Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
A longitudinal study of relationships between three burnout dimensions
among secondary school teachers
André Brouwers
The Open University, Heerlen, The Netherlands
Welko Tomic
The Open University, Heerlen, The Netherlands
Abstract
This study examined the direction and time-frame of the
relationships between three burnout dimensions among
243 secondary school teachers. A review of the literature
on this topic revealed six longitudinal studies (Van
Dierendonck et al., 1997; Leiter, 1990; Lee & Ashforth,
1993; Taris et al., 2005; Te Brake et al., 2008; Parker &
Salmela-Aro, 2011). Structural equation modeling
analyses indicated that emotional exhaustion had a
synchronous effect on depersonalization as well as on
personal accomplishment, while personal
accomplishment had a synchronous effect on
depersonalization. These findings offer partial
confirmation of the sequence of burnout dimensions
proposed by Leiter and Maslach (1988), Taris et al.
(2005), and Parker and Salmela-Aro (2011), but no
evidence was found in favor of the Golembiewski et al.
(1986) model. It was concluded that school principals
and psychologists who want to prevent and treat teacher
burnout at an early stage, before it becomes chronic,
must be sensitive to the warning signs of emotional
exhaustion.
Keywords: burnout; longitudinal studies; secondary
school teachers; structural equation modeling
Almost forty years ago Freudenberger (1974)
coined the term “burnout” after he had noticed that
tired, discouraged people became sloppy and
stopped making time for meaningful discussions
with their peers. They also experienced a loss of
self-confidence, and a sense of boredom. Maslach,
Schaufeli, and Leiter (2001) took the view that
burnout is an erosion of engagement: “What started
out as important, meaningful, and challenging work
becomes unpleasant, unfulfilling, and meaningless”
(p. 416). As a result, teachers may feel burned out
when exhaustion replaces feeling energized,
cynicism replaces being involved, and
ineffectiveness replaces feeling efficacious.
Burnout is considered to be a psychological
syndrome consisting of the dimensions emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced
personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson,
1981). Emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of
being overextended, both emotionally and
physically. Depersonalization is described as a
cynical, cold, and distant attitude to other people,
who are usually the recipients of one’s services.
Reduced personal achievement refers to a person’s
Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture
negative self-evaluation in relation to his or her job
performances (Maslach & Leiter, 1997; Maslach,
1993; Schaufeli, Maslach, & Marek, 1993).
We observe that researchers in various domains
like anthropology, economics and business,
education, medicine, psychology, and social work,
continue to conduct research into the various
aspects of burnout worldwide, aiming at finding
relationships, patterns, and applications for both the
personal and professional issues that affect
personnel in a variety of professions and the
sequence of three dimensions of burnout among
different occupational groups (see for instance
Alarcon, Edwards, & Menke, 2011; Steyn, 2010;
Lei, Youn Hee, & Dong, 2010; Chang, 2009;
Vercambre, Brosselin, Gilbert, Nerrière, & Kovess-
Masféty, 2009).
In the course of time, different process models
have been proposed to describe the relationships
between the three burnout dimensions.
Golembiewski, Munzenrider, and Stevenson (1986)
state that burnout progresses from
depersonalization  reduced personal
accomplishment  emotional exhaustion.
Depersonalization arises when professional
detachment in dealing with others is no longer
functional and reducing the sufferer’s ability to
form necessary relationships with others and to
perform well on the job. As a consequence, the
self-evaluation of job accomplishment becomes
negative, the ability to cope with job demands
declines, and feelings of being overextended are
likely to arise.
Another process model describing the sequence
of the burnout dimensions is the Leiter and
progresses from emotional exhaustion 
Maslach (1988) model. They state that burnout
depersonalization  reduced personal
accomplishment. In their view, feelings of being
overextended arise initially in response to a work
environment that is demanding in a social-
psychological sense. With regard to teachers, this
could include factors such as heavy workloads,
high role conflict and ambiguity, inadequate
resources, large class size, extensive administrative
bureaucracy, low autonomy, low collegiality, and
disruptive and violent student behaviour (Chen &
Miller, 1997). The latter are particularly stressful
23
Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
problems (Brouwers & Tomic, 1999). To cope with
exhaustion and stress, the overextended individual
distances him or herself from others and becomes
cynical and cold in his or her responses toward
them. Once depersonalization occurs, the
individual may begin to feel ineffective on the job,
and the self-evaluation of his or her
accomplishments is likely to become negative.
Several studies have examined the sequence of
three burnout dimensions. In their cross-sectional
studies, Golembiewski and his colleagues found
evidence for their proposed sequence
(Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1993;
Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1990;
Golembiewski & Roundtree, 1986). A few studies
performed by others also reported results consistent
with the so-called progressive phase model
constructed by Golembiewski and his colleagues
(Gryskiewicz & Buttner, 1992; Scherer, Cox, Key,
& Stickney, 1992; Burke, 1989). However, these
studies have been severely criticized on
methodological grounds. Leiter (1989) stated that
dichotomizing continuous scales, which is a
common procedure when testing Golembiewski’s
model, leads to a loss of information, and
consequently to a less sensitive analysis. In
addition, he showed by reanalyzing
Golembiewski’s data that the vast majority of
significant differences between the phases of
burnout could be explained by levels of emotional
exhaustion, thereby subsuming the explanatory
power of the other two dimensions of burnout, i.e.,
depersonalization and personal accomplishment.
In other cross-sectional studies, evidence was
found in favour of the sequence of burnout
dimensions proposed by Leiter and Maslach (1988;
Cordes, Dougherty, & Blum, 1997; Greenglass,
Burke, & Konarski, 1997; Byrne, 1994), i.e.,
typically elevation on each dimension proceeds in a
sequence. However, cross-sectional studies cannot
solve the question once and for all.
Due to cross-sectional design limitations,
longitudinal studies have been conducted to test
process models to describe the relationships
between the burnout dimensions. Of the six
significant longitudinal studies on this topic, (1)
Van Dierendonck, Schaufeli, and Buunk (1997)
found that emotional exhaustion affects personal
accomplishment, which in turn influences
depersonalization, while depersonalization in turn
influences emotional exhaustion. They stated that
these results did not provide conclusive evidence of
either the ideas of Leiter and Maslach (1988) or
those of Golembiewski et al. (1986). (2) Leiter
(1990) showed that the only significant reciprocal
longitudinal effect across a six month time interval
between the burnout dimensions was that of
personal accomplishment and emotional
exhaustion. (3) The study conducted by Lee and
Ashforth (1993) provided evidence in favour of one
Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture
of the two above-mentioned sequence concepts, the
Leiter and Maslach (1988) model. (4) The findings
of the Taris, Le Blanc, Schaufeli, and Schreurs
study (2005) supported the prediction that higher
levels of exhaustion bring about higher levels of
depersonalization. In addition, indications were
found for an association between higher levels of
depersonalization with lower levels of personal
accomplishment. Finally, higher levels of
depersonalization are associated with higher levels
of exhaustion across time. (5) Te Brake, Smits,
Wicherts, Gorter, and Hoogstraten (2008)
examined the chronological sequence of the three
dimensions of burnout using a two-wave
longitudinal design. In addition to the test of their a
priori models, they constructed a model that best
fitted their study data. This model indicated
emotional exhaustion to precede the development
of depersonalization and personal accomplishment
independently. The results showed that emotional
exhaustion should not be discarded as an early sign
of burnout. (6) Parker and Salmela-Aro (2011)
compared and contrasted several major models in
order to identify which model best represented the
development of school burnout in a four-wave
longitudinal sample of high school students. The
results suggest that Taris et al.'s (2005) model
provided a significantly better fit to the data than
other tested models. This could indicate that similar
developmental processes underlie both school and
occupational burnout.
However, since all possible synchronous and
longitudinal effects in both directions were not
systematically tested in all of the studies mentioned
above, it remains unclear whether their final model
was the best fit among other possible models (Zapf,
Dormann & Frese, 1996). More longitudinal
research including tests of reciprocal effects is
evidently necessary. For instance, it is possible that
emotional exhaustion might affect personal
accomplishment and the latter might affect
exhaustion as well. Consequently, knowledge about
the causal relationships of hypotheses is needed.
In studying burnout, discovering the correct
developmental model is important for two reasons.
First, knowing the chronological sequence will
facilitate early recognition of burnout, which is
essential to prevent and treat the syndrome at an
early stage. Second, it will help to develop a
process model which is validated empirically and
which will allow an understanding of the
antecedents and consequences of burnout (Van
Dierendonck et al., 1997).
The present study examined the direction and
time-frame (five months synchronous or
longitudinal) of the relationships between three
burnout dimensions among secondary school
teachers longitudinally. Such a study is important
because (1) previous research has not produced
final conclusions about the sequence of the burnout
24
Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
dimensions, and (2) it is reasonable to assume that
the sequence of the dimensions will vary among
different occupations. For instance, the emotional
and social-psychological demands involved in
teaching students are in some respects completely
different from the demands of caring for patients.
Clearly, the professional detachment which can be
functional in caring for patients differs from the
attitude required when dealing with students. It is
therefore reasonable to assume that the point at
which functional detachment becomes
dysfunctional (Golembiewski et al., 1986) may
differ from one occupation to the next.
Contrary to growing interest in burnout in a
wide range of occupations (Ahola, Honkonen,
Virtane, Aromaa, & Lonnqvist, 2008) burnout has
been studied above all principally in human service
professions. In educational settings, interest is
increasing because the teaching profession has
noticeably evolved over recent years (Loonstra,
Brouwers, & Tomic, 2009; Evers, Brouwers, &
Tomic, 2002; Tomic & Tomic, 2008).
Method
Participants
Participants were teachers working in secondary
schools in the province of Limburg in the
Netherlands. Schools were randomly selected to
participate in the current study. Time 1 respondents
(N = 558) were those who participated during the
first wave of data collection and who had
completed the questionnaires. They represented
53% of 1056 teachers asked to participate. Time 2
respondents (N = 243) were teachers from the Time
1 sample who participated again at Time 2 and who
had also completed the questionnaires. The
measurement points at Time 1 and Time 2 were
October 2010 and March 2011, respectively, an
interval of five months. The reason we opted for a
five-month time interval was entirely practical. We
deliberately avoided measurement administration in
peak periods in which teachers are busier than
usual, for instance examination periods. We
expected that the two above-mentioned
measurement points (October and March) would
probably yield the highest response. Time 2
respondents consisted of 179 male (74%) and 64
female (26%) teachers. The average age was 46.29
years (SD = 8.20) with a range of 24 to 63 years.
The average teaching experience in years was
21.25 (SD = 8.92) with a range of 1 to 39 years. A
comparison with all teachers working in secondary
schools in the province of Limburg in 2009
(Central Finance Institute, 2009) showed that the
sample of the present study was representative in
terms of sex [χ2 (1) = .97, p = .33], but not in terms
of age [t(357) = 2.19, p = .01]. Compared with the
target group of all teachers working in secondary
schools in the province of Limburg, the teachers in
the sample were slightly older.
Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture
Analysis revealed no significant differences
between Time 1 and Time 2 participants on the
measures, including sex [χ2 (1) = .34, p > .05], age
[t(242) = 1.27, p > .05], years of teaching
experience [t(242) = 1.28, p > .05], emotional
exhaustion [t(242) = .18, p > .05],
depersonalization [t(242) = .00, p > .05], and
personal accomplishment [t(242) = .71, p > .05].
Measures
Burnout was measured at Time 1 and Time 2
using the Dutch version of the Maslach Burnout
Inventory for teachers (MBI-NL-Ed; Schaufeli &
Van Horn, 1995; Schaufeli, Daamen, & Van
Mierlo, 1994; Maslach & Jackson, 1981). The
questionnaire includes 20 items divided into three
subscales: Emotional Exhaustion (EE; 8 items,
maximum score 48), Depersonalization (D; 5 items,
maximum score 30), and Personal Accomplishment
(PA; 7 items, maximum score 42). The items were
measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from
never to every day. Scores on the scales are added
separately. High scores on the scales EE and D, and
low scores on the PA scale are indicative of
burnout. Examples of items are: “I feel emotionally
drained from my work” (EE), “I feel burned out
from my work” (EE), “I’ve become more callous
toward people since I took this job” (D), “I feel
students blame me for some of their problems” (D),
“I feel exhilarated after working closely with my
recipients” (PA), and “I have accomplished many
worthwhile things in this job” (PA). In a study
among secondary school teachers (N = 916),
Schaufeli and Van Horn (1995) found Cronbach’s
Alphas of .87, .71 and .78 for the three subscales,
respectively. The three-factor structure of the
Dutch version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory
for teachers is confirmed with confirmatory factor
analysis (Schaufeli, Daamen, & Van Mierlo, 1994).
Procedure
The principals of 15 schools were asked to
cooperate in the study and were mailed and asked
to hand out a questionnaire to every teacher in their
school along with a letter explaining the nature and
general aim of the study. All letters indicated that
participation was voluntary, responses were
confidential, and data would be anonymized. At
both measurement times, follow-up mail-outs were
used to increase the return rate. No incentive was
provided for participation.
This study has been performed among teachers
working in general secondary education. The Dutch
system has three tracks of education, each aimed at
a different academic level. After primary school,
students – approximately 12 years of age – can
pursue prevocational secondary education, which is
usually an introduction to middle vocational
education. This branch takes four years to complete
(from 12 to 16 years). The second track known as
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Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
senior general secondary education lasts five years
and qualifies students to enter higher professional
education (ages 12 to 17). Pre-university education
is the third track and lasts six years and prepares
students for academic studies at university level
(ages 12 to 18).
Teachers in secondary education must be
certified. Grade one teacher qualification covers all
classes of university preparatory education and
senior general secondary education.
A master’s degree in the field of teaching and
extra teacher training is also required. Second-
grade qualification is limited to the first three
school years of secondary education. These
teachers need to have a degree of the School of
Education which involves four years of training at
higher professional education level.
Analysis
A structural equation modeling (SEM)
procedure with maximum likelihood estimation
utilizing the AMOS computer program was
employed to determine the most likely direction
and time-frame (five months longitudinal or
synchronous)of the relationships between burnout
dimensions. In testing longitudinal relationships,
SEM procedures have several advantages with
respect to other analytical procedures such as the
cross-lagged panel correlation technique and
hierarchical regression analyses. The structural
equation modeling procedure provides tests that
allow for directional conclusions and can include
reciprocal relationships between variables (Martin,
2011; Zapf et al., 1996; Kessler & Greenberg,
1981).
Emotional Exhaustion
Time 1
d c e f
Depersonalization
Time 1
Figure 1. Model for testing longitudinal relationships between emotional exhaustion and depersonalization
Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture
To examine the relationships between the three
burnout dimensions, a three-step procedure was
followed (Lee & Ashforth, 1993). In step 1, two
synchronous models named synchronous type 1
models, were compared with the stability model to
reveal whether the synchronous paths were
significant. In the stability model only the stability
paths were unconstrained, while the other paths
were fixed at zero (Maruyama, 1998). In
synchronous type 1 model, the stability paths
[arrows a & b] and the synchronous paths at Time 1
and 2 which move in the same direction were
 Time 1 depersonalization [d], and Time 2
unconstrained (e.g., Time 1 emotional exhaustion
emotional exhaustion  Time 2 depersonalization
[g]) while the other synchronous paths as well as
the lagged paths were fixed at zero [e, f, c, h].
In step 2, two synchronous models with
equality constraints - named synchronous type 2
models - were compared with the best-fitting
synchronous type 1 model to reveal whether the
synchronous paths met the stationarity assumption
(James, Mulaik, & Brett, 1982). In synchronous
type 2 model, the stability paths were
unconstrained [a & b] and the synchronous paths at
Time 1 and 2 which move in the same direction
were constrained to be equal (e.g., Time 1
emotional exhaustion  Time 1 depersonalization
[d] was set to be equal to Time 2 emotional
exhaustion  Time 2 depersonalization [g]); the
other synchronous paths as well as the lagged paths
were fixed at zero [e, f, c, h].
a
Emotional Exhaustion
Time 2
g h
b Depersonalization
Time 2
26
Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
In step 3, two longitudinal models were
compared with the best-fitting synchronous type 2
model to reveal whether the lagged paths were
significant. Then the best-fitting longitudinal model
was compared with the best-fitting synchronous
model to reveal which model fitted the data best. In
longitudinal models the stability paths [a & b] and
Time 1 emotional exhaustion  Time 2
one of the lagged paths were unconstrained (e.g.,
depersonalization [e]), while the synchronous paths
at Time 1 and 2 move into the same direction as the
unconstrained lagged path were constrained to be
equal [d, g]. The other lagged path and the other
synchronous paths were fixed at zero [f, c, h].
Chi-square difference tests were used to
examine the significance of unconstrained paths
(Bentler & Bonett, 1980). Adjusted Goodness of
Fit Index (AGFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) were used to examine
which of the models fit the data best. To estimate
the CFI and TLI, the stability model served as
baseline. TLI and CFI are said to be relatively
robust to sample size bias and to have taken model
simplicity and chi-square values into consideration
(McDonald & March, 1990; Bentler, 1990). The
model that performed significantly better than the
comparison model, as reflected in the chi-
difference tests, and that showed the largest value
on TLI and CFI was considered to fit the data best.
Results
Table 1 presents means, standard deviations,
internal consistency measures (i.e., Cronbach’s
Alpha), and intercorrelations of variables. Table 2
presents the fitness of the models to examine the
synchronous and longitudinal relationships between
the three burnout dimensions.
For the relationship between emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization, the step 1 results
indicated that the synchronous type 1 models were
significantly superior to the stability model, as
reflected in the chi-square difference tests [Δχ2 (2)
= 154.81, p < .01 and Δχ2 (2)= 136.89, p < .01].
However, the synchronous type 1 model with the
unconstrained paths of emotional exhaustion to
depersonalization fitted the data better than the
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, Internal Consistency Measures, and Intercorrelations Between Variables
Scale
Variable M SD α 1
Time 1
1. Emotional Exhaustion 16.30 9.43 .91
2. Depersonalization 5.71 4.18 .72
3. Personal Accomplishment 27.01 6.64 .86
Time 2
4. Emotional Exhaustion 16.83 9.51
5. Depersonalization 6.50 4.13
6. Personal Accomplishment 27.29 6.48
Note. N = 243
Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture
other synchronous type 1 model, as reflected in the
values on the fit indexes (e.g., TLI is 1.00 and .76,
respectively). The step 2 results indicated that the
synchronous type 2 models were significantly
inferior to the best-fit synchronous type 1 model, as
reflected in the chi-square difference tests [Δχ2 (1)
= 15.44, p < .01 and Δχ2 (1) = 55.37, p < .01]. The
step 3 results indicated that only the longitudinal
model with the unconstrained lagged path of
emotional exhaustion to depersonalization was
significantly superior to the best-fit synchronous
type 2 model, as reflected in the chi-square
difference test [Δχ2 (1) = 9.50, p < .01]. However,
the synchronous type 1 model with the
unconstrained synchronous paths of emotional
exhaustion to depersonalization fitted the data
better than the best-fit longitudinal model, as
reflected in the values on the fit indexes (e.g., TLI
is 1.00 and .92, respectively). So, the results
indicated that the synchronous type 1 model with
the unconstrained synchronous paths of emotional
exhaustion to depersonalization fitted the data best.
For the relationship between depersonalization
and personal accomplishment, the step 1 results
indicated that the synchronous type 1 models were
significantly superior to the stability model, as
reflected in the chi-square difference tests [Δχ2 (2)
= 120.20, p < .01 and Δχ2 (2) = 125.04, p < .01].
However, the synchronous type 1 model with the
unconstrained paths of personal accomplishment to
depersonalization fitted the data better than the
other synchronous type 1 model, as reflected in the
values on the fit indexes (e.g., TLI is .81 and .74,
respectively). The step 2 results indicated that the
chi-squares of the synchronous type 2 models were
higher than chi-square of the best-fit synchronous
type 1 model. The difference was significant for the
synchronous type 2 model with equally constrained
paths of depersonalization to personal
accomplishment [Δχ2 (1) = 10.46, p < .01] and not
significant for the other synchronous type 2 model
[Δχ2 (1) = 2.32, p = .13]. This means that the best-
fit synchronous type 2 model is not significantly
inferior to the best-fit synchronous type 1 model.
The step 3 results indicated that only the chi-square
of the longitudinal model with the unconstrained
Intercorrelations
2 3 4 5
-
.61 -
-.45 -.50 -
.92 .84 .55 -.41 -
.71 .58 .69 -.52 .61 -
.86 -.53 -.51 .75 -.53 -.63
27
Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions

lagged path of personal accomplishment to For the relationship between emotional

depersonalization was lower than chi-square of the
best-fit synchronous type 2 model, but the
difference was not significant [Δχ2 (1) = 1.60, p =
.20]. The longitudinal model with the
unconstrained lagged path of personal
accomplishment to depersonalization fitted the data
better than the other longitudinal model, as
reflected in the values on the fit indexes (e.g., TLI
is .80 and .68, respectively). However, the best-fit
model is the most parsimonious model which is not
significantly inferior to another model. The
synchronous type 2 models were the most
parsimonious models after the stability model. So,
the results indicated that the synchronous model
with equality constrained paths of personal
accomplishment to depersonalization fitted the data
best.
exhaustion and personal accomplishment, the step
1 results indicated that the synchronous type 1
models were significantly superior to the stability
model, as reflected in the chi-square difference
tests [Δχ2 (2) = 177.16, p < .01 and Δχ2 (2) =
166.21, p < .01]. However, the synchronous type 1
model with the unconstrained paths of emotional
exhaustion to personal accomplishment fitted the
data better than the other synchronous type 1
model, as reflected in the values on the fit indexes
(e.g., TLI is 1.00 and .41, respectively). The step 2
results indicated that the synchronous type 2
models were significantly inferior to the best-fit
synchronous type 1 model, as reflected in the chi-
square difference tests [Δχ2 (1) = 7.84, p < .01 and
Δχ2 (1) = 46.97, p < .01]. The step 3 results
indicated that only the chi-square of the

Table 2
Chi-squares, Chi-square Differences, and Fit Indexes of the Structural Equation Models
χ2 df Δχ2 p AGFI TLI CFI
Emotional Exhaustion (EE) ↔ Depersonalization (DP)
Null Model 603.83 6 .07
Stability Model 156.86 4 446.97 .001 .50 .62 .74
Synchronous Type 1 Models
EE → DP 2.05 2 154.81 .001 .98 1.00 1.00
DP → EE 19.97 2 136.89 .001 .81 .76 .88
Synchronous Type 2 Models
EE → DP 17.49 3 139.37 .001 .90 .87 .91
DP → EE 57.42 3 99.44 .001 .70 .53 .64
Longitudinal Models
EE → DP 7.99 2 148.87 .001 .92 .92 .96
DP → EE 45.13 2 111.73 .001 .60 .44 .72

Depersonalization (DP) ↔ Personal Accomplishment (PA)

Null Model 497.00 6 .12
Stability Model 139.67 4 357.33 .001 .54 .59 .72
Synchronous Type 1 Models
DP → PA 19.47 2 120.20 .001 .81 .74 .87
PA → DP 14.63 2 125.04 .001 .86 .81 .90
Synchronous Type 2 Models
DP → PA 25.09 3 114.58 .001 .85 .78 .84
PA → DP 16.95 3 122.72 .001 .89 .86 .90
Longitudinal Models
DP → PA 23.67 2 116.00 .001 .78 .68 .84
PA → DP 15.35 2 124.32 .001 .85 .80 .90

Emotional Exhaustion (EE) ↔ Personal Accomplishment (PA)

Null Model 584.21 6 .13
Stability Model 90.67 4 409.75 .001 .66 .77 .85
Synchronous Type 1 Models
EE → PA 1.91 2 177.16 .001 .98 1.00 1.00
PA → EE 27.64 2 166.21 .001 .74 .41 .70
Synchronous Type 2 Models
EE → PA 9.75 3 167.31 .001 .94 .90 .92
PA → EE 48.88 3 155.82 .001 .72 .29 .47
Longitudinal Models
EE → PA 8.71 2 174.19 .001 .91 .85 .92
PA → EE 38.64 2 166.90 .001 .66 .15 .59

Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture 28

Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
longitudinal model with the unconstrained lagged
path of emotional exhaustion to personal
accomplishment was lower than chi-square of the
best-fit synchronous type 2 model, but the
difference was not significant [Δχ2 (1) = 1.04, p =
.31]. So, the results indicated that the synchronous
type 1 model with the unconstrained synchronous
paths of emotional exhaustion to personal
accomplishment fitted the data best.
Discussion
The present study examined the direction and
time-frame (five months longitudinal or
synchronous) of the relationships between the three
burnout dimensions among secondary school
teachers. Although teacher burnout has been
extensively studied, only a small number of studies
used a longitudinal design. In addition, few studies
have taken a close look at how the burnout
dimensions develop. The results partly confirm the
sequence of burnout dimensions proposed by Leiter
and Maslach (1988), and the empirical findings of
Taris et al. (2005), Te Brake et al. (2008), and
Parker and Salmela-Aro (2011), but no evidence
was found in favour of the Golembiewski et al.
(1986) model.
In accordance with studies of Taris et al (2005),
Te Brake et al. (2008), and Parker and Salmela-Aro
(2011), the direction of the relationship between
emotional exhaustion and depersonalization
showed the former affecting the latter. This result
confirms the Leiter and Maslach (1988) proposition
that emotional exhaustion precedes
depersonalization. Leiter and Maslach (1988) stated
that depersonalization is a coping response by
which individuals may distance themselves
psychologically to stem the demands on their
emotional reserves. The callous, cynical, or
detached way in which they deal with the situation
and the individuals with whom they interact
provides a type of emotional buffer (Cordes et al.,
1997). Emotional exhaustion was found to affect
depersonalization in studies involving human
resource employees (Cordes et al., 1997),
supervisors and managers (Lee & Ashforth, 1993),
and teachers (Greenglass et al., 1997; Byrne, 1994).
These studies were cross-sectional, except for the
longitudinal study conducted by Lee and Ashforth
(1993). One of the shortcomings of the latter study,
however, is that it did not systematically test the
relationships between the dimensions of burnout in
both directions. By reanalyzing Lee and Ashforth’s
(1993) data, Van Dierendonck et al. (1997) showed
that the reverse model, in which depersonalization
had an influence on emotional exhaustion, fitted the
data best. Their own longitudinal study involving
nurses, orderlies, physicians, therapists, and
physiotherapists showed the same result (Van
Dierendonck et al. 1996). It is conceivable that the
direction of the relationship between emotional
Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture
exhaustion and depersonalization differs from one
occupational group to the next.
The direction of the relationship between
depersonalization and personal accomplishment
showed the latter affecting the former. The same
result was found by Van Dierendonck et al. (1997).
These results suggest that neither the model
constructed by Leiter and Maslach (1988) nor the
model devised by Golembiewski et al. (1986)
suffice on this point. A possible explanation for the
influence of personal accomplishment on
depersonalization could be that the subjects
attributed their own negative self-evaluation of
their job performances to their clients, patients, or
students. Individuals can develop a cold and distant
attitude toward their clients and students, a reaction
to blaming them for their own poor job
performance.
The direction of the relationship between
emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment
showed the former affecting the latter. This result is
partly in accordance with the Leiter and Maslach
(1988) model, in which emotional exhaustion
influences personal accomplishment mediated
through depersonalization. Leiter (1989) modified
his model by adding a direct effect of emotional
exhaustion on personal accomplishment. Evidence
in favour of this effect was found in cross-sectional
studies involving human resource employees
(Cordes et al. 1997) and elementary school teachers
(Byrne, 1994). Van Dierendonck et al. (1997)
found in their longitudinal study that emotional
exhaustion influenced personal accomplishment as
well. However, Leiter’s (1990) longitudinal study
involving mental health workers produced evidence
in favour of the reverse relationship. By
reanalyzing Leiter’s data, Van Dierendonck et al.
(1997) showed also that the model in which
personal accomplishment influences emotional
exhaustion fitted the data best. It is conceivable that
the differences in the participants’ work
environment, which stemmed directly from the
type of occupations they practiced, were
responsible for the different outcomes of the
studies.
In summary, the direction of the relationships
between the dimensions of burnout as found in the
present study supported the following sequence
proposition for the teaching profession: emotional
exhaustion arises first (for instance, as a
consequence of working in a demanding
environment), followed by a parallel development
of personal accomplishment and depersonalization,
wherein depersonalization is influenced by
personal accomplishment as well. This proposed
sequence is, broadly speaking, in accordance with
the ideas of Schaufeli and Van Dierendonck
(1993), who hypothesize in general that (1) burnout
can be represented as a two-dimensional construct
consisting of emotional exhaustion and negative
29
Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
attitudes, and (2) emotional exhaustion precedes
negative attitudes (Van Dierendonck, Schaufeli, &
Sixma, 1994). The construct of negative attitudes
consists of the depersonalization and the personal
accomplishment dimensions of burnout. In a cross-
sectional study among general practitioners Van
Dierendonck et al. (1994) found evidence in favour
of the hypothesized direction of the relationships
between the constructs.
The time-frame of the relationships between the
burnout dimensions are all synchronous. This
means that the burnout dimensions influenced each
other within a brief time-frame. These findings are
in accordance with those produced by Van
Dierendonck et al. (1997), who interpreted them as
an indication of the interconnectedness of the
burnout dimensions.
Several limitations may have influenced the
results of the current study. First, the variables were
measured at only two points in time. Given the
synchronous effects found in the present study,
proposing a more definitive sequence between the
burnout measures will require future studies to
measure burnout: (1) with a shorter time-lag
between the measurement points than five months,
and (2) at more than two points in time.
Second, burnout was measured by a self-report
questionnaire. This implies that common method
variance and consistency effects may bias the
relationships between the dimensions (Doty &
Glick, 1998). Unfortunately there is, as yet, no
burnout measure which is less sensitive in that
regard (Schaufeli, Enzmann, & Girault, 1993). It is
recommended that future research should
supplement self-report measures with data from
alternate sources, such as colleagues, family
members, students, and supervisors (Wanous &
Colella, 1989).
A third impediment is the attrition rate, a quite
common phenomenon in longitudinal research
(Plewis, 1985; Reynolds, Frank, & Kathy, 2005;
Taris, 2000). A relatively large number of
participants dropped out between time one
measurement (N = 558) and time two (N = 243).
Similar drop-out rates were reported in Baer’s
(2003) meta-analysis, Lei & Wu (2007), and Te
Brake et al. (2008). However, the attrition analyses
revealed that the samples did not significantly
differ in terms of demographic data or in any
burnout dimension, so the internal validity of the
findings was not compromised.
Despite its limitations, the current study has
some important strengths. First, the study employed
an established and validated instrument with known
psychometric properties, i.e., the three dimensions
of the Maslach Burnout Inventory, allowing for the
comparison of findings across studies. Reliability
analysis shows that the measurements satisfy
psychometric standards (Nunnally & Bernstein,
1994). Second, the sample size was substantial and,
Sensoria: A Journal of Mind, Brain & Culture
in addition, the sample of respondents was
representative with respect to sex. Third, there were
no significant differences between Time 1 and
Time 2 participants on the measures, including sex,
years of teaching experience, and burnout. Fourth,
the current study examined the chronological
sequence of the three burnout dimensions using a
two-wave longitudinal design. Fifth, a strong
method of analysis (SEM) was applied which is
particularly suited to the analysis of longitudinal
data (Tomarken & Waller 2005). Sixth, a
theoretical framework was adapted that may help to
organize research findings across investigations.
In addition, the present study makes a number
of major practical contributions. First, there have
been few longitudinal studies examining the
relationships between burnout dimensions and
systematically testing all possible synchronous and
longitudinal effects in both directions. Furthermore,
the relationships between dimensions of burnout
have never been studied longitudinally in the
teaching profession. Because the present study’s
findings regarding the direction of the relationship
between emotional exhaustion and
depersonalization differ from those produced by
others (e.g., Van Dierendonck et al., 1997; Leiter,
1990), the present study shows the importance of
examining these relationships among diverse
occupational groups. The findings of the current
study extend our knowledge about the
chronological sequence of the three dimensions of
burnout.
Second, the present study showed that
emotional exhaustion is the first indicator in the
development of burnout among secondary school
teachers. The results of the present study can
facilitate early recognition of the gradual erosion
caused by burnout, making it possible to prevent
and treat burnout at an early stage before it
becomes chronic (Van Dierendonck et al., 1997).
It was concluded that teachers who develop
burnout first become exhausted emotionally. They
then develop a negative attitude towards their
students as well as towards themselves in relation
to their own work performance. School principals
and psychologists who aim to detect teacher
burnout at an early stage must know the warning
signs of emotional exhaustion. From the current
study we can conclude that early signs of emotional
exhaustion should be taken as an early warning for
teacher burnout risk.
The present study extends our knowledge about
the sequence of the burnout dimensions among
teachers. The teaching profession is full of potential
threats with regard to physical and mental health
(see, for example, Chen & Miller, 1997).
Consequently, early recognition of this gradually
developing process is of great importance. An
essential component of teacher-directed preventive
health care is to gain a clear understanding of the
30
Brouwers & Tomic: Teacher burnout dimensions
mechanisms that form part of the burnout process
among this occupational group. However,
speculations about the practical relevance of the
study are premature. More research is needed to
understand the sequence of three dimensions of
burnout among different occupational groups. The
work reported in the current study is only a step,
and future longitudinal and experimental designs in
particular, are needed in this area to develop
prevention and intervention programs.
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