See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/226377370

Geological setting and timing of the Chah Zard breccia-hosted epithermal

gold–silver deposit in the Tethyan belt of Iran

Article  in  Mineralium Deposita · April 2012

DOI: 10.1007/s00126-011-0382-3

CITATIONS READS

50 2,400

5 authors, including:

Hossein Kouhestani Majid Ghaderi

University of Zanjan Tarbiat Modares University
102 PUBLICATIONS   458 CITATIONS    186 PUBLICATIONS   1,771 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Khin Zaw Sebastien Meffre

University of Tasmania University of Tasmania
241 PUBLICATIONS   7,860 CITATIONS    328 PUBLICATIONS   11,721 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Late stage magmatic evolution and alteration of A-type Hiltaba event granites around Olympic Dam, and lavas in the Upper Gawler Range Volcanics View project

ore deposits and tectonics of Myanmar View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Majid Ghaderi on 24 December 2013.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
DOI 10.1007/s00126-011-0382-3
ARTICLE
Geological setting and timing of the Chah Zard
breccia-hosted epithermal gold–silver deposit
in the Tethyan belt of Iran
Hossein Kouhestani & Majid Ghaderi & Khin Zaw &
Sebastien Meffre & Mohammad Hashem Emami
Received: 10 July 2011 / Accepted: 4 August 2011 / Published online: 26 August 2011
# Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract The breccia-hosted epithermal gold–silver deposit
of Chah Zard is located within a high-K, calc-alkaline
andesitic to rhyolitic volcanic complex in the central part of
the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Arc (UDMA), west central
Iran. The total measured resource for Chah Zard is ∼2.5
million tonnes of ore at 12.7 g/t Ag and 1.7 g/t Au (28.6 t Ag,
3.8 t Au), making it one of the largest epithermal gold deposits
in Iran. Magmatic and hydrothermal activity was associated
with local extensional tectonics in a strike-slip regime formed
in transtensional structures of the Dehshir-Baft strike-slip fault
system. The host rocks of the volcanic complex consist of
Eocene sedimentary and volcanic rocks covered by Miocene
sedimentary rocks. LA-ICP–MS U–Pb zircon geochronology
yields a mean age of 6.2±0.2 Ma for magmatic activity at
Chah Zard. This age represents the maximum age of
mineralization and may indicate a previously unrecognized
mineralization event in the UDMA. Breccias and veins
formed during and after the waning stages of explosive
Editorial handling: B. Lehmann
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(doi:10.1007/s00126-011-0382-3) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.
H. Kouhestani : M. Ghaderi (*)
Department of Economic Geology, Tarbiat Modares University,
Tehran 14115-175, Iran
e-mail: mghaderi@modares.ac.ir
K. Zaw : S. Meffre
CODES ARC Centre of Excellence in Ore Deposits,
University of Tasmania,
Hobart 7001, Australia
M. H. Emami
Research Institute for Earth Sciences, Geological Survey of Iran,
Tehran, Iran
brecciation events due to shallow emplacement of rhyolite
porphyry. Detailed systematic mapping leads to the recogni-
tion of three distinct breccia bodies: volcaniclastic breccia
with a dominantly clastic matrix; gray polymict breccia with a
greater proportion of hydrothermal cement; and mixed
monomict to polymict breccia with clay matrix. The poly-
mictic breccias generated bulk-mineable ore, whereas the
volcaniclastic breccia is relatively impermeable and largely
barren. Precious metals occur with sulfide and sulfosalt
minerals as disseminations, as well as in the veins and breccia
cements. There is a progression from pyrite-dominated (stage
1) to pyrite-base metal sulfide and sulfosalt-dominated (stages
2 and 3) to base metal sulfide-dominated (stage 4) breccias
and veins. Hydrothermal alteration and deposition of gangue
minerals progressed from illite-quartz to quartz-adularia,
carbonate, and finally gypsum-dominated assemblages. Free
gold occurs in stages 2 and 4, principally intergrown with
pyrite, quartz, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and Ag-rich
tennantite–tetrahedrite, and also as inclusions in pyrite. High
Rb/Sr ratios in ore-grade zones are closely related to sericite
and adularia alteration. Positive correlations of Au and Ag
with Cu, As, Pb, Zn, Sb, and Cd in epithermal veins and
breccias suggest that all these elements are related to the same
mineralization event.
Keywords Epithermal gold . Breccia . U–Pb
geochronology . Hydrothermal alteration . Chah Zard . Iran
Introduction
Chah Zard is a breccia-hosted epithermal gold–silver
deposit, formed within a late Miocene, high-K calc-
alkaline volcanic complex in west central Iran (Kouhestani
426
2011). It is located at 219580 E, 3444050 N in the central
part of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Arc (UDMA),
approximately 100 km southwest of the city of Yazd
(Fig. 1). Before 2004, the area was not known for gold
mineralization. Although historical mining activity is
evident at the eastern side of the area where a series of
irregular galleries have been selectively mined into a
hydrothermal breccia body, a more recent mining activity
has focused on base metal (Zn and Pb) veins along the
southern boundary of the area.
The potential for gold and silver mineralization at Chah
Zard was initially identified in stream silt and rock sample
analyses by Rio Tinto in 2004. Persian Gold formed a joint
venture partnership with the property owner in 2006 to
explore the deposit further and to hold an option to acquire
a 70% equity interest in the project. On the basis of an ore
deposit model for epithermal mineralization, Persian Gold
geologists sampled the area that hosts a large zone of
hydrothermal alteration. Significant gold and silver values
were detected in rock chip and soil samples collected over
an area greater than 9 km2 and Persian Gold carried out two
separate phases of trenching (38 trenches totaling 3,545 m),
diamond drilling (38 holes, totaling 4,150 m), and sampling
(3,000 drill core and 1,409 trench samples) to identify
mineralization at depth. The results delineated a resource of
∼2.5 million tonnes at 1.7 g/t Au and 12.7 g/t Ag in the
near surface portion of the southern lobe of the area.
In this paper, we provide an overview of the deposit
geology, combined with geochemical data of the hydro-
thermal alteration and LA-inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (ICP–MS) U–Pb geochronological data to
constrain the timing of mineralization and to characterize
the origin of the ore-forming system.
Geotectonic setting
Iran is located along the Tethyan suture between the Eurasia
and Africa–Arabia plates and records the closure of at least
two Tethyan oceans: Paleo-Tethys in the Paleozoic and
Neo-Tethys in the Cenozoic (Sengör and Natal’in 1996;
Richards et al. 2006). The existence of these oceanic basins
has been interpreted from the presence of dismembered
ophiolitic sequences scattered throughout Iran (Stoneley
1981; Hooper et al. 1994; Glennie 2000). The main tectonic
unit of Iran, the Zagros orogenic belt, which is part of the
Tethyan Orogen (e.g., Takin 1972; Stöcklin 1974; Berberian
and King 1981; Sengör 1991; Alavi 1994; Shahabpour
2005), is interpreted as the product of three major
sequential geotectonic events (Alavi 1994, 2004): (I)
subduction of Neo-Tethyan oceanic plates beneath the
Iranian lithospheric plate during Early to Late Cretaceous
time; (II) obduction of Neo-Tethyan oceanic slivers (ophio-
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
lites) over the continental margin through Late Cretaceous
(Turonian to Campanian) time; and (III) collision of the
Arabian (Afro-Arabian) continental lithosphere with the
Iranian plate during the Late Cretaceous to Quaternary. This
orogenic belt consists of three major parallel structural units
(Alavi 1994), which from west to central Iran include; (1)
the Zagros Fold-and-Thrust Belt (Stöcklin 1968; Mohajjel
et al. 2003); (2) the Sanandaj–Sirjan Zone (Mohajjel and
Fergusson 2000; Mohajjel et al. 2003; Agard et al. 2005);
and (3) the UDMA (Schröder 1994; Förster 1978; Berberian
and Berberian 1981) (Fig. 1).
The 100-km-wide UDMA extends over a strike
length of >2,000 km from northwest to southeast Iran
(Fig. 1). It was formed during Neo-Tethys subduction
along the strike of the Zagros Mountains (Richards et al.
2006; Omrani et al. 2008), developing almost continuous
calc-alkalic magmatic activity from Eocene time to the
present (e.g., Berberian and Berberian 1981; Berberian
and King 1981; Bina et al. 1986; Omrani et al. 2008;
Dargahi et al. 2010), with a peak during the Oligo–
Miocene (Agard et al. 2005). This Andean-type volcano-
plutonic arc (Takin 1972; Dewey et al. 1973; Berberian et
al. 1982; Sengör 1990; Alavi 1994) is the principal
metalliferous province in Iran and hosts several world-
class Cu–Mo porphyry deposits (e.g., Sar Cheshmeh, ∼1.1
Gt at 0.64% Cu, 0.03% Mo; Meiduk, ∼170 million tonnes
at 0.82% Cu, 0.006% Mo; Sungun, 500 million tonnes at
0.76% Cu, 0.01% Mo; Hezarkhani and Williams-Jones
1998; Hedenquist and Daneshfar 2001; Zarasvandi et al.
2005a; Shafiei et al. 2009) and epithermal gold deposits
(e.g., Sari Gunay, 52 million tonnes Au at 1.77 g/t; Chah
Zard, ∼2.5 million tonnes at 1.7 g/t Au, 12.7 g/t Ag;
Chahnali (Bazman), 3.7 million tonnes at 1.4 g/t Au;
Daliran et al. 2005; Mehrabi et al. 2005; Richards et al.
2006; Ghaderi and Kouhestani 2010; Kouhestani et al.
2010; Kouhestani 2011) (Fig. 1).
Geology of the Chah Zard area
The Chah Zard deposit is hosted by a late Miocene volcanic
complex that forms a range of tall steep-sided hills in an
area >6 km across (Fig. 1). Volcanism appears to have
commenced with dark gray andesite–trachyandesite flow
domes and continued with several co-axial dacitic–rhyolitic
porphyries nestled in the core of the complex. Weak
alteration is typical around the margins of the andesitic
domes, but the extent and intensity of alteration (especially
sericitic and silicic) markedly increases in the eroded core
of the rhyolitic porphyries.
The volcanic complex lies unconformably on Eocene
rocks on its northwestern, western, and southeastern sides,
and on Miocene aged rocks to the north (Fig. 1). These
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
Fig. 1 a Zonal subdivisions of the Zagros orogen (Alavi 1994); inset
shows location of Chah Zard and other major ore deposits along the
UDMA: 1 Sungun, 2 Sari Gunay, 3 Chah Zard, 4 Meiduk, 5 Sar
Cheshmeh, 6 Chahnali (Bazman). b Geologic map of the Chah Zard
area (mapping by Persian Gold Co. and this study). Structural
contacts are mostly faulted, and some are well exposed. The
Eocene rocks are composed of alternating beds of tuff,
marl, sandstone, and shale. These rocks constitute the main
427
interpretations are largely based on recognition of topographic and
Landsat lineaments combined with information from the Yazd
1:250,000 and Nir 1:100,000 geologic maps (Geological Survey of
Iran). Inset delimits the area of Fig. 2 and location of the zircon U–Pb
geochronology samples
country rock of the volcanic complex and are variably
folded. They are well exposed in the southeastern parts of
the area. Miocene rocks cover the margins of the Chah Zard
428
area to the north, east, and southeast and consist of folded
unconsolidated conglomerate, sandstone, and marl. These
rocks are interpreted to be equivalent to the Upper Red
Formation in Central Iran (Kouhestani 2011).
Fault mapping of the Chah Zard area supported by
outcrop distributions, Landsat images, and geomorpholog-
ical features shows two major strike-slip fault systems in
the area (Fig. 1). The most prominent is a major northwest–
southeast-trending structural zone. The second is a series of
small, late, northeast–southwest-trending faults, with small
inferred displacements. These local faults are parallel to
several shear zones, transtensional pull-apart basins, and
other syntectonic structures southwest of Yazd (Kouhestani
2011), forming a structural and magmatic lineament
referred to as the Dehshir-Baft fault system trend
(Zarasvandi et al. 2005b). Its regional extent and linear
form is similar to other regional-scale strike-slip faults in
Central Iran. It seems likely that it may have controlled
magma emplacement and ore formation in the area, as
suggested by Tosdal and Richards (2001).
Deposit geology of the Chah Zard epithermal system
In the Chah Zard deposit, lithologies consist of large-scale
(6 km across) intermediate composition flow domes,
several co-axial felsic porphyries, and hydrothermally
altered breccias (Fig. 2). The flow domes are the most
abundant volcanic facies in the deposit, forming very tall
steep-sided hills in the outer parts of the system. They range
in composition from andesite to trachyandesite and contain
abundant phenocrysts of plagioclase and hornblende with
lesser amounts of biotite in a fine-grained to glassy
(commonly devitrified) matrix. The felsic suite appears as
small hills in the central part of the complex. They occur as
variably altered and partially eroded dacitic to rhyolitic
domes and lavas, intruding the earlier andesitic lavas. Their
texture is porphyritic with centimeter-sized phenocrysts of
plagioclase and smaller phenocrysts of quartz, amphibole,
and biotite set in a fine-grained matrix that commonly
contains alteration products.
The breccia complex was emplaced during explosive
brecciation events of the rhyolite porphyry, possibly
localized by strike-slip fault systems. Based on field and
microscopic documentation of clast lithology, clast size,
clast shape, matrix/clast proportion, and matrix type from
numerous outcrop sites and drill cores, three breccia types
were distinguished as three mappable units: volcaniclastic
breccia, polymictic breccia, and breccias containing both
monomict and polymict facies described below:
1. Volcaniclastic breccias are poorly sorted, angular to
subrounded polymict breccia and are clastic–matrix
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
Fig. 2 Geologic map of the Chah Zard deposit (mapping by Persian„
Gold Co. and this study) showing the close proximity of the
mineralization with breccia bodies and location of the zircon U–Pb
geochronology samples
supported (Fig. 3a). The breccias are strongly consol-
idated and show, in some places, sedimentary graded
bedding. The clasts are poorly sorted, angular to
subrounded and consist of Eocene volcanic and
sedimentary rocks, andesitic, and dacitic lava clasts.
The matrix consists of fine-grained fragments, as well
as quartz and feldspar grains. Contacts of the volcani-
clastic breccia with the surrounding volcanic rocks are
rarely well exposed, but an apparent fault contact is
defined by local drill intersections (Fig. 2).
2. Polymictic breccias are hydrothermally altered, clast to
matrix-supported with fine-grained (sandy) matrix
(Fig. 3b–e). The clasts are poorly sorted angular to
subrounded. They consist of andesite and dacite (30–
70 vol%), Eocene rocks (15–30 vol%), rhyolite
porphyry (10–30 vol%), and clasts of rebrecciated
breccia (5–10 vol%). The matrix consists of rock
flour ± mineral fragments and varies from 10 to
70 vol%; however, it can locally occupy more than
90 vol% of the breccia, giving it a more homoge-
neous appearance (Fig. 3d). In the central parts of the
hydrothermal system, the polymict breccia is distin-
guished by the presence of abundant hydrothermal
cement. Hydrothermal quartz and adularia are the
main minerals of the vuggy matrix, followed by
sulfides and carbonates or supergene jarosite
(Fig. 3d, e). These breccias usually contain abundant
silver, gold, sulfide, and sulfosalt minerals. These
breccias form moderate to steeply dipping small hills
(up to 10 m) with pipe-like structures (Fig. 2). In
outcrop, no bedding can be distinguished in these
polymictic breccias; however, some have moderately
dipping (∼45–60°) sedimentary structures in drill cores
(Fig. 3d). In some places matrix-supported, 1- to 5-cm
wide, shallowly dipping breccia dikes cut the polymict
breccia (Fig. 3f). These contain only 5% to 10% of well-
rounded clasts larger than 5 mm and have clast
composition comparable to that of the polymict breccias.
3. The mixed monomict to polymictic breccia is matrix-
supported with a distinctive white clay groundmass.
Lithic clasts are poorly sorted and composed of rhyolite
porphyry (40–70 vol%), porphyritic dacite–rhyodacite
(10–30 vol%), and andesite (10–30 vol%) (Fig. 3g).
Clasts range from 1 to 20 cm in size and are
subangular–angular to subrounded in shape. The matrix
is composed of fine-grained material of the same
lithological units. In the more brecciated units, hydro-
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440 429
430
Fig. 3 Typical breccia rocks from Chah Zard deposit. a Volcaniclastic
breccia with clasts of andesite lava, dacite flow, and Eocene
sedimentary rocks. b Clast-supported polymictic breccia with quartz
cement. A large subrounded polymictic breccia clast from pre-
phreatomagmatic event is shown at the right bottom of the photo. c
Gray polymictic breccia with rounded and angular clasts in rock-flour
matrix. d Moderately dipping bedding textures consisting of matrix-
rich (MRB), matrix-supported (MSB) and hydrothermal cement (HB)
polymictic breccia observed in drilling core samples; in HB, vugs
thermal quartz is abundant and the main mineral of the
matrix.
Analytical methods and procedures
U–Pb zircon chronology
Four samples from volcanic host rocks were selected for
U–Pb zircon geochronology in order to establish the age
of the volcanic complex at Chah Zard. Zircons were
obtained from crushed rocks by handpicking under
binocular microscope after sieving and conventional
heavy-liquid and magnetic separation techniques. The
zircons were mounted in epoxy, polished, and then
cleaned in an ultrasonic bath. Representative backscat-
tered electron and cathodoluminescence images were
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
filled by quartz-adularia cement followed by supergene jarosite. e
Polymictic breccia with angular to subrounded clasts in quartz-
(sulfide) cement. f Shallowly dipping matrix-supported breccia dike
cutting polymict breccia. g Monomictic to polymictic breccia with
altered angular to subrounded rhyolite and dacite clasts in clay
groundmass. AL andesite lava, BC breccia clast, BD breccia dike, Car
carbonate, DF dacite flow, ES Eocene sedimentary rocks, EV Eocene
volcanic, Gyp gypsum, PD porphyritic dacite, RP rhyolite porphyry,
Py pyrite, Qtz quartz
then made of the zircons before analysis to reveal their
internal structures. The zircons were dated using the
LA-ICP–MS method at the University of Tasmania,
Hobart, Australia (detailed analytical technique in the
Electronic Supplementary Material).
Geochemical analyses
The geochemical analyses were performed on 50 g of
sample pulp ground to 200-mesh size. The X-ray fluores-
cence spectroscopy (XRF), ICP–MS, inductively coupled
plasma emission spectrometry (ICP–ES), and Fire Assay
determinations were performed at ACME laboratories,
Vancouver, Canada, and University of Tasmania, Hobart,
Australia. Major element abundances were determined by
XRF, and minor and trace elements and REE compositions
were measured by ICP–MS. Ag and Au were measured by
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
ICP–ES and Fire Assay, respectively (detailed analytical
techniques in the ESM).
U–Pb zircon geochronology results
The locations of zircon U–Pb geochronology samples are
shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Results of U–Pb zircon analysis for
the Chah Zard volcanic complex (ESM Table 1) are
presented in a concordia diagram in Fig. 4. The zircons
separated from the hornblende andesite (sample CHZ35)
and andesite–trachyandesite flow domes (sample CHZ341)
yield weighted mean 207Pb corrected 206Pb/238U ages of 6.2±
0.4 and 6.2±0.5 Ma, respectively. The zircons separated
from porphyritic dacite–rhyodacite (sample CHZ342) and
rhyolite porphyry (sample CHZ332) yield weighted mean
207
Pb corrected 206Pb/238U ages of 6.2±0.3 and 6.2±0.4 Ma,
respectively. The results of 23 of the 24 data are all within
the analytical uncertainty of each other with a weighted
mean age of 6.2±0.2 Ma (Fig. 4). A single crystal from
sample CHZ341 had a large older 42-Ma core surrounded by
a narrow 6-Ma rim (10–15 μm) suggesting some crustal
magmatic contamination and assimilation of Eocene rocks
had occurred in this rock type.
Mineralization
Gold–silver mineralization at Chah Zard is intimately
associated with the phreatomagmatic breccia (Kouhestani
2011) that is partially synchronous with, and partially
subsequent to, the rhyolite porphyry emplacement. The
highest grade and most extensive mineralization occurs in
two polymictic pipe-like breccia bodies with elliptical
Fig. 4 Concordia diagram showing U–Pb data for zircons from the Chah
Zard volcanic complex; uncertainty on intercept age reported at 2 sigma
431
horizontal sections of 500 × 250 m and 300 × 200 m
(Fig. 2), and locally extending into the adjoining mixed
monomict to polymictic breccias. The volcaniclastic breccia
is largely barren, probably due to being relatively imper-
meable. Separate base metal sulfide (Zn, Pb) veins occur in
the porphyritic dacite–rhyodacite lavas on the southeastern
and southwestern sides of the deposit (Fig. 2). The
hydrothermal system was established before formation of
the polymictic breccia complex, based on the presence of
truncated pyrite–quartz veins and associated sericite alter-
ation in polymictic breccia clasts. Main-stage gold and
silver deposition began during the waning stages of
polymictic breccia formation and continued for some time
after their final consolidation. Gold and silver are hosted by
hydrothermally cemented breccia bodies, veins, and dis-
seminated sulfides. Kouhestani (2011) identified four stages
of mineralization that progressed from pyrite- to base metal
sulfide-dominant. Deposition of gangue minerals pro-
gressed from illite-quartz to quartz-adularia, carbonate,
and finally gypsum-dominated assemblages.
Stage 1 mineralization is related to hydrothermal activity
before the phreatomagmatic brecciation event (Kouhestani
2011). This stage is characterized by pyrite–quartz-illite ±
chalcopyrite-cemented veins (<5 mm width) and breccias.
Clasts of stage 1 mineralization and associated wall-rock
alteration have been recognized in the polymictic breccias
(Fig. 5a). Stage 2 mineralization generated Fe sulfide, base
metal sulfide+sulfosalts, quartz-adularia, and carbonate-
cemented breccias and veins. This stage is the most
abundant, widespread, and economically important miner-
alization stage at Chah Zard. Stage 2A is characterized by
abundant pyrite, marcasite and arsenian pyrite, together
with minor sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and rare
arsenopyrite (Fig. 5b). A transition to abundant base metal
sulfides and sulfosalts occurred from stage 2A to 2B. Stage
2B contains only minor pyrite and is dominated by
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena and abundant silver
sulfosalts. Stage 2C mineralization is characterized by
quartz and adularia, pyrite, and minor illite-cemented veins
and breccias (Fig. 5c). Quartz and adularia occur as drusy
linings and crustiform bands in veins and vugs and cockade
bands around breccia clasts. Stage 2D post-dates stage 2C
and is dominated by carbonate (calcite-ankerite ± dolo-
mite), and minor illite, quartz, and pyrite as vug infill.
Locally, blades of pyrite overgrown by carbonate were
observed in veins and breccias; their morphology resembles
bladed carbonate that has been replaced by pyrite
(Kouhestani 2011). Stage 3 mineralization generated drusy
or dogtooth quartz, fine-grained aggregates of quartz,
colloform pyrite, marcasite, and arsenian pyrite as crusti-
form veins (Fig. 5d). The veins vary in width from <1 mm
to 5 cm. Stage 3 mineralization post-dates stage 2. Stage 4
contains economically important veins formed in the late
432
Fig. 5 Examples of mineralization stages at Chah Zard deposit. a
Polymictic breccia with carbonate cement, containing pre-brecciation
clasts of stage 1 mineralization. The clasts contain subangular to
subrounded clasts with illite–pyrite–quartz cement. A small andesitic
clast containing truncated pre-brecciation stage 1 pyrite veins is
located at the bottom, left, and a small rounded clast of stage 1 pyrite
is located at the center, right of the photo. b Clast-rotated polymictic
breccia with stage 2A sulfide (pyrite-arsenian pyrite) cement. c
Photomicrograph of subparallel sheeted stage 2C quartz-adularia veins
stages of the hydrothermal activity. Stage 4A veins contain
dogtooth quartz, abundant pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and
chalcopyrite, and minor Ag-rich tennantite–tetrahedrite that
occur as <1 cm wide isolated veins, and have crosscutting
relationships with polymictic breccias (Fig. 5e). Stage 4B
veins are characterized by symmetric to asymmetric
overgrowth of gypsum on stage 4A veins (Fig. 5e). All
the stage 4A veins showed similar evidence of a reopening
event (e.g., Davies 2002; Davies et al. 2008) during stage
4B. The relationship between stage 3 and stage 4 is unclear,
except that both post-date stage 2, and have crosscutting
relationship with the polymictic breccias (Kouhestani
2011). Gold formed throughout stages 2 to 4 but most
occurred during stages 2A, 2C, and 4A. Gold occurs
principally as inclusions within and intergrown with pyrite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, quartz, and Ag-rich ten-
nantite–tetrahedrite. Locally, gold was observed as dissem-
inated and veinlet with stage 4B gypsum.
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
cutting polymictic breccia. d Photomicrograph of stage 3 veins
containing dogtooth quartz and fine-grained aggregates of quartz,
and colloform pyrite, cutting stage 2A mineralization. The vugs are
filled with supergene iron oxides and gypsum. e Stage 4A quartz–
pyrite-base metal sulfide veins overgrown by stage 4B gypsum veins.
All 4A veins show similar evidence for multiple reopening events
during stage 4B. Photomicrographs taken in transmitted light, XPL.
Abbreviations as in Fig. 3
Two quartz–sphalerite–galena–(pyrite) veins containing
elevated silver content occur outside the main gold-
mineralized breccia zones (Fig. 2), in areas of chlorite–
calcite alteration in the southeast and southwest parts of the
deposit. The host rock is altered porphyritic dacite–
rhyodacite lava. These veins are similar to base metal
sulfide veins found in the distal parts of porphyry copper
and related epithermal deposits (Richards et al. 2006).
Vein and breccia mineralogy
Gangue mineralogy
The vein and breccia gangue minerals in the Chah Zard
deposit consist of quartz, adularia and clay minerals (illite,
muscovite, smectite, and chlorite) with minor carbonate
(calcite, ankerite, siderite, and minor dolomite). At least
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
two quartz generations are recognized (ESM Fig. 1a). The
first one consists of microcrystalline quartz cemented by
coarser crystalline quartz and sulfides. Quartz usually shows
vug infill, crustiform, cockade, and colloform textures (ESM
Fig. 1b–d). In some parts of the deposit, plumose texture is
observed in quartz breccia cements (ESM Fig. 1b). Adularia
occurs as fine-grained crystals either in quartz–adularia veins
(ESM Fig. 1c, d), or as small, well-formed, rhombic crystals
within breccia cements. Plagioclase and mafic phenocrysts in
breccia clasts are invariably replaced by clay minerals, together
with quartz, adularia, and carbonates (ESM Fig. 1e–f).
Carbonates also occur as vein and breccia cements. The
adularia exhibits weak to intense alteration to kaolinite. The
highest gold and silver grades are associated with quartz–
adularia-cemented veins and breccias in polymictic breccia.
Ore mineralogy
Opaque minerals in the ore zones are essentially composed of
pyrite, arsenian pyrite, marcasite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, galena, silver sulfosalts, and free gold. Chalcocite,
covellite, digenite, and different iron and manganese oxides
have been identified in the oxidized zone. The ore minerals
formed as disseminations, veinlets, and massive accumula-
tions in veins and hydrothermally cemented breccias and as
matrix to silicified breccia clasts. Ore mineral assemblages
identified in the Chah Zard deposit are typical of low- and
intermediate-sulfidation epithermal systems (e.g., Hedenquist
et al. 1996; Einaudi et al. 2003; Kodera et al. 2005;
Gantumur et al. 2008; Kouzmanov et al. 2009).
Pyrite, the most common and earliest-formed sulfide, is
widespread in all paragenetic stages. It typically occurs as
euhedral to anhedral disseminated crystals (<1 mm to 3 cm
in size) and/or massive accumulations in veins and breccia
cements. Euhedral to subhedral pyrites are often surrounded
by arsenian pyrite and marcasite showing zoning patterns
under the reflected light microscope (ESM Fig. 2a, b).
Coarse-grained subhedral pyrite has small inclusions of
native gold. In some instances, euhedral pyrite is sur-
rounded by other sulfides such as chalcopyrite (ESM
Fig. 2c) and galena. There is some paragenetic overlap
between pyrite and chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena as
these minerals enclose each other (ESM Fig. 2d). Collo-
form pyrite and marcasite (and arsenian pyrite) are usually
intergrown with dogtooth quartz in crustiform veins. Minor
0.01- to 0.05-mm framboidal pyrite also occurs within the
shallow ore zones. The framboidal pyrite commonly
coalesces into large mats of spongy pyrite (ESM Fig. 2e).
Blades of pyrite and marcasite are locally found in stage 2D
veins. Arsenopyrite commonly occurs as anhedral dissem-
inated crystals (<1 mm in size) in breccia cement. In some
cases, euhedral arsenopyrite is overgrown on bladed pyrite
(ESM Fig. 2f).
433
Chalcopyrite usually occurs as massive accumulations
intergrown with sphalerite and galena. In the main part of
the ore zones, chalcopyrite replaces pyrite along boundaries
and fractures. It is, in turn, replaced by Ag-sulfosalts and
secondary chalcocite, covellite, digenite, and goethite. In
some parts of the deposit, chalcopyrite encloses euhedral
pyrite or spherical aggregates of pyrite (ESM Fig. 2g),
documenting that the chalcopyrite is a later phase than
pyrite (Yilmaz et al. 2010). Chalcopyrite also occurs as very
fine-grained inclusions in the margin of sphalerite (ESM
Fig. 2h).
Sphalerite is widespread in the stage 4A veins. It occurs as
optically clear and honey colored (iron-poor) varieties,
typically forming massive, coarse-grained (generally greater
than 3 mm in size) subhedral to anhedral crystals. Sphalerite
usually accompanies or slightly post-dates chalcopyrite and
galena (ESM Fig. 2d). In some cases, however, sphalerite
appears to have co-precipitated with chalcopyrite and galena.
The margins of the sphalerite crystals frequently exhibit
chalcopyrite disease (ESM Fig. 2h). In some parts of the
deposit, secondary chalcocite, covellite, and digenite replace
sphalerite along boundaries and fractures (ESM Fig. 2i). In
stage 2A, acicular sphalerite replaces pyrite and is, in turn,
replaced by silver sulfosalts.
Galena occurs as coarse-grained euhedral to subhedral
crystals (up to 1 cm in size). It usually replaces pyrite and
chalcopyrite and is, in turn, replaced by sphalerite (ESM
Fig. 2j). In some parts of the deposit, inclusions of galena
are observed in coarse-grained euhedral pyrite.
A range of silver (with antimony, arsenic, and/or copper)
sulfosalts occur within stage 2B veins and breccia cements.
Sulfosalt grains are typically <1 mm and are not visible in
hand specimen. The most abundant sulfosalt species are the
antimony-rich end members, represented by pale gray-
green, well-polished tennantite–tetrahedrite and bright
bluish green pyrargyrite. The silver sulfosalts are associated
with chalcopyrite and lesser amounts of sphalerite and
galena (ESM Fig. 2k). These minerals replace chalcopyrite
along boundaries and fractures indicating they are late in
the paragenesis compared to the chalcopyrite.
Gold occurs as pale yellow grains (<0.05 to 1 mm in
size) of electrum (76 wt.% Au, 24 wt.% Ag) or in native
form (99.8 wt.% Au, 0.2 wt.% Ag). It is observed as
inclusions in pyrite and is associated with quartz, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite (ESM Fig. 2l). In stage
4B, gold locally occurs as fracture-fillings in gypsum.
The mineral paragenesis of the vein and breccia
mineralization can be subdivided into five stages (Fig. 6).
Stage I is represented by pyrite along with minor
chalcopyrite. Stage II is characterized by deposition of
pyrite, marcasite, arsenian pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
galena, silver sulfosalts (Ag-rich tennantite–tetrahedrite,
pyrargyrite, miargyrite, proustite, stephanite, geocronite,
434
Fig. 6 Paragenetic scheme
showing the occurrence and
relative abundance of gangue
and ore minerals across vein
and breccia infill stages at
the Chah Zard deposit
smithite, and stromeyerite, in decreasing order of abun-
dance), electrum, and native gold as well as minor
arsenopyrite. Stage III is represented by colloform pyrite,
marcasite, and arsenian pyrite as well as trace submicroscopic
inclusion of gold in pyrite. Stage IV is characterized by pyrite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, and electrum, and trace
tennantite–tetrahedrite. Stage V is the supergene mineral
assemblage consisting of chalcocite, covellite, and digenite,
and Fe–Mn oxides. The alteration assemblage accompanying
ore stage I is sericite, whereas sericite, quartz–adularia, and
carbonate accompany ore stages II–IV. Jarosite/alunite, gyp-
sum, and kaolinite formed during the supergene stage.
Hydrothermal alteration
Hydrothermal alteration in the Chah Zard deposit is
pervasive, occurring in an area greater than 9 km2. Detailed
alteration logging and mapping, supplemented by petrogra-
phy, Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer spectral analyses and
K-feldspar staining indicated five major types of hydrothermal
alteration in the Chah Zard deposit: quartz–adularia, sericite,
carbonate, chlorite–calcite, and advanced argillic.
The quartz–adularia alteration occurs next to mineralized
veins and breccias. Quartz and adularia are the dominant
minerals of the breccia cements (ESM Fig. 3a, b) and
replaced the matrix and crystal fragments in polymictic
breccias. In the most altered zones, adularia is typically
anhedral and fine-grained but is locally found as large
euhedral rhombic crystals growing with quartz on the walls
of vuggy sericitic breccias (ESM Fig. 3b). In the areas of
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
abundant adularia, the adularia was detected using SEM
replacing plagioclase. Sericite alteration zones contain
sericite, illite, interlayered illite–smectite, and minor car-
bonate, pyrite and quartz (ESM Fig. 3c, d). In the breccia
bodies, sericite alteration usually shows a close relationship
with zones of quartz–adularia alteration (ESM Fig. 3a, b).
Carbonate alteration is characterized by <2 cm wide
calcite–(illite–quartz) veins in the rhyolite porphyry, and
calcite–ankerite–(dolomite) cement in the polymictic brec-
cias (ESM Fig. 3e, f). The timing of carbonate formation is
not clear due to the lack of well-defined alteration zones.
However, where a complete suite of alteration styles is
present, carbonate has overprinted sericite alteration and/or
occurs as vug infill after quartz and adularia. The chlorite–
calcite alteration marks the outer limit of the hydrothermal
system and is dominated by chlorite, calcite and subordi-
nate sericite and quartz. Advanced argillic alteration is
characterized by extensive bleaching zone commonly
focused along joints, fractures, and faults and locally
extends to depths of ∼220 m. This alteration is character-
ized by iron oxides–hydroxides (hematite, limonite), jar-
osite, gypsum, kaolinite, and rare alunite. Figure 7
represents the distribution of different alteration styles in
the Chah Zard deposit and indicates the average Au–Ag
grade information in g/t for each alteration style.
Geochemistry of hydrothermal alteration
Chondrite-normalized minor elements and REE patterns of
fresh volcanics (n=12), altered wall rocks (n=53), and
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
Fig. 7 Generalized geological cross sections across the Chah Zard
vein and breccia showing alteration distribution in eastern (a) and
western (b) parts of the deposit. Cross sections showing quartz-
adularia and sericite alterations associated with veins and breccias, and
enveloping chlorite-calcite alteration zones. There is a late overprint of
supergene alteration blanketing the vein and breccia system and
mineralized veins and breccias (n=52) are presented in
Fig. 8a–c. The altered wall rocks have a similar pattern to
the fresh volcanic reference samples, besides slight deple-
tion in Sr and HREEs, and slight enrichment in Rb and Ba.
The mineralized veins and breccias show lower concen-
trations in LREE relative to fresh and altered volcanics but
similar HREE concentrations. The full dataset is given in
ESM Table 2.
Scatter diagrams of Au–Ag and associated elements in
the mineralized veins and breccias are presented in Figs. 9
and 10. A strong association of Au with Ag, As, Cu, Pb,
and Zn, and Ag with Cu, As, Zn, and Pb is obvious in the
435
reaching beyond the silicified alteration. Sections show carbonate
alteration as narrow zones overprinting quartz-adularia and sericite
alteration. Sections constructed from diamond drill core logging. The
figures represent the average Au–Ag grade information in g/t for each
alteration style
ore-grade samples. Gold and silver show moderate corre-
lation with Sb and Cd. A strong association of Cu with Pb
and Zn with Pb is also noticeable.
Economic concentrations of Au occur mainly within
quartz and pyrite-rich veins and breccias whereas higher
Ag concentrations are associated with base metal-rich
veins and breccias. The Ag/Au ratio of the mineralized
veins and breccias is very variable (between 0.1 and 56,
ESM Table 2). These low to high Ag/Au ratios are
consistent with low- and intermediate-sulfidation epither-
mal deposits (Einaudi et al. 2003; Yilmaz et al. 2007,
2010).
436 Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440

Fig. 8 Plot of chondrite-

normalized trace element and
REE concentrations of fresh
volcanics, altered volcanics, and
mineralized veins and breccias
from Chah Zard deposit. a The
range and average values of
trace elements in altered volca-
nic rocks. b The range and
average values of trace elements
in the mineralized veins and
breccias. c The chondrite-
normalized REE concentrations
in the fresh volcanics, altered
volcanics, and mineralized veins
and breccias. Normalization
values are from Sun and
McDonough (1989)

Discussion volcanic complex which was emplaced at 6.2±0.2 Ma.

Synchronous with emplacement of rhyolite porphyry intru-
The Chah Zard gold–silver epithermal deposit has an intimate sions, release of fluids during crystallization resulted in
association with the intermediate to felsic high-K calc-alkaline weakly mineralized magmatic-hydrothermal breccias imme-
Fig. 9 Log–log variation plots
for Au–Ag, Au–As, Au–Cu,
Au–Pb, Au–Zn, and Au–Sb in
mineralized drill core samples
from the Chah Zard deposit
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
Fig. 10 Log–log variation plots
of Ag–Cu, Ag–As, Ag–Pb,
Ag–Zn, Ag–Sb, and Ag–Cd in
mineralized drill core samples
from the Chah Zard deposit
diately adjacent to the intrusive complex. Clasts of this
mineralization stage (stage 1) were found as brecciated
pyritized veins in polymictic breccia units. Surface break-
through by magmatic-hydrothermal explosions led to depres-
surization of the hydrothermal system and unroofing,
producing volcaniclastic breccias in an area ≥1 km2. The
high degree of mixing of fragments in the volcaniclastic
breccias reflects the explosive mechanism and vapor-rich
condition during emplacement of the rhyolite porphyry. The
phreatomagmatic breccia post-dated all subvolcanic rocks
and is characterized by gray clast to matrix-supported
polymictic breccia, partly vuggy clast-supported mixed
monomict to polymict breccia, and rarely matrix-supported
breccia dikes. Although dominated by andesite and dacite
clasts, the breccias contain fragments of tuff and sedimentary
rocks, brought up from Eocene country rocks, as well as
rhyolite porphyry. Based on the large size of the breccia
bodies, it seems likely that the breccia could have formed by
pressure fluctuations in an epithermal system with changing
hydrodynamic pressure–temperature gradients (e.g., Heden-
quist and Henley 1985). Rapid depressurization seems the
only conceivable mechanism to invoke fluid pressure
gradients large enough to generate extensive near-surface
phreatomagmatic breccias. Therefore, formation of large-
scale phreatomagmatic breccias characterized the culmina-
tion of explosive events at the end of the hydrothermal
system. The clast-rich nature of the breccia bodies may
437
suggest elutriation of material by subsequent hydrothermal
transport and dissolution. Fluidized transport, mixing, and
milling were most intense in the polymict breccia (e.g.,
Lorenz 1975; Sillitoe 1985; Corbett and Leach 1998; Wallier
et al. 2006).
Geologic field relationships show that epithermal ore
formation occurred in close association with the phreato-
magmatic fracturing event, being localized in breccia
cements, disseminated sulfides in the matrix of the more
permeable breccias, and in veins cutting breccia bodies.
Sulfides, sulfosalts, quartz, adularia, carbonates, and gold
were deposited in open fractures and permeable breccias.
The intensely altered (quartz and/or quartz–adularia) poly-
mictic breccias generated bulk-mineable ore enclosing
higher-grade ore shoots. Low-grade ore zones were local-
ized by sericitized and silicified monomict to polymictic
breccias. The relatively impermeable volcaniclastic breccia
is largely barren. The hydrothermal alteration and mineral-
ization post-dates magmatic activity, with no volcanic and/
or subvolcanic flow and domes having been observed to
crosscut zones of alteration, phreatomagmatic breccias, or
veining. Therefore, if the zircon dates are interpreted as
igneous emplacement ages, the epithermal mineralization
occurred after rhyolite porphyry emplacement, and 6.2±
0.2 Ma is the maximum age for the time of mineralization
at Chah Zard. Although the age data are limited, a very
close spatial association between magmatism and epither-
438
mal mineralization is consistent with field evidence,
paragenetic relationships, stable sulfur, and oxygen isotope
data (Kouhestani 2011).
Alteration patterns at Chah Zard have epithermal
characteristics and hydrothermal alteration minerals are
indicative of near neutral to slightly acidic pH. Quartz–
adularia and sericite (illite) alteration are found proximal to
the ore-grade zones, while chlorite–calcite alteration is only
found distally. The occurrences of illite and adularia in the
mineralized vein and breccia zones indicate that alteration/
mineralization formed due to interaction of host rocks with
weakly acidic fluids at temperatures of 180°C to 310°C
(Henley and Ellis 1983; Reyes 1990; Thompson and
Thompson 1998). The high crystallinity index of illite
(Kouhestani 2011) indicates that temperatures were high
(Lonker and FitzGerald 1990) and reflects high water to
rock ratios (Thompson and Thompson 1998). The presence
of adularia associated with ore-grade zones suggests that
boiling has occurred (Brown and Ellis 1970; Brown 1978;
Henley 1985; Hedenquist 1990; Dong and Morrison 1995).
In the margins of the deposit, clay mineralogy is identified
as interlayered illite–smectite and chlorite (Kouhestani
2011) suggesting lower temperatures (140°C to 240°C,
Henley and Ellis 1983; Hedenquist 1990; Yilmaz et al.
2007, 2010). The decrease in the illite crystallinity could be
due to lower permeability and fluid flux in the distal parts
of the system. Therefore, crystallinity variation in illite can
be related to gold distribution within alteration zones and
provide vectors to high-grade mineralization at Chah Zard
(e.g., Davies 2002). The temperature estimates at Chah
Zard (140°C to 310°C) are typical of low- to intermediate-
sulfidation epithermal mineralization noted elsewhere (e.g.,
Brown 1978; Henley and Ellis 1983; Reyes 1990; White
and Hedenquist 1995; Yilmaz et al. 2007, 2010). The
presence of a high temperature part to the system suggests
porphyry-related gold potential at depth (e.g., Yilmaz et al.
2010). However, the advanced-argillic assemblage over-
printing near-neutral alteration minerals of the mineraliza-
tion system formed at temperatures below 250°C, based on
the presence of kaolinite and alunite association (e.g.,
Brown 1978; Henley and Ellis 1983; Reyes 1990; White
and Hedenquist 1995; Yilmaz et al. 2007, 2010).
The enrichment and depletion patterns in the trace and
major elements suggest that Ca, Na, and Mg were removed
from plagioclase and mafic minerals (biotite and horn-
blende), whereas K, Rb, and Cs enrichment is associated
with adularia and illite alteration. The large variation in Rb/
Sr is consistent with addition of K and the leaching Ca from
the volcanic wall rocks (Yilmaz et al. 2007) and is typical
of wall-rock alteration in shallow low-sulfidation hydro-
thermal systems (Arribas et al. 1995). The chondrite-
normalized REE patterns suggest that no significant change
of REE occurred during chlorite-calcite and weak sericite
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
(interlayered illite-smectite) alteration in the Chah Zard
deposit (e.g., Bierlein et al. 1999). However, LREE
contents in the strong sericite (illite) and quartz–adularia
alteration show low to moderate depletion with respect to
fresh and altered volcanics. Moderate to strong positive
correlation of Au and Ag with As, Cu, Pb, Zn, Sb, and Cd
in ore-grade samples suggests that all these elements are
related to the same mineralization event. Strong correlation
between Ag and base metals is likely due to concentration
of silver within chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena. The
moderate association of Ag with Sb suggests that some of
the silver component in the Chah Zard deposit occurs
within sulfosalt minerals.
The location of the deposit at the intersection of
lineaments and strike-slip faults suggests that these provided
flow paths for the crustal ascent of hydrous magmas and their
evolving hydrothermal systems. The arc-related and calc-
alkaline magmatism was associated with local extensional
tectonics within a strike-slip regime. This local extension is
parallel with several shear zones, transtensional pull-apart
basins, and other syntectonic structures in the area, and is
similar to other regional-scale strike-slip faults in Central Iran;
all related to relatively shallow Neo-Tethyan oblique subduc-
tion beneath the Central Iranian microplates. The Chah Zard
volcanic complex and associated mineralization, as well as
other volcanic flows and domes in the vicinity, were coeval
with the formation of transtensional structures within conju-
gate shears in the Dehshir-Baft strike-slip fault system during
a period of relaxation of the compressive tectonic regime
(Zarasvandi et al. 2005b).
Conclusions
The Chah Zard gold–silver deposit is a good example of a
breccia-hosted low- to intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
deposit (e.g. Hedenquist et al. 1996; Sillitoe 1999; Einaudi
et al. 2003; Sillitoe and Hedenquist 2003). It contains: (1)
epithermal textures such as hydrothermal quartz–adularia
vein and breccia with vug infill, crustiform, cockade and
colloform textures; (2) alteration minerals such as quartz,
sericite (illite and interlayered illite–smectite), adularia, and
carbonate; and (3) ore minerals consisting of pyrite,
marcasite, arsenian pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, sphal-
erite, galena, gold (in electrum and native form), and silver
sulfosalts. This deposit formed in a transtensional environ-
ment related to the evolution of the Dehshir-Baft strike-slip
fault system.
The intimate geologic association of the Chah Zard
deposit with a breccia complex suggests that explosive
eruption of magmatic-hydrothermal and phreatomagmatic
brecciation events controlled the permeability for epither-
mal Au–Ag mineralization. The U–Pb zircon age of 6.2±
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
0.2 Ma for emplacement of the rhyolitic magmas represents
the maximum age of Au–Ag mineralization at Chah Zard.
This age is younger than those of the large porphyry Cu–
Mo deposits (e.g., Sar Cheshmeh, Meiduk, and Sungun)
and other epithermal gold deposits (e.g., Sari Gunay) so far
discovered in UDMA and may represent a previously
unrecognized pulse of mineralization in UDMA.
Acknowledgements The present study constitutes a part of the first
author’s Ph.D. thesis at Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. The
authors thank Persian Gold PLC for permission to publish the data,
supplying important unpublished data, and providing field accommo-
dation; particular thanks are due to B. Rashidi of the Tehran office.
XRF and ICP–MS geochemical analyses were funded from ioStipend
student grant no. VAN10001129 supported by ioGlobal Co., Australia,
and ACME Analytical Laboratories, Vancouver, Canada. We gratefully
thank D. Lawie and M. Carey of ioGlobal and J. Gravel and L.
Greenlaw of ACME Labs for their support and help. The first author
thanks the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology of Iran for
financial support of his short research stay at University of Tasmania,
Australia. Costs of U–Pb analyses were supported by ARC Centre of
Excellence in Ore Deposits (CODES), University of Tasmania,
Australia. Field studies and some laboratory costs were funded by
the Tarbiat Modares University Research Grant Council. The
manuscript has benefited from helpful comments by N. White
and two anonymous reviewers and a careful editorial handling by
B. Lehmann.
References
Agard P, Omrani J, Jolivet L, Mouthereau F (2005) Convergence
history across Zagros (Iran): Constraints from collisional and
earlier deformation. Int J Earth Sci 94:401–419
Alavi M (1994) Tectonics of the Zagros orogenic belt of Iran: New
data and interpretations. Tectonophysics 229:211–238
Alavi M (2004) Regional stratigraphy of the Zagros fold-thrust belt of
Iran and its proforeland evolution. Am J Sci 304:1–20
Arribas A Jr, Cunningham O, Rytuba J, Rye O, Kelly W, Podwysocki
W, Mckee E, Tosdal R (1995) Geology, geochronology, fluid
inclusions and isotope geochemistry of Rodalquilar Au alunite
deposit, Spain. Econ Geol 90:795–822
Berberian F, Berberian M (1981) Tectono-plutonic episodes in Iran.
Am Geophys Union Geodyn Series 3:5–32
Berberian M, King GCP (1981) Toward a paleogeography and
tectonic evolution of Iran. Can J Earth Sci 18:210–265
Berberian F, Muir ID, Pankhurst RJ, Berberian M (1982) Late
Cretaceous and Early Miocene Andean-type plutonic activity in
northern Makran and central Iran. J Geol Soc Lond 139:605–614
Bierlein FP, Waldron HM, Arne DC (1999) Behaviour of rare earth
and high field strength elements during hydrothermal alteration
of meta-turbidites associated with mesothermal gold mineraliza-
tion in central Victoria, Australia. J Geochem Explor 67:109–125
Bina MM, Bucur I, Prevot M, Meyerfeld Y, Daly L, Cantagrel JM,
Mergoil J (1986) Palaeomagnetism petrology and geochronology
of Tertiary magmatic and sedimentary units from Iran. Tectono-
physics 121:303–329
Brown PRL (1978) Hydrothermal alteration in active geothermal
fields. Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci 6:229–250
Brown PRL, Ellis AJ (1970) The Ohaki-Broadlands hydrothermal
area, New Zealand; mineralogy and related geochemistry. Am J
Sci 269:97–131
439
Corbett GJ, Leach TM (1998) Southwest Pacific Rim gold-copper
systems: structure alteration and mineralization. Society of
Economic Geologists, Special Publication 6
Daliran F, Paar W, Neubauer F, Rashidi B (2005) New discovery of
epithermal gold at Chahnali Prospect Bazman Volcano, SE-Iran.
In: Mao JW, Bierlein FP (eds) Mineral deposit research: Meeting
the global challenge. Springer, New York, pp 917–919
Dargahi S, Arvin M, Yuanming P, Babaei A (2010) Petrogenesis of
post-collisional A-type granitoids from the Urumieh–Dokhtar
magmatic assemblage Southwestern Kerman Iran: Constraints on
the Arabian–Eurasian continental collision. Lithos 115:190–204
Davies AGS (2002) Geology and genesis of the Kelian gold deposit
East Kalimantan Indonesia. Ph.D. thesis. University of Tasmania,
Australia
Davies AGS, Cooke DR, Gemmell JB, van Leeuwen T, Cesare P,
Hartshorn G (2008) Hydrothermal breccias and veins at the
Kelian gold mine Kalimantan Indonesia: Genesis of a large
epithermal gold deposit. Econ Geol 103:717–757
Dewey JF, Pitman WC, Ryan WBC, Bonnin J (1973) Plate tectonics and
evolution of the Alpine system. Geol Soc Am Bull 84:3137–3180
Dong G, Morrison GW (1995) Adularia in epithermal veins, Queens-
land; morphology, structural state and origin. Mineralium
Deposita 30:11–19
Einaudi MT, Hedenquist JW, Inan EE (2003) Sulfidation state of
hydrothermal fluids: the porphyry-epithermal transition and
beyond. In: Simmons, SF, Graham IJ, (eds) Volcanic, geothermal
and ore-forming fluids: rulers and witnesses of processes within
the Earth. Society of Economic Geologists and Geochemical
Society, Special Publication 10, pp 285–313
Förster H (1978) Mesozoic-Cenozoic metallogenesis in Iran. J Geol
Soc Lond 135:443–455
Gantumur G, Batulzii D, Lijuan W, Heping Z (2008) Tsav: a
shoshonite-hosted intermediate sulfidation epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn
deposit, eastern Mongolia. In: Mao JW, Bierlein FP (eds) Mineral
Deposit Research: Meeting the Global Challenge. Springer, New
York, pp 389–392
Ghaderi M, Kouhestani H (2010) Chah Zard deposit: the first report of
Ag-Au epithermal mineralization with brecciated host in Iran. 7th
Annual Meeting of Asia Oceania Geosciences Society (AOGS),
Hyderabad, India, Abs
Glennie KW (2000) Cretaceous tectonic evolution of Arabia’s eastern
plate margin, A tale of two oceans. Soc Sediment Geol Spec Publ
69:9–20
Hedenquist JW (1990) The thermal and geochemical structure of the
Broadlands-Ohaaki geothermal system, New Zealand. Geother-
mics 19:151–185
Hedenquist JW, Daneshfar B (2001) Strategic prospectivity review of
mineral potential: Middle East region. Report to Metal Mining
Agency of Japan
Hedenquist JW, Henley RW (1985) Hydrothermal eruptions in the
Waiotapu geothermal system, New Zealand: their origin, associ-
ated breccias, and relation to precious metal mineralization. Econ
Geol 80:1640–1668
Hedenquist JW, Izawa E, Arribas A, White NC (1996) Hydrothermal
system in volcanic arcs, origin of the exploration for epithermal
gold deposits: a short course at Mineral Resource Department.
Geological Survey of Japan, Higashi 1-1-3, Tsukuba 305, Japan,
p 139
Henley RW (1985) The geothermal framework of epithermal deposits.
Rev Econ Geol 2:1–24
Henley RW, Ellis AJ (1983) Geothermal systems ancient and modern:
a geochemical review. Earth Sci Rev 19:1–50
Hezarkhani A, Williams-Jones AE (1998) Controls of alteration and
mineralization in the Sungun porphyry copper deposit Iran:
Evidence from fluid inclusions and stable isotopes. Econ Geol
93:651–670
440
Hooper RJ, Baron I, Hatcher JRRD (1994) The development of the
southern Tethyan margin in Iran after the breakup of Gondwana
Implications of the Zagros hydrocarbon province. Geosciences
4:72–85
Kodera P, Lexa J, Rankin AH, Fallick AE (2005) Epithermal gold
veins in a caldera setting: Banska Hodrusa, Slovakia. Mineralium
Deposita 39:921–934
Kouhestani H (2011) Geology alteration isotope geochemistry and
origin of Chah Zard Ag-Au deposit southwest of Yazd. Ph.D.
thesis. Faculty of Basic Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University,
Iran, in Persian with English abstract
Kouhestani H, Ghaderi M, Zaw K (2010) Chah Zard: a breccia-hosted
epithermal silver-gold deposit in the Tethyan belt of Iran. 24th
Victorian Universities Earth and Environmental Sciences Con-
ference (VUEES), Melbourne, Australia, Abs
Kouzmanov K, Moritz R, von Quadt AV, Chiaradia M, Peytcheva I,
Fontignie D, Ramboz C, Bogdanov K (2009) Late Cretaceous
porphyry Cu and epithermal Cu-Au association in the Southern
Panagyurishte District, Bulgaria: the paired Vlaykov Vruh and
Elshitsa deposits. Mineralium Deposita 44:611–646
Lonker SW, FitzGerald JF (1990) Formation of coexisting 1 M and
2 M polytypes in illite from an active hydrothermal system. Am
Mineral 75:1282–1289
Lorenz V (1975) Formation of phreatomagmatic maar-diatreme
volcanoes and its relevance to kimberlite diatremes. Phys Chem
Earth 9:17–27
Mehrabi B, Houshmandzadeh A, Karimi Z, Rashidi B (2005)
Epithermal gold mineralization in Bazman (Balouchestan).
23rd Symposium on Geosciences, Geological Survey of Iran,
Abs
Mohajjel M, Fergusson CL (2000) Dextral transpression in Late
Cretaceous continental collision Sanandaj-Sirjan zone western
Iran. J Struct Geol 22:1125–1139
Mohajjel M, Fergusson CL, Sahandi MR (2003) Cretaceous-Tertiary
convergence and continental collision Sanandaj-Sirjan zone
western Iran. J Asian Earth Sci 21:397–412
Omrani J, Agard P, Whitechurch H, Benoit M, Prouteau G, Jolivet L
(2008) Arc-magmatism and subduction history beneath the
Zagros Mountains Iran. A new report of adakites and geo-
dynamic consequences. Lithos 106:380–398
Reyes AG (1990) Petrology of Philippine geothermal systems and the
application of alteration mineralogy to their assessment. J
Volcanol Geotherm Res 43:279–309
Richards JP, Wilkinson D, Ullrich T (2006) Geology of the Sari Gunay
epithermal gold deposit northwest Iran. Econ Geol 101:1455–
1496
Schröder JW (1994) Essai sur la structure de l’Iran. Eclogae
Geologicae Helvetiae 37:37–81
Sengör AMC (1990) A new model for the Late Paleozoic–Mesozoic
tectonic evolution of Iran and implication for Oman Region. Geol
Soc Lond, Spec Publ 49:797–831
Sengör AMC (1991) Late Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic evolution
of the Middle Eastern Tethysides: Implication for the Paleozoic
geodynamics of the Tethyan realm. IGCP Project (276), News-
letter (2), pp 111–149
Sengör AMC, Natal’in BA (1996) Paleotectonics of Asia: fragments
of a synthesis. In: Yin A, Harrison TM (eds) The tectonic
evolution of Asia. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp
486–640
View publication stats
Miner Deposita (2012) 47:425–440
Shafiei B, Haschke M, Shahabpour J (2009) Recycling of orogenic arc
crust triggers porphyry Cu mineralization in Kerman Cenozoic
arc rocks southeastern Iran. Mineralium Deposita 44:265–283
Shahabpour J (2005) Tectonic evolution of the orogenic belt in the
region located between Kerman and Neyriz. J Asian Earth Sci
24:405–417
Sillitoe RH (1985) Ore-related breccias in volcanoplutonic arcs. Econ
Geol 80:1467–1514
Sillitoe RH (1999) Styles of high-sulphidation gold, silver and copper
mineralization in porphyry and epithermal environments. Pacrim,
99 Proceedings, Bali, Indonesia; The Australasian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, pp 29–45
Sillitoe RH, Hedenquist JW (2003) Linkages between volcanotectonic
settings, ore-fluid compositions, and epithermal precious-metal
deposits. In: Simmons SF, Graham I (eds) Volcanic, geothermal,
and ore-forming fluids: rulers and witnesses of processes within
the earth. Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication
10: 315–343
Stöcklin J (1968) Structural history and tectonics of Iran: a review. Am
Assoc Pet Geol Bull 52:1229–1258
Stöcklin J (1974) Possible ancient continental margins in Iran. In:
Bark GD, Drake CL (eds) Geology of continental margins.
Springer, New York, pp 873–887
Stoneley R (1981) The geology of the Kuh-e-Dalneshine area of
southern Iran and its bearing on the evolution of southern Tethys.
J Geol Soc Lond 138:509–526
Sun SS, McDonough WF (1989) Chemical and isotopic systematics of
oceanic basalts: implications for mantle composition and pro-
cesses. In: Saunders AD, Norry MJ (eds) Magmatism in the
Ocean Basins. Special Publication 42, Geological Society of
London, pp 313–345
Takin M (1972) Iranian geology and continental drift in the Middle
East. Nature 235:147–150
Thompson AJB, Thompson JFH (1998) Atlas of alteration: A field
guide to hydrothermal alteration minerals. Alpine, Vancouver,
119 p
Tosdal RM, Richards JP (2001) Magmatic and structural controls on
the development of porphyry Cu±Mo±Au deposits. Rev Econ
Geol 14:157–181
Wallier S, Rey R, Kouzmanov K, Pettke T, Heinrich C, Leary S,
O’Connor Tamas CG, Vennemann T, Ullrich T (2006) Magmatic
fluids in the breccia-hosted epithermal Au–Ag deposit of Rosia
Montana Romania. Econ Geol 101:923–954
White NC, Hedenquist JW (1995) Epithermal gold deposits. Styles,
characteristics and exploration. SEG Newsletter 27:1–13
Yilmaz H, Oyman T, Arehart GB, Colakoglu AR, Billor Z (2007)
Low-sulfidation type Au–Ag mineralization at Bergama, Izmir,
Turkey. Ore Geol Rev 32:81–124
Yilmaz H, Oyman T, Sonmez FN, Arehart GB, Billor Z (2010)
Intermediate sulfidation epithermal gold-base metal deposits in
Tertiary subaerial Volcanic rocks, Sahinli/Tespih Dere (Lapseki/
WesternTurkey). Ore Geol Rev 37:236–258
Zarasvandi A, Liaghat S, Zentilli K (2005a) Porphyry copper deposits
of the Urumieh-Dokhtar magmatic arc Iran. In: Porter TM (ed)
Super porphyry copper and gold deposits: A global perspective,
vol 2. PGC, Linden Park, pp 441–452
Zarasvandi A, Liaghat S, Zentilli K (2005b) Geology of the Darreh-
Zerreshk and Ali-Abad porphyry copper deposits Central Iran.
Int Geol Rev 47:620–646