Learning Unit 3

DRYING
• Background
Drying of solids refers to the removal of relatively small amount amounts of moisture
from a solid as opposed to evaporation, which will deal with removal of large
quantities of water. Drying is usually the final step in a series of operations. Removal
of water may be achieved in many forms but in this chapter we will focus on the
removal of water by thermal vapourisation. A solid which contains no water at all is
said to be bone-dry. Most solids even in their driest forms tend to retain a certain
amount of moisture. The liquid to be removed during drying may be on the surface of
the solid, it may be entirely inside the solid, or it may partly inside and partly outside.
Drying can be expensive, especially when large amounts of water, with its high heat of
vapourisation, must be evaporated. Therefore, it is important, before drying, to
remove as much moisture as possible by mechanical means such as expression;
0 gravity, vacuum or pressure filtration; settling; and by centrifugal means.

3.1 Classification of dryers

Major divisions of dryers are:

(a) Dryers in which the solid is directly exposed to a hot gas. These are called direct or
adiabatic dyers.
(b) Dryers in which heat is transferred to the solid from an external medium.
(c) Dryers that are heated by dielectric, radiant or microwave energy.

3.2 Mechanism of drying.

Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another solvent by
evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. Drying is conducted on various types of products,
e.g food, pharmaceutical products, wool, fibres, etc.

When hot air is blown over a wet food, heat is transferred to the surface, and latent heat of
vaporization causes water to evaporate. Water vapor diffuses through a boundary film of air and
is carried away by the moving air (Fig. 1).

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Figure 1: Movement of moisture during drying

This creates a region of lower water vapor pressure at the surface of the food, and a water vapor
pressure gradient is established from the moist interior of the food to the dry air. This gradient
provides the driving force for water removal from the food.
Water moves to the surface by the following mechanisms:
(a) Liquid movement by capillary forces.
(b) Diffusion of liquids, caused by differences in the concentration of solutes in different regions
of the food.
© Diffusion of liquids, which are adsorbed in layers at the surfaces of solid components of the
food.
(d) Water vapor diffusion in air spaces within the food caused by vapor pressure gradient

When food is placed in a dryer, there is a short initial settling down period as the surface heats
up to the wet-bulb temperature (AB in Fig. 2a). Drying then commences and, provided that water
moves from the interior of the food at the same rate as it evaporates from the surface, the
surface remains wet. This is known as the constant-rate period and continues until a certain
critical moisture content is reached (BC in Figs. 2a and b).

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Figure 2. (a) and (b) Drying curves. (The temperature and humidity of the drying air are constant
and all heat is supplied to the surface by convection).
In practice, however, different areas of the surface of the food dry out at different rates and,
overall, the rate of drying declines gradually during the constant-rate period. Thus the critical
point is not fixed for a given food and depends on the amount of food in the dryer and the rate
of drying. The three characteristics of air that are necessary for successful drying in the constant
rate period are
1. A moderately high dry-bulb temperature.
2. A low relative humidity.
3. A high air velocity.
The boundary film of air surrounding the food acts as a barrier to the transfer of both heat and
water vapor during drying. The thickness of the film is determined primarily by air velocity. If this
is too low, water vapor leaves the surface of the food and increases the humidity of the
surrounding air, to cause a reduction in the water vapor pressure gradient and the rate of drying
(Similarly, if the temperature of the drying air falls or the humidity rises, the rate of evaporation
falls and drying slows).

When the moisture content of the food falls below the critical moisture content, the rate of
drying slowly decreases until it approaches zero at the equilibrium moisture content (ie, the food
comes into equilibrium with the drying air). This is known as the falling-rate period. Non-
hygroscopic foods have a single falling-rate period (CD in Fig. 2a and b), whereas hygroscopic
foods have two periods. In the first period, the plane of evaporation moves inside the food, and
water diffuses through the dry solids to the drying air. It ends when the plane of evaporation
reaches the center of the food and the partial pressure of water falls below the saturated water
vapor pressure. The second period occurs when the partial pressure of water is below the
saturated vapor pressure and drying is by desorption.

During the falling-rate period, the rate of water movement from the interior of the food to the
surface falls below the rate at which water evaporates to the surrounding air. The surface

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therefore dries out. This is usually the longest period of a drying operation and, in some foods,
eg, grain drying, where the initial moisture content is below the critical moisture content, the
falling-rate period is the only part of the drying curve to be observed. During the falling rate
period, the factors that control the rate of drying change. Initially, the important factors are
similar to those in the constant-rate period, but gradually the rate of mass transfer becomes the
controlling factor. This depends mostly on the temperature of the air and the thickness of the
food. It is unaffected by both the RH of the air (except in determining the equilibrium moisture
content) and the velocity of the air. The air temperature is therefore controlled during the falling
rate period, whereas the air velocity and temperature are more important during the constant-
rate period. In practice, foods may differ from these idealized drying curves owing to shrinkage,
changes in the temperature and rate of moisture diffusion in different parts of the food, and
changes in the temperature and humidity of the drying air.

The surface temperature of the food remains close to the wet-bulb temperature of the drying air
until the end of the constant-rate period, owing to the cooling effect of the evaporating water.
During the falling-rate period the amount of water evaporating from the surface gradually
decreases but, as the same amount of heat is being supplied by the air, the surface temperature
rises until it reaches the dry-bulb temperature of the drying air. Most heat damage to food
therefore occurs in the falling rate period.
The type of material to be dried is an important factor to consider in all drying processes, since
its physical and chemical properties play a significant role during drying due to possible changes
that may occur and because of the effect that such changes may have in the removal of water
from the product.

3.3 Types of drying equipment

Many different forms of materials are processed in the drying equipment, including granular
solids, pastes, slabs, films, slurries. No one device can handle efficiently such a wide range of
materials. Accordingly, a large number of different types of commercial dryers have been
developed. Some of the types of driers include: Tray dryers, Rotary dryers, Belt dryers, Drum
dryers, Spray Dryers, Screw-conveyor dryers, Fluidized-bed dryers, Vacuum-shelf dryers etc.

3.3.1 Tray dryers

The tray dryers consists of shelf, cabinet, or compartment, where the solid material is spread
uniformly on a metal tray. In the most cases the tray plate is depth of 10 to 100 mm. steam-
heated air is recirculated by a fan over and parallel to the surface of the trays. Electrical heat is
used for low heating loads. About 10 to 20% of the air passing over the trays is fresh air, the

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remainder being recirculated air. After drying, the cabinet is opened and the trays are replaced
with a new set of trays with wet material. To save in this type of dryer, the truck type is used,
where trays are loaded on truck which are pushed into the dryer.

Figure 3: Diagram showing the tray or shelf drier

3.3.2 Vacuum-shelf indirect dryers

Vacuum-shelf dryers are indirectly heated batch dryers similar to tray dryers. They consists of a
cabinet made of cast-iron or steel plates tightly fitted doors so that it can be operate under
vacuum. Hollow shelves of steel are fastened permanently inside the chamber and are connected
in parallel to inlet and outlet steam headers. The tray containing the solid material is to be dried
in hollow shelves. These dryers are used to dry expensive or temperature sensitive or easily
oxidizable materials. These dryers are useful for handling materials with toxic or valuable
solvents.

3.3.3 Rotary dryers

It consists of a hollow cylinder which is rotate, usually slightly inclined toward the oulet. The wet
granular solids are fed at the high end, and the granular move through the shell as it rotates. The
hot air is in direct contact with granules. In some cases the hot air is indirect contact t, it flow
through the heated wall of the cylinder.

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Figure 4: Diagram showing rotary drier

3.3.4 Continuous Tunnel dryers

It consists of batch truck or tray compartments operated in series. The solid materials are placed
on trays or trucks which move continuously through a tunnel with hot gases passing over the
surface of each tray. The hot air flow can be countercurrent, concurrent or combination. These
type of dryers are used to dry food.

Figure 5: Diagram showing continuous tunnel driers

3.3.5 Continuous Screen conveyer dryers

This type of dryer consists of perforated or screen-belt continuous conveyors. A wet granular
particles or solid are conveyed as layer 10 to 150 mm deep on a screen or perforated while heated
air is blown upward through the bed. The dryer consists of several sections in series, each with a
fan and heating coils. A portion of the air is exhausted to the atmosphere by a fan.

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Figure 6: Continuous Screen conveyer dryers

3.3.6 Drum dryers

It consists of a heated drum roll, on the outside of which a thin layer of slurry is evaporated to
dryness. The final dry solid is scraped off the roll, which is revolving slowly. These are suitable for
handling slurries or pastes of fine solids in fine suspensions.

Figure 7: Drum dryers

3.3.7 Spray Dryers

A liquid or slurry solution is sprayed into a hot gas stream in the form of a mist of fine droplets.
The water is rapidly vaporized from droplets, leaving particles of dry solid which are separated
from the gas stream. The heated air flow can be countercurrent, concurrent or combination. It is
necessary to ensure that the droplets or wet particles of solid do not strike to solid surface before
drying take places. The dried solids leave at the bottom of the chamber through a screw
conveyor.

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Figure 8: Spray dryers

3.4 Important definition

3.4.1 Moisture content: By definition, moisture content is the ratio of the mass of water in a
sample to the mass of solids in the sample, expressed as a percentage.

3.4.2 Equilibrium moisture: An important variable in drying of materials is the humidity of the air
in contact a solid of a given moisture content. Suppose that the wet solid containing moisture is
brought into contact with a stream of air having a constant humidity H and temperature. A large
excess of air is used, so its condition remains constant. Eventually, after exposure of the solid
sufficiently long for equilibrium to be reached, the solid will attain a definite moisture content.
This is known as equilibrium moisture content of the material under the specified humidity and
temperature of air. The moisture content is usually expressed on a dry basis as kg of water per
kg of moisture free (bone dry) solid or kg H2O/100kg dry solid.

3.4.3 Free moisture – is the moisture above the equilibrium moisture content. This free moisture
is the moisture that can be removed by drying under the given percent relative humidity. For
example: Silk has an equilibrium moisture content of 8.5kgH2O/100kg dry material in contact
with air of 50% relative humidity and 25oC. If a sample contains 10kgH2O/100kg dry material,
only 10 - 8.5 = 1.5kgH2O/100kg dry material is removable by drying; this is the free moisture of
the sample under these drying conditions.

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3.5 CALCULATION METHODS FOR DETERMINING CONSTANT RATE PERIOD

Why drying calculations are done?

The important factor in drying calculations is the length of time required to dry a material from
a certain initial free moisture content X1 to a final moisture content X2. To estimate the time
required to dry a material, the best method is to conduct actual experimental data under
conditions where the feed material, relative exposed surface area, gas velocity, temperature and
humidity are required the same as in the final drier. Then the time required for the constant rate
period can be determined (a) directly from the drying curve of free moisture content versus time.
The time required to dry the product can also be estimated (b) from the rate of drying curve.

3.5.1 Using experimental data

Data obtained from a batch drying experiment are usually obtained as W total weight of wet solid
(dry solid + moisture) at different time, t, in the drying period. These data can be converted to
rate of drying by recalculating the data. If W is the weight of the wet solid on kg total plus dry
solids and Ws in the weight of the dry solid in kg.
𝑊−𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑋𝑡 = eqn 3.5.1
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

For the given constant drying conditions, the equilibrium moisture content X* kg equilibrium
moisture/kg dry solids is determined. Then the free moisture X in kg free water/kg dry solids is
calculated for each Xt

X = Xt – X* eqn 3.5.2

Plot the drying curve (free moisture content versus time) as shown in Figure 9.

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Figure 9: Free moisture vs time (hr) graph

To obtain the rate of drying curve from this plot

The slopes of tangent drawn to the curve Figure 9 can be measured. This gives values of dX/dt at
given values of t. The rate R is calculated for each point by
𝐿 𝑑𝑋
𝑅 = − 𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝑡 …. Eqn 3.5.

Where R is the rate of drying in kgH2O/h.m2, Ls is kg of dry solid used and A is exposed surface
area for drying in m2. For obtaining R from figure (9) value of WsLs/A = 21.5kg/m2 was used. The
drying rate curve is then obtained by plotting R vs moisture content as in Figure 4 below

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Figure 10: Drying rate curve for constant drying condition.

Another way of obtaining the rate of drying curve is to first calculate the weight loss ΔX for a Δt.
For example: Consider the constant drying conditions where Ls/A is 21.5kg/m2. If X1 = 0.35 at t1
= 1.68 and X2 = 0.325 at t2 = 2.04. Calculate the R for this system
𝐿 𝑋1 −𝑋2 0.35−0.325
𝑅 = − 𝐴𝑠 = 21.5 ( 2.04−1.68 ) = 1.493
𝑡1 −𝑡2

This rate R is the average over the period 1.68 to 2.04h and should be plotted at the average
concentration X = (0.35+0.325)/2 = 0.338

(a) Estimation of drying time using drying curve (as in example 1)

Example 1: A solid whose drying curve follows Figure 9 is to be dried from a free
moisture content X1 = 0.38kgH2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.25kgH20/kg dry solids.
Estimate the time required using the drying curve.

Solution: (Referring to Figure 9). trequired = t2 – t1 = 3.08 – 1.28 = 1.8h

(b) Estimation of drying time using rate of drying curve

𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑋
𝑅=−
𝐴 𝑑𝑡

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Integrating equation 3.5.3 between X1 and Xc, the initial and final free-moisture contents
respectively gives the total drying time as:
𝐿𝑠 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋
𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ∫ …. Eqn 3.5.4
𝐴 𝑋𝑐 𝑅

Equation 3.5.4 may be integrated numerically from the rate-of-drying curve or analytically if
equations are available giving R as a function of X. In the constant-rate period R = Rc and the
drying time is simply’
𝐿𝑠 (𝑋1 −𝑋𝑐 )
𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = …. Eqn 3.5.5
𝐴 𝑅𝑐

Example 2: A solid whose drying curve follows Figure 9 is to be dried from a free moisture
content X1 = 0.38kgH2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.25kgH20/kg dry solids. Estimate the time
required using the rate of drying curve.

Solution: (Referring to Figure 10) Rc = 1.51kg H2O/h.m2. The graph was constructed using
Ls/A = 21.5kg/m2.

𝐿𝑠 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2 ) 21.5
𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = (0.38 − 0.25) = 1.85ℎ
𝐴 𝑅𝑐 1.51

This is close to the value 1.8h obtained by drying curve

3.6 CALCULATION METHODS FOR DETERMINING FALLING RATE PERIOD

3.6.1 Falling rate period

In the falling-rate drying period, the rate of drying R is not constant but decreases when drying
proceeds past the critical free moisture content XC. When the free moisture content X is zero, the
drying rate drops to zero (through the origin). See figure 11 below

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Drying rate, (kg H2O.h.m2) R

Constant rate period

RC

R2

R3

X
0 X3 X2 XC X1
Moisture content, X (kg H2O/kg dry air)
Through origin

Figure 11: Rate of drying curve focusing on falling rate period

The time of drying for any region between X1 and X2 has been given by the following equation
𝐿𝑠 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋
𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ∫ …. Eqn 3.6.1
𝐴 𝑋2 𝑅

For any shape of falling rate drying curve, equation 3.6.1 can be intergrated by plotting 1/R versus
X and determine the area under the curve using graphical intergration or numerical intergration
with a spreadsheet.

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 Example 3: A batch of wet solid whose drying rate curve follows
Figure 10 is to be dried from a free moisture content X1 =
0.38kgH2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.04kgH20/kg dry solids. The weight
of dry solids, Ls = 399kg and A = 18.58m2 of top drying surface.
Calculate the time for drying.

Solution: From Figure 10, Xc = 0.195kgH2O/kg dry solid hence the

drying occurs in constant rate and falling rate periods. For constant
rate period X1 = 0.38 and X2=Xc=0.195 and Rc = 1.51kg H2O/h.m2.
Ls/A = 21.5kg/m2. The constant rate drying time is calculated as ff.

𝐿𝑠 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2 ) 21.5
𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = (0.38 − 0.195) = 2.63ℎ
𝐴 𝑅𝑐 1.51

The falling rate period

Reading the values of R for various X from figure 10, the following
table is prepared. (Note this approach uses numerical method to
determine the intergration part of the equation 3.6.1)

X R 1/R ΔX (1/R)avg (ΔX) (1/R)avg

0.195 1.51 0.663 0.045 0.745 0.0335
0.150 1.21 0.826 0.050 0.969 0.0485
0.100 0.90 1.110 0.035 1.260 0.0441
0.065 Complete the table
0.050
0.04 Total = 0.1889
𝐿𝑠 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋 399
Therefore: 𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ∫𝑋
= 18.58 (0.1889) = 4.06ℎ
𝐴 2 𝑅

The total drying time will be sum of constant rate drying time and
falling rate drying time = 2.63+4.06 = 6.69h

YOUR TASK

Repeat example 3 using graphical method to determine the

intergration term of equation 3.6.1. HINT: Plot 1/R vs X and
calculate area under this curve
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In the falling rate period, if the drying rate is proportional to the moisture content, then

R = aX…. Eqn 3.7

Differentiating Equation 3.7, dX = dR/a…. eqn 3.8

Substituting eqn 3.8 into 3.6, yields

3.6.2 Calculation method for special cases of falling rate region

In certain special cases in the falling rate, the equation for the time of drying
𝐿𝑠 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋
𝑡𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = ∫ can be integrated analytically.
𝐴 𝑋2 𝑅

Rate is a linear function of X: If both X1 and X2 are less than Xc and the rate R is linear in X over
this region.

R = aX + b eqn 3.6.2

Where a is the slope of the line and b is a constant. Differentiating equation 3.6.2 gives dR = adX.
Substituting equation 3.6.2 into 3.6.1 gives
R
Ls 1 dR Ls R
tf = 
aA R2 R
= ln 1
aA R2
eqn 3.6.3

Since R1 = aX1 +b and R2 = aX2 +b

𝑅 −𝑅
𝑎 = 𝑋1−𝑋2 eqn 3.6.4
1 2

Substituting 3.6.4 into 3.6.3, the equation becomes

𝐿𝑠 𝑅1 −𝑅2 𝑅
𝑡𝑓 = ln 𝑅1 eqn 3.6.5
𝐴 𝑋1 −𝑋2 2

Rate as a linear function through origin: In some cases a straight line from the critical moisture
content passing through the origin adequately represents the whole falling rate period. In figure

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 4 this would be a straight line from C to E at the origin. For a straight line through the origin,
where the rate of drying is directly proportinal to the free moisture,

R = aX eqn 3.6.5

Differentiating equation 3.6.5 gives dR/a = dX. Substituting equation 3.6.5 into 3.6.1 gives
𝐿𝑠 𝑅1 𝑑𝑅 𝐿𝑠 𝑅
𝑡= ∫ = 𝑙𝑛 𝑅1 eqn 3.6.6
𝐴 𝑅2 𝑅 𝑎𝐴 2

The slope a of the line is Rc/Xc and for X1 = Xc at R1 = Rc

𝐿𝑠 𝑋𝑐 𝑅𝑐
𝑡= 𝑙𝑛 eqn 3.6.7
𝐴𝑅𝑐 𝑅2

Noting also the Rc/R2 = Xc/X2

Ls X C X C
tf = ln eqn 3.6.8
A RC X2

Total drying time through the origin

tTotal = tConst rate + tfalling rate eqn 3.6.8

Example 3: A batch of wet solid whose drying rate curve follows Figure 10 is to be dried
from a free moisture content X1 = 0.38kgH2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.04kgH20/kg dry solids.
The weight of dry solids, Ls = 399kg and A = 18.58m2 of top drying surface. Assume a
straight line for the rate R vs X through the origin from point Xc to X = 0 for the falling rate
period. Calculate the time for drying.

Solution:

Ls X C X C
tf = ln
A RC X2

399(0.195) 0.195
= 18.58(1.51) 𝑙𝑛 0.040 = 4.39ℎ

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 Activity 2:

A material is dried in a tray-type batch dryer using constant-drying conditions. It took 6h from
the initial free moisture content was 0.28 kg free moisture /kg dry solid to dry the material to a
free moisture constant of 0.08 kg free moisture/ kg dry solid. The critical free moisture content
is 0.14.

Using the same drying rate curve, predict the drying time from a free moisture content of 0.33
to 0.04 kg free moisture/kg dry solid. Assume a drying rate in the falling rate region, where the
rate is a straight line from the critical point to the origin.

(Hint: First use the analytical equations for the constant-rate and the linear falling rate periods
with the known total time of 6.0 hours. Then use the same equations for the new conditions)

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3.7 MATERIAL AND HEAT BALANCES FOR CONTINUOUS DRYERS

A flow diagram is showing a continuous type fryer where the drying gas flows counter currently
to the solids flow.

Figure 12: Process flow for counter current continuous dryer.

The solid enters at the rate of LS kg dry solid/h, having a free moisture content X1 and a
temperature TS1. It leaves at X2 and TS2. The gas enters at a rate G kg dry air/h, having humidity
H2 kg H2O/kg dry air and a temperature of TG2. The gas leaves at TG1 and H1.

For a material balance on the moisture

GH 2 + LS X 1 = GH1 + LS X 2 eqn 3.7.1

Heat balance

For a heat balance a reference temperature T0 = 00C. The enthalpy of the wet solid is composed
of the enthalpy of the dry solid plus that of the liquid as free moisture. The heat of wetting is
usually neglected.

The enthalpy of the gas H G in kJ/kg dry air is

H G = c s (TG − T0 ) + H0 eqn 3.7.2

Where 0 is the latent heat of water at T0, then 0 = 2501 kJ / kg at 0oC, cs is the humid heat
given as kJ/kg dry air.K.

𝑐𝑠 = 1.005 + 1.88𝐻 eqn 3.7.3

The enthalpy of the wet solid H S in kJ/kg dry air is, where (Ts – T0) 0C = (Ts – To) K

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 H S = c pS (TS − T0 ) + Xc pA (TS − T0 ) eqn 3.7.4

Where cpS is the heat capacity of the dry solid in kJ/kg dry solid. K and c pA is the heat capacity of
liquid moisture in kJ/kg H2O.K. The heat of wetting or adsorption is neglected

Therefore a heat balance on the dryer is

GH G 2 + LS H S 1 = GH G 1 + LS H S 2 + Q eqn 3.7.5

Where Q is the heat loss in the dryer in kJ/h. for a adiabatic process Q = 0, and if heat is added,
Q is negative

Example 4

A continuous countercurrent dryer is being used to dry 453.6 kg dry solid/h containing 0.04 kg
total moisture/kg dry solid to a value of 0.02 kg total moisture/kg dry solid. The granular solid
enters at 26.70C and is to be discharge at 62.80C. The dry solid has a heat capacity of 1.465 kJ/kg.
K, which is assumed constant. Heating air enters at 93.30C, having a humidity of 0.010 kg H2O/kg
dry air, and is to leave at 37.80C. Calculate the air flowrate and the outlet humidity, assuming no
heat losses in the dryer.

Solution

The flow diagram

Given: for the solid: LS, cpS, X1, cpA, TS1, TS2, X2 and for the gas: TG2, H2 and TG1

From material balance on the moisture

GH 2 + LS X 1 = GH1 + LS X 2

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G(0.010) + 453.6(0.040) = GH1 + 453.6(0.002) (1)

For heat balance, the enthalpy of the entering gas at TG2 (93.3oC) using 0oC as a datum T0,
therefore

H G 2 = c s (TG 2 − T0 ) + H 2 0

= (1.005+1.88(0.010)) (93.3-0) + 0.010 (2501)

= 120.5kJ/kg dry air

For exit gas

𝐻′𝐺1 = 𝑐𝑠 (𝑇𝐺1 − 𝑇0 )+ 𝐻1 𝜆0

= (1.005+1.8H1) (37.8-0) + H1 (2501)

For the entering solid

H S 1 = c pS (TS1 − T0 ) + X 1c pA (TS1 − T0 )

= 1.465(26.7-0) + 0.040 (4.187) (26. – 0)

= 43.59kJ/kg dry solid

H S 2 = c pS (TS 2 − T0 ) + X 2 c pA (TS 2 − T0 )

=1.465(62.80) + 0.002(4.187) (62.8-0)

= 92.53kJ/kg

For heat balance, there is no heat loss, therefore Q = 0

GH G 2 + LS H S 1 = GH G 1 + LS H S 2 + Q

G(120.5) + 453.6(43.59) = G (3.99+2572H1) + 453.6(92.53) +0 (2)

Solve equation (1) and (2) simultaneously to find G and H.

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Air recirculation in dryers

In many dryer it is desired to control the wet bulb temperature at which the drying of solid occurs.
Since steam costs are often important in heating the drying air, so the recirculation of the drying
is used to reduce costs and control humidity. Part of the moist, hot air leaving the dryer is
recirculated and mixed with the fresh air as shown in the diagram below. Fresh air is having a
temperature TG1 and humidity H1 is mixed with recirculated air at TG2 and H2 to give air at TG3 and
H3. This mixture is heated to TG4 with H4 = H3. After drying, the air leaves at a lower temperature
TG2 and a higher humidity H2.

The following material balance on the water can be made. For water material balance on the
heater.

Note H6 = H5 = H2

G1 H 1 + G6 H 2 = (G1 + G6 )H 4 eqn 3.7.6

For water material balance on the dryer.

(𝐺1 − 𝐺6 )𝐻4 + 𝐿𝑠 𝑋1 = (𝐺1 − 𝐺6 )𝐻2 + 𝐿𝑠 𝑋2 eqn 3.7.7

In a similar manner heat balances can be made on the heater and dryer and on the overall system.

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 TUTORIALS

1. A wet solid id to be dried in a tray drier under steady state conditions from a free moisture
content of 0.4kg H2O.kg dry solid to 0.02kg H2O.kg dry solid. The dry solid weight is 99.8kg
dry solid and the top surface area for drying is 4.645m 2. The drying rate curve can be
represented by Figure 10.
1.1 Calculate the time for drying using numerical integration in the falling rate period.
1.2 Repeat but use straight line through the origin for the drying rate in the falling rate
period.

2. An uninsulated, hot air countercurrent rotary drier of the type show in the Figure below is
to be used to dry ammonium sulfate from 3.5 to 0.2% moisture. The drier is 1.2 min
diameter, 6.7 m long. Atmosphere air at 250C, 50% humidity, will be heated by passage
over steam coils to 900C before it enters the drier and is expected to be discharged at 320C.
the solid will enter at 250C and is expected to be discharged at 600C. Product will be
delivered at a rate of 900 kg/h. Estimate the air flow and humidity as well as the heat
requirement for the drier.

3. Data is obtained from a batch drying experiment, with the weight monitored as a
function of time. The material being dried contains water and 12.5 pounds of dry solids.
The dry bulb temperature of the air is 230°F, and the wet bulb temperature of the air is
110°F. The equilibrium moisture content of the material is 0.04 pounds of water per
pound of dry solids.

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Time (hr) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4

Weight (lb) 40.0 32.9 25.8 18.7 16.4 14.3 13.4 13.0 13.0

a) From the data, determine the rate of drying as pounds of water removed per hour when the
free moisture content is equal to 0.11 pounds of water per pound of dry solid.

b) Estimate the critical free moisture content of the material for the given conditions.

c) Determine the rate of drying during the constant rate period (pounds of water removed per
hour per square foot of exposed surface area, assuming the total exposed surface area is 10
ft2.

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END
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