Stress: related to plate tectonics but also
to the weight of overlying rocks
Strain: response to that stress
Compressive: region close to where
plates are converging stress, the rocks are
being squeezed together.
Shear stress: plates moving side by side
there is sideways movement in opposite
directions parallel to a plane.
Elastic Strain: reversible; if the stress is
removed, the rock will return to its
original shape.
Plastic strain: not reversible
Fault: a rock boundary along which the
rocks on either side have been displaced
relative to each other.
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Folds: geological features created by the
deformation of rock due to compressive
stress.
Anticline (symmetrical) : an upward
fold
Syncline (Symmetrical) : downward
fold
Axial plane (Asymmetrical) : the crest
of a fold in a series of bed
Limbs: sloping beds on either side of an
axial plane
Overturned anticline or syncline: if the
axial plane is sufficiently tilted that the
beds on one side have been tilted past
vertical.
Isoclinal Fold: the limbs are parallel or
nearly parallel to one another
Recumbent folds: isoclinal folds that
have been overturned to the extent that
their limbs are nearly horizontal
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Fracturing: a body of rock that is
brittle-either because it is cold or likely
to break rather than fold when subjected
to stress
Joint: a fracture in a rock is also called
Faulting: boundary between two bodies
of rock along which there has been
relative motion.
Hanging wall: The body of rock above
the fault
Footwall: the body of rock below the
fault
Normal Fault: hanging wall that moves
upward relative to the footwall
Reverse fault: hanging wall the moves
downward
Strike-slip fault: bodies of rock are
sliding sideways with respect to each
other.
Thrust Fault: special type of reverse
fault, with a very low-angle fault plane.
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Strike: the compass orientation of a
horizontal line on the surface
Dip: the angle at which the surface dips
from the horizontal (perpendicular to the
strike)
Clinometer: a device for measuring
vertical angles
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Site investigation: the exploration or
discovery of the ground conditions to
enable engineers to make informed
design decisions.
Main Objectives of Geological and
geophysical investigations
1. The geological structure of the
area
2. The lithology of the area
3. The groundwater conditions in the
region
4. The seismicity of the region
Stages of Site investigation:
1. Desk Study: Data Gathering
2. Preliminary Site investigation:
establish the geologic feasibility
of the site
a. Use of imagery
b. Field Study
c. Mapping
d. Report of Preliminary
Investigation
3. Detailed Site Investigation: Data
gathered are analyzed onsite
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Geological Investigation: occurs at a
preliminary stage of projects are supplies
generalized information
Area Mapping: develop an accurate
picture of the geologic framework of the
project area
Site Mapping: large-scale and details
geologic maps should be prepared for
specific site of interest
Construction Mapping: record detail
geologic conditions encountered during
construction
Direct Method of Site Exploration
1. Subsurface Exploration in Soils
a. Augering
b. Pits and Trenches
c. Percussion Boring
d. Wash-Boring
2. Sampling in Soils
a. Undisturbed Samples
b. Disturbed Sample
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Geophysical Investigation: consists of
making indirect measurements form the
earth’s surface or in boreholes to obtain
subsurface information
Geophysical Method: used to determine
the geological sequence and structure of
subsurface rocks by the measurement of
certain physical properties or forces.
6 Major Geophysical Investigation
1. Seismic
2. Electrical Resistivity
3. Sonic
4. Magnetic
5. Radar
6. Gravity
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Foundation: lowest part of structure
located below the ground level
Function of Foundation:
- Transmit all superimposed loads
- Withstand against all kinds of
settlements
- Prevent lateral movement of
supporting materials
- Give stability to the structure
Characteristics of foundation
- Wide enough to distribute weight
over larger base area
- Evenly loaded condition that
prevents unequal settlement
- Deep enough preventing
overturning and increasing
stability
Type of Foundation:
1. Shallow Foundation: depth of
foundation is less than or equal to
width
2. Deep Foundation: the depth of
the foundation is very large in
comparison to its width
Factors to Consider in Design
- Soil bearing capacity
- Soil type
- Variability of the soil over the
area
- Susceptibility of the soil and the
building to deflections
Methods of improving bearing Indirect Uses:
capacity of soils: - Hydroelectric Power
1. Increase in the depth of - Transportation
foundation
2. Drainage of sub-soil water Types of Dam
3. Compaction of soil 1. Gravity Dam
_________________________________ : heavy and massive wall-like structures
of concrete
Dam: a barrier built across a water : uses triangular shape and the sheer
course to hold back or control water flow weight of their rock and concrete
structure to hold back the water in the
Classification of Dams reservoir
1. Storage
2. Diversion 2. Buttress Dam
3. Detention : considered even if the foundation rocks
are a little weak
Benefits of Dams : uses multiple reinforced columns to
- Irrigation support a dam that has relatively thin
- Electrical Energy structure
- Municipal Water Supply
- Supplement Navigation 3. Arch Dam
- Flood Control : concrete or masonry dams which are
- Electrical Energy curved or convex upstream in plan
- Recreation
4. Earth Dam
Dam Uses : trapezoidal in shape
Direct Water uses Mainly built with clay, sand, and gravel,
- Private hence known as earth fill dam or rock fill
- Commercial dam
- Irrigation
- Livestock 5. Composite Dam
- Industrial : combinations of one or more dam types
- Mining
- General Public Supply
Physical Impacts
- Loss of land
- Stagnant Water table
- Habitat Destruction
- Sediment Load
- Water Pollution
- Reservoir-Induced Seismicity
Design Consideration: Structural
Features
1. Dip and strike
2. Folds
3. Faults
4. Joints
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Pavement:distribute traffic load, give a
visual perspective of the horizontal and
vertical alignment of the travel path
Types of Pavement:
1. Soil Road: uses the natural earth
(built in rural areas)
2. Gravel Road: gravel stone spread
onto compacted soil
3. Bituminous Road (Flexible
Pavement): coiffure surface, hot
mix asphaltic concrete
4. Concrete Road (Rigid
Pavement): road surface uses
portland cement concrete
5. Interlocking Block: road surface
uses blocks
Flexible Pavement
- the total pavement structure bends
or defects due to traffic loads
- Highest quality materials near the
surface
- Guiding Principle: enough total
thickness to protect subgraded and
enough surface thickness to
prevent fatigue cracking
Rigid Pavement
- They are substantially stiffer than
flexible due to portland cement
concrete’s high stiffness
- High modulus of elasticity
- Must consider strength of
concrete
Structural Design Considerations
1. Traffic loading
2. Strength characteristics of paving
materials and subgrade supporting
capacity
3. Environmental Factor
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Slope: an inclined boundary surface
between air and the body of an
earthwork such as highways cut or fill,
railway cut or fill, earth dams, levees and
river training works
Slide: presence of water increases
weight, reduces shear strength, and
decreases the stability.
Classification of Slopes:
1. Natural Slopes: exists in nature
and are formed by natural causes
2. Man made Slopes- the sides of
cutting, the slopes of
embankments constructed for
roads
Mode of Failure
1. Face Failure: slope failure above
toe
2. Toe Failure: slope failure through
toe
3. Base Failure: slip surface passes
below the base or toe of the slope
Factors of Instability:
1. Factors Causing Increased Stress
2. Factors Causing a reduction in
strength
Tunnels: an underground route or pass
constructed
Rock Type for Tunneling Operations
1. Unconsolidated Rocks: include
loose sediments like gravel, sand,
clay, and highly decomposed
rocks
2. Consolidated Rocks: include
granite, basalt, gabbros, diorite,
gneiss, schist, sandstone.
Structural Feature of Tunnel Site
1. Dip and strike
2. Folds
3. Faults
4. Joints

Remedial Measure for slope stability

problems
1. Slope reduction
2. Providing the berm at the toe of
the slope
3. Providing Drainage
4. Densification
5. Vegetation
6. Construction of Earth Retaining
structure
7. Earth Anchors
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