power follows the PV profile. This method is enhanced further by the use of weather
forecast data. A second approach to overcoming the PV variation is to use local storage in the
PV-powered EV charging station, as shown in. When there is excess solar energy, the storage is
typically charged and used to charge the EV when solar generation is insufficient.

In [43], three different algorithms for discharging local storage are compared, and it is
demonstrated that sigmoid function-based storage discharging and charging during the night
and solar excess is the best strategy. Because storage is an expensive component, it is critical to
properly size the storage. The papers mentioned above have ignored this aspect. Second, studies
that examined the use of smart charging did not consider the use of local storage and vice versa.
In this work, the two methods are investigated together for a solar-powered EV charging
station.

Third, when it comes to workplace charging, it is critical to distinguish between the

effects of weekday and weekend EV charging loads. This is because rooftop PV installed in a
workplace will produce energy even when the employee's EVs are not present on Saturday and
Sunday. This paper examines PV system design and EV charging comprehensively, taking into
account the aforementioned factors. [44]

8
 CHAPTER 3

SOLAR PV, BATTERIES, CHARGERS

3.1 Brief introduction

Solar PV generation increased a record 156 TWh (23%) in 2020 to reach 821 TWh. It
demonstrated the second-largest absolute generation growth of all renewable technologies in
2020, slightly behind wind and ahead of hydropower. Looming policy deadlines in China, the
United States, and Viet Nam spurred an unprecedented boom in PV capacity additions – a
record 134 GW. Solar PV is becoming the lowest-cost option for electricity generation in most
of the world, which is expected to propel investment in the coming years.

However, the Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario shows average annual generation growth of
24% between 2020 and 2030, which corresponds to 630 GW of net capacity additions in 2030.
This almost fivefold increases in annual deployment until 2030 will require much greater policy
ambition and more efforts from both public and private stakeholders, especially in the areas of
grid. The tracking status for Solar PV has therefore been changed from “on track” to “more
efforts needed”, reflecting the higher ambition of the Net Zero Scenario compared with last
year’s Sustainable Development Scenario.

Solar PV or SPV systems work on the incident light from the sun to convert the energy into
electricity on specifically constructed panels composed of engineered silicon. This technique
starts by absorbing photon energy to create a charge in pairs that are pushed to move via a
circuit from the outside channel to gain electrical energy. The photoelectric effect, or PEE, is
charge-generating.

As a consequence of improved production processes and economies of scale, the usage of these
panels has increased, and they have become more affordable. However, its application in
distributed generation is still in its infancy.

As you can see in the figure 3.1, a typical panel looks like this. Arrays with substantially larger
power capabilities are often formed by connecting them in strings of series and parallel
combinations.

9
 Figure 3.1 Solar Panels

Many panels are installed on steel columns to face the sun for optimal performance, as seen in
the previous photograph. Several of these structures are linked together using cables to make
enormous arrays. The image presented is a solar tracking array, which follows the sun across
the sky.

Figure 3. 1(a) Block Diagram of Solar Photovoltaic System

Globally a formula {E=A × r × H × PR} is followed to estimate the electricity generated

in the output of the photovoltaic system.

E= Energy (kWh), r= solar panel yield (%), A= Total area of the panel (m2)

H= Annual average solar radiation. PR= Performance Ratio.

10
The image below depicts a solar array erected on a parking lot that might be used for distributed
generating. This architecture serves as the foundation for our simulation, with EV chargers
drawing power from this array.

Figure 3.2 Solar Panel Array

The average of voltage (achieved by no. of panels linked in series) and present (obtained by
numbers of panelists connected in parallel) may be used to calculate the power from an array.

Mathematically,

(n*V) * (p*I) = P-array

In this case,

n = the number of series-connected panels.

p = denotes the number of parallel panels.

V = The voltage of a single panel is denoted by V. (open circuit or maximum power)

I = a single panel's current (open circuit or maximum power)

The solar array is designed at 63kW for the sake of this simulation; however, the battery is
significantly higher in size for buffering purposes.

The PV Array block is a five-parameter model using a light-generated current source (IL),
diode, series resistance (Rs), and shunt resistance (Rsh) to represent the irradiance- and
temperature-dependent I-V characteristics of the modules. The PV Array is a combination of
PV modules that are connected in parallel as well as series and are tilted at a position were
maximum energy of sun is concentrated.

11
3.2 Battery

Starting with lead-acid batteries in the 1800s and progressing to lithium-based systems today,
many types of batteries have been utilized in electric cars. Batteries accumulate excess energy
created by your PV system and store it to be used at night or when there is no other energy
input. Batteries can discharge rapidly and yield more current than the charging source can
produce by itself, so pumps or motors can be run intermittently. This rating is designed only as
a means to compare different batteries to the same standard and is not to be taken as a
performance guarantee. Batteries are electrochemical devices sensitive to climate,
charge/discharge cycle history, temperature, and age. The performance of your battery depends
on the climate, location, and usage patterns. For every 1.0 amp-hour you remove from your
battery, you will need to pump about 1.25 amp-hours back in to return the battery to the same
charge state of charge. This figure also varies with temperature, battery type, and age.

A lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is an advanced battery technology that uses lithium ions as a
key component of its electrochemistry. During a discharge cycle, lithium atoms in the anode
are ionized and separated from their electrons. The lithium ions move from the anode and
pass through the electrolyte until they reach the cathode, where they recombine with their
electrons and electrically neutralize. The lithium ions are small enough to be able to move
through a micro-permeable separator between the anode and cathode. In part because of
lithium’s small size (third only to hydrogen and helium), Li-ion batteries are capable of
having a very high voltage and charge storage per unit mass and unit volume. Li-ion
batteries can use several different materials as electrodes. The most common combination is
that of lithium cobalt oxide (cathode) and graphite (anode), which is most commonly found
in portable electronic devices such as cell phones and laptops. Other cathode materials
include lithium manganese oxide (used in hybrid electric and electric automobiles) and
lithium iron phosphate. Li-ion batteries typically use ether (a class of organic compounds)
as an electrolyte.

The lithium-based batteries are made up of many lithium-based cells with a typical output
voltage of 3V. These batteries, must not be depleted below a particular voltage to avoid harm.
To construct a high-power battery pack for an electric car, multiple of these batteries are linked
in series and parallel. A charge controller, or BMS, is a specialized regulator for charging &

12
evaluating the condition of packs of battery, groups of cells, or individual cells.

Figure 3.3 Configuration of EV Battery

There are several types of batteries (chemistry) used in hybrid and electric vehicle propulsion
systems but we are going to consider only Lithium-ion cells. The main reason is that Li-ion
batteries have higher specific energy [Wh/kg] and specific power [W/kg] compared with other
types.
A Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is a type of rechargeable battery used in electric vehicles
and a number of portable electronics. They have a higher energy density than typical lead-acid
or nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries. This means that battery manufacturers can
save space, reducing the overall size of the battery pack. Lithium is also the lightest of all
metals. However, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries contain no lithium metal, they contain ions. For
those wondering what an ion is, an ion is an atom or molecule with an electric charge caused by
the loss or gain of one or more electrons.

Lithium-ion batteries are also safer than many alternatives and battery manufacturers have to
ensure that safety measures are in place to protect consumers in the unlikely event of a battery
failure. For instance, manufacturers equip electric vehicles with charging safeguards to protect
the batteries during repeated rapid charging sessions in a short period of time.

13
 Figure 3.4 Comparison of Different Types of Batteries

A typical EV battery pack and BMS are shown in the images below: -

Figure 3.5 Architecture of Battery Management System

14
The nodes are cell blocks, that include numerous cells, so such blocks are joined to form ss
power line battery pack via the purple wires.

Lithium-ion batteries are currently used in most portable consumer electronics such as
cell phones and laptops because of their high energy per unit mass relative to other electrical
energy storage systems. They also have a high power-to-weight ratio, high energy efficiency,
good high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge. Most components of lithium-ion
batteries can be recycled, but the cost of material recovery remains a challenge for the industry.
The Department of Energy is also supporting the Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Prize to
develop and demonstrate profitable solutions for collecting, sorting, storing, and transporting
spent and discarded lithium-ion batteries for eventual recycling and materials recovery. Most of
today's all-electric vehicles and PHEVs use lithium-ion batteries, though the exact chemistry
often varies from that of consumer electronics batteries. Research and development are ongoing
to reduce their relatively high cost, extend their useful life, and address safety concerns in
regard to overheating.

Figure 3.6 Block BMS Board

This board is a single cell block BMS board. Individual cells are controlled and monitored by it.
Each block has its battery management system (BMS). Individual black squares in a line are
power MOSFETS that serve as cell control switches.

A Battery Management System AKA BMS monitors and regulates internal operational
parameters, i.e., temperature, voltage, and current during charging and discharging of the battery.

15
In technical terms, the BMS estimates the SoC (State of Charge) and SoH (State of Health) of the
battery to improve safety and performance. It avoids over-charging and over-discharging of
the battery pack. This way, it maintains charge levels within maximum and minimum allowed
capacity to prevent sudden accidents [explosion].

A BMS monitors the temperatures across the pack, and open and closes various valves to
maintain the temperature of the overall battery within a narrow temperature range to ensure
optimal battery performance. Maximizing a battery pack capacity is arguably one of the most
vital battery performance features that a BMS provides. If this maintenance is not performed, a
battery pack may eventually render itself useless. The root of the issue is that a battery pack
“stack” (series array of cells) is not perfectly equal and intrinsically has slightly different
leakage or self-discharge rates

Hence a BMS is a highly crucial device to ensure the safety of the battery and user.

3.3 Chargers

EV chargers currently come in three different models: Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3. Level 3 is
also commonly known as Direct Current Fast Charging (DCFC). In Levels 1 & 2. the EV is
connected to AC power, 120V or 240V, and a battery charger in the EV converts the AC power
to the DC needed to charge the battery and controls the charging process. In DCFC the DCFC
converts the AC power to DC and the DC power is sent directly to the EV battery bypassing the
onboard battery charger. This allows the DCFC to charge the EV battery directly. Level 1 & 2
charging is generally limited by the AC power available and the size of the onboard battery
charger installed in the EV. DCFC is limited by the rating of the DCFC equipment and the
amount of power available from the utility or other primary power sources. The charge rate,
range of the EV, and the amount of time that the EV is available to recharge, known as the
dwell time, work together to determine the best type of EV charging system needed for the
application.

LEVEL 1

This charge level is the simplest level of EV charging and consists of plugging the EV into a
standard 120V AC receptacle using a unique electrical cord with the appropriate plugs on each

16
end. The built-in battery charger in the EV then charges the battery. This type of charging is
generally limited by the amount of power that can be supplied by the receptacle usually, 12-
16A or less (1.44-1.92kW) which based on an EV with a 3 kWh rating will add up to 5.8 miles
for each hour of charging. If we charge for 10 hours overnight, it would only add up to 58 miles
to the battery. Level 1 charging is useful for only limited range EVs when daily miles driven are
low, or when several days of dwell time are available between EV usage. Level 1 chargers are
inexpensive, readily available, and can be carried with the EV.

LEVEL 2

Level 2 chargers allow the EV to be connected to a 240V receptacle, like that used for an
electric range or clothes dryer. Level 2 chargers are currently available up to around 20kW and
continuing our example would add 60 miles for each hour of charging at 20kW. Many Level 2
chargers are in the 7kW to 10kW range. Enough to fully recharge most EVs overnight. A long-
range car or a delivery van might have a battery capacity of 100kWh and could be recharged
over a little more than 10 hours by a Level 2 10kW charger taking system losses into account.

Level 2 chargers are readily available and moderately priced. Higher capacity Level 2 chargers
are fixed in place, but lower capacity portable ones are available. Finding a 240V receptacle to
plug into can be much more challenging than a Level 1 120V receptacle though.

Level 3 or DCFC

DCFC charging uses DC to charge the EV battery without needing to go through the onboard
AC battery charger. This charging level allows for a much higher capacity battery charging
system. DCFC chargers, due to the cost and need for 480V electrical service, are usually limited
to commercial use, either in commercial fast charging stations or in fleet operations. A 100kW
DCFC can recharge an EV with a 100kWh battery in about an hour. At his rate, a 3MPkWh EV
will gain 300 miles for each hour of charging.

DCFC chargers are significantly more expensive than Level 1 or 2 chargers and require 480V
3-phase power. This limits them mostly to commercial EV charger installations.

17
 There is a limit on the amount of power an EV battery can accept during a charge known as the
acceptance rate. This limits the speed at that DCFC can charge the EV battery. For instance, if
the EV has a 50kW acceptance rate and a 100kW DCFC is connected, the EV will only charge
at 50kW.

For this design, electric car chargers are a form of DC-to-DC converter, like boost converters,
buck converters, or other DC-DC topologies. Because different electric cars employ battery
packs with varied voltages and capacity, this is the case.

Figure 3.7 The Electric Vehicle Charging Design

Industry point charger cables are not thin because they often handle charging at high speed,
which may consume current in the kiloampere range, either steady or pulsed. The concept
discussed in this paper employs pulsed charging to stay ahead of a DC-to-DC converter's
conduction mode.

An electric vehicle charging station is an equipment that connects an electric vehicle (EV) to a
source of electricity to recharge electric cars, neighbourhood electric vehicles and plug-in
hybrids. Some charging stations have advanced features such as Smart metering, cellular
capability and network connectivity, while others are more basic. Charging stations are also
called electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) and are provided in municipal parking
locations by electric utility companies or at retail shopping centers by private companies. These
stations provide special connectors that conform to the variety of electric charging

18
 CHAPTER 4

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

4.1: System Design

The simulation design in MATLAB Simulink and the results obtained are now described. The
whole design may be seen in the image below.

Figure 4.1 Design of the System

The solar photovoltaic array block is located in the upper left corner. The charger is in the
middle, while the electric vehicle battery is on the right. Solar Charge Controller is used to
manage the power going into the battery bank from the solar array. It ensures that the deep
cycle batteries are not overcharged during the day and that the power doesn’t run back to the
solar panels overnight and drain the batteries. Some charge controllers are available with
additional capabilities, like lighting and load control, but managing the power is its primary job.
A solar charge controller is available in two different technologies, PWM and MPPT. An
MPPT charge controller is more expensive and highly efficient than a PWM charge controller.
A DC-to-DC Boost converter steps up voltage (while stepping down current) from its input
(supply) to its output (load). It is a class of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at

19
least two semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at least one energy storage element:
a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of
capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's
output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).

4.2: Simulation Circuit

Simulation design in MATLAB Simulink is as follows: -

Figure 4.2 Simulation Circuit

A photovoltaic array is defined as multiple solar panels electrically wired together to form a
much larger PV installation (PV system) called an array, and in general the larger the total
surface area of the array, the more solar electricity it will produce.

A DC-TO-DC Converter is used to convert a source of direct current (DC) from

one voltage level to another. It is a type of electric power converter. Power levels range from
very low (small batteries) to very high (high-voltage power transmission).

Charge controllers are used to prevent batteries from being damaged by overcharging and over-
discharging by controlling the current flow from and to the batteries. They can also protect the
appliances that are connected to the batteries. It ensures that the deep cycle batteries are not

20
overcharged during the day and that the power doesn’t run back to the solar panels overnight.

The MPPT charge controller ensures that the loads receive maximum current to be used (by
quickly charging the battery). Maximum power point could be understood as an ideal voltage at
which the maximum power is delivered to the loads, with minimum losses. This is also
commonly referred to as peak power voltage.

Figure 4.3 Solar Part of the Simulation

Figure 4.4 PV Array

This is a MATLAB solar array bloc that is set up to create 63.94 kW of maximum electricity.

The warmth and irradiance are set at 950W/m2 and 30 degrees Celsius, respectively.

21
Implements a PV array built of strings of PV modules connected in parallel. Each string
consists of modules connected in series.

Photovoltaic cell is the most basic generation part in PV system. Single-diode mathematic
model is applicable to simulate silicon photovoltaic cells, which consists of a photocurrent
source Iph, a nonlinear diode, internal resistances Rs and Rsh.

The panels are linked in series and parallel as shown below to get the necessary power rating.

Figure 4.5 Parallel Strings 30 and 10 Series Strings.

In the preceding image, the panel ratings are listed individually on the right side of the setup.

Maximum power tracking, often known as "P&O" or perturb and observe, is put into use to
collect almost all power from the panel. In a commercial PV Controller, the P&O (Perturb and
Observe) algorithm is widely used to track MPP due to its simplicity. However, it has two
major drawbacks. Firstly, it oscillates near the site of the MPP, resulting in unending output
power fluctuations, thus resulting reduction in energy & efficiency will be lower. The second
drawback is the deviation from the MPP in the event of a sudden change in weather conditions
occur and will fail to track MPP, which leads to a loss of energy. A specific type of PV modules
has been chosen for PV modeling as well as three different MPPT techniques have used for
maximum power extraction from the PV module, with overall development flow. The converter
topology to transfer power from source to load is essential part of this project that performs a
significant function in the process of maximum power extraction with the MPPT controller.

22
A specific DC-DC boost converter is utilized for this purpose, as seen below.

Figure 4.6 DC-DC Boost Converter Usage

The diodes ensure, no reverse flow of current.

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up voltage
(while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class of
switched-mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and a
transistor) and at least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in
combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination
with inductors) are normally added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input
(supply-side filter).

Following are the advantages of using a boost converter: -

➨Boost converter offers most efficient solution with smallest external components.

➨It performs step-up or step-down of voltage using minimum components.

➨It offers high efficiency across wide input and output voltage ranges.

➨It is less expensive compare to most of the converters.

➨It offers lower operating duty cycle.

23
4.3: Maximum Power Point Tracking

The MPP technique is programmed according to state flow block modeling as below:

Figure 4.7 Logic Circuit

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) or sometimes just power point tracking (PPT), is a
technique used with variable power sources to maximize energy extraction as conditions vary.
The technique is most commonly used with photovoltaic (PV) solar systems, but can also be
used with wind turbines, optical power transmission and thermophotovoltaics.

PV solar systems have varying relationships to inverter systems, external grids, battery banks,
and other electrical loads. The central problem addressed by MPPT is that the efficiency of
power transfer from the solar cell depends on the amount of available sunlight, shading, solar
panel temperature and the load's electrical characteristics. As these conditions vary, the load
characteristic (impedance) that gives the highest power transfer changes. The system is
optimized when the load characteristic changes to keep power transfer at highest efficiency.
This optimal load characteristic is called the maximum power point (MPP). MPPT is the
process of adjusting the load characteristic as the conditions change. Circuits can be designed to
present optimal loads to the photovoltaic cells and then convert the voltage, current, or
frequency to suit other devices or systems.

Solar cells' non-linear relationship between temperature and total resistance can be analyzed
based on the Current-voltage (I-V) curve and the power-voltage (P-V) curves. MPPT samples
cell output and applies the proper resistance (load) to obtain maximum power. MPPT devices
are typically integrated into an electric power converter system that provides voltage or current

24
conversion, filtering, and regulation for driving various loads, including power grids, batteries,
or motors. Solar inverters convert DC power to AC power and may incorporate MPPT.

The power at the MPP (Pmpp) is the product of the MPP voltage (Vmpp) and MPP current (Impp).

In general, the P-V curve of a partially shaded solar array can have multiple peaks, and some
algorithms can get stuck in a local maximum rather than the global maximum of the curve.

Figure 4.8 Block Diagram of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

The controller constantly chases the higher of the two powers to produce a maximum power
from the successive voltage steps. The regulated pulses, or PWM, are created as follows:

Figure 4.9 Power Panel Circuit

25
The power from the panel is controlled using two common control switches;

Figure 4.10 Control Switches

This can be used in cases of maintenance/protection purposes.

The arrangement of the buffer battery storage is also given below. It has a larger capacity to
accommodate repeated charges for the same or different vehicles, as well as to compensate for
line losses. A specialized voltage and current sensor are used to measure the power.

Figure 4.11 Buffer Battery

A buffer battery provides power to a system when the primary source of power is unavailable.

Buffer batteries range from small single cells to retain clock time and date in computers, upto

26
 large battery room facilities that power uninterruptible power supply systems for large data

centers. The buffer battery is rated as 50kWh. The configuration is shown below;

Buffer Battery Parameters

Table No: - 4.1 Buffer Battery Configuration

Parameters Discharge

Type Lithium-Ion

Nominal Voltage (V) 200

Rated Capacity (Ah) 2500

Initial state-of-charge (%) 98

Battery response time (s) 30/10

Another switch selection provides a control flow to the boost converter for the charger, which
also features a dissipating capacitor on the output side.

Figure 4.12 Control Flow Switch

This control flow switch is designed to make and break an electric current in a circuit

27
The charger design is shown below;

Figure 4.13 Charger Design Circuit

The first block is the charger switching, followed by assessments and various lines on the EV
battery's side. There are two DC power lines, and the other two are battery voltage and status of
charge or SoC feedback lines.

The SoC line is compared to the user-defined setpoint (such as charging the vehicle to 60
percent). If the SOC of the battery is less than the setpoint, the control signal is set to high, the
switching block or charge controller is turned on, and the EV obtains energy. The control gets
low and charging stops when the SOC set on the EV side is reached. This code is used to
simulate a microcontroller adjusting a charger's SOC target or a user setting the SOC after
paying at a commercial charger.

A DC-DC boost converter is utilized because the EV batteries have often greater voltage than
the buffer batteries or the SPV array output. The boost output necessary is set here by the
controller. We adjusted it in this case so that the output functions in discontinuous conduction
mode, which allows for high current pulse charging. This method isn’t quick, but it enhances
the charging rate.

Workplace charging of Electric Vehicle from solar energy provides a sustainable solution for
transportation in near future. Direct utilization of the photovoltaic power during the day and
exploits rooftop solar potential of the buildings.

28
To make the simulation brief, the SOC target of simulation is set to 0.05 more than the actual EV
battery SoC.

The boost converter is seen in the diagram below.

Figure 4.14 Boost Converter

The input voltage source is connected to an inductor. The solid-state device which operates as a
switch is connected across the source. The second switch used is a diode. The diode is connected
to a capacitor, and the load and the two are connected in parallel as shown in the figure above.

The inductor connected to input source leads to a constant input current, and thus the Boost
converter is seen as the constant current input source. And the load can be seen as a constant
voltage source.

The boost voltage on the output is given by the following formula;

Vout = Vin/(1-k)

Were,

Vout is the output voltage,

Vin is the input voltage,

K is the duty cycle for the switching device.

A boost converter is a DC/DC power converter that steps up the voltage from its input (source)
to its output (load). In continuous conduction mode (current through the inductor never falls to
zero), the theoretical transfer function of the boost converter is:

Vout/Vin = 1/(1-D), where D is the duty cycle. The sensor is placed for energy flow.

29
4.4: EV Battery

The next part is the EV battery itself;

Figure 4.15 EV Battery Circuit

Note that the charge is rated at 80kWh, making it a high-end EV car by today's standards, as
low-end electric cars have batteries rated at less than 50kWh. The output lines for SOC and
Voltage are also visible. They are usually standardized and based on protocols like CAN
(controller area network), which is widely used in the automobile sector because of its
reliability.

The Battery configuration is shown below: -

Battery Parameters

Table No: - 4.2 Battery Configuration

Parameters Discharge

Type Lithium-Ion

Nominal Voltage (V) 300

Rated Capacity (Ah) 200

Initial state-of-charge (%) 30

Battery Response time (s) 30/10

30
 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Solar Photovoltaic
Starting with the graph formed in case of solar photovoltaic as below:

Figure 5.1 Solar Photovoltaic

In this situation, the current and power are with MPP. Temperature is set at 30℃ and irradiance
is set at 950 W/m2.

The DC bus within the charger has the following voltage:

Figure 5. 1 DC Bus Voltage

This graph depicts the flow of DC current flowing through the charger. The Dc bus voltage is
flowing through a constant flow and is depicting a rating of 220V.

31
 5.2 Battery Storage

The storage battery inside the charger is shown;

Figure 5.2 Storage Battery Inside the Charger

Because the SPV is also charging the EV battery, the negative current indicates that it is
discharging, as does the drop or decrease in the voltage.

Figure 5.4 Drop and Increase of Voltage Effects

The greenish curve depicts the flow of power, with the axis y amplified. The negative power
indicates that something is charging. The increase in the temperature increases slightly the short-
circuit current while the open circuit voltage decreases in a larger rate with temperature. This
leads to an overall appreciable decrease of the photo conversion efficiency with temperature.

32
After the power converter, the power going to the car is shown;

Figure 5.5 Power Divided

The V charge comes first, second by the I charge, and finally, the Power provided. The voltage,
current, and power are all 0 when the charger is turned off.

The actual current flowing to the electric vehicle battery is as follows:

Figure 5.3 Current in the Battery

33
The same when zoomed in;

Figure 5.4 Zoomed Picture of the Current Curves

The battery characteristics for electric vehicles may be found on the following page. The SOC
rises till it reaches the desired level. Because the battery is charging, the current is negative, and
the voltage exhibits 20V changes that were employed to produce the pulses. This is reflected in
the amount of electricity provided.

The reverse flow protection in the boost converter of the charger stops the battery from
discharging in proportion when SOC hits objectives.

Figure 5.5 Reverse Flow Protection

34
5.3 Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Figure 5.6 SPV Energy

When the EV battery is disconnected, the energy from the SPV is diverted to the charger
battery, which begins charging; this is visible in the second graph, which shows the charger
battery voltage increases.

Figure 5.10 SPV Energy Graph

The above graph shows the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a typical silicon PV cell
operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a single solar cell or panel is the
product of its output current and voltage (I x V). If the multiplication is done, point for point,
for all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained.

35
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 Conclusion

The primary goal of providing design and modeling it in Simulink was met, and the results
demonstrated the concept is functional. The SPV integration for a solo EV charger also appears
to be promising. The charge controller, power monitoring and feedback, as well as pulsed
charging, all performed admirably. This research proved that a workable design for SPV-based
electric car charging is a realistic option. Additional work might be done to expand the
simulation to a multi-vehicle situation, reduce losses, and improve vehicle-charger
communication, among other things.

Following points can be drawn from the conclusion: -

i. In comparison to grid-tied EV charging stations, this station design does require 16

times more space, Still, its resilience and sustainability make it a good option for
frontier regions.

ii. The current trend is to shift towards swappable batteries, and such a station can also be
designed. Furthermore, chargers that are capable of charging different types of vehicles
can also be used, and the system can be integrated with other forms of renewable
energy, depending on the location.

iii. Despite having the same rated wattage, monocrystalline panels outperform
polycrystalline panels in terms of energy supplied to EVs, CO2 reduction, and
investment cost per mile.

iv. Workplace charging of EVs using solar energy provides a sustainable future mobility
gateway. It allows for the direct use of PV electricity throughout the day and makes use
of the solar potential of building rooftops.

v. Dynamic charging of EV facilitates the variation of EV charging power so as to closely

follow the solar generation.

vi. The future of the Electric Vehicles depends upon the harnessing of renewable sources of
energy as they will provide for a greener environment and reduced emissions.

36
6.2 Future Scope

The term “solar vehicle” usually implies that solar energy is used to power all or part of a
vehicle’s propulsion. Solar vehicles are not sold as practical day-to-day transportation devices
at present, but are primarily demonstration vehicles and engineering exercises, often sponsored
by government agencies. Solar cars have been developing since the last twenty years and are
powered by energy from the sun.
Following points can be elaborated in terms of future scope: -

i. The EV charging station market is expected to grow 5 to 7 times in the next 5 years. It
was valued at 5 billion dollars in 2020 and optimistic predictions see it reach around 35
billion by 2026, which would make EVs represent 15% of all car sales worldwide within
5 years.

ii. The IoT would bring a revolution to the EV charging experience. It will smartly connect
grids, networks, green energy, batteries and cars for optimal use of resources and for a
better charging experience. This system would be known as IoV (Internet of Vehicles).

iii. Future transportation can be made sustainable by using solar energy for EV workplace
charging. It makes direct use of PV electricity throughout the day and takes advantage
of the solar potential of building rooftops.

iv. Electric car charging infrastructure will be critical to enabling a smooth transition to e-
mobility. Smart charging, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, charging of EVs using
photovoltaic panels (PV), contactless charging, and on-road charging of EVs will all
play important roles in the EV charging infrastructure.

v. There is a whole protentional that needs to be evolved and work is needed to be done to
improve the charging of electric vehicles from renewable sources of energy as it will
reduce the stress on grid system and also generate an environment friendly and clean
energy that would be suitable for all the purposes.

37
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 PUBLICATION

I have published my paper in the International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer

Science & Technology, Volume-10, Issue-4, July-2022 edition.

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44
 APPENDIX A
Plagiarism Report

Plag Solar Charger design Aadil Nissar

ORIGINALITY REPORT

11 % 8%
INTERNET SOURCES
2%
PUBLICATIONS
6%
STUDENT
SIMILARITY INDEX PAPERS

PRIMARY SOURCES

1 www.ijera.comInternet Source 4%
2 S Submitted to Liverpool John Moores University 1%
Student Paper

3 ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in Internet Source

1%
4 www.ijirem.org Internet Source
1%
5 Submitted to University of Newcastle Student Paper
<1%
6 Submitted to Jamia Milia Islamia University Student Paper
<1%

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