PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF AN IMPROVED COOKSTOVE

MADE OF CLAY AND ASH

D.Y. Bisu1*, Y.H. Kwala2, A.M. Alhassan3 & A.B. Dauda4

Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Federal Polytechnic, Bauchi, Nigeria.

1,2,3
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hussaini Adamu Federal polytechnic, Kazaure, Nigeria
*danladibisu@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
This report presents a comparative study of the performance of an improved Cookstove and the traditional three-
Stone fire used in some Nigerian villages. An improved clay stove was constructed of a mortar made up of a
mixture of wood ash and clay, and its performance was compared with that of the three-stone fire. The results of
water boiling test shows savings in fuel consumption of up to 64 %, with an average thermal efficiency of
24.40 %. The stove is virtually costless, since all the materials required for its production are locally available at
no cost and no special skill is required to construct it. This work holds the potential to improve the life of the poor
rural dwellers in Nigeria and other countries who cannot afford other expensive cooking technologies.

Key Words: Improved Cookstove, Water boiling test, Emission, Traditional Cookstove.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Over 80 % of the populations in sub-Saharan Africa depend on solid fuels such as charcoal and
firewood for cooking more than any other region in the world. More so, it is estimated that by
2030, about one billion people in sub-Saharan Africa will still depend on biomass as their main
energy source (IEA, 2014; Akoh, 2014). Most of these people do not use improved cook stoves
(ICS). It is reported that out of the meager 828 million people the world over who use an ICS
daily, 552 million (66.7%) live in China, while the remaining 33.3% are shared among the other
parts of the world (Freeman & Zerriffi, 2014; Legros et al. 2009). Often, the combustion of these
fuels is done indoors over open fires with little or no ventilation. Extended exposure to biomass
emissions has been found to significantly increase disease prevalence. It is responsible for 2.7%
and 4.3 million global burden of disease and premature deaths respectively (Akoh, 2014;
Lackshmi et al, 2013; Ezzati & Kammel, 2002; WHO, 2006). The effect is mostly on women
and children under five years of age. and is comparable to that of heavy smokers who are males
in India and Nepal. The use of biomass fuels also contribute to environmental problems which
eventually result to global warming. For example, EAC (2006) has reported that heavy
dependence on biomass for household energy needs has contributed to annual deforestation rates
of between 2% - 4% in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.

In response, a growing number of individuals and organizations have initiated programs/projects

to improve indoor air quality and reduce biomass fuel consumption. Interventions include
improved ventilation, cleaner and more efficient fuel sources, and improved cook stoves
dissemination (Eskedar, 2014; UNDP/WHO, 2009; WHO, 2016; Patril, Shinde & Pandit, 2013;
Wakili, 2014). The benefits that can be derived from the use of ICS have been classified into
social, Environmental and Economic (Freeman and Zerriffi, 2014; Malla, 2014). The social
benefits include reduction in indoor air pollution, reduced physical burden and risks associated
with fuel wood collection (such as Abduction, murder and rape in areas with bad security
situations) and women empowerment. The environmental benefits include decreased pressure on
fuel resources such as wood and reduction in green house gas emission. For Example, it is
estimated that global reduction in green house gas emission resulting from ICS projects is 1Gt of

1
CO2 per year (SEI, 2013). The economic benefits include reduced fuel budget, increased
productivity due to time savings and reduced medical cost and, job creation in the production and
distribution of the ICS.

Although many safe, energy efficient cook stoves exist, they are not used by most people living
in remote villages due to lack of awareness, access and affordability resulting from high poverty
rate (Freeman & Zerriffi, 2014; Osiolo, 2021); A preliminary survey by the authors reveal that
most of the existing improved cook stoves available in Nigeria sale between N3, 500 (-$18) and
N15, 000 (~$76) each, depending on the size and make. This is too expensive for most rural
duelers in Nigeria and other developing countries. A recent report by the World Bank reveals
that over 70% of Nigerian population lives on $1.25 (N 200) or even less per day(Daily
Independent, 2014).

The objective of this work therefore is to provide and accelerate the adoption of an option of a
more affordable improved cook stove that can be built by the rural residents using locally
available materials. The study provides the missing awareness by conducting a comparative
investigation on the performances of the three stone open fire and an improved clay stove with a
view to presenting the audience with adequate information that will enable them make informed
choices among them. It is believed that the audience, anticipating the consequences of alternative
choices, will choose 'rationally' the stove that will give them the 'greatest satisfaction' (Ogu,
2013; Crossman, 2014; Green, 2002).
The author believes that this will provide a less hazardous cooking environment, make cooking
cheaper, and boost the economy of families by reducing the time and money they spend on
cooking. It will also reduce the risk involved in spending long periods in the bush gathering
firewood by women and children, especially with the current security challenges in many
African countries such as Nigeria, Sudan, etc. Displaced persons in troubled areas will also find
this work useful.

In this study, the stoves were constructed using locally available materials such as clay, wood
ash and stones. The parameters considered are the size, thickness, and height and air flow
through the stove. Water boiling test (WBT) was carried out to study the performance of each of
the mentioned stoves, and then statistical tests were carried out to compare the results of the
evaluation.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Stove Materials
The materials used for constructing the stoves used in this study are clay, wood ash, and water,
which are locally available in rural areas. Clay was chosen because of its availability,
affordability and ease of use. Its binding ability is what has kept it as the potter's choice over the
past centuries till date. Clay, when properly fired can make a hard, strong, long-lasting heat
resistant material, but is brittle and tends to crack when subjected to high, sudden uneven heating
as would be experienced in the lining of a stove's combustion chamber (SEI, 2013).
In order to eliminate the problem of cracking under high temperature, wood ash was introduced
in the construction of the ICS. Wood ash is a lightweight loose-fill insulation that remains
dimensionally stable up to about 1250°C (2300°F) when it becomes a viscous fluid. This will

2
make a combustion chamber of ash/clay mixture. It should make a strong, high temperature,
rigid low cost isolative material with very good thermal shock resistance. (Modi et ‘al, 2005;
Verhart & Krishna, 1983; Baldwin, 986).

Some factors considered in the choice of materials and construction methods for this study
include economic and technical factors. Having the financial situation of rural residents of most
developing countries in mind (especially that of Nigeria), the stove was designed such that
professional skills and expensive materials would not be necessary.

2.2 Stove Description and Construction

Two stoves were used in this study. Two of the stoves were made up of four components
namely, body, combustion chamber, pot rests and windows. The stove body has dimensions of
300mm as its height, 300mm its top diameter, 50mm as wall thickness. The combustion chamber
has dimensions of 200mm as diameter and height of 250mm. The dimensions of the Pot rests are
20mm width and 50mm length. The window, responsible for loading fuel wood and air inlet, has
a height of 100mm and width of 150mm.

The Improved Clay Stove was made up of a mixture of wood ash and clay in the ratio 1:3 (wood
ash: clay), with two windows to enhance air suction. The presence of wood ash in the mixture is
to increase the thermal insulation capability of the stove body, so as to reduce heat losses and
therefore increase thermal efficiency. The stove use the chimney principle where a pressure
gradient is created at the grate due to temperature difference between the air inside and that
outside the stove, causing air to flow through the stove in vertical direction.

The second stove is the usual 3 -stone open fire. Here 3 stones of approximately same size are
arranged in a triangular pattern, with no air restriction. Fuel wood are arranged in between the
stones in a random manner and lit up.

The first step in the construction of the clay stoves was to create the base with the clay mortar on
which the rest of the stove will be built. The wall thickness was then marked, and clay was
gradually built on it, leaving a hollow space inwards which serves as the combustion chamber.
The pot rests were formed and mounted. The body of the stove was then smoothened to ensure
that there are no patches which may cause cracks while drying. The window was then carved out
after the stove had been allowed to dry a bit. The stoves were allowed to air dry for one week
before use. Plates 1 and 2 show the pictures of the two stoves just described.

2.3 Performance Evaluation of Stoves

In order to evaluate the performance of the stoves, water boiling test (WBT) was carried out with
each of the two stoves. The following materials/equipment were used in the experiments.
• Three aluminum pots with lids
• water at room temperature
• Fuel wood
• Half liter of kerosene
• Weighing balance

3
• Measuring cylinder
• Stop clock
• Thermocouple

2.3.1. Water Boiling Test (WBT)

The water boiling test was carried out according to the water boiling test protocol version 4.2.3,
2014 (WBT, 4.2.3, 2014)

The following relations were used to determine the various performance parameters of the
stoves.

4.186∗( Pci−P )∗( Tcf −Tci ) +2260∗(Wcv)

h c=
Fcd∗LHV

Where:h c = thermal efficiency, Pci = initial weight of water and pot, P = weight of pot.
T cf = water temperature after the test,T ci= water temperature before the test.
W cv = water vaporized, F cd- fuel wood consumed.
LHV = Net calorific value of dry wood.
The fuel burning rate ( Rcb ,) was determined using the relation
FCd
Rcb
tci−tcf
Where: Rcb = burning rate, F cd= fuel wood consumed, t ci = temperature of water before test
t cf = temperature of water after test
The specific fuel consumption (SC) was determined using the relation
Fcd
SC ¿ (3)
Pcf −P

Where: F cd = fuel wood consumed, Pcf = weight of pot and water after test
Pci= weight of pot and water before test

2.3.2. Cost of Thermal Energy

This is the cost per unit energy consumed during the controlled cooking test. Its determination is
necessary as a basis for determining the cost of using a particular fuel. It makes the economic
comparison of alternative fuels possible. The following relations as outlined in the WBT 4.2.3,
2014 were used to determine the cost of thermal energy.
Energy consumed, E = F dx LHV (6)
Pf
Cost of thermal energy, Ct= (7)
E
Where: Pf = price of fuel.

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the various tests carried out with the two stoves are presented in tables 1- 6 and
fig. 1. Each has been discussed appropriately.

4
Table 1: WBT results for 3-Stone fire and Improved Clay Stove
Units 3-Stone fire Improved Clay Stove
Fuel used Wood Wood
1. High power (cold start)
Ebullition time Min 21.60 22.20
Burning rate (g/min) g/min 20.50 13.18
Thermal efficiency % 11.3 17.6
Specific fuel consumption g/L 242.19 155.70
Fire power kW 278.03 228.78
2. High Power (hot start)
Ebullition time Min 20.1 14.9
Burning rate g/min 23.21 22.28
Thermal efficiency % 12.7 18.2
Specific fuel consumption K H
g Wood/kg 20 215.51 150.38
Fire power kW 30.81 22.42
3. Low Power (simmering)
Ebullition time Min 18.7 12.4
Burning rate g/min 10.42 5.85
Thermal Efficiency % 13.8 37.4
Fire power kW 23.50 12.66
Average
Ebullition time Min 20. 16.5
Burning rate g/min 18.04 13.77
Thermal Efficiency % 12.6 24.40
Specific Fuel Consumption Kg wood/kg H 20 218.68 126.42
Fire Power kW 110.78 87.95

Table 1 shows that the improved clay stove has the highest average thermal efficiency (24.40 %)
compared to the three stone open fire (12.60). Average Specific fuel consumption for improved
clay stove is (126.242g/l), while that of thee stone open fire is 218.68 respectively. The table also
shows the average fuel burning rates as 13.77g/min for improved clay Stove, 18.04g/min for the
three stone open fire.
The three stone open fire has the highest average burning rate and specific fuel consumption
because of the uncontrolled flow of air through the stove. This is also responsible for the low
thermal efficiency due to excessive heat losses through convection and radiation. The stones also
absorb some heat.
The presence of wood ash in the improved clay stove reduce heat loses due to its high thermal
resistance. More windows for air admittance makes more air available for enhanced combustion,
resulting in the high thermal efficiency, making it better than the three stone open fire. These
qualities also result in reduced smoke emission from the stove. The low fuel consumption is a
result of better heat conservation in the stove.

Table 2: Fuel Costs of Three-Stone Fire and Improved Clay stove estimated by WBT

5
 Unit 3-stone fire Improved clay stove
Fuel used Wood Wood
Price of Fuel N/kg 25 25
1. High power(Cold stard)
Specific fuel consumption g/L 242.19 155.70
Fuel used Kg 0.61 0.39
Fuel cost N 15.25 9.97
2. High power (Hot start )
Specific fuel consumption g/L 215.51 150.38
Fuel used Kg 0.54 0.38
Fuel cost N 13.5 9.50
3. Low power (Simmering)
Specific fuel consumption g/L 198.33 73.18
Fuel used Kg 0.50 0.186
Fuel cost N 4.10 4.5
Total
Fuel use kg 1.65 0.95
Fuel cost N 41.25 23.75

The table shows that the total fuel cost for boiling 2.5 liters of water on the three stone open fire
is N41.25, and N23.75 for improved clay stove. This shows that the improved clay stove is more
economical than the three stone open fire, since using the improved clay stove result in an energy
expenditure saving of N17.5 (42.42%). This is the result of the reduction in fuel consumption
occasioned by better combustion and better heat transfer to the pot and reduced heat losses due to
convection and radiation.

Table 3: Energy use of Three-Stone Fire and Improved Clay stove for WBT

Units 3-stone fire Improved clay Stove

Fuel used Wood Wood

Calorific value MJ/kg 15.5 15.5
Fuel Use Kg 1.65 0.95
Energy use MJ 25.58 14.73

The above table shows that energy utilization is lower with the improved clay stove (14.73MJ),
as compared to 25.58 MJ with the three stone open fire. This shows that using the improved clay
stove will reduce the energy requirement of a household. This result implies an energy saving of
10.85 MJ (42.42%) for households that adopt the improved clay stove.

However, mere differences in values for fuel consumption, thermal efficiency, burning rate, etc
between the two stoves are not enough to warrant the conclusion on which is better than the
other. Statistical tests are the tools that are used to establish whether significant differences really
exist between the performances of the two stoves. Paired sample T-test was therefore carried out

6
on the performance indices for the two stoves. The results for the T-tests are shown in tables 4-6.
It is clear that all the performance parameters for the two stoves are significantly different for the
two stoves, therefore confirming the superiority of the improved clay stove over the three-stone
open fire.

7
 Table 4: Statistical Tests for High power cold start WBTs on Three Stone Fire and Improved clay Stove

Three stone Fire (1) Improved clay stove (2) Statistics

Mean SD Mean SD T-test Significant difference @95% confidence?

Wood consumed (kg) 0.61 0.02 0.39 0.01 22.00 Yes

Time to boil 2.5 litres of water (Min) 21.60 0.50 22.20 0.20 - 1.664 Yes

Thermal Efficiency (%) 11.30 0.38 17.60 0.45 -41.632 Yes

Burning rate (g/min) 20.50 0.44 13.18 0.11 24.103 Yes

Specific fuel consumption (g/L) 242.19 0.28 155.70 0.30 260.50 Yes

Fire Power (Kw) 278.03 0.30 228.78 0.36 177.562 Yes

Table 5: Statistical Tests for High Power Hot Start WBTs on Three-Stone Fire and Improved Clay Stove

Three stone Fire (1) Improved clay stove (2) Statistics

Mean SD Mean SD T-test Significant difference @ 95% confidence?

Wood consumed (kg) 0.54 0.03 0.38 0.04 7.69 Yes

Time to boil 2.5 litres of 20.1 0.05 14.90 0.74 11.495 Yes
water (Min)

Thermal Efficiency (%) 12.70 0.24 18.20 0.10 -32.928 Yes

Burning rate (g/min) 23.21 0.17 22.28 0.17 4.820 Yes

Specific fuel 215.51 0.45 150.38 0.25 164.216 Yes

consumption (g/L)

Fire Power (Kw) 30.81 0.43 22.42 0.09 42.983 Yes

8
 Table 6: Statistical Tests for Low Power (simmering) WBTs on Three-stone Fire and Improved clay stove

Three stone Fire (1) Improved clay stove (2) Statistics

Mean SD Mean SD T-test Significant difference @ 95%
confidence?

Wood consumed (kg) 0.50 0.01 0.18 0.01 32.000 Yes

Time to boil 2.5 litres of water 18.70 0.27 12.40 0.09 43.235 Yes
(Min)
Thermal Efficiency (%) 13.80 0.16 37.40 0.10 -163.506 Yes

Burning rate (g/min) 10.45 -0.01 3.85 0.11 108.018 Yes

Specific fuel consumption (g/L) 198.33 0.18 73.18 0.83 315.831 Yes

Fire Power (Kw) .23.50 0.44 12.66 0.08 40.1 11 Yes

9
4.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
It is obvious that the improved clay stove holds the potential to transform the life of the poor
masses in remote villages. Introducing wood ash into the stove body reduced cracking rate
during drying and usage. It improved energy conservation by reducing loses due to stove body
heat absorption. Introducing more feeding windows resulted in enhanced combustion due to
increase in air supply to support combustion, and reduced emission. The overall effect of this
modification is the increase in thermal efficiency and reduced cost of cooking. It can therefore be
concluded that the objective of this study has been achieved: an efficient and economical
alternative cook stove has been constructed for the poor masses.

It is recommended that controlled cooking test be carried out to further study the performances
of the two stoves. Actual emission test/In-kitchen air quality monitoring should be conducted for
the stove to determine its indoor usability.

10
REFERENCES

Baldwin SF (1986). Biomass Stoves: Engineering Design Development,287, center for energy
and environmental studies, Princeton, NJ.

Crossman, A. (2014). Rational Choice Theory, an Overview.

Available at http://sociology.about.eom/od/sociological-theory/a/ratinal-choice

Daily Independent (2014). World Bank Report on Poverty in Nigeria. Daily Independent News
News Paper, Monday, December 08, 2014.
Available at http://dailyindependentnig.com/2014/Q5/world-bank-repot-poverty-nigeria/

Eskedar, G. (2014). Sustainable Energy for All Forum (SE4A11), New York, Emberk Energy.

East Africa Community Secretariat [EAC](2006), Strategy on Scaling Up Access to Modern

Energy Services. Arusha, Tanzania: EAC

Ezzati & Kammen (2002). Household Energy, Indoor Air Pollution and Health in Developing
Countries: Knowledge Base for Effective Interventions, Annual Review of Energy and the
Environment 2:233-270. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.energy.27.122001.083440.

Freeman, E. O., & Zerrifi, H. (204). How you Count Carbon Matters: Implications of Different
Cookstove Carbon Credit Methodologies for Climate and Development Co-Benefits.
Environmental Science and Technology, 48 (24). DOI: 10. 1021/es50394u

Green, S. L. (2002), Rational Choice Theory: An Overview, Baylor University

Lackshmi, P. V. M., Virdi, N. K., Sharma, A., Tripathy, J. P., Smith, K. R., Bates, M. N., &
Kumar, R. (2013). Household Air Pollution and Stillbirths in India: Analysis of the
DLHS-II National Survey. Environmental Research, 121:17-22.

Malla, S. (2014). Household cooking Fuel Choice and Adoption of Improved Cookstoves in
Developing Countries: A Review. The World Bank Development research Group,
Environment and Energy Team, Policy Research Working Paper 6903.

Modi, V., McDade, S., Lallement, D. and Saghir, L. (2005). Energy Services for the Millenium
Development Goals. New York: UNDP and the World Bank.

Ogu, M. I. (2013). Rational Choice Theory: Assumptions, Strengths and Greatest

Weaknesses in application outside the western milieu context, Arabian Journal of
Business and Management Review (Nigerian Chapter) l(3): 90-99.

Osiolo, H. H. (2021). Cookstove Technology Adoption: Evidence From Kenya, Energy for
Sustainable Development, 63: 133 – 144, DOI: 10.1016/j.esd.2021.06.004.

Patril, R. S., Shinde, Y. H., & Pandit, A. B. (2013). Optimization and Development of Solid

11
 Biomass Burning Cookstoves, InternationalJournal of Chemical and Physical Sciences
2(Special Issue): 1-10.

Wakili, I. (2014). Federal Government to spend N9.3b on cooking stoves, wonder bags.
Daily Trust news paper Vol. 36, No. 14, Thursday, November 27,
2014: p.13. www.dailytrust.com.ng

WHO/UNDP (2009). The Energy Access Situation in Developing Countries, A Review

Focusing on the Eeast Developed Countries and Sub-Saharan Africa, A Report.
Available at http://www.undp.org/energy.

WHO (2006). Fuel For Life: Household Energy and Health, Geneva.
Available at http://www.who.int/indoorair/publications/fuelforlife.pdf

WHO (206). Burning Opportunity: Cleaning Household Energy for Health, Sustainable
Development and Well Being of Women and Children, WHO Press, World Health
Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland, www.who.int

Stockholm Environmental Institute [SEI] (3013). Assessing the Climate Impacts of of Cookstove
Projects: Issues in Emissions Accounting. Policy Briefs. Stockholm:SEI.

12