Human Capacity for Culture

Evolution - is a natural process of biological changes occurring in a population across successive generations
(BANAAG, 2012 p. 31)

It helps us to identify and analyze man's physiological development and eventually the emergence of different
society, Moreover, man's progression and characteristics are essential in understanding the capability of
adaptation. Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans.

Human Biocultural Evolution

HOMINIDS (Manlike Primates)

The development of the different species of primates which were able to evolve in 40 million years ago. There
have been various relics of hominids which could be described as manlike primates. They are Ramapithecus,
Lucy and Australopithecus.

HOMO HABILIS (HANDY MAN)

The apelike men who first to used stone tools as weapons and protection of their enemies. They are recognized
as the first true man. Lived about 2.4 to 1.4million years ago.

HOMO ERECTUS (THE UPRIGHT MAN)

- It was believe to be the first man like creatures that lived about 500,000 years ago in Asia, Africa, and
Europe. This manlike species could walk straight with almost the same brain with modern man.
- He Made refined stone tools for hunting and weapons for protection of the enemies. The following are the
major discovered fossils:
1. Sinanthropus Pekinensis - Discovered at Choukouiten_Village, Beijing. China
2. Pithecanthropus Erectus / "Java Man" - Discovered by Eugene Dubois in Trinil Java, India in 1801.

HOMO SAPIENS (THE THINKING MAN) 

It was believed that this was the direct descendant of modern man who lived about 25,000 years ago.
They had similar physical descriptions with modern man. They originated as the primitive men whose
activities were largely dependent on hunting, fishing, and agriculture.
They buried their dead, used had tools and had religion.

The following are Homo Sapiens subspecies:

Neanderthal Man - lived in cave and dependent in hunting and fishing. Discovered in Neanderthal Valley in
Dusseldorf, Germany in 1856.

Cro-Magnon Man
Discovered by French Archaeologist Louis Lartet in the Cro-Magnon Cave in southern France. It was believed
to lived in Europe, Asia, and Africa. As a pre-historic man, they were the first to produce art in cave paintings
and crafting decorated tools and accessories.

FOUR BIOLOGICAL CAPACITY OF HUMAN TO DEVELOP CULTURE

THINKING CAPACITY
Developed brain and has the necessary parts for facilitating pertinent skills such as speaking, touching, feeling,
seeing, and smelling.

GRIPPING CAPACITY
Power grip - Wrap the thumb and fingers on an object.
Precision Grip - Enables human to hold and pick objects steadily using finger.

SPEAKING CAPACITY
Humans have longer vocal tract means that there is a longer vibration surface, allowing human to produce a
wider array of sounds than chimpanzee.
(BRAIN AS SOURCE)

WALKING/STANDING CAPACITY
Primates have two forms of locomotion:
- Bipedalism and quadropedalism.
-  Bipedalism is the capacity to walk and stand on two feet, whereas quadropedalism uses all four limbs.

Human Capacity for Culture

Evolution - is a natural process of biological changes occurring in a population across successive generations
(BANAAG, 2012 p. 31)
It helps us to identify and analyze man's physiological development and eventually the emergence of different
society, Moreover, man's progression and characteristics are essential in understanding the capability of
adaptation. Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans.

Refers to the culture, language, social Structures and one's position within that particular society. It also
includes history and the roles people institutions around them performed in the past. One s life context will
significantly affect the
Si cialization process.

GENDER STEREOTYPES
Cultural Expectations for gender foles and gendered behavior are conveyed to children through color-coded
clothes and sort of Jame. (HOUSEHOLD CHORES)

RACE
Also plays a factor in socialization.
Since whitepeople bear

disproportionate experience of police

violence
, hey can encourage their children to defend and know their rights when the authorities try to violate them.
RACE
In contrast, parents of color must instruct their children to remain calm, compliant, and secure in the presence
of law enforcement.
How parent assign chores or tell their children to interact with police are example of content and process,
which are also defined by the span of socialization, the method used, the people involved, and the type of
experience.
RESULT
Are the outcome of socialization and refer to the way a person conceives and conduct after undergoing this
process (Know how to obey rules)

FORMS OF SOCIAL GROUP

Family/Relatives
Churchmate
Neighborhood
Co-worker
Friends schoolmate
Teammate
Organization

THREE (3) REQUIREMENTS FOR A GROUP

 1. There must be two or more people.
2. There must be interaction.
3. The members must be together.
FACTORS THAT
INFLUENCE GROUPS
1. Motivational base shared by individuals (needs, interest, desires etc.)
2. Size of the group
3. Type of group goals
4. The kind of a group cohesion/unity
Group as distinguished from other
Collection of people like:
1. AGGREGATE
 a simple collection of people who are in the same place at the same time without interacting with each
other.
 Ex. People inside a movie house, people riding in an LRT/MRT.

2. CATEGORY
 a simple collection of people who share distinctive characteristics (age, sex, race, social class, religion,
political beliefs, ethnicity)
 Ex. Males/females in society, the infants, children, the middle class; the millionaires
3. COLLECTIVITY
 collection of people in a given place and time
 Ex. Crowds, masses, public and social movements are temporary groups

CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS
 Personal and Intimate relationship
 Face-to-face communication
 Small in size
 Informal Structure
 Traditional or non-traditional Decision-making
 Large
 Indirect communication
 Formal Structure
 Rational decision-making

GROUP BOUNDARIES
A. IN-GROUP
- It gives a sense of belonging, solidarity, camaraderie, esprit de corps, and a protective attitude toward the
other members.

B. OUT-GROUP
- It has the feeling of strangeness, dislikes, avoidance, indifference and even hatred toward the out-group.

C. REFERENCE GROUP
- Its central aspect is self-identification rather than actual membership.

2 TYPES OF GROUP BOUNDARIES

A. FORMAL GROUP BOUNDARIES

- Groups in which duties and privileges are clearly defined and expectations are prescribed, independent of the
person who happens to occupy a given position with constitution or set of by laws.
B. INFORMAL GROUP BOUNDARIES
- The members exchange confidences, share a feeling of intimacy and acquire a sense of belongingness.

CONSEQUENCES OF GROUP BOUNDARIES

 People gain a clearer sense of their diversity
 Ethnocentrism may grow
 Serious personal and social problems may arise

Definition of Education

Education is the social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge,
including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values (Macionis, 2012). 
Education is the acquisition of knowledge, habits, skills, and abilities through instruction and training or
through self-activity.
It is systematic training of the moral and intellectual faculties of the mind. It is the process of transmitting to
the young, the vital cultural heritage of a group.
Education in the Philippines

Education in the Philippines is managed and regulated by the Department of Education, commonly referred to
as the DepEd. It controls the Philippine educational system, including the creation and implementation of the
curriculum and the utilization of funds allotted by the national government. It also manages the construction of
schools, acquisition of books and other school materials, and the recruitment of teachers and staff.

Before the Philippines attained independence in 1946, the country's education system was patterned after the
educational systems of Spain and the United States. The Philippines, with exemption to other parts of the
country, were under Spanish rule for more than three hundred years while the Americans stayed for twenty two
years.
Spanish and the United States brought educational practices, which rellected their culture and ideologies.
During the Spanish time, the function of education was inculcated moral and religious values. Religion was the
core curriculum, and the schools were used to spread Christianity. It mainly served the upper classes; thus,
education symbolized "social standing and prestige." The educated class consisted mostly of ilustrados. When
the Americans came, education was focused on the development of new social patterns that would prepare the
nation for a self-governing democracy. Public institution was institutionalized to give every person the
education needed to participate in a self-governing democracy. The medium of instruction was English.
However, after independence, the country's educational system changed radically.
Today, the government of the Philippines has been very active in tapping the educational system for the
country's development efforts. With the adaptation of the K to 12 programs, it is hoped that Philippine
Educational System is now responding to the demands of the economy for national development.

Types of Education
In general, there are three types of education, these are:
1. Formal education
This refers to the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded educational system from primary school to
the university, including programs and institutions for full time technical and vocational training At the end of
each level, the learners must obtain certification in order to enter or advance to the next level. Formal
education shall correspond to the following levels in basic education:

a. Elementary Education
Elementary education involves compulsory, formal education primarily concerned with providing basic
education, and usually corresponds to a traditional six grades or seven grades, and in addition, to preschool
programs. Such preschool education normally consists of kindergarten schooling but may cover other
preparatory courses as well.

At the basic education level, the Department of Education (DepEd) sets overall educational standards and
mandates standardized tests for the K to 12 basic education system, although private schools are generally free
to determine their own
curriculum in accordance with existing laws and Department regulations.

b. Secondary Education
Secondary education, public schools and private schools is concered primarily with continuing basic education
of the elementary level and expanding it to include the learning of employable, gainful skills, usually
corresponding to four years of junior high school and two years of senior high school.

c. Tertiary Education
Institutions of higher education may be classified as either public or private college or university, and public
institutions of higher education may further be subdivided into two types: state universities and colleges and
local colleges and universities.
Most institutions of higher learning are regulated by the Commission of Higher Education (CHED). Colleges
typically offer 1 or more specialized programs while universities must offer at least 8 or more different
undergraduate degree programs in a wide array of subjects and at least 2 or more graduate programs.
Public universities are all non-sectarian and offer a wide-range of programs, with English as medium of
instruction. Public universities are government funded, with the largest, the University of the Philippines,
receiving a substantial amount from the annual budget. There are also several private tertiary institutions,
sectarian or non-sectanan as well as for profit or not-tor-profit.

2. Non-formal education
It refers to any organized educational activity outside the established formal system to provide selected types
of learning to a segment of the population.
As a concept, non-formal education emerged in response to the world crisis in education identified by Philip H.
Coombs in 1967, who argued that the formal education system have failed to address the changing dynamics
of the environment and the societies. The skills that are needed to foster economic development are lacking
due to untrained labor force that is not able to access formal education. Non-formal education enables a student
to learn skills and knowledge through structured learning experiences. A student learns his/her values,
principles, and beliefs and undergoes lifelong learning.
Example: Vocational Education

Accredited private institutions offer technical and vocational education. Programs offered vary in duration
from a few weeks to two years. On completion students may take centrally-administered examinations to
obtain their diploma or certificate.
Vocational colleges do not usually require an entrance examination. Only a record of high school educational
and an enrolment fee are required.

3. Informal education
It is a lifelong process whereby every individual acquires from daily experiences, attitudes, values, facts, skills,
and knowledge or motor skill from resources in his or her higher environment.
It offers alternative learning opportunities for the out of school youth and adults specifically those who are 15
years old and above and unable to avail themselves of the educational services and programs of formal
education. It reaches out to citizens of varied interests, demographic characteristics, and socioeconomic origins
and status, Its primary objective is to provide literacy programs to cradicate illiteracy.

"Special Education"
Special Education refers to the education of persons who are physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, or
culturally different from so called "normal" individuals, such that they require modification of school practices
to develop their potential. Special education provides distinct services, curricula, and instructional materials
geared to pupils or students who are significantly higher or lower than the average or norm.
SPED aims to develop the maximums potential of the child with the special needs to enable him/her to become
self-reliant and take advantage of the opportunities for a full and happy life.

State
At the time of the initial development of the modern human rights system. States were the dominant actors in
the international arena.
A state is an organized political community acting under a government and united by common set of laws. It
uses absolute power in directing the path of a society. It also uses complete political coerciveness, which may
come in the form of armed forces personnel, stricter laws, and rigid government policies in order to attain its
societal goals and objectives.
Market exchange is the primary form of economic subsistence of a state wherein standardized currencies are
being used to exchange commodities.
States differ in sovereignty, governance, geography, and interests. It may be classified as sovereign if they are
not dependent on, or subject to, any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty where
ultimate sovereignty lies another state.
The concept of the state is different from the concept of government.

GOVERNMENT is the particular group of people that controls the state at a given time. In other words,
governments are the means through which the state power us employed like applying the rule of law.
The concept of the state is also different from the concept of a nation, which refers to a large geographical area
and the people therein who perceives themselves as having a common identity. The state is a political
geopolitical entity; the nation is a cultural or ethnic entity.

As a state, it consists of actors with varying interests and assertions, social rules are implemented in the forms
of laws. These laws are created to manage the interaction among individuals and between the individuals and
the state. As a citizen of a country, an individual is subjected to the legal norms in the territory. These norms
may include paying taxes, rendering military services, and contributing to the political life in the society.

The State intends to be a strong actor in the performance of the three important political functions. 

The state, in full form,

1.    maintains control over violence in its domain
2.    allocates resources and rewards at its              discretion, and
3.    stands as the major focus of identity for the large majority of the people under its authority.

Elements of the States

1.    Population
It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state.
Without population there can be no State.
2.    Territory
There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organize themselves
socially and politically. It may be remembered that
the termlory ol the states includes land, water and airspace.
3. Government
It is the organization or machinery or agency of the State which makes. implements, enforces. and
adjudicates the laws of the state.
4. Sovereignty
It is the most exclusive elements of State. Without soverejonry no state can exist.
State has the exclusive title and prerogative to exercise supreme power over all its people and territory
is the basis as the State regulates all aspects of the life of the people living in its territory.

Forms of States
States come in a variety of forns that vary on who holds power, how positions of Icadership arc obtaincd, and
how authonty is maintained. These are:

a. Authoriarian government
Authoriarian govermments differ who holds power and in how control they assume over those who govern. An
example of this type is monarchy;
Monarchy is a form of government in which supreme power is absolutely lodged with an individual, who is the
head of the state often for life or until abdication. The person who heads a monarchy is called a monarch.
Some monarchs hold unlimited political powers while many constitutional monarchies, such as the United
Kingdom and Thailand Currently, 44 nations in the world have monarchs as head of state .

Totalitarianism is a political system that strives to regulate nearly every aspect of public and private life. It
theoretically permits no individual freedom and that seeks to subordinate all aspects of individual life to the
authority of the state. Modern examples of totalitarian states include the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin,
Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong, and North Korea under
the Kim Dynasty.

b. Oligorchic Government
An oligarchy is a form of government in which power effectively rests with a small-elite segment of society
distinguished by royalty, wealth, family, military, or religious hegemony. An oligarchy does not have one clear
ruler, but several powerful people who rule. One common example is theocracy.
Theocracy is a government by divine guidance or by official who are regarded as divinely guided. Leaders are
members of the clergy and the state's legal system is based on religious law. Contemporary examples of
theocracies include Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the Vatican.

c. Democratic Government
Democracy is a form of government in which the right to governs Is held by the majority of citizens within a
country or a state. The two principles of democracy are that all citizens have equal access to power and that all
citizens enjoy universally recognized freedoms and liberties people can either become count leaders through
electoral process or elect leaders who represent the core values and beliefs.
There are 99 democratic nations globally. Examples of democratic nations are Philippines. Norway, New
Zealand, United States of America, Canada, Columbia, Italy, and South Africa.

Roles of the States

1.    State provides security against external aggressions and war. For this purpose, the state maintains an
army.
2.    State ensures security against internal disturbances disorders and crimes.
For this purpose, the state maintains police.
3.    State legally grants and guarantees the rights of the people.
4.    The state issues and regulates currency and coinage.
5.    State undertakes steps for the creation of necessary conditions for the socio-economic-Politico Hub
6.    State grants citizenship and protects their interests and rights.
7.    State conducts foreign relations, foreign trade and economic relations.
8. State secures the goals of national interest in international
9.  relations

Nonstate Institutions

Nonstate institutions are people and/ or organization that participate international affairs and relations but are
not affiliated with any state or nation.
These nonstate institutions include the following: bank and corporations, cooperatives and trade unions,
transnational advocacy groups, and development agencies and international organizations. These nonstate
institutions are equally capable of influencing policy formation and implementation.

Banks
Bank is a financial institution licensed to provide severe financial services to different types of customers.
Banks are in operation mainly for their deposits and lending functions. Customers are allowed to deposit their
money to banks which grow through an interest rate. Banks also provide loans, with an interest to customers
who need money either for personal consumption or for investment and businesses. Banks may be categorized
into major forms such as commercial banks and investment banks

Commercial Banks
  Financial deposit with security and convenience which could be in the form of credit cards, debit
cards, and check
   Provide business, individual, and personal loans, enabling commercial banks to earn interest
   Serve as payment agents within and outside the country through wire transfer
   Subjected to more regulations

Investment Banks
 Financial intermediaries that performs a variety of services for businesses and some government
   Issues securities to the investing public
   Make markets, facilities, mergers, and other corporate reorganizations
   Acts as brokers for institutional clients
   Under the supervision of regulatory bodies such as the Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC), FINRA, and the US Treasury
  Subjected to fewer regulations

The two most well-known financial institutions that are actively shaping the socioeconomic development of
the Philippines are the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank. They have been providing financial aid
to the Philippine government and various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to facilitate their
development objectives.

b. Corporations
It is a form of business operation that declares the business as a separate entity guided by a group of officers
known as the Board of Directors. They were created by individuals, stockholders or shareholders, with the
purpose of operating for profit. They have all legal rights of an individual, except for the right to vote and
certain limitations. They are given the right to exist by the state that issues their charter. Corporation example
includes General Motors Corporation an icon of American craftmanship.

Apple Corporation as one of the famous tech companies, Amazon Corporation founded by Jeff Bezos is the
world's leading eCommerce and innovation company, Domino's Pizza is a global food chain company
delivering quality food worldwide.

Common Types of Corporations

A corporation can be created by a single shareholder or by multiple

shareholders who come together to pursue common goal. A corporate can be formed as a for-profit or a non-
for-profit entity.
   For-profit entities form most corporations, and they are formed to generate revenues and provide a
return to their shareholders, according to their percentage of ownership in the corporation. Examples:
HBO in partnership with International Rescue Committee, Ford Motors and Lynda.com.
   Not-for-profit entities operate under the category of charitable organizations, which are dedicated to
a particular social cause such as educational, religious, scientific, or research purposes.
Rather than distribute revenues to shareholders, not-for-profit organizations use their revenues to
further their objectives. Human Rights Campaign is a very impressive example of using Facebook
profile photos to spread the word far and wide about campaign.
Greenpeace the environmental non-profit that used GPS technology to inform the public about their
cause.

Multinational Corporations (MCs) are business organization that extends ownership, management, production,
and sales activities into several or more countries. MNCs are boon to the economic growth and development of
the states.

Good Effects
Introduce technology
Encourage economic growth
Encourage interdependently
Elites learn to regulate
Promotes human rights
Protect the environment
Economic actors
Promote a cosmopolitan world

Bad Effects
Offer ill-suited technology
Retard economic growth
Cause dependency
Elites become compradors
Harms human rights
Hurt the environment
Political actors
Damage national Culture

Source: Conway Henderson (1998)

Checks out the big names of MNCs that are already exist in the Philippines: 
Google, Viber, Palo Alto Networks, Procter and Gamble, Thomson Reuters, Accenture, HSBC, Citibank,
Maersk, Hewlett Packard, Coca Cola Far East, Deutsche Bank

c. Cooperatives
Cooperatives are people-centers enterprises owned, controlled and run by and for their members to realize their
common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations.

Cooperatives are businesses governed on the principle of one member, one vote. There are several common
types of co-ops, including cooperatives owned and operated by:
    The people working there (worker cooperatives);
    The people buying the co-op's goods or services (consumer cooperatives)
    The people collaborating to process and market their products (producer cooperatives); and
    Groups uniting to enhance their purchasing power (purchasing cooperatives)

Cooperatives play a critical role in building community wealth for several key reasons:
    They often provide quality goods and services to areas that have been shunned by traditional
businesses because they are deemed less profitable
    They typically invest in local communities
    Since most cooperative members are local residents, business profits remain and circulate in the
community
    Cooperative membership builds social networks and strengthens social cohesion which are essential
elements of a strong, healthy communities by connecting diverse community residents
    Purchasing cooperatives help small, local businesses remains competitive within markets dominated
by large, national retailers
    Worker cooperatives create quality, empowering jobs for community members

d. Trade Unions/Labor Unions

Trade Unions are organizations formed by workers from related fields that work for common interest of its
members. They help workers in issues like fairness of pay, good working environment, hours of work and
benefits.

They represent a cluster of workers and provide a link between the management and workers.
The purpose of these unions is to look into the grievances of wagers and present a collective voice in front of
the management. It acts as the medium of communication between the workers and management. Among these
trade unions that exist in the Philippines are the Federation of Free Workers (FFW), Kilusang Mayo Uno
(KMU) and the Trade Union Congress of the Philippines (TUCP).
Functions of Trade Unions:
1.    Advocating for fairness and equality for workers' compensations
2.    Securing better working conditions for workers
3.    Trade Unions will organize strikes and demonstrations on behalf of worker demands
4.    Fight for social welfare for workers
5.    Promote and advocate for education and proper training for workers
6.    Advocate and fight the government for legislative protections of the workers
7.    Promote and advocate for organizational growth and stability
8.    Trade Unions acts as representatives of workers in national and international forums
9.    Involved in collective bargaining agreements and disputes with management to settle any conditions
on employment
10.     Advising management on correct personnel policies and procedures
11.     Involved in collective and personal collective grievances between management and workers.

e. Transnational Advocacy Groups

Transnational Advocacy Groups (TAGs) play an increasingly important role in international and regional
politics and have contributed to changing policies of multilateral organizations and states. They are particularly
visible in contentious areas as human rights, environmental issues, international peace, and women's rights.
They have specific roles to partake that can be achieved through effective measures, case-specific methods,
and activities.

TAGs serve as international catalysts for change, aiming to achieve international changes towards policies and
practices. The very essence of TAGS is the formation and development of their advocacies and campaiens that
represent causes, ideas, values, and beliefs.

Human Rights Watch and Amnesty are active in the human rights field. Oxfam and Save children deal with
humanitarian issues. Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth represent environmental concerns.

f. Development Agencies
Development Agencies have been established to develop the cooperation between the public sector, private
sector, and civil society.

These are organizations with specific aims and goals. The common denominator among these organizations is
the term development. These agencies concentrate on the growth, progression, and advancement of specific
concerns, which can be infrastructure or social institutions.

Types of Development Agencies:

International Organization is an institution with membership drawn from two or more countries. Its activities
transcend national boundaries as it facilitates cooperation among its members in the performance of one or
more tasks. The international organization can be public or private. A public organization is an international
government organization (IGO) with states as its members. Prominent examples of IGOs are United Nations,
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), European Union (EU),
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and World Health Organization (WHO). A private
organization has a membership of individuals or groups and is an international nongovernment organization
(INGO) that originate for reasons other than politics such as International Criminal Police Organization
(Interpol). INGOs may lobby or work regularly with the government and IGOs.

Non-government Organization is a non-profit group that functions independently of any govermment. It serves
the social or political goals such as humanitarian and environmental causes.
Most NGOs aim to promote the practice of democracy among societies and social change through their
initiatives and organizational methods. Many NGOs have targeted their efforts toward population groups that
tend to be underserved by governmental programs, including women, the aged, physically and mentally
disabled persons, the poor, and various social groups that have been marginalized by virtue of race, religion,
ethnicity, caste, and social class.

Interrelationship of Government and Non-state Institutions 

Goverment rules society. This reflects how powerful government institution can be. If nonstate institutions
interfere with the governing body, two possible things can happen:
1.    Integration among these two institutions may take place to achieve precise solution towards
development
2.    Conflict and tension may also arise because one could exceed the other in terms of societal control
and influences (Penninx, 2013)