The end of the cold war

chapter 8.3 and 8.4 in the cold war

GDR

- ostpolitik and helsinki accords increased popular demands for closer contact with the
FRG and a more liberal regime.
- while having done better in the 1970s, increasing foreing debt hurt the economy in
the 1930s.
- on 2 may 1989, hungary began desmanteling barriers along its austrian order in july,
thousands of east germans travelled to hungary. someattempted to cross the border
illegally and many applied for asylum at the FRG embassy.
- on 19 aug a demonstration called the pan-european picnic was held on the autum
the d ythujfn border at which the border gat was opened……
- increasing demonstrations in sep -oct 1969 were not met with violence, as theh
polititian of sed was divided and not help could de… from the usr.

poland

- economic problems were increasing in the late 1980s and corruption was
widespread.
- a series of strikes forced the government to negotiate with the independent trade
union solidary (formed 1980), led by Lech Walesa and with the catholic church.
- in april 1989, the round table agreement were signed . free election to 35% of the
Sejm (lower house) New Senate (upper house) and president office with free
elections.
- in june 1989, solidarity won 92/100 seats in the senate and the 160 out of 161 on the
seats, they were allowed to complete for them Sjem.
- a coalition government led by solidarity was formed and gorbachev announced that
he would not intervene.
- only after the collapse of communist rule in gdr and checoslovaquia wouldthe polish
communist party lose control of the army and police.

hungary

- from 1980, janoz kadar had pursued a policy tolerant of some critisicm and alowed
some elements of market economy. this was tolerated by the ussr as long as
hungary stayed in the warsaw pact.
- in may 1988, kadar was repplaced by committed reformer Karoly Grosz 1988, the
comunist party concluded that hungary would have to become a multiparty
democracy to prevent revolution
- in june 1988, following polands example, round table talks began between the
government and opposition groups, ending in an agreements the free elections would
be heldin march and april 19990
- the comnmunist partyleaders remained convinced that the part…………….
the baltic states- the singing revolution

- glasnost perestroika and the gradual collapse of communist in eastern europe led to
a revival of nationalism aldo in the soviet union.
- i 1858, so -called popular fronts, which were coalitions of reformers, formed in all
three baltic soviet republics snd demanded autonomy within the ussr.
- starting in feb 1990 , regional elections were held throughout the ussr and pro-
independence candidates won in the three baltic republics, in the spring, the three
republics declared their independence supported by polishsolidarity.
- gorbachev was initially strongly against this and in jan 1991 soviet troopsentered sll
three states claiming to be searching for military deserters. human shields protected
radio and tv stations. this strengthened the independence movement and the
ideåendances started gaining international recognition in the summer of 1991.

the end of the ussr

- in march- april 1989, elections were held to the ussr congress giving a majority to
reformers.
- boris yeltsin emerged as the leading reformist and was elected chairman o f the
supreme soviet of the russian SFSR in may 1990.
- on 12 june 19990 the congress of the russian SFSR declared russia a sovereign
state and claimed russian law superior to union law
- yeltsin elected president of rusia in june 1991.
- gorbachev now faced opposition form reformers but also from conservative
communists within the army party and the KGB.
- on aug 18 1991, leadig communists launched a coup attempt to save the old ussr.
yeltsin played a key role in relying the crowds in moscow against the coups.
- on dec 25 1991, gorbachev resigned as thepresident of the ussr, declaring the office
extinct.

eastern europe presentations:

Poland

GDR 1985-90

Prague Spring

Vaclav Havel

hungary 1956-1991

the collapse of the soviet union

 chapter 8 in the soviet union and soviet russia

economic problems from 1989

- lose of comecon trading patterns due to collapse of communist party rule in satellite
states
- gorbachev’s reform in the late 1980 led to increased prices and unemployment - both
a shock to most citizens. inflation ate up salaries and pensions. in jan 1991, the
removal of some price controls led to ruble to practically collapse with many losing
their savings.
- may left less inclined to be productive with a falling standard of living .
- gorbachev's conservative opponents could use working class discontent to oppose or
frustrate his reforms

loss of economic control

- the reforms taking away CPSU and government power over enterprises made it
difficult for the government to take action to solve economic problems.
- local production decisions (switching to moreprofitable goods) led to the government
losing its overview of the economy.
- by 1990, many observers duoubted that gorvachev had a clear plan for soviet
economic reform - was he going to hold on to central planning (conservative
approach) introduce more workers self management or possibly move towards a
more market based system?

reforms- how and to what extent?

- in dec 1989 the congress voted for the abakin programme of gradual privatization of
state property to create a market economy with state control restricted to raw
materials, fuel and defence.
- gorvachev and the government thought this was too extreme and opted foe a new
plan presented ny PM ryzhkov in may 1990, calling for a transition to a compromise
state regulated market economy by 1995.
- more radical reformers. including yeltsin, began pushing for an end to halfway
compromises and for the introduction of market economy.
- with gorvachev’s approval, a team of economists was set up by stanislav shatalin
proposing the shatalin plan in august 1990 recommending the move to a full market
economy in 500 days.
- gorvachev and ryzhkov rejected the shatalin pland and reseived a compromise
package from the supreme soviet in oct 1990 …..

democratic russia election bloc

- in jan 1990, the democratic russia election bloc was formed by veltsin and others to
run in the march 1990 RSFSR elections.
 - the group campaigned for abolishment of one -party rule in the union. in march , the
ussr supreme soviet amended the constitution to allow formation of the new political
parties.
- in the march 1990 RSFSR elections the DREB defeated many cpsu candidates .
yeltsin became chairman of the supreme soviet of the rsfr in may 1990.

executive presidency

- as conflicts between the congress , the supreme soviet and the council of ministers
continued , gorbachev started implementing an executive presidency to be ale to
push through reforms and keep the ussr together.

- veto legislation (could be overviewed by the supreme soviet)

- appoint PM and other top government posts (had to be confirmed by the
supreme soviet)
- dismiss government and dissolve the supreme soviet , after which the
congress would elect a new supreme soviet.

- initially the plan was to have a directly elected president, but in the end it was
decided that the congress would elect the leader. in march 1990, gorbachev was
elected president of the ussr.
- though gorvachev as president had more power than stalin on paper, in practice, his
position was much weaker , as both union institutions and institutions in the republic
acted increasingly independently.

reforming the CPSU

- the cpsu continued losing members - in 1990, over a million had left. this undermined
the position of the party.
- in aug 1991 , gorbachev drafted a new program for the cpsu, which barely mentioned
communism and looked more like a social democratic programme.
- the new party programme as well as the weakened position of the party were key
reasons for the attempted coup in the same month.
- the separation of the party and state weakened gorbachev's position . he headed s
state which wasn't fully established, and a party whose position he had weakened.

the union treaty process (1)

- to march 1980, the newly elected lithuanian supreme soviet voted to leave the ussr.
gorbachev sent in troops.
- in may 1990 the russian supreme soviet voted for russian sovereignty.
- to save the union, gorbachev wanted a new union treaty, which would be less
centralized. the treaty was approved by the supreme soviet in nov 1990 and sent to a
committee to continue the drafting process.
- the new treaty led lithuania to agree to suspend its declaration of independence until
the treaty had been amended and ratified.
the union treaty process (2)

- new problems arose, as estonia and latvia declared the 1940 annexations illegal.
- estonia, latvia, lithuania, moldavia, georgia and armenia boycotted the drafting
process. a new draft was approved by the supreme soviet in march 1991, but these
six republics boycotted a referendum on the new treaty.
- gorbachev proposed going ahead with signing the new treaty with the nine republics
which had approved it , leaving the six behind. yeltsin agreed, on the condition that
there would be presidential elections in all the republics.

yeltsin (1)

- as gorvachev launched the new union presidency, yeltsin increasingly critised him of
become authoritarian.

- gorvachev passed law banning “insulting of the president” and press

censorship was again tightened in the spring of 1990.

- yeltsin began using the RSFR as a power base having become the chairman of the
RSFR supreme soviet in may 1190.
- yeltsin allied with gorvachev’s opponents in ukraine and belarus to undermine the
union.
- as the arguments regarding the economic system became increasingly intense,
yeltsin resigned from the cpsu in june 1990.
- in jan 1991, private enterprise were legalized in the RSFR…..

tletsin (2)

- yelstin called for a russian presidency which gained support by a majority of russian
voters. in june 1991, he was elected the first president of the rsfr.
- a dual power existed between the soviet and russian leaderships.
- the rsfsr began taking over oil, mining and gas enterprises which had belonged to the
whole union.
- in july 1991, yeltsin banned political party members from holding office in rfsr state
organisations, to undermine the position of the pcsu. he also signed an agreement
with lituania in which the two ……

The aug 1991 coup attempt (1)

- political and economic chaos, concerns over development in eastern europe,
gorvache’s foreign policy , the draft decentralized union treaty, the reforming of the
CPSU , as well as yeltsin’s increasing pushes for market economy made cpsu
hardiners plot against gorbachev.
- the group was led by vice-president Gennadi Yanaev and included seven other
leaders. among them ministers in gorbachev's government and the chairman of the
KGB.

the aug 1991 coup attempt (2)

 - when the coup attempt became public there were demonstration.
- yeltsin whom the plotters had fallen to death, placed himself at the head of the
protesters in moscow to protect the russian parliament from the plotters.
- yeltsin issued a decree accusing the plotters of treason and called for a general strike
(which never happened).
- protests grew and a majority of the army and the security forces decided not to back
the coup………………..

aftermath of the coup

- when gorvachev returned to moscow he filled the positions of the plotters mainly with
conservatives who had not opposed the coup.
- yeltsin was angry at the appointments and pressured gorvachev to sack the soviet
government.
- on 24 aug gorvachev resigned as general- secretary of the cpsu, but remained
president of the union.
- on 29 aug cpsu activity was suspended throughout the union and on 6 nov, yeltsin
formally banned the party in the russian rsfsr
- as yeltsin continued strengthening russia, other soviet republics began seeing
breaking away from the union as the only way of protecting their own powers.
- in dec, ukraine voted to leave the union, russian belarus, and ukraine formed the
commonwealth of independent states to replace the union and gorvachev resigned
as president on 25 dec 1991, making the formal end of the ussr.

yeltsin and the congress

- growing arguments in 1992 over the impact of shock therapy led to growing
opposition which tried to halt the programme.
- the congress elected in march 1990, increasingly turned against yeltsin.
- the speaker of the supreme soviet, russian khasbulatov, became a vocal critic of the
reforms and yelstin’s tendency to ignore the parliament.
- in feb 1993, the communist party of the russian federation was formed by Genhady
Zyuganov and attracted many former cpsu members opposed to the reforms.
- the cprf participated in the national salvation front, which was a communist nationalist
grouping opposed to shock therapy. the group had about 30% of the deputied……

yeltsin’s 1993 coup

- continued deputies led yeltsin to on 20march say he would declare a state of

emergency to allow himself special powers to push through his economic policies.
- on 26 march, congress tried to dismiss yeltsin (60% for ⅔ required).
- a dual power situation again developed between the supreme soviet and yeltsin.
- on 21 sep yeltsin announced that he would use the Pinochet option and disband the
supreme soviet and the congress. he would rule by decree until the december
elections.
- on 22 sep, the supreme soviet voted 636:2 to dismiss yeltsin as president.
vicepresident rutskoi elected as acting president.
- on 4 oct as the parliament refused to disperse. yeltsin ordered the army to shell the
parliament. over 500 MPs and their supporters were killed and over 1000 were
injured.
 - masss arrest temporary ban on opposition parties, media censorship. backed by the
us.

using violence to establish himself as the leader and not having resistance.

december 1993 elections

- in dec 1993, a new constitution was adopted , extending presidential power. the
congress now became the Duma. the supreme soviet became the federation council.
- yeltsin’s party russia’s choice (former democratic russia) faced defeat against NSF
opposition parties.

- russia’s choice 15.5%, CPRF12.4%, Lieral Democratic Party (ultra nationalist)

22.9%

- yeltsin forced to slow down privatization as a result of the anti-yeltsin parliament.

- Economic problems and growth of foreign debt continued and yeltsin ‘s approval
rating sank to 5% in late 1995.

the 1995 elections

- CPRF headed by zyganov became the dominant opposition to yeltsin - 22.7% LPD
11.4% second-largest party.
- yeltsin ‘s new party “our home -rusia” got 10.3% of the vote.
- in a 1996 survey only 15% believed they were living better than before perestroika .
68% said they were living worse or much wore.
- faced with significant opposition , yeltsin sought support russia’s business elites in
bid to be re-elected as president in 1996.
- he planned a new wave of privatization, in which valuable private assets (industry,
energy, banking telecom) were sold off at unrealistically low valuations to oligarchs.

the 1996 presidential election

- yeltsin opinion poll ratings so low that some advisors suggested that he would cancel
the elections and rule as a dictator,
- yeltsin team used finance and media oligarchs to finance his campaign, giving
positive coverage.
- documentaries stressing horrors of communism, claiming zyuganov was a modern
stalin.
- in the first round yeltsin was 3% ahead of zyuganov.
- yeltsin was helped by a timely announcement by the IMF of their intention to grant
russia a 100 billion dollars loan ( made dependent on carriynng out total privatization
of state enterprises). the promised loan enabled yetsin to pay some overdue
pensions and wages as well as increase some welfare spending.
- yeltsin 54% vs zynagov 41% in the second round.

yeltsin 1996-2000
chapter 9.2 in the soviet union and post soviet russia
yeltsin 1997-98
- allegations of corruption increased. yeltsin and his frienda and backers accused of
having stolen moey from international loans.
- growing foreing debt led to a financial crisis in aug 1998. the russian government
devalued and postponed payments to foreignloans.
- continued string support for theCPRF and other comunist party. russia’s choice down
to 0.1% to support in noviemmre.
- as the duma wouldnt…………..

resignation

- in may 1999 the duma again tried to dismiss yeltsin .63% eoted for removal to thirds
needed.
- yeltson replaced pm primakov with sergei stepashin in may. in august , he was
replaced by putin.
- on 11 dec yeltsin resigned and announced that putin would take over as acting until,
elections wouldtake place in wmarch 2000.

economic summary of the 1990s in russia

- despite expectations of foreign investments , the 1990s saw more capital leading
russia then coming in (though eg foreign loans). oligarchs and gangsters moving
assets out of russia greatly contributed to this.
- GDP down by 45% from 1989 to 1998.
- from 1990 to 1999 coal oil steel and gas output all fell by 30-35%. consumer good
production fell by over 80%.
- russia’s share of world trade dropped by more than 50%, becoming comparable to
that of finland or hungary.

estonia 1989-2000

The gorbachev era

- first secretary of the communist party of estonia 1978-88, karl vaino, was convinced
that gorvachev’s reforms would soon dia away and things would go back to normal.
- a first wave of protest came in 1987 with a campaign against new phosphorite mines
in estonia. the plans were stopped.
- in august 1987, the estonian group for publishing in tallinn at which the secret
protocol and its consequences for estonia were openly discussed.
- later in 1987 , the estonian heritage society was formed , to bring attention to
historically important dates, such as the independence day of the 1918 estonian
republic.

1988- beginning of the “singing revolution”

- in april 1988, the estonian popular front to support perestroika (later ran in elections
under te name “popular front of estonia” was formed.
 - in the same month , the blue/white/black national flag made its first appearance in
public at a “heritage day” in Tallinn.
- as karl vaino seemed unable to control the situation , he was replaced by vaino
valijas as first secretary in june 1988.
- in aug 1988, the estonian national independence party (ERSP) was formed.
- the ECP tried to keep up with the pressure by beginning to support the idea of self
financing of the estonian ssr and proclaiming ……………..

pro-moscow forces

- to oppose the rise in nationalism , some heads of factories of all-union importance

and conservative communists initiated the formation of the intermovement and the
joint soviet of workers collectives.
- nationalist forces (ersp but also many ecp members), in the autumn of 1988, worked
towards an agreement with moscow which would give estonia a confederate status
within the ussr.
- as moscow was strongly opposed to this , nationalists increasingly worked towards
restoration of independence.
- on 16 nov 1988, the supreme soviet of estonian ssr declared sovereignty -
sup………………………….

1989-90

- in jan 1989 language law making estonian the official language.

- before 24 feb, this date was declared independence day. the estonian ssr flag was
lowered from the pikk hermann timer in tallinn and the new/old was hoisted.
- many russian speaking inhabitants of north-eastern estonia formed strike committee
and demanded that north -eastern estonia would be made an autonomous province.
- on feb 24 the movement of the committees of citizens was started , which claimed
that estonia was legally independent (1940 occupation illegal). they started
registering citizens according to the citizenship law of the former estonian republic to
elect a congress of estonia.
- in elections to the congress in feb 1990 more than 0.5 million voted. as an executive
organ…………………………………..

elections to the ESSR supreme soviet

- by early 1990, the ecp was split between nationalism and moscow minded
communist.
- when elections to the supreme soviet of the estonian ssr were held in march 1990,
nationalist ecp candidates ran under the label “free estonia” , whereas the moscow
mided ran under joint soviet of control work collectives.
- on 30 march, the new……………………….

the republic of estonia

 - in may 1990, the name of the estonian republic was restored. public use of the
symbols of the estonian ssr was forbidden and it was stated that only laws adopted
in estonia were valid.
- moscow threatened estonia witha n economic blockage and introduction of state of
emergency , wanting estonia to take part in the new union treaty.
- the pro-moscow intermovement attempted to get into toompea on 15 may, where the
government and supreme soviet were seated , but failed.
- during the second half of 1990, support for estonian independence increased both in
russia and internationally.

economic change

- on 1 jan 1990, the bank of estonia was restore……

estonia 1991-2000

1992 elections:

- the constitutional assembly drafted a new constitution by the end of 1991. the
constitution was expected in a june 1992 referendum.
- in the first presidencial elections (sep 1992), reformist communist arnold ruutel
gained 42% of the votes, whereas nationalist (Isamaa) lennart meri got 29% of the
votes. as no candidate received a majority, the parliament eventually elected meri.
cual meri? pues meri christmas xd.
- in the riigikogu elections (at the same time as the presidential elections), isamaa
became the largest party. the leader of isamaa historian Mart Last, became PM.
- following the elections, the congress of estonia (1990-92) was dissolved.

privatization and westernization:

- the right wing government 1992 - 94 emphasized privatization. most of the nationalist
industry was privatized, subtitles were abolished and a flat tax was introduced.
- in may 1994, estonia became an associate member of the EU. in jan 1995, a free
trade agreement was made with the eu negotiations on membership began in 1998
and estonia became a full member in 2004.
- in feb 1994, estonia became a member of nato’s partnership for peace and in 2004 a
full member of the alliance.

russian troops

- in sep 1992, there were about 40 000 russian soldiers in estonia, including those at
the naval base in paldiski (soviet nuclear submarine training center)
- the un general assembly adopted a resolution in nov 1992 on withdrawal of foreign
forces from the baltic countries.
- russia tried to link the withdrawal of troops to change in estonian citisenship law and
later to monetary compensation.
- lear was finally able to agree with yeltsin o withdrawal of the troops in 1994.
citizenchip

- in the first year after estonia regainedindependene,around 30% of the population did
not qualify for citizenship. some became stateless and some applied for russian
citizenship which was granted to all former ussr citizenship.
- to become estonian citizens by naturalisation, they would have to prove knowledge of
e.g the estonian language and the estonian constitution.
- the eu and the un have recommended that estonia simplify natiralisation. assembly
have criticised estonia for discrimination of the russian speaking minority.
- today around 20% of the estonian population are not estonian citizens.

border dispute

- when estonia became independent, a border dispute broke out between russia and
estonia.
- russia e´wanted to preserve the border as i thad been drwn upwhen estonia was
occupied during ww2, whereas estonia wanted to return to the 1920 tartu peace
teeaty power.
- i 1995, the estonian governmet gave up the claim.

…………………..

the balkan conflict in the 1990

background:

- acknowledging serbia’s role in ww1, the kingdom of the serbs, croats, and slovenes
was established at the end of the war.
- the state took the name yugoslavia in 1929.
- the state was dominated by serbia but included multiple ethnic and religious groups.

the ww2:

- yugoslavia invaded within a couple of weeks when attacked by nazi germany and
fascist italy in 1941.
- tha fascist croatian ustasha were installed in zagreb and began a campaign of terror
and genocide directed specially at serbs.
- resistance to the german occupation consisted of two opposing groups - the mainly
communist partisans under josip broz tito and the royalist-nationalist serb chetniks.
- as thethermost aggresive and o..
- in 1945, tito became the leader of………….

suppression of nationalism

- the federation was made up of 6 republics: serbia, croatia, slovenia, bosnia-

herzegovina, macedonia and montenegro.
 - tito wanted to suppress nationalist sentiment, especially by ensuring that serbia
remained weak.
- tito established the autonomous regions of kosovo (south) and vojvodina (north) in
serbia, to weaken the republic.
- ethnic tensions occasionally bubbled up, such as when albanian students
demonstrated in kosovo in 1968, resulting in the introduction in the albanian
language and the display of the albanian flag being allowed.

death of tito

- tito died on may 1980

- nationalist sentiment re-emerged. serbia supported a strong federation, while
slovenia and croatia wanted more autonomy.
- economics stagnation since the 1970s contributed to tensions.
- as seria was not interested in compromises, slovenia and croatia moved towards
secession from the federation.
- tansions increased in kosovo, where albanians were unhappy with serbs holding
positions of power in the regions despite bein a minority. federal tanks were sent in to
suppress protests in 1981.

the antibureocratic revolution:

- having legimisised serbian nationalism in kosovo, milosevic came into conflict with
stambolic and allied with other top party members in 1967 to outvote stambolic as
president of serbia and declared that “serbia will regard its rightful territory”
- molevic set out to control the votes and leadership in volvodina and kosovo in the
anti-ureucratic revolution. its leaders were pressured to resing due to complaints
against them and milosevuc’s allies replaced them.
- he then turned on montenegro’s president who, unable to resiste the pressure, stood
down and another milosevic man was installed. by 1989, serbia and milosevic had
control of half yugoslavia.

the 1989 miner’s strike in kosovo

- milosevic manipulation was challenged in kosovo. a strike was organisaded by

minors to demand the return to power of azam vlasi. milosevic asked the yugoslav
state council to grant him emergency powers in kosovo in feb 1989.
- the president of slovenia, milan alarmed fearing that slovenia would be next in line
demanding on tv that the strikes are not just defending albanian rights in kosovo,
they are defending yugoslavia… and every republic, including slovenia.
- in serbia , the head of tv broadcast what was being said in eslovenia and claimed
that kucan was champiioning separation in slovenia and kosovo, leading to massive
serb protests both in belgrade and in kosovo.
- this pressured the state councilto accept emergency powers for milosevic , and with
these in place kosovo had to cede all power to serbia. vlasi was charged with counter
-revolutionary and sent to prison. all dissent in kosovo was cruhed.
- serbia now had control of 4 out of 8 votes on federal level. milosevic lobbied far more
centralizatio which increased tensions with slovenia and croatia.
background to the slovenia 10-day wart

- in slovenia satirical magazine mladina properly ridiculed milosevic’s leadership and

president and president kucan refused to ban the magazine.
- extract from a secret military document which revealed links to a plot against slovenia
linked to milosevic were published in mladina at led to the yugoslav military putting
the journalist on trial.
- te journalist was sentenced but this ignited slovene dissident.
- kucan stated that the slovenian constitution had to be revised in order to keep
belgrade out of its affairs. milosevic told kufan he would rally the kosovan serbs and
hold a demonstration in the siovene capital ljutbjana.
- the croats blocked the path of the kosovan serbs to sloveni………………
- milosevic called an extraordinary party congress on 20 jan 1990 in a political move to
crush the defiant slovenes.
- the slovene delegation walked out in protest. the croat delegation followed the
slovenes, stating that they could not accept a yugoslav party without the slovene.
- on 25 june 1991 slovenia formerly seceded from the yugoslav federation.
government had taken control of the republic’s border posts and the international
airport.
- the following day, the federal army was ordered by the fedeeral government to
secure border crossings in slovenia limited fighting broke out between the federal
units and slovenian police and defence units.
- the stand-off continued for 10 days. on 7 july 1991, following calls from the
euronpeancommunity a 3 month certificate was……………..

croatia - the log revolution

- in may 1990, fanjo tudman was elected president of croatia. tudman openly promoted
a nationalist agenda. the traditional croatian flag was reinstated and the word
“socialist” was removed from the name of the republic.
- local serb politicians organised a referendum on serbs sovereignty within croatia.
local serbs communities attempted to exercise autonomy by blockading roads in the
log revolution (aug-dec 1990).
- tudman send helicopters with special forces to crush the rebels at knin, but the
yugoslv ………………

causes of the croatian war of independance:

- tudman as reject arms by the us, but eventually supplied by hungary yugoslav
military intelligence began garthering evidence of armssttrugling.
- in dec 1990 , a new croatian constitution was ratified and in response the serbs
formed the self proclaimed autonomous region of serbian autonomous oblast (sac)
od krajina . in jan 1991 the yugoslav government issued an orde that all illegally held
weapons ……..
- croatian pm mesic told the yiggoslav government that if it attempted to disarm the
croats by the force the response would be org……………..
- …………....
the croatian war of independence 1991-95

- after the armys hesitation, milosevic developed serbian paramilitaries to parts of

croatia intent on provoking a war. figthing erupted at the begginingof may.
- in the conflict te main perpetrations were serbs, however croatians also committed
atrocities.
- by 17 dec 1981, the serbs controlled ⅓ of croatia. in jan 1982 as the ceasefire
arranged by the “vance plan” negotiated by former US. Secretary of state cyrus
vance in nov 1991, had failed to hold further negotiation led to the implementation
plan on 2 jan 1992.
- the implementation plan allowed for supervision by the un protection force
(unprofor). in march 1992, un forces moved in. the effect iof this was in fact
protection of serbian gains. limited fighting still continued until 1995.

the balkan conflicts in the 1990s

background:

- milodevic and tudman csmr had ambitions to divide bosnia between them. in march
1992, bosnia-horzogovina held a referendum on independence which was boycotted
by the serbian minority.
- president alja isetbergovic declared bosnia-herzegovina independent in march 1992,
hoping for international recognition and support, and he called for unity between the
serb, croat and muslim communities.
- following the referendum, bosnian serb leaders declared the republica serbsca and
although milosevic would not send in the yugoslav military he transferred bosnian
serbs units from the federal units to bosnia and sent in paramilitaries. this gave
bosnian serb leader karadic a staning army of 80 000.

the war

- from april to october 1992. bosnia was assisted by croat frces both within bosnia and
croatia.
- from ost 1992, conflict broke out also between bosnians and croats, leading to a
three-sided war.
- in 1994, te croats again sided with the bosnians, who also received weapons from
pakistan despiite a UN ban on supply of arms..
- the serbs came under increasing pressure and in aug 1995. nato launched its ait
campaign “operation deliberate force” against the army……

the dayton accords

- under pressure from the us, russia and powers milosevic, izetbegovic and tudjman
agreed to a settenment in nov 1995.
- the dayton accords estbaliched a single sovereign state called bosnia and
herzegovina, composed of 2 parts; republica srpska and the federation of bosnia and
hrezegovina
 - patrice mcmahon and jon western: “as successful as dayton was at enading the
violence, it also sowed the seeds of instability by creasing a decentralised poliial
system …. …….

the war in kosovo 1998-1999

constitutional changes:

- in 1990, the yugoslav communist party announced it would give up its position as the
only legal party in yugoslavia, but deferral elections were never held as each republic
adopted their own constitutions after this.
- also serbia launched constitutional changes and moved to close the kosovo
assembly in july 1990 and to half albanian- language tv broadcast.
- multi-party elections were held in all republics in 1990 including serbia in de 1990,
after which milosevic became president of serbia.
- in 1991, kosovar albanians held an unofficial independence referendum and in 1992
unofficial elections for an assembly and a president were held.
- serbian repression of albanians continued.

the kla:

- the first president of kosovo (elections 1992) was ibrahim rugova, who pursued a
policy of passive resistance.
- some were frustrated at rugova¨s passive strategy and the kosovo liberation army
grew through the 1990s. attacks on serbian police became more frequent after 1995.
- the kla had links to rugova¨s party, although the kla disagreed with rugova’s passive
strategy. some within kla wanted to unify all territories in which albanians lived.
- political chaos in albania in 1997 enable the kla to acquire albanian weapons.
- as the peace implementation council set up by the dayton accords held a meeting in
dec 1997, the yugoslav delegation stormed out as western diplomats insisted that
kosovo and albanian demands should de discussed.
- fighting broke put between yugoslav forces and the kla in early 1998.

the racak massacre, 15 jan 1999

- western attemps in 1998 at achieving a lasting peace failed.

- on 15 january 45 kosovan alanians were killed in the racak masacre.
- what was the significance of the rasack…………………………………

nato attacks

- after the racak massacre nato decided that an intervention was nessesary.
- when an international force called the kosovo verification mission which had been
sent im oct 198 withdrew in march 1999 yugoslav forces began a massive campaing
of repression of kosvar albanians.
- nato began aerial bombing of yugoslav and serb targets on 24 march without un
security council approval. 488 yugoslav civilians dided in the campaing.
 - on 9 june, yugoslav and serb authorities signed a the komanovo.treaty agreeing to
withdraw from kosovo to make way for international forces. nato forces entered
kosovo on 12 june.

humanitarian consequences

- it is estimated that 140000 people were killed in the balkan conflicts of the
1990,100,000 of which in bosnia-herzegovina.
- over 80% of those killed in the bosnian war were civilians.
- the conflicts led to an acute refugee crisis as 2.4 million people field the fighting and
another 2 million were internally displaced.
- lives continued to be lost in the aftermath. approximately 5 million landmines
remained across bosnia and over 1500 people have been killed by then after the war.
assigment:
what types of cimes did the icty investigate?
established to prosecute the war crimes that had been committed during the Yugoslav Wars and
to try their perpetrators.
how successful has the icty ben in its work+
Look through the list of indictees . which u recognise?