An implicit model of consumer behaviour

Peter Sampson, Barbara Dawson and J. Paul Heylen
International Journal of Market Research
Vol. 37, No. 1, 1995
 
 

   Title: An implicit model of consumer behaviour

   Author(s): Peter Sampson, Barbara Dawson and J. Paul Heylen
   Source: International Journal of Market Research
   Issue: Vol. 37, No. 1, 1995
 

An Implicit Model of Consumer Behaviour

J.Paul Heylen
and
Barbara Dawson
The Heylen Research Centre, Auckland, New Zealand.
and
Peter Sampson
The Infratest Burke European Research Centre, London

Introduction

Market forces are not created by marketing managers, nor advertising agencies, nor the distribution system. Neither are they
random forces. Consumer needs, consumer motivations and market dynamics, whether expressed at the micro (consumer)
level, or the macro (market) level, are systematic forces. It is the view of the authors that these forces are embodied in the
nature and dynamics of human beings, human behaviour and human society.

When studying consumer needs or market dynamics, it is important to realise that people do not behave in a random manner.
Unlike objects, consumers are alive. They are people and people have a life force, a vitality, an internal dynamic energy.
Market forces, human behaviour and, by extension, consumer behaviour are expressions of this energy.

The internal dynamic energy is implicit. In other words, it is inherent and continuously present in every expression of the
human organism, behaving either as an individual or in a group.

Where does this implicit dynamic force come from? Clearly, it is a part of our internal genetic imprint. A newborn baby does not
learn to suck. It searches for warmth and food, instinctively. Its implicit imprint ensures that it behaves in a manner to maximise
its chances of survival.

Identifying and understanding the implicit forces that constitute the triggers and basic dynamics of consumer needs
and behaviour, is the first and foremost priority of market research.

The basic assumption that these implicit forces are subconscious internal triggers and motivations, however, is a perspective
that might be at variance with the established view that consumers are rational decision-makers, who act on beliefs and strive
toward goals. It is, therefore, not surprising that most consumer behaviour models, until now, have been based on a cognitive
view of the world.

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A new theory of implicit forces and internal motivations has only recently been formulated, when modern positivist biology
confirmed some of the older psychoanalytical theories. As Badcock (1988) has observed:

Conceived as the packaging and guardians of their genes, organisms were seen as existing in order to reproduce,
and as evolving, if they succeeded. Such an emphasis on individual reproductive success seems to accord quite
naturally with libido theory, as a number of biologists have recently observed. Unless we are to entertain the
unscientific idea that human beings are, in some way or another, exempt from evolution, and not its products, we
are forced to conclude that there is much common ground between the findings of Freud with regard to the primacy
of the libido and those of Darwin, regarding reproductive success as the driving force of evolution.

Qualitative researchers have, for decades, claimed to be able to probe beneath the surface, via enabling and projective
techniques, to discover the unconscious and subconscious needs and desires of consumers. Skilled qualitative researchers
have contributed significantly to our understanding of consumer behaviour, and have used successfully many different
psychological models. However, a systematic, objective, scientific basis for data collection, data analysis and data
interpretation has been lacking. Moreover, there has been nothing that has linked or integrated qualitative and quantitative
research.

The authors argue that the 'implicit model', developed by Heylen during the 1970s and 1980s, (See Heylen 1984, 1990 and
1990a), provides this breakthrough in both understanding consumer behaviour and in linking qualitative and quantitative data.

The implicit model

The implicit model departs from the principle that only an innate, bio-energetic imprint lies at the basis of all behaviour. The
underlying bio-genetic imprint consists of instincts, drives and needs. These motivate and, compulsively and unconsciously,
drive the behaviour of consumers.

Although the core of behaviour departs from its bio-energetic source, all behaviour is modified and adapted according to the
cultural and socio-normative requirements of society. Behaviour, therefore, is expressed only after having been filtered
(subconsciously and implicitly) by an adaptive mechanism. This can be represented by Figure 1.

In this model, all consumer behaviour originates within an innate bio-energetic dynamic principle or imprint (inner world), which
Freud called libido and which biologists localise in human genes (Dawkins 1976). Behaviour, however, is only expressed in
the outer world after having been filtered and adapted to the requirements of social norms and culture.

It is important to note that the holistic nature of the implicit model conflicts with many marketing theories where a hierarchical
model is presented (e.g. DAGMAR and AIDA; see Lannon & Cooper 1983). In hierarchical models, cognitive behaviour
(awareness and knowledge) is followed by affective behaviour (positive attitudes and positive image) and precedes
consumption or purchasing behaviour. In the real world, consumer behaviour does not accord with such models. However,
adherence to them has, unfortunately, led to many marketing and advertising failures.

In the implicit model, all behaviour occurs simultaneously and syncrone. This is because all behaviour results from the same
innate and unconscious bio-energetic source, and is only expressed after having been filtered by one and the same adaptive
mechanism.

Why an adaptive filter? What is its purpose? Living in society is only possible if the individual adjusts the gratifications of his
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bio-energetic drives to the cultural and socio-normative requirements of society (Badcock 1980). Moreover, Freuds definitions
of culture and civilisation are, ultimately, no more than systems used by society to filter, repress or delay drift-expressions of
individuals (Freud 1930).

Considering that all, so-called normal behaviour is expressed through the adaptive filter, it would seem logical that an
understanding of the working principles of this system can open the door to a more systematic approach to the internal,
unconscious dynamics of consumer behaviour.

Already by the 1950s, in The measurement of meaning (Osgood, Suci & Tannenbaum 1957), Osgood, the developer of the
semantic differential scale, universally used by generations of market researchers, pointed out that constant, implicit
dimensions underlie all perception. This suggests that perception is implicitly filtered. The implicit dimensions of meaning, that
act as a pair of spectacles, facilitate the giving of meaning to, and coping with, what is being perceived. The implicit
infrastructure underlying perception is not consciously explicit and appears to be a universal human condition.

The Heylen implicit model is no more than a systematic representation of how tension between the bio-dynamic inner world
and the socio-cultural outer world can be resolved.

Bio-dynamic drives can either be:

l expressed, and thus externalised

l repressed, and thus internalised or negated

At the same time, there are only two modes in which bio-dynamic energy can be outwardly expressed or inwardly repressed.
They are:

l the active, ego-assertive mode

l the passive, receptive, socio-affiliative mode

A two-dimensional space, formed by the interaction of these dynamics, can be drawn as X and Y axes. This space can be
regarded as the implicit infrastructure for all expressions of behaviour. This is shown in Figure 2.

The dynamic interaction of both the bio-energetic and socio-normative forces generates an implicit space within which all
potential behaviour is contained. The model can be completed as shown in Figure 3.

The model thus combines human biological drives with social dynamics. It recognises that human behaviour strives constantly
to satisfy both biological and social needs (see Figure 4).

The implicit space is defined by eight labels as shown in Figure 5.

The model is a dynamic model. It represents the adaptive filter that acts as a two-way system, providing a filter from inner to
outer world as well as from outer to inner world. For example:

Inner to outer world

Internal bio-genetic drives are modified into socially acceptable behaviour, thereby providing the individual with a range of
potential behavioural strategies to gratify efficiently his internal drives in the outer world. Individuals can be characterised by

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the behavioural strategy used most frequently.

Outer to inner world

The adaptive filter, however, also acts as a filter from the outer to the inner world.  It allows the individual to decode, by 
projecting meaning on to the external world. This facilitates understanding and, thereby, the ability to adapt to the outer world.
The model can be used to indicate the implicit positions of products, brands, companies, segments of consumers, etc. within
the implicit space.

The implicit model as a research instrument

The discovery and development of the model has made it possible to develop standardised research tools that allow
researchers to go beneath the conscious, rational surface and penetrate unconscious, instinctive dimensions of consumer
behaviour. The tools and techniques used to do this, and that can be applied both qualitatively and quantitatively, all involve:

l  projective and transference devices for data gathering 
l  the use of the implicit dynamic model for data interpretation 

Over many years, Heylen (1990b; 1990c; 1991; 1993) has developed a range of such techniques. These have been largely
borrowed from psychoanalysis and include photosets of people, animals, paintings, etc. They are normative, validated sets of
non-verbal stimuli that provide a direct means of cutting through rationalisations and reaching the core of consumer motivation.

Techniques of this sort are not new to qualitative research practitioners, especially in Europe. However, over the past seven
years, Heylen has been developing and extending their application to quantitative research. This development represents a
breakthrough for market researchers. No longer is depth of understanding confined to qualitative research. It can be measured
objectively and systematically.

The approach not only gives access to the instinctive core components of behaviour but also provides a framework for
understanding these.

The implicit model allows us to determine for a brand (or product or company i.e. an object) both its identify and its
personality. Its brand image will be a combination of these two dimensions. Increasingly, the marketing literature is pointing to
the fact that brands are becoming similar, if not identical, in terms of their attribute bundles (see Aaker 1991 and Sampson
1994), and that consumers are making brand choices on the basis of brand personality, (i.e. an emotional rather than a
rational basis). Moreover two advertising agencies Y & R, with its Brand Asset Valuator and BBDOs Brand Perception Audit,
(Munzinger 1994) and the researchers Ilsley & Posten (1994), have similar approaches to evaluation. However, they all use
verbal stimuli and fewer applications have been developed for these models.

Identity and personality

Every person or object (product, brand, company, etc) possesses:

l  An identity the explicit, external features that are observed by the rational and conscious brain and easily verbalised by
respondents in the context of market research studies.
l  A personality the implicit, internal features that are experienced by the primal, subconscious brain.

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Philosophy and religion talk about a body (identity) and a soul (personality).

A brief note on neuroanatomy

Neuroanatomists conventionally divide the human brain into three zones (Figure 6).

The reptilian brain, or hindbrain, is the oldest part. It evolved and developed millions of years ago. It is the centre of the most
basic and fundamental human instincts or drives, those of survival and procreation and lies deepest within the cranial cavity.

The neo-cortex, or forebrain, is a relatively recent development of human evolution. In less than 10,000 years, the neo-cortex
has grown to become 85% of the brains original volume. It enables us to be conscious, to think, reason, speak and use
abstract thought and language. This thinking brain is sited around the external surface area of the cranial cavity.

The limbic system, the midbrain, enables us to experience and express primal feelings of pleasure and displeasure, such as
anger, anxiety, happiness, aggression, etc. Via connections with the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system, it is
the part of the brain where emotions and experiences are controlled. This is the feeling brain. It lies within the central area of
the cranial cavity, between the fore and hindbrains.

According to Snell (1992) . . . limbic structures are involved in the development of sensations of emotion and with the visceral
responses accompanying those emotions. They provide a series of linkages between what people think and what they feel,
via non-verbal cues, acquired throughout the evolutionary process. It is the reception and transmission system of dreams and
feelings, of colours, shapes, signs, symbols and sounds that we relate to, both instinctively and universally.

The neo-cortex has developed both rapidly and recently. From the biological perspective, there is a simple explanation for this.
Evolution is not a random process. As Darwin (1859) explained, species adapt to their surroundings and environments, in
order to survive, and only the fittest do so. The neo-cortex developed as human beings developed into complex, social and
productive animals from nomads, to hunters, to farmers, to urban-industrialists, to the post-industrial society inhabitants of to-
day. The need to think, reason, calculate, analyse, etc. became ever more necessary, in order to survive.

To-day, the neo-cortex is so dominant that it is easy to think of man as a thinking, reasoning organism, only. The view of
rational man cannot explain human or consumer behaviour. It is only a part of the picture. It is necessary to obtain access to
information/responses from feeling man too. This can only be achieved via an implicit model, that relates thinking behaviour
and feeling behaviour, in a structured way.

In our relationships with people, products, brands and companies, we are more impacted upon by the implicit (intangible and
invisible) personality than by the explicit (tangible and external) identity, although both play important roles in responding to our
needs (see Figure 7).

The practical use of the implicit space

The juxtaposition of the biological and social axes allows us to identify implicit space, within which all behavioural strategies,
combinations of the biological and the social, can be mapped. In theory no behaviour can be purely bio-energetic or purely
socio-normative. The implicit space allows us to deal with both influences. Implicit space is characterised by the labels of the
general model (as Figure 5) going clockwise:

Label Implicit meaning

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- Extroverted active, lively, independent

- Warm friendly, sociable
- Affiliative conforming, caring, sharing, group-orientated
- Subdued accepting, calm, secure, sensible, neutral
- Introverted quiet, reserved, introspective
- Cool alert, responsible, in control
- Assertive competent, successful, confident
- Energetic vital, energetic, strong

These eight labels remain constant for all product categories, subject to re-interpretation. Into implicit space we can project the
ideal points (= ideal brand position) of segments, brands, concepts, packs, names, advertisements, etc. We can also project
into the same space the explicit attribute set. These are attributes that vary according to the product category and are unique
for each category. This joint-space enables us to create explicit space within the implicit space, providing a very powerful
diagnostic environment.

The labels of Figure 5, those of the general implicit model, may need to be re-interpreted for different product categories. For
example, we do not talk about an assertive beer or a beer to satisfy the need to assert oneself, etc.

For the beer category, the labels, redefined to explain sets of needs, i.e. they are consumer based, may be changed as
follows:

General implicit need Equivalent needs satisfied by beer

- Extroverted Enhancement/refreshment
- Warm Enjoyment
- Affiliative Tradition
- Subdued Relaxation
- Introverted Compensation
- Cool Control
- Assertive Modernity
- Energetic Stimulation

The applications of the implicit model are wide-ranging.

Sampson, P. (1994) has shown applications in respect of brand image measurement and Sampson, K. (1994) has studied
perceptions of conventional medicine and complimentary therapies. Hooper, Andersson & Sampson, P. (1994) have shown
how it is used in market segmentation. Sampson, P. (1995) has shown it can be used in optimising product design in the
automotive field.

At the present time, developments are at a stage where the implicit model is being used to address issues in:

l the whole area of diagnostic qualitative research

l brand image and brand positioning/brand equity evaluation
l market and modal segmentation (i.e. segmentation by usage mode/occasion)
l testing products, packs, names and advertising
l sensory testing of taste and smell
l developing typologies of target groups and audiences
l market and brand monitoring

A major benefit of the system is that the space is implicit and, therefore, constant. A major drawback to conventional mapping
methods, based on Euclidean distance measures, is that if either the set of objects to be mapped changes and/or the set of
attributes change, in number or description, the entire map changes. This means that data mapped into implicit space can be
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used as a database capable of being revisited. A brand positioning/segmentation study can be followed by a concept test,
followed by a name and pack test and then an advertising test. Each successive set of data can be superimposed on to the
original database, for as long as the structure of the market and the brands does not change. It would be very unusual for this
to happen in the short term.

Moreover, the implicit model can be applied at both the product and brand level. Figure 8 shows generic products, mapped in
implicit space. It can be seen that beer, as a drink, is warm, friendly and sociable. But, at the brand level, a second order of
magnification can be applied. Not all brands are warm and friendly. We have brands whose personalities are assertive
(modern), or cool (controlling) and even introverted (compensating).

By calculating the positions separately for owners/non-owners or users/non-users of different brands, it is possible to identify,
for example, how owners of different makes of cars differ in their perceptions of a manufacturer. Figure 9 shows how
Volkswagen and Saab owners differ from non-owners, in their perceptions of these two makes.

Within the implicit model, the explicit attributes play an important role in differentiating the images of brands, especially
between those possessing similar personalities. By calculating the closeness of each of these attributes to each of the brands,
the brand footprint can be shown. The next two maps demonstrate how the Renault Clio and the Ford Fiesta have a similar
personality, but very different brand identities and, therefore, different brand images (Figure 10 and Figure 11).

Collecting data for the implicit model

At the qualitative level, for diagnostic work, three kinds of non-verbal stimuli are used. They take the form of different sets of
carefully validated photographs.

Ascription sets are used to identify the perceived personality of the user/non-user of products, brands, etc. By using these
projective stimuli, it is possible to identify underlying motives that may be ascribed to use or non-use, to loving or hating a
product category, product or brand. The ascription sets are:

l Caucasian and Negro male physiognomy

l Caucasian and Negro female physiognomy
l child physiognomy set (Caucasian)
l teenager physiognomy set (Caucasian) in final stages of validation

Gratification sets are used to identify the ultimate psychological, social and physical gratification provided by products, brands,
environments, etc. The gratification sets are:

l abstract paintings
l paintings
l morphology

(Recent developments of the implicit system use the gratification set, in quantitative research concerned with sensory testing
taste and smell.)

Animation sets are used to identify the underlying personality, image and perceptions of a product, brand, company, etc. By
allowing respondents to project a personality into a live stimulus, they tend to animate (literally, give a personality) to the

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product, brand, company in question. The animation sets are:

l dogs
l animals
l fantasy worlds

It was stated earlier that the implicit model provides a link between qualitative and quantitative research, via the same
structure. (The structure differs very slightly, but is easily transposed, rather like playing music in a different key.)

At the quantitative stage, the ascription and gratification photo sets are used to define the vectors of the implicit space.

Analysing data for the implicit model

In qualitative applications, a full understanding of the dynamics of the model is required in order to achieve a sufficient level of
diagnosis. It requires qualitative researchers to approach their data via a structure, into which the data are fitted. It is never a
question of fitting the structure to the data. Moreover, such Procrustean tactics are simply not necessary. The Implicit model
crosses product categories and cultures with ease, because, as Sampson, P. (1992) has demonstrated, People are people,
the world over.

In quantitative applications the data are treated by a set of algorithms developed by Heylen and associates. The implicit model
algorithms provide maps of implicit space into which objects (products, brands, concepts, names, pack designs,
advertisements, consumer segment ideals, etc.) and explicit attributes are projected.

Conclusion

1. The implicit research model is a new approach to tackling a range of old market research problems. Its major advantages
are that it provides:
2. Sensitive insight into the deeper, unconscious market needs of consumers by means of systematic projection-sets that
bypass verbal and rational behaviour. It now becomes possible to identify true market forces and dynamics.
3. An implicit framework-benchmark that ensures all data gathering and data interpretation, both qualitative and quantitative,
takes place within constant space. All information thus becomes fully comparable and interpretation no longer subjective.
4. A marketing decision-taking framework the blueprint of the relevant market forces, that serves as a basis for strategic and
tactical marketing planning and evaluation.

References

Aaker, D. (1991). Managing brand equity. New York: Free Press.

Badcock, C.R. (1980). The psychoanalysis of culture. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Badcock, C.R. (1988). Essential Freud. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Darwin, C.E. (1859). The origin of the species. London: John Murray.

Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene. Oxford: OUP.

Freud, S. (1930). Civilisation and its discontents. London: Hogarth Press.

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Heylen, J.P. (1984). Libido als drijfreer van bet konsumenten-gedrag. Niewe Horizonten in Marketing, Proceedings of the Second Flemish
Marketing Congress, pp 13950. Antwerp.

Heylen, J.P. (1990) Modelling implicit dynamics: a more systematic approach to data gathering and interpretation. Proceedings of the ESOMAR
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Heylen, J.P. (1990a) IMPMAP. Doorbraak in Marketingonderzoek. Marketingjaarboek. pp. 3843. Brussels: Roularta Books.

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Marktonderzoekers, pp 279.

Heylen, J.P. (1990c). Light: symptom of a post-industrial society? Proceedings of the Conference on Light Culture, Institute for International
Research (IIR), Brussels, pp 212.

Heylen, J.P. (1991). Nieuwe ontwikkelingen voor een meer marktgerichte kreativieit.Marketingjaarboek. Brussels: Roularta Books, pp 2731.

Heylen, J.P. (1993). The psychodynamics of brands. Proceedings of the Congress Merkintroduktie in de Agribusiness. Den Haag, Nederlandse
Studie Centrum.

Hooper, B.J., Andersson, H-E. & Sampson, P. (1994). Dynamic segmentation an integrated approach to segmentation. Proceedings of the
ESOMAR Seminar on Building Successful Brands: The Need for an Integrated Approach. Prague. pp. 4163.

Lannon, J. & Cooper, P. (1983). Humanistic advertising. International Journal of Advertising, 2, 3, 195213.

Osgood, C.E., Sucu, C.J. & Tannenbaum P. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana, Ill: University of Illinois Press.

Ilsey, C. & Posten, R.J. (1994). Using the eyes of the consumer to build successful globalised brand management strategies. Proceedings of the
ESOMAR Seminar on Building Successful Brands: The Need for an Integrated Approach. Prague. pp. 7989.

Munzinger, U. (1994). Brand management and brand measurement. Proceedings of the ESOMAR Seminar on Building Successful Brands: The
Need for an Integrated Approach. Prague. pp. 14961.

Sampson, K. (1994). Medical students perceptions of conventional medicine and different complementary medicine therapies: an IMPMAP study.
University College London, Department of Psychology/Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School, March.

Sampson, P. (1991). People are people the world over: the case for psychological segmentation. Proceedings of the ESOMAR/ARF/JMA
Conference, Tokyo.

Sampson, P. (1994). Lets take a new look at brand image measurement: the resolution of a complex problem. Proceedings of the ESOMAR
Congress, Davos.

Sampson, P. (1995). Engineering a motor car that someone really wants to buy. Proceedings of the ESOMAR Seminar on Successful Product
Engineering, Berlin.

Snell, R.S. (1992). Clinical neuroanatomy, 3rd edition. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.<

NOTES & EXHIBITS

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FIGURE 1:
SUBCONSCIOUS DYNAMIC INFRASTRUCTURE

FIGURE 3:

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FIGURE 4:

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FIGURE 5:

FIGURE 7:

FIGURE 8:
GENERIC PRODUCTS: AN EXAMPLE FROM BELGIUM

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© Impmap

FIGURE 9:

FIGURE 10:

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FIGURE 11:

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