CHE 321

UNIT OPERATION 1 (3 UNITS)

Particulate Separation Operations

1: Drying, Conveying

2: Sedimentation, Clarification.
 RECOMMENDED READING/TEXT
• Chemical Engineering Volume 2 by Coulson
& Richardson Engineering

• Transport Processes & Separation process

Principles by Geankopolis C.J.

• Principles of Unit Operations by Foust A.S.

 BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

•Unit Operation: is concerned with those separations that

depend on differences in physical properties rather than
chemical behaviour. e.g drying, filtration, evaporation etc.

•Separation Processes: when faced with problem of

separating components out of homogenous mixture,
differences in the properties of the constituents of the mixture
is required to effect the separation. The various chemical and
physical properties offer the greatest difference among
components because the difference in the property will
generally permit an easier, more economical separation.
8.1.1. DRYING

•Drying is a mass transfer process which involves the removal of water,

or another solvent from a solid, semi-solid or liquid.
•In drying, water is removed as a vapor by air while in evaporation water
is removed as vapor at its boiling points.
•The drying of materials is often the final operation in a manufacturing
process, carried out immediately prior to packaging or dispatch.
Purpose of Drying

•To reduce the cost of transportation.

•To make a material more suitable for handling, for example,

soap powders, dyestuffs and fertilisers.

•As a preservation technique. Dry foods can be stored for

extended period of time.

•To remove moisture which may otherwise lead to corrosion.

 General Methods of Drying


Drying methods and processes can be classified in several
different ways.
•Batch process- where the materials is inserted into the drying
equipment and drying proceeds for a given period of time
•Continuous process - where the material is continuously added
to the dryer and dried material is continuously removed.
 General methods of drying

 Drying processes can also be categorized according

to the physical conditions used to add heat and
remove water vapor;
• Convective or direct drying- heat is added by direct
contact with heated air at atmospheric pressure and
the water vapor formed is removed by air;
•Indirect or contact drying – involves drum drying, vacuum drying,
the evaporation of water proceeds more rapidly at low pressures, and
the heat is added indirectly by contact with metal wall or by
radiation
• Freeze-drying- is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior
to drying and is then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly
from the solid phase, below the melting point of the solvent.
•Dielectric drying (radiofrequency or microwaves being absorbed
inside the material)- may be used to assist air drying or vacuum
drying.

•Natural air drying- takes place when materials are dried with unheated
forced air, taking advantage of its natural drying potential. It is a slow and
weather dependent process. Grains are increasingly dried with this
technique, and the total time may last from one week to various months.
•Rate of Drying
In drying, it is necessary to remove free moisture from the surface and also moisture

from the interior of the material. If the change in moisture content for a material is

determined as a function of time, a smooth curve is obtained from which the rate of

drying at any given moisture content may be evaluated. The form of the drying rate

curve varies with the structure and type of material, and two typical curves are

shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Rate of drying of granular materials

In curve 1, there are two well-defined zones: AB,
where the rate of drying is constant and BC, where
there is a steady fall in the rate of drying as the
moisture content is reduced. The moisture content at
the end of the constant rate period is represented by
point B, and this is known as the critical moisture
content.

Curve 2 shows three stages, DE, EF and FC. The stage DE
represents a constant rate period, and EF and FC are falling
rate periods. In this case, the Section EF is a straight line,
however, and only the portion FC is curved. Section EF is
known as the first falling rate period and the final stage,
shown as FC, as the second falling rate period.

The drying of soap gives rise to a curve of type 1, and

Type 2 shows the drying of sand.
•Constant-Rate Periods

 Drying of different solids under different

constant conditions of drying will give curves
of different shapes in the falling-rate period.

In general the two major portions of the
drying- rate curve which are the constant-rate
period and falling-rate period are present.
•Constant-Rate Periods


In the constant rate drying period, the surface of the
solid is initially very wet and a continuous film of water
exists on the drying surface.

If the solid is porous, most of the water evaporated in the
constant rate period is supplied from the interior of the
solid.

This period continues only as long as the water is
supplied to the surface as fast as it is evaporated.
 The Falling-Rate Periods

At this point there is insufficient water on

the surface to maintain a continuous film
of water.
The entire surface is no longer wetted,
and the wetted area continually
decreases in this first falling-rate period
until the surface is completely dry.
•The Second Falling-Rate Periods


The second falling-rate period begins when the
surface is completely dry.

The plane of evaporation slowly recedes from the
surface.

The heat for the evaporation is transferred through
the solid into the air stream.

The amount of moisture removed in the falling-rate
period may be relatively small, but the time
required may be long.
• Classification and Selection Of Dryers
Classification and selection of dryers is based on the following
factors:
(a) Temperature and pressure in the dryer,
(b) The method of heating,
(c) The means by which moist material is transported through
the dryer,
(d) Any mechanical aids aimed at improving drying,
(e) The method by which the air is circulated,
(f) The way in which the moist material is supported,
(g) The heating medium, and
(h) The nature of the wet feed and the way it is introduced into
the dryer.
• Types of Dryer
1. Tray dryers
Tray dryers, which are also called shelf, cabinet,
or compartment dryers are commonly used for
materials like lumpy solid or pasty solid. The
material is spread uniformly on a metal tray to a
depth of 10 to 100mm. Steam heated air is
recirculated by a fan over and parallel to the
surface of the trays. Electrical heat is also used.
After drying the cabinet is opened and the trays
are replaced with a new batch of trays.
2. Continuous Tunnel Dryers
Continuous tunnel dryers are often batch truck
or tray compartments operated in series, the
solids are placed on trays or on trucks which
move continuously through a tunnel with hot air
gases passing over the surface of each tray. The
hot air flow can be countercurrent, cocurrent, or
a combination. Many foods are dried in this way.
Figure 3: Arrangements for tunnel dryers
 3. Rotary dryers
Rotary dryer, which consists of a relatively long cylindrical shell
mounted on rollers and driven at a low speed, up to 0.4 Hz is
suitable for the continuous drying of materials on a large scale,
0.3 kg/s (1 tonne/h) or greater. It involves either direct heating
or indirect heating

Figure 4: Rotary dryer, 0.75 m diameter × 4.5 m long for drying dessicated coconut
4. Drum dryers
If a solution or slurry is run on a slowly rotating steam-
heated drum, evaporation takes place and solids may
be obtained in a dry form. This is the basic principle
used in all drum dryers, some forms of which are
illustrated in Figure 5. The agitator prevents settling of
particles, and the spreader is sometimes used to
produce a uniform coating on the drum. The knife is
employed for removing the dried material. Drum
dryers are suitable for handling slurries or pastes of
solids in fine suspensions and for solutions. Potato
slurry is dried using drum dryers, to give potato flakes.
Figure 5: Methods of feeding drum dryers. (a) Single drum, dip-feed. (b) Single drum,
pan-feed.(c) Single drum, splash-feed. (d) Double drum, dip-feed. (e) Double drum, top-feed
5. Spray dryers
Water may be evaporated from a solution or a
suspension of solid particles by spraying the
mixture into a vessel through which a current of
hot gases is passed. In this way, a large
interfacial area is produced and consequently a
high rate of evaporation is obtained. Dried milk
powder is made from spray drying milk.
 Application of Drying
• Foods are dried to inhibit microbial
development and quality decay.
However, the extent of drying depends
on product end-use. Cereals and oilseeds
are dried after harvest to remove the
moisture content that allows microbial
stability during storage.
 Application of Drying
• Vegetables are blanched before drying to
avoid rapid darkening, and drying is not only
carried out to inhibit microbial growth, but
also to avoid browning during storage.
• Concerning dried fruits, the reduction of
moisture acts in combination with its acid and
sugar contents to provide protection against
microbial growth.
 Application of Drying
• Products such as milk powder must be dried
to very low moisture contents in order to
ensure flowability and avoid caking. This
moisture is lower than that required to ensure
inhibition to microbial development. Other
products as crackers are dried beyond the
microbial growth threshold to confer a crispy
texture, which is liked by consumers.