Understanding Culture, Society, and Politics / Pre-first Quarter

HUMAN VARIATION
Environment and history are two primary factors that shape the behaviour of human groups. This behaviour,
which serves as an adaptive tool for the varied stimuli projected by the environment is influenced by beliefs, practices,
and material possessions. Through constant practice, these sets of behaviour form human traditions, which are passed
on from one generation to the other.
As each human group experiences differing environmental conditions, cultural variations are established.
1. Nationality and Ethnicity
Nationality is the identity that is tied to being part of a nation or country – a “group of people
who share the same history, traditions and language” and who inhabits a particular territory
delineated by a political border and controlled by a government.
Within a nation are smaller cultural groups that share specific environments, traditions, and
histories that are not necessarily subscribed to by the mainstream culture. These are called ethnic
groups.
2. Gender
According to the World Health Organization (2013), gender “refers to the socially
constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers
appropriate for men and women.”
Unlike sex which refers to the biological characteristic of humans such as male or female.
There are several types of gender based on a person‟s orientation. Depending on the community,
these gender identities can be further subdivided into more specific categories.
a. Heterosexual – a person who is sexually attracted to a person of the opposite sex
b. Homosexual – a person who is sexually attracted to a person of the same sex
c. Gay – a male who is romantically and sexually attracted to another male
d. Lesbian – a female who is romantically and sexually attracted to another female
e. Bisexual – an individual who is attracted to both sexes
f. Asexual – an individual who is totally incapable of being attracted to any sex
g. Polysexual – an orientation of an individual who are attracted to multiple types of
gender identity
3. Socioeconomic Class
The concept of socioeconomic class varies between societies as the ideas associated with being
poor or rich differ based on the collected experiences of individuals.
In the Philippines, our indicators of social class are different, given the economic and
political context in which our country is in.
Hence, when you ask a Filipino what his or her social class is, the response can be any of the
following: mahirap, medyo mayaman, sakto lang, mayaman and the like.
4. Political Identity
Political identity as a social category refers to the set of attitudes and practices that an individual
adheres to in relation to the political systems and actors within his or her society.
5. Religion
The belief in the supernatural has been one of the universal preoccupations of humans as early
as 60 000 years ago.
Today religion has evolved to promote far complex forms of understanding human nature, the
afterlife, and natural events.
Some are monotheistic, believing in the existence of one god, whereas others are
polytheistic, believing in the existence of multiple gods.
6. Exceptionality
The concept of exceptionality leans on the non-average of an individual.
This could be understood in a spectrum of capabilities, wherein you have the geniuses in one
extreme and you have the disabled and challenged in the other extreme.
The Holistic Study of Humanity: Anthropology
Anthropology is derived from two Greek words anthropos and logos, which intensively studies
humans and the respective cultures where they were born and actively belong to.
The Study of the Social World: Sociology

Sociology is the study of society, social institutions, and social relationships. Sociology is interested in describing and
explaining human behaviour, especially as it occurs within a social context (Merriam Webster).
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In general, sociology in the Philippines developed in three phases (Panopio and Rolda, 2002).
a. Sociology was looked upon as social philosophy. Fr. Valentin Marin introduced the study
of sociology in UST.
b. Sociology was viewed as a problem or welfare-oriented discipline. Serafin Macaraig, the
first Filipino to acquire a doctorate in sociology and the first to write a sociology textbook
in An Introduction to Sociology published in 1938.
c. Sociology started to take the scientific orientation. Prof. Randy David arguably the most
prominent sociologist, write for the Philippine Daily Inquirer.

The Study of Politics: Political Science

Politics is associated with how power is gained and employed to develop authority and
influence on social affairs. It can also be used to promulgate guiding rules to govern the state.

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 DEFINING CULTURE AND SOCIETY FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY
Definition of Society
A society is a group of people bound together in a more or less permanent association organized for
collective activity. A society is made up of individuals who are interacting with each other in a shared
pattern of customs, beliefs, values and traditions.
A succinct definition of society is given by Horton and Hunt: “A society is a relatively independent, self-
perpetuating human group who occupy a territory, share a culture, and have the most of the associations
within this group.” Society and culture express different aspects of the human situation.
Definition of Culture
The classic definition of culture indicated its inclusiveness and is provided by an eminent English scholar,
E.B. Taylor. He defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities and habit acquired by man as a member of society.”
Leslie A. White refers to culture as an organization of phenomena that is dependent upon symbols,
phenomena which include acts (patterns of behaviour); objects (tools and things made by tools); ideas
(beliefs, knowledge); and sentiments (attitudes, values). In this sense culture means the entire way of life
followed by a people and everything learner and share by people in society.
Characteristics of Culture
Culture is learned.
Enculturation – the process of learning your own culture
Acculturation – the process of modifying your own culture to accommodate desirable traits
from other cultures
Culture is shared by a group of people.
Each person probably has a few idiosyncrasies, things not done by anyone else within a group.
These individual habits are not part of culture because they are not shared, but they could
become so if they were learned by others and become the customary actions of a group.
Culture is cumulative.
Knowledge is stored and passed on from one generation to the next, and new knowledge is
constantly being added to the existing stock. Each culture has worked out solutions to the basic
problems of life, which is then passes on to his children.
Culture is dynamic.
No culture is ever in a permanent state. It is constantly changing. The changes may be
imperceptible, but they are changes nonetheless. The practice of today will never be the
same tomorrow. The dynamic character of culture stems from its cumulative quality.
Culture is diverse.
The sum total of human culture consists of a great many separate cultures, each of them are
different.
Each culture is a whole, a system with many mutually independent parts.
For example, the choice of a marriage partner involves many different parts of culture.
Religion, economic class, education, and ideas of beauty and romance all play a role.

The Components of Culture

1. Material culture – refers to the physical objects of culture – machines, tools, books, clothing, art works,
furniture, and so on. The material culture produced by a society is a reflection of their technological
advancement, resources and the needs of the people.
2. Non-material culture – is made up of intangible things. Our ideas about what is funny and not,
beautiful or plain, or what makes us sad or happy – these are part of nonmaterial culture.
Symbols – anything that meaningfully represents something. It also predefines or conveys a certain
attitude toward what it represents. The existence of culture depends on people’s ability to create and
use symbols.
Values – an idea shared by the people in a society about what is good or bad, right and wrong,
desirable and undesirable. Values are general, abstract ideas that shape the ideas and goals of a
society.
Norms – expectations of how people are supposed to act, think, or feel in specific situations. Norms
are either prescriptive (they tell you what to do) or proscriptive (they tell you what not to do.)
Folkways – are norms that have little strength and may, within broad limits, be easily
broken.
Mores – are norms that are strongly held that are considered essential and are
strictly enforced.
Taboos – are norms that are deeply held that even the thought of violating them
upsets people.
Sanctions – are rewards and punishments.
Positive sanction – rewards for people who exhibit expected or desired behaviour.
Negative sanction – a form of punishment for violating important norms.
Formal sanctions – are applied by people positions of formal authority.
Informal sanctions – are applied by common people.
Beliefs – consists of people’s ideas about what is real and what is not. Hence, beliefs are what people
consider as factual. What people judge as factual may not be scientific because our beliefs come from
many sources: our parents, religious leaders, and personal observations. Science is just one of them.

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 Concepts on Culture (Viewpoints)
Ethnocentrism
It is a perception that arises from the fact that cultures, differ and each culture defines
reality differently.
Judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one’s own culture.
Cultural Relativism
The attempt to judge behaviour according to its cultural context.
The principle that an individual person’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others
in terms of that individual’s own culture.
Analysing Culture
There are elements of culture that different societies share. These similar basic features, or cultural universal,
arise because every human society lives within human and environmental limits.
Subculture is an ethnic, regional, economic, or social group exhibiting characteristic patterns of behaviour
sufficient to distinguish it from others within an embracing culture or society.
Counter-culture is a culture with values and mores that run counter to those of established society.
Cultural integration occurs when cultural traits are logically consistent with one another, or simply
neutral to one another.
Cultural Change
Innovation – production of new cultural trait
Invention – creation of new cultural products
Cultural diffusion – process by which cultural traits are transmitted from one group or society to another.

LOOKING BACK AT HUMAN BIOCULTURAL AND SOCIAL EVOLUTION

Man’s Biological Evolution

Evolution is a natural process of biological changes occurring in a population across
successive generations (Banaag, 2012 p. 31).
It helps us identify and analyse man’s physiological development which is important in his
subsistence.
More so, the evolution of man became an important concern in the emergence of different
societies. Early man’s development serves as an avenue in analysing the progress of our
society.
Species: Characteristics:
Homo Habilis Species with a brain of a Broca’s are which is associated with speech in modern humans and
was he first to make stone tools. The ability to make and use tools is a unique quality to
humans such that the species is recognized to be the first true human.
Homo Rudolfensis The species name means “Handy Man.” Lived about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago scavenging
for food.
Species characterized by a longer face, larger molar and premolar teeth, and having a larger
braincase compared to habilis particularly larger frontal lobes, areas of the brain that
processes information. The species lived about 1.9 ton 1.8 million years ago.
Homo Erectus The species name means “Upright Man” with body proportions similar to that of modern
humans. Lived 1.89 to 143,000 years ago; adapted to hot climates and mostly spread in Africa
and Asia. They were the first hunters with improvised tools such as axes and knives, and were
the first to produce fire.
Homo Species with large brow ridge and short wide bodies that lived about 700,000 to 200,000
Heidelbergensis years ago in Europe and Africa. They were the first of early human species to live in colder
climates, first to hunt large animals on routine basis using spears, and first to construct
human shelter.
Homo Floresiensis Species nicknamed “Hobbit” due to their small stature with a height of more or less 3 feet
and lived 95,000 to 17,000 years ago in the island of Flores, Indonesia along with other
dwarfed animal species.
Homo Sapiens The species name means “Wise Man” that appeared from 200,000 years ago. The present
human race belongs to this species.
Homo Subspecies with short yet stocky in body build adapted to winter climates especially in icy
Neanderthalensis cold places in Europe and Asia. The subspecies, also known as “Neanderthal Man,” is the
closest relative of modern humans. The first to practice burial of their dead, hunting and
gathering food, and sewing clothes from animal skin using bone needles. They lived about
200,000 to 28,000 years ago.

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 1. Man’s Cultural Evolution
The physical as well as the mental development of early human beings helped them understand
and adapt to their existing environment. This, their adjustment served as the onset of their
culture. Culture enables the members of society to develop ways of coping with the exigencies
of nature as well as ways of harnessing their environment (Panopio, et al. 1994 p. 37).

The changes made by man through his interaction with the environment establish the
different cultural evolution which determines man’s sociocultural development.
Cultural
Time Frame Cultural Development
Period
Use of simple pebble tools.
Learned to love in caves.
Traditionally coincided with the first Discovered the use of fire.
Paleolithic Age
evidence of tool construction and use by Developed small sculptures; and
(Old Stone Age)
Homoseme 2.5 miliion years ago monumental painting, incised designs,
and reliefs on the walls of caves.
“Food-collecting cultures”
Stone tools were shaped by polishing or
grinding.
Settlement in permanent villages.
Neolithic Age Dependence on domesticated plants or
Occurred sometime about 10,000 BCE
(New Stone Age) animals.
Appearance of such crafts as pottery and
weaving.
“Food-producing cultures”
Simple Differentiation of the Cultural Evolution:
Paleolithic Age Neolithic Age
Unpolished stone tools Polished stone tools
Hunting and gathering Domestication of plants and animals
Nomadic way of living Living in permanent places

The evidences of a change in economic aspect have resulted in the transformation of man’s way of life. Early
societies started to emerge as a result of man’s interaction with his environment. Every society is organized in
such a way that there will be rules of conduct, customs, traditions, folkways and mores, and expectations that
ensure appropriate behaviour among members (Palispis, 2007 p. 254).

Characteristics of Human Society:

1. It is a social system.
2. A society is relatively large.
3. A society recruits most of its members from within.
4. A society sustains itself across generations.
5. A society’s members share a culture.
6. A society occupies a territory.
TYPES OF SOCIETIES
Type of Human Characteristics
Societies
1. Hunting and Food The earliest form of human society.
Gathering Societies People survived by foraging for vegetable foods and small game, fishing,
hunting larger wild animals, and collecting shellfish.
They subsisted from day to day on whatever was available.
They used tools made of stones, woods, and bones.
2. Horticultural Societies People learned to use human muscle power and hand-held tools to cultivate
fields.
Classified as subsistence farming and surplus farming.
SUBSISTENCE FARMING:
Involves only producing enough food to feed the group.
The settlements are small.
Neighbourhood is solid.
Political organization is confined in the village.
Authority is based on positions inherited by males through the kinship
system.
SURPLUS FARMING:
Practiced in thickly populated and permanent settlements.
There was occupational specialization with prestige differences.

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 Social stratification was well established.
The community tended to be structures by kinship relations that are male
dominated.

3. Pastoral Societies
4. Agricultural Societies
5. Industrial Societies
It relied on herding and the domestication of animals for food and clothing
to satisfy the greater needs of the group.
Most pastoralists were nomads who followed their herds in a never-ending
quest for pasture and water.
It was organized along male-centred kinship groups.
It was usually united under strong political figures. However, centralized
political leadership did not occur.
These societies were characterized by the use of the plow in farming.
Creation of the irrigation system provided farming enough surplus for the
community.
Ever-growing populations came together in broad-river-valley system.
Those who controlled access to arable land and its use became rich and
powerful since they could demand the payment of taxes and political
support.
By taxing the bulk of agricultural surplus, the political leaders could make
bureaucracies implement their plans and armies to protect their privileges.
Social classes became entrenched, and the state evolved.
It is characterized by more than just the use of mechanical means of
production.
It constitutes an entirely new form of society that requires an immense,
mobile-diversity specialized, high-skilled, and well-coordinated labour force.
Creates highly organized systems of exchange between suppliers of raw
materials and industrial manufacturers.
Industrial societies are divided along class lines.
Industrialism brought about a tremendous shift of populations.
Kinship plays a smaller role in patterning public affairs.
Industrial societies are highly secularized.
The predominant form of social and political organization in industrial
societies is the bureaucracy.
It depends on specialized knowledge to bring about continuing progress in
technology.
It is characterized by the spread of computer industries.
Knowledge and information are the hallmarks of this society.
It resulted in the homogenization of social relations among individuals and the
interaction between humans and the natural environment.

The Legacy of Early Humans to Contemporary Population

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the primary
transnational entity that manages and negotiates matters relating to human heritage. It defined
cultural heritage as follows: “Cultural heritage is not limited to material manifestations, such as
monuments and objects that have been preserved over time. This notion also encompasses living
expressions and the traditions that countless groups and communities worldwide have inherited
from their ancestors and transmit to their descendants, in most cases, orally (UNESCO, 2010).”
This definition provides us with a two-part meaning of cultural heritage. On one end, there is
heritage being tangible in the form of structures, monuments, historical sites, and other artifacts.
On the other end, there is heritage being intangible in the form of literature, oral traditions,
concepts and values.
The Role of Museum in Preserving Human Heritage
Museums are the repository of archaeological finds that allow people from the contemporary
period to reconstruct the culture and environment of their ancestors. Unlike immovable tangible
heritage objects that are left in the archaeological sites where they have been found, movable
tangible heritage objects are often relocated to museums that have jurisdiction or at times
legitimacy in housing them.
In the 2010 Conference of the Museum Association, new roles of the museum were identified,
which include (1) fostering community solidarity through shared history and (2) regeneration and
development of the local economy.
In the Philippines, the key museum that houses most of the country’s highly valuable artifacts is
the National Museum. There are local museums in the country that were built by the city or
municipal governments to address the need of preserving local history and traditions.

Prepared By:
Joy Hope D. Jamili