GREEK LITERATURE

Greek literature stretches from Homer until the 4th century BC and the rise of Alexander the Great.
The Greeks invented the epic and lyric forms and used them skillfully. They also invented drama and
produced masterpieces that are still reckoned as drama’s crowning achievement. Of the hundreds of
dramas written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors
have survived: Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The earliest of the three was Aeschylus, who was
born in 525 BC. He wrote between 70 and 90 plays, of which only seven remain.

Two of the most excellent historians who have ever written flourished during Greece’s classical
age: Herodotus and Thucydides. Herodotus is commonly called the father of history, and his “History”
contains the first truly literary use of prose in Western literature. Of the two, Thucydides was the better
historian. His critical use of sources, inclusion of documents, and laborious research made his History of
the Peloponnesian War a significant influence on later generations of historians.

The greatest achievement of the 3rd century was in philosophy. There were many Greek
philosophers, but three names tower above the rest: Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It is impossible to
calculate the enormous influence these thinkers have had on Western society. Socrates himself wrote
nothing, but his thought (or a reasonable presentation of it) is believed to be given by Plato’s early Socratic
dialogues. Aristotle is virtually without rivals among scientists and philosophers. The first sentence of his
Metaphysics reads “All men by nature desire to know.” His medieval disciple Thomas Aquinas referred to
him simply as “the Philosopher”. Aristotle was a student of Plato’s Academy, and it is known that like his
teacher, he wrote dialogues or conversations. None of these exist today.

All of the Greek city – states except Sparta had been conquered by Philip II of Macedon, Philip’s
son Alexander the Great extended his father’s conquests greatly. In so doing, he inaugurated what is called
the Helenistic Ages. Alexander’s conquests were in the East, and Greek culture shifted first in that
direction. Athens lost its preeminent status as the leader of Greek culture, and was replaced temporarily by
Alexandria, Egypt. After the rise of Rome, all the Mediterranean area was brought within one far-flung
empire. Greek civilization then spread westward as well. Educated Romans learned to speak and write
Greek, and they looked Greece’s golden age for inspiration in philosophy, poetry, and drama centuries BC.

In order to enjoy and understand further the classical Greek literature, it is imperative to be
acquainted with their gods and goddesses. Greek literature is usually incorporated with the actions of the
deities. The Greeks believed in gods and goddesses, but they did not believe that the gods created the
universe. They believed the universe created the gods and these deities have the same emotions and
caprices as humans.
GREEK GODS AND GODDESSES

Mt. Olympus, a many-ridged mountain in Thessaly, was the home of gods and goddesses. It was
an abode of perfect blessedness where they live and slept, and feasted on ambrosia and nectar and
listened to Apollo’s lyre.

The twelve great Olympians made up a divine family:

1. Zeus. He was the chief. He was the Lord of the Sky, the rain-god and cloud-gatherer, who wielded
the awful thunderbolt. He had two brothers, Poseidon, the ruler of the sea, and Hades, ruler of the
underworld over the dead.
2. Hera. Zeus’ wife and sister who was the protector of marriage. She punished every woman Zeus
fell in love with. She was a very jealous goddess and, at times tricky to punish the woman she
hated.
3. Poseidon. Zeus’ brother and second only to him in eminence was the ruler of the sea. He had a
splendid palace beneath the sea, but often he was to be found in Olympus. Being the Lord of the
Sea, Poseidon had control on storm and wind. He was known as the Earth-Shaker and could
always be seen carrying his trident, a three-pronged spear.
4. Hades. He was the ruler of the underworld and rule over the dead. He was also called the God of
Wealth. He had a cap or helmet that made whoever wore it invisible.
5. Pallas Athena. She was the daughter of Zeus alone. No mother bore her. She is a fierce and
ruthless battle-goddess. She was pre-eminently the Goddess of the City, the protector of civilized
life, who was Zeus’ favorite child.
6. Phoebus Apollo. He was the son of Zeus, was called “the most Greek of all the gods.” He is a
prominent figure in Greek literature. He is the master musician who delights Olympus as he plays
his golden lyre.
7. Artemis. She was Apollo’s twin sister; she was one of the three maiden goddesses of Olympus.
She was the Lady of Wild Things, Hunt-man-in-chief to the gods. She was also known as Phoebe
(moon) and Selene (Luna in Latin).
8. Aphrodite. She was the goddess of Love and Beauty, who beguiled gods and men alike. She was
the irresistible goddess who stole away even wits of the wise.
9. Hermes. He was another son of Zeus. He was graceful and swift in motion. On his feet were
winged sandals, wings on his crowned hat, and his magic wand is called Caduceus. He was Zeus’
messenger and was known as the Master Thief.
10. Ares. He was the God of War, another son of Zeus and Hera. He was a delight in battles, ruthless
murderer, and a coward.
11. Hephaestus. He was the God of Fire, also a son of Zeus and Hera. He was ugly and lame as well.
He was born deformed so he was cast out of heaven. He was highly honored as workman of
immortals, and an armorer and smith.
12. Hestia. She was Zeus’ sister and a virgin goddess. She was the goddess of the Hearth, the symbol
of the home. Every meal began and ended with an offering to her.
 THE NAME BEHIND THE PEN

Homer (Greek: Homeros) is the name given to the supposed unitary author
of the early Greek poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is now generally
believed that they were composed orally by at least one recent scholar has
argued for a single bardic composer. Some scholars think the name does
not refer so much to a single poet, but rather to the imaginary ancestor of
the guild of the Homeridai, whom later tradition associated with the
conservation, by those who do not believe in single authorship of the
Homeric poems. Homer’s works begin the Western Canon and are
universally praised for their poetic genius. By convention, the compositions
are also often taken to initiate the period of Classical Antiquity.

EPIC

ILIAD

The Iliad (Ancient Greek, Ilias) is together with the Odysseus, one of two ancient Greek epic
poems attributed to Homer. The Trojan War was a war waged, according to legend, against the city of Troy
in Asia Minor (present –day Turkey), by the armies of the Achaeans, after Paris of Troy stole Helen from
her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. Ancient Greeks believed that the Trojan War was a historical event.
They believed that this war took place in the 13th or 12th century BC, and that Troy was located in the
vicinity of the Dardanelles in what is now north-western Turkey. By modern times, both the war and the city
were widely believed to be non-historical. In 1870, however, German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann
excavated a site in this area, which he believed to be the site of Troy, and at least some archeologists
agree. There remains to certain evidence that Homer’s Troy ever existed, still less that any of the events of
the Trojan War cycle ever took place. Many scholars would agree that there is a historical core to the tale,
though this may simply mean that the Homer stories are a fusion of various stories of sieges and
expeditions by the Greeks of the Bronze Age of Mycendean period.

ORIGIN OF THE WAR

According to the Greek mythology, Zeus had become king of the gods by overthrowing his father
Cronus: Cronus in turn had overthrown his father Ouranos. Zeus was not faithful to his wife (and sister)
Hera and had many relationships from which many children were born. Since there were too many people
populating the earth already he came up along with either Momos or Themis with the idea of the Trojan
War in order to depopulate the Earth, especially of his demigod descendants.

THE APPLE OF DISCORD

There was a wedding of a human king Peleus, son of Aiakos and Thetis a sea nymph who would
become the parents of Achilles, a great general of the Greek army. In this wedding, all the gods and
goddesses were invited except Eris (“Discord”) which was stopped at the door by Hermes on Zeus’s order.
Insulted, she threw from the door a gift of her own: Her gift was a golden apple on which were inscribed the
words Te Kallisti, (“To the Fairest”). The apple was claimed by Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. They
quarreled bitterly over it, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one, for fear of
earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus ordered Hermes to lead the three goddesses to Paris,
a prince of Troy, who unaware of his ancestry, was being raised as a shepherd in Mount Ida, because of a
prophecy that he would be the downfall of Troy. The goddesses tried to bribe the shepherd. Athena offered
Paris wisdom, skill in battle, and the abilities of the greatest warriors; Hera offered him political power and
control of all Asia, and Aphrodite offered him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris
awarded the apple to Aphrodite and, after several adventures, retuned to Troy and was recognized by his
family.

THE ELOPEMENT OF PARIS AND HELEN

Unfortunately, the most beautiful woman on earth then was Helen who was already married to
Menelaus, king of Sparta. Her mother was Leda, who had been seduced (or raped) by Zeus in the form of a
swan.

On a diplomatic mission to Sparta, Paris fell in love with Helen. Menelaus had to leave for Crete to
bury his uncle Crateus. Paris with Aphrodite’s help; kidnapped or seduced her and sailed to Troy carrying
part of Menelau’’s treasure. Hera, still jealous over his judgment sent a storm. The storm made the lovers
land in Egypt, where the gods replaced Helen with a likeness of made of clouds, Nephele. Then the ship
landed in Sidon before reaching Troy. Paris fearful, of getting caught, spent some time there and sailed to
Troy.

Paris’ abduction of Helen had several precedents. Io was taken from Argos, Eurropa was taken
from Phoenicia, Jason took Medea from Colchis, and the Trojan princess Hesione had been taken by
Heracles who gave her to Telamon of Salamis. Paris was emboldened by these examples to steal himself a
wife from Greece, and expected no retribution, since there had been none in the other cases.

MENELAUS CALLED THE GREEK KINGS AND PRINCES

Menelaus asked Agamemnon to uphold his oath. He agreed and sent him Nestor along with other
emissaries to all the Greek kings and princes, who were called to make good their oaths and retrieve
Helen.

This oath was given by the kings and princes of the Greeks for they were also former suitors of
Helen. The father of Helen, the former king of Sparta was afraid to whom he would give his daughter to
marriage for fear the others would retaliate violently. To solve the problem, they made an agreement to
allow Helen to choose her husband and require all of Helen’s suitors to make an oath that they would
defend the marriage of Helen, regardless of whom she chose. And Helen chose Menelaus.

Since Menelaus and Helen’s marriage was violated, the kings and princes were bound to help
Menelaus to besiege Troy and retrieve Helen. Thus, this was the beginning of war.

ACHILLES

To Peleus and Thetis a son was born, named Achilles. It was foretold that he would either of old
age after an uneventful life, or die young in a battlefield and gain immortality through poetry. Furthermore,
Calchas has prophesied, when Achilles was nine that Troy could not fall again without his help. As an
infant, Thetis tried to make Achilles immortal. First, she held him over fire to burn away his mortal parts
every night and rubbed him with ambrosia during the day. Peleus, who had already lost six sons this way,
discovered this stopped it. Then she bathed him in River Styx, making him invulnerable wherever he had
touched the water. She had held him by the heel. So that part remained mortal. And so he remained human
and not a god (hence, the expressions Achilles heel for an isolated weakness). He grew up to be the
greatest of all mortal warriors.

ACHILLE’S CAMPAIGNS

The Greeks or Acheans besieged Troy for nine years. Troy was never completely besieged, thus it
maintained communications with the interior of Asia Minor. Reinforcements continued to come until the very
end. Also the Acheans controlled only the entrance to the Dardanelles; Troy and her allies controlled the
shortest point at Abydos and Sestus an communicated with allies in Europe..

Chryses, a priests of Apollo and father of Chryses, came to Agamemnon to ask for the return of his
daughter. Agamemnon refused and insulted Chryses, who prayed to Apollo to avenge his ill-treatment.
Enraged, Apollo afflicted the Achaean army with plague. Agamemnon was forced to return Chryses to end
the plague, and took Achille’s concubine Briseis as hisown. Enraged at the dishonor Agamemnon had
inflicted upon him, Achilles decided he would no longer fight. He asked his mother, Thetis, to intercede with
Zeus, who agrees to give the Trojans success in the absence of Achilles, the best warrior of the Achaeans.

After the withdrawal of Achilles, the Achaeans were initially successful. Both armies gathered in full
for the first time since the landing. Menelaus and Paris fought a duel, which ended when Aphrodite
snatched the beaten Paris from the field. The truce was broken, the Achean army nearly reached the wall,
and Diomedes, with the assistance of Athena, nearly killed Aeneas, and wounded the gods Aphrodite and
Ares. Through the next days, however, the Trojans had the upper hand. They drove back the Acheans to
their camp. On the first day of the Trojan attack, they were stopped at the Achean wall by Poseidon. The
next day, though, with Zeus’ help. The Trojan broke into the Achaean camp and were on the verge of
setting fire to the Achean ships. An earlier appeal to Achilles to return was rejected, but after Hector burned
Protesilaus’ ship, he allowed his close friend and relative Patroclus to go into the battle wearing Achille’s
armor and leading his army. Patroclus drove the Trojans back all the way to the walls of Troy and was only
prevented from storming the city by the intervention of Apollo. Patroclus was then killed by Hector (with
Apollo’s help), who took Achilles armor from the body of Patroclus.

Achilles, maddened with grief, swore to kill Hector in revenge. He was reconciled with Agamemnon
and received Briseis back, untouched by Agamemnon; he received a new set of arms, forged by the god
Hephaestus, and returned to the battlefield. He slaughtered many Trojans, and nearly killed Aeneas, who
was saved by Poseidon. Achilles fought with the river Scamander, and a battle of the gods followed. The
Trojan army returned to the city, except for Hector, who remained outside because he was tricked by
Athena. Achilles killed Hector, and afterwards he dragged Hector’s body from his chariot and refused to
return the body to the Trojans for burial. The Achaeans then conducted funeral games for Patroclus.
Afterwards, Priam came to Achille’s tent, guided by Hermes, and asked Achilles to return Hector’s body.
The armies made a temporary truce to allow the burial of the dead.

THE DEATH OF ACHILLES

 Achilles himself was not destined to a long life. Having by chance seen Polyxena, daughter of King
Priam, perhaps on the occasion of the truce which was allowed the Trojans for the burial of Hector, he was
captivated with her charms; and to win her in marriage, it is said (but by Homer) that he agreed to influence
the Greeks to make peace with Troy. While the hero was in the temple of Apollo negotiating the marriage,
Paris discharged at him in the heel. This was his only vulnerable spot; for Thetis, having dipped him when
an infant in the river Styx, had rendered every part of him invulnerable except that by which she held him.

THE TROJAN HORSE

After the tenth year, it was prophesied that Troy could not fall without Heracles’ bow (which was
with Philoctetes in Lemnos). So Odysseus and Diomedes retrieved Philoctetes, whose wound was healed.
Philoctetes then shot and killed Paris.

Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus went to spy inside. Troy, but was recognized by Helen.
Homesick , Helen plotted with Odysseus. Later, with Helen’s help, Odysseus and Diomedes stole the
Palladium.

The end of the war came with one final plan. Odysseus devised a new ruse – a giant hollow
wooden horse, an animal that was sacred to the Trojans. It was built by Epeius, guided by Athena, from the
wood of a cornel tree grove sacred to Apollo with the inscription:

The Greeks dedicate this thank-offering to Athena for their return home.

The hollow horse was filled with soldiers led by Odysseus. The rest of the army burned the camp
and sailed for Tenedos.

When the Trojans discovered that the Greeks were gone, believing the war was over, they “joyfully
dragged the horse inside the city”, while they debated what to do with it. Some thought they ought to hurl it
don from the rocks, others to burn it, while others said they ought to dedicate it to Athena.

Both Cassandra and Laocoon, warned against keeping the horse. But Cassandra, given gift of
prophecy by Apollo, was also cursed by Apollo to never be believed. Then serpents came out of the sea
and devoured, either Laocoon and one of his two sons, Laocoon and both of his sons, or only his sons, a
portent which so alarmed the followers of Aeneas that they withdrew to Ida. The Trojans decided to keep
the horse and turned to a night of mad revelry and celebration. Sinon and Achean spy, signaled the fleet
stationed at Tenedos when “it was midnight and the clear moon was rising” and the soldiers from inside the
horse emerged and killed the guards.

The Acheans entered the city and killed the sleeping population. A great massacre followed which
continued into the day.

Neoptolemus killed Priam, who had taken refuge at the altar of Zeus of the Courtyard. Menelaus
killed Deiphobus, Helen’s husband after Paris’ death. And also intered to kill Helen, but overcome by her
beauty; threw down his sword and took her to the ships.
 Antenor, who had given hospitality to Menelaus and Odysseus when they asked for them to return
of Helen, and who had advocated so, was spared, along with his family. Aeneas took his back and fled, and
according to Apollodorus, was allowed to go because of his piety.

The Greeks then burned the city and divided the spoils. Cassandra was awarded to Agamemnon.
Neoptolemus got Andromache, wife of Hector and Odysseus, Hecuba, Priam’s wife.

The Achaeans threw Hector’s infant son Astyanax down from the walls of Troy, either out of cruelty
and hate or to end the royal line, and the possibility of a son’s revenge. They (by usual tradition
Neoptolemus) also sacrificed the Trojan princess Polyxena on the grave of Achilles as demanded by his
ghost, either as part of his spoil or because she had betrayed him.