Republic of the Philippines

DR. EMILIO B. ESPINOSA, SR. MEMORIAL

STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
College of Engineering
www.debesmscat.edu.ph ‫ ׀‬Cabitan, Mandaon, Masbate

ChE 324 – Separation Processes

Compiled and Edited by:

Engr. Marco Angelo R. Dejucos

ChE 324 – Separation Processes 1 - Drying Page |1

 1 - Drying

I. Overview:

This topic will cover the drying processes that are concerned with the removal of water from process
materials and other substance. The term drying may be also used to refer to the removal of other organic
liquids, such as benzene or organic solvents, from solids. Many of the types of equipment and calculation
methods discussed for the removal of water can also be used for the removal of organic liquids.

Drying should not be confused with evaporation. Drying generally means the removal of relatively
small amounts of water from a material while evaporation refers to the removal of relatively large
amounts of water from material. In evaporation, the water is removed as vapor at its boiling point. In drying,
the water is usually removed as a vapor by air.

In some cases, water may be removed mechanically from solid materials by means of filter presses,
centrifuging, and other mechanical methods. Especially for the removal of water, this is usually cheaper than
drying by thermal means. The moisture content of the final dried product varies depending upon the type of
product. Dried salt contains about 0.5% water, coal about 4%, and many food products about 5%. Drying is
usually the final processing step before packaging and it makes many materials, such as soap powders and
dyestuffs, more suitable for handling.

Drying or dehydration of biological materials, especially foods, is used as a preservation technique.

Microorganisms that cause food spoilage and decay cannot grow and multiply in the absence of water. Also,
many enzymes that cause chemical changes in food and other biological materials cannot function without
water. When the water content is reduced below about 10 wt %, the microorganisms are not active. However,
it is usually necessary to lower the moisture content below 5 wt% in foods in order to preserve flavor and
nutrition. Dried foods can be stored for extended periods of time. Some biological materials and
pharmaceuticals, which may not be heated for ordinary drying, may be freeze-dried.

Topic Duration: Week 2

II. Learning Objectives:

➢ Explain the overall process of drying and provide examples of industrial applications
➢ List different types of drying equipment and explain how they work
➢ Calculate the humidity (moisture content) of an air-water vapor using
vapor-pressure data, a humidity chart, and the wet bulb temperature
➢ Explain the concept of equilibrium moisture content in different materials
➢ Explain the difference between falling and constant drying-rate periods
➢ Use drying-rate curves to determine the falling and constant rate periods, as well as to calculate the
required drying time for a process
➢ Calculate the required heat-transfer coefficients during drying processes
➢ Use design equations to calculate the required drying time for various types of dryers
➢ Describe the process of freeze drying and provide examples of applications
➢ Describe the process of sterilization and provide examples of biological applications
➢ Determine the thermal process time for sterilization using death-rate
kinetics

Key Points

• Drying

III. Content Focus

A. Physical Mechanisms of Drying

Drying does not mean only removal of the moisture but during the process, physical structure as well
as the appearance has to be preserved. Drying is basically governed by the principles of transport of
heat and mass. When a moist solid is heated to an appropriate temperature, moisture vaporizes at or
near the solid surface and the heat required for evaporating moisture from the drying product is
supplied by the external drying medium, usually air or a hot gas. Drying is a diffusional process in
which the transfer of moisture to the surrounding medium takes place by the evaporation of
surface moisture, as soon as some of the surface moisture vaporizes, more moisture is
transported from interior of the solid to its surface. This transport of moisture within a solid takes
place by a variety of mechanisms depending upon the nature and type of the solid and its state of
aggregation. Different types of solids may have to be handled for drying crystalline, granular, beads,
powders, sheets, slabs, filter-cakes etc.
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 The mechanism of moisture transport in different solids may be broadly classified into:

(i) transport by liquid or vapour diffusion

(ii) capillary section, and
(iii) pressure induced transport.

The mechanism that dominates depends on the nature of the solid, its pore structure and the rate of
drying. Different mechanisms may come into play and dominate at different stages of drying of the
same material.

The following terms are commonly used in designing of drying systems:

Definition of Terms

Absolute humidity
- the mass ratio of water vapor (or other solvent mass) to dry air.

Activity
- the ratio of the fugacity of a component in a system relative to the standard-state fugacity.
- In a drying system, it is the ratio of the vapor pressure of a solvent (e.g., water) in a mixture
to the pure solvent vapor pressure at the same temperature. Boiling occurs when the vapor
pressure of a component in a liquid exceeds the ambient total pressure.

Bound moisture
- in a solid is that liquid which exerts a vapor pressure less than that of the pure liquid at the given
temperature.
- Liquid may become bound by retention in small capillaries, by solution in cell or fiber walls, by
homogeneous solution throughout the solid, by chemical or physical adsorption on solid surfaces,
and by hydration of solids.

Capillary flow
- The flow of liquid through the interstices and over the surface of a solid, caused by liquid-solid
molecular attraction.

Constant-rate period (unhindered)

- The drying period during which the rate of water removal per unit of drying surface is constant,
assuming the driving force is also constant.

Convection
- The heat or mass transport by bulk flow.

Critical moisture content

- The average moisture content when the constant-rate period ends, assuming the driving force is
also constant.

Diffusion
- The molecular process by which molecules, moving randomly due to thermal energy, migrate from
regions of high chemical potential (usually concentration) to regions of lower chemical potential.

Dry basis
- Expresses the moisture content of wet solid as kilograms of water per kilogram of bone-dry solid.

Equilibrium moisture content

- The limiting moisture to which a given material can be dried under specific conditions of air
temperature and humidity.

Evaporation
- The transformation of material from a liquid state to a vapor state.

Falling-rate period (hindered drying)

- A drying period during which the instantaneous drying rate continually decreases.

Fiber saturation point

- The moisture content of cellular materials (e.g., wood) at which the cell walls are completely
saturated while the cavities are liquid-free.
- It may be defined as the equilibrium moisture content as the humidity of the surrounding
atmosphere approaches saturation.
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 Free moisture content
- The liquid which is removable at a given temperature and humidity.
- It may include bound and unbound moisture.

Funicular state
- The condition in drying a porous body when capillary suction results in air being sucked into the
pores.

Hygroscopic material
- is material that may contain bound moisture.

Initial moisture distribution

- refers to the moisture distribution throughout a solid at the start of drying.

Internal diffusion
- may be defined as the movement of liquid or vapor through a solid as the result of a concentration
difference.

Latent heat of vaporization

- The specific enthalpy change associated with evaporation.

Moisture content
- of a solid is usually expressed as moisture quantity per unit weight of the dry or wet solid.

Moisture gradient
- Refers to the distribution of water in a solid at a given moment in the drying process.

Non-hygroscopic material
- A material that can contain no bound moisture.

Pendular state
- the state of a liquid in a porous solid when a continuous film of liquid no longer exists around and
between discrete particles so that flow by capillary cannot occur.
- This state succeeds the funicular state.

Permeability
- The resistance of a material to bulk or convective, pressure-driven flow of a fluid through it.

Relative humidity
- The partial pressure of water vapor divided by the vapor pressure of pure water at a given
temperature.
- In other words, the relative humidity describes how close the air is to saturation.

Sensible heat
- The energy required to increase the temperature of a material without changing the phase.

Unaccomplished moisture change

- The ratio of the free moisture present at any time to that initially present.

Unbound moisture
- in a hygroscopic material, is that moisture in excess of the equilibrium moisture content
corresponding to saturation humidity.
- All water in a non-hygroscopic material is unbound water.

Vapor pressure
- The partial pressure of a substance in the gas phase that is in equilibrium with a liquid or solid
phase of the pure component.

Wet basis
- expresses the moisture in a material as a percentage of the weight of the wet solid.
- Use of a dry weight basis is recommended since the percentage change of moisture is constant
for all moisture levels.
- When the wet-weight basis is used to express moisture content, a 2 or 3 percent change at high
moisture contents (above 70 percent) actually represents a 15 to 20 percent change in evaporative
load. See Fig. 2-1 for the relationship between the dry- and wet-weight bases.

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 Figure 2-1 Relationship between wet-weight and dry-weight bases. (Green & Perry, 2008)

B. Classification of Dryers

Drying equipment is classified in different ways, according to following design and operating features.
It can be classified based on the following:

▪ Mode of operation
o Batch
▪ The material is loaded in the drying equipment and drying proceeds for a
given period of time
o Continuous
▪ The material is continuously added to the dryer and dried material continuously
removed.
▪ In some cases, vacuum may be used to reduce the drying temperature.
▪ Some dryers can handle almost any kind of material, whereas others are severely limited in
the style of feed they can accept.
▪ According to the physical state of the feed:
o Wet solid
o Liquid
o Slurry
▪ Type of heating system
o Conduction
▪ Heat may be supplied by direct contact with hot air at atmospheric pressure,
o Convection
▪ Heat may also be supplied indirectly through the wall of the dryer from a hot
gas flowing outside the wall
o Radiation
▪ Heat may also be supplied indirectly through the wall of the dryer by radiation.

Water vaporized is removed by the air flowing.

▪ Dryers exposing the solids to a hot surface with which the solid is in contact are called
adiabatic or direct dryers, while when heat is transferred from an external medium it
is known as non-adiabatic or indirect dryers.
o Dryers heated by dielectric, radiant or microwave energy are also non-adiabatic. Some
units combine adiabatic and non-adiabatic drying; they are known as direct-indirect
dryers.

To reduce heat losses most of the commercial dryers are insulated and hot air is recirculated to save
energy. Now many designs have energy-saving devices, which recover heat from the exhaust air or
automatically control the air humidity. Computer control of dryers in sophisticated driers also results
in important savings in energy.

C. Drying Equipment

Batch Type Dryers

▪ Tray Dryers
o Schematic of a typical batch dryer is shown in Figure 2-2. Tray dryers usually operate
in batch mode, use racks to hold product and circulate air over the material. It consists
of a rectangular chamber of sheet metal containing trucks that support racks. Each
rack carries a number of trays that are loaded with the material to be dried. Hot air
flows through the tunnel over the racks. Sometimes fans are used to on the tunnel wall
to blow hot air across the trays. Even baffles are used to distribute the air uniformly
over the stack of trays. Some moist air is continuously vented through exhaust duct;
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 makeup fresh air enters through the inlet. The racks with the dried product are taken
to a tray-dumping station.

Figure 2-2. Schematic diagram of tray dryers(NPTEL, 2014)

o Useful when the production rate is small.

o Used to dry wide range of materials, but have high labor requirement for loading and
unloading the materials, and are expensive to operate
o They find most frequent application for drying valuable products.
o Drying operation in case of such dryers is slow and requires several hours to complete
drying of one batch.
o With indirect heating often, the dryers may be operated under vacuum. The trays may
rest on hollow plates supplied with steam or hot water or may themselves contain
spaces for a heating fluid. Vapor from the solid may be removed by an ejector or
vacuum pump.
o Freeze-drying
▪ involves the sublimation of water from ice under high vacuum at temperatures
well below 0℃. This is done in special vacuum dryers for drying heat-sensitive
products
▪ Pan Dryer
o The atmospheric pan drier has a jacketed round pan in which a stirrer or mill revolves
slowly, driven from below. The slow-moving stirrer exposes fresh surfaces and thereby
raises the rate of evaporation and, hence, of drying.
o The pan drier is a batch machine and is limited to small batches.
o Pan driers may be used first to evaporate a solution to its crystallizing concentration
and then can function as a crystallizer by sending cold water instead of steam into the
jacket. The effect of the stirrer during crystallization prevents the growth of large
crystals and promotes formation of small, uniform crystals. The mother liquor is then
drained off and the crystals dried in the same apparatus.
▪ Agitated Vacuum Dryer
o The agitated vacuum dryer is one of the most versatile in the range and is similar in
principle to a pan dryer.
o The dryer essentially consists of a jacketed cylindrical vessel arranged for hot water,
steam or a suitable thermal fluid flow through the jacket for heating. Doors are provided
on the shell, at the top for loading the feed material and at the bottom for discharging.
o The dryers are available in variety of sizes.
o The entire drying chamber is well machined to insure small clearance with the agitator
blade. Thus, ensures proper shuffling of the material and avoids localized overheating.
Due to the agitation of the product in the agitated vacuum dryer the drying time is
substantially reduced.
o A choice of the agitator design which can be arranged with or without heating depends
on the material characteristics and process requirements. While designing the shell
one has to consider the external pressure and the shaft designing includes fatigue
consideration. Designing the impeller needs consideration of characteristics of the
material before and after drying.

Continuous Dryers

▪ Rotary Dryer
o The rotary drier is basically a cylinder, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which may be
rotated, or the shell may be stationary, and an agitator inside may revolve slowly. In
either case, the wet material is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation, or agitation,
advances the material progressively to the lower end, where it is discharged. Figure
(2-3) shows a direct heat rotary drier.

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 o Typical dimensions for a unit like this are 9 ft diameter and 45 ft length. In direct-heat
revolving rotary driers, hot air or a mixture of flue gases and air travels through the
cylinder. The feed rate, the speed of rotation or agitation, the volume of heated air or
gases, and their temperature are so regulated that the solid is dried just before
discharge
o The shell fits loosely into a stationary housing at each end. The material is brought to
a chute that runs through the housing; the latter also carries the exhaust pipe. The
revolving shell runs on two circular tracks and is turned by a girth gear that meshes
with a driven pinion. The inclination is one in sixteen for high capacities and one in
thirty for low ones. As the shell revolves, the solid is carried upward one-fourth of the
circumference; it then rolls back to a lower level, exposing fresh surfaces to the action
of the heat as it does so. Simple rotary driers serve well enough when fuel is cheap.
The efficiency is greatly improved by placing longitudinal plates 3 or 4 in. wide on
the inside of the cylinder. These are called lifting flights. These carry part of the solid
half-way around the circumference and drop it through the whole of a diameter in the
central part of the cylinder where the air is hottest and least laden with moisture. By
bending the edge of the lifter slightly inward, some of the material is delivered only in
the third quarter of the circle, producing a nearly uniform fall of the material
throughout the cross section of the cylinder. The heated air streams through a rain of
particles. This is the most common form of revolving rotary cylinder. It has high
capacity, is simple in operation, and is continuous.

Figure 2-3 Counter current direct heat rotary dryer (NPTEL, 2014)

Table 1 Rotary dryers practical ranges of dimension and operating parameters (NPTEL, 2014)

Other Types of Dryers

▪ Drum Dryer
o In drum dryers (Fig 2-4a, b) a liquid containing dissolved solids or slurry carrying
suspended solids forms a thin layer on the outside surface of a large rotating drum.
o For a single drum unit thickness of the film can be controlled by an adjustable
scraping blade. In case of a double drum unit thickness can be controlled by the gap
between the drums (figure 2-4a).
o A gas, normally air may be blown over the surface for rapid removal of moisture. The
rotation of the drum adjusted so that all of the liquid is fully vaporized and a dried
deposit can be scrapped off with the help of flexible or adjustable knife.
o This type of dryer mainly handles the materials that are too thick for a spray dryer and
too thin for a rotary dryer. The solid collects on an apron in front of the knife and rolls
to a container or to a screw conveyor.
o The operation of the drum drier is continuous. The drum is rotated continuously by a
gear driven by a pinion that receives its motion through a belt, a chain, or a reduction
gear from.
o The speed of the drum may be regulated by a variable-speed drive to adopt the speed
to any slight variation in the feed quality. The speed of the drum regulated depending

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 upon the nature of materials (i.e. wet or dry), if the product material is wet/dry quite a
distance before the knife is reached, the speed should be decreased/increased.
o The design of the components is similar to that of drum filter. The knife may be held
just against the surface. It may be brought closer by turning the adjusting wheels. The
knife supports may be turned through part of a circle so that the angle of the blade of
the knife relative to the drum surface may be selected for the greatest shearing effect.
o In recent years, double drum dryers have replaced single drum dryer in several
applications (figure 2-4b), due to their more efficient operation, wide range of products
and high production rates

a b
Figure 2-4 a) Single drum dryer, b) Double drum dryer

▪ Flash Dryer
o The flash driers (figure 2-5), a.k.a. pneumatic dryer, are similar in their operating
principle to spray dryer. The materials that are to be dried (i.e. solid or semisolid) are
dispersed in finely divided form in an upward flowing stream of heated air.
o These types of dryer are mainly used for drying of heat sensitive or easily oxidizable
materials. The wet materials that are to dried can be passed into a high-temperature
air stream that carries it to a hammer mill or high-speed agitator where the exposed
surface is increased.
o The drying rate is very high for these dryers (hence the term flash dryers), but the solid
temperature does not rise much because of the short residence time.
o A flash dryer is not suitable for particles which are large in size or heavy particles.
o The special advantage of this type of dryer is that no separate arrangement is required
for transporting the dried product. The fine particles leave the mill through a small duct
to maintain the carrying velocities (drying gas) and reach a cyclone separator. A solid
particle takes few seconds to pass from the point of entry into the air stream to the
collector. The inlet gas temperature is high and varies from 650℃ to 315℃, for
example, in 2 seconds, or from 650℃ to 175℃ in 4 seconds.
o The thermal efficiency this type of dryer is generally low.
o A material having an initial moisture content of 80 % may be reduced to 5 or 6 % in the
dried product.

Figure 2-5 Flash dryer (NPTEL, 2014)

▪Fluidized Bed Dryer

o Fluidized bed dryer consists of a steel shell of cylindrical or rectangular cross section.
A grid is provided in the column over which the wet material is rests.
o In this type of dryer, the drying gas is passed through the bed of solids at a velocity
sufficient to keep the bed in a fluidized state. Mixing and heat transfer are very rapid in
this type of dryers.
o The dryer can be operated in batch or continuous mode (figure 2-6).
o Fluidized bed dryers are suitable for granular and crystalline materials.
o If fine particles are present, either from the feed or from particle breakage in the
fluidized bed, there may be considerable solid carryover with the exit gas and bag
filters are needed for fines recovery.
ChE 324 – Separation Processes 1 - Drying Page |8
 o The main advantage of this type of dryer are: rapid and uniform heat transfer, short
drying time, good control of the drying conditions.
o In case of rectangular fluid-bed dryers separate fluidized compartments are provided
through which the solids move in sequence from inlet to outlet. These are known as
plug flow dryers; residence time is almost the same for all particles in the
compartments. But the drying conditions can be changed from one compartment to
another, and often the last compartment is fluidized with cold gas to cool the solid
before discharge.

Figure 2-6 Continuous fluidized bed dryer (NPTEL, 2014)

▪ Screen Conveyor Dryers

o Screen conveyor dryer is also called a direct heat continuous type dryer.
o The solid to be dried are fed on to endless, perforated, conveyor belt through which
hot air is forced. The belt is housed in a long rectangular drying chamber or tunnel
(figure 2-7). The chamber is divided into series of separate sections, each with its own
fan and air heater. Air may be recirculated through, and vented from each section
separately or passed from one section to another counter current to the solid
movement. The solid is carried through the tunnel and discharged at the opposite end.
o In order to prevent the higher flow rate of hot air through thinner regions of the bed a
uniform feeding rate and distribution of the material over the conveyor is necessary.
o Coarse granular, flakey, or fibers materials can be dried by through circulation without
any pretreatment and without loss of material through the screen.
o High drying rate can be achieved with good product quality control.
o Thermal efficiency of this type of dryer is high and with steam heating, the steam
consumption for heating the drying gas can be as low as 1.5 kg per kg of water
evaporated.
o Only disadvantage of this type of dryer are high initial cost and high maintenance cost
due to the mechanical belt.

Figure 7 Screen conveyor dryer (NPTEL, 2014)

D. Rate-of-Drying Curves

Experimental determination of drying rate.

To experimentally determine the drying rate for a given material, a sample is usually placed on a tray.
If it is a solid material, it should fill the tray so that only the top surface is exposed to the drying air
stream. By suspending the tray from a balance in a cabinet or duct through which the air is flowing,
the loss in weight of moisture during drying can be determined at different intervals without interrupting
the operation.

In doing batch-drying experiments, certain precautions should be observed to obtain usable data
under conditions that closely resemble those to be used in the large-scale operations. The sample
should not be too small in weight and should be supported in a tray or frame similar to the large-scale
ChE 324 – Separation Processes 1 - Drying Page |9
 operation. The ratio of drying to nondrying surface (insulated surface) and the bed depth should be
similar. The velocity, humidity, temperature, and direction of the air should be the same and should
be constant to simulate drying under constant-drying conditions.

Rate of Drying Curves for Constant-Drying Conditions

• Conversion of data to rate-of-drying curve

Data obtained from a batch drying experiment are usually obtained as W total weight of the
wet solid (dry solid plus moisture) at different times t hours in the drying period. These data
can be converted to rate-of-drying data in the following ways. First, the data are recalculated
𝑊−𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑏 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑋𝑡 = ( ) Equation 1
𝑊𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑏 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

Where: 𝑊𝑠 = weight of dry solid in kg or lb,

𝑊 = weight of wet solid (total water + dry solid in kg or lb)
𝑋𝑡 = moisture content at time 𝑡

The free moisture content X in kg free water/kg dry solid is calculated for each value of t as:

𝑋 = 𝑋𝑡 − 𝑋 ∗ Equation 2
kg equilibrium moisture
Where: 𝑋 ∗ = (determined for a given constant − drying condition)
kg dry solid

Using the data calculated from Eq. (2), a plot of free moisture content X versus time t in h is
made, as in Fig. To obtain the rate-of-drying curve from this plot, the slopes of the tangents
drawn to the curve in Fig. can be measured, which give values of dX/dt at given values of t.
The rate R is calculated for each point by:
𝐿 𝑑𝑋
𝑅 = − 𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝑡 Equation 3

kg H O lb H O
Where: 𝑅 = drying rate ( h∙m22 𝑜𝑟 h∙ft22 )
𝐿𝑆 = kg of dry solid used
𝐴 = exposed surface area of drying (m2 )

For obtaining R from Fig. 8a, a value of LS/A of 21.5 kg/m2 was used. The drying-rate curve
is then obtained by plotting R versus the moisture content, as in Fig. 8b

Another method for obtaining the rate-of-drying curve is to first calculate the weight loss ΔX
for a Δt time. For example, if X1 = 0.350 at a time t1 = 1.68 h and x2 = 0.325 at a time t2 = 2.04
h, ΔX/Δt = (0.350 – 0.325)/(2.04 – 1.68). Then, using Eq. (3) and LS/A = 21.5,
𝐿𝑆 ∆𝑋 0.350 − 0.325
𝑅=− = 21.5 ( ) = 1.493
𝐴 ∆𝑡 2.04 − 1.68
This rate R is the average over the period 1.68 to 2.04 h and should be plotted at the average
concentration X = (0.350 + 0.325)/2 = 0.338.

• Plot of rate-of-drying curve

In Fig. 8b, the rate-of-drying curve for constant-drying conditions is shown.
• At zero time, the initial free moisture content is shown at point A. Initially, the solid is
usually at a colder temperature than its ultimate temperature, and the evaporation rate
will increase.
• At point B, the surface temperature rises to its equilibrium value. Alternatively, if the
solid is quite hot to start with, the rate may start at point A′. This initial unsteady-state
adjustment period is usually quite short and it is often ignored in the analysis of drying
times.
• In Fig. 8a, from point B to point C, the line is straight and hence the slope and rate are
constant during this period.
• This constant-rate-of-drying period is shown as line BC in Fig. 8b.
• At point C on both plots, the drying rate starts to decrease in the falling rate period
until it reaches point D.
• In this first falling-rate period, the rate shown as line CD in Fig. 8b is often linear.
• At point D, the rate of drying falls even more rapidly, until it reaches point E,
where the equilibrium moisture content is X* and X = X* – X* = 0. In some
materials being dried, the region CD may be missing completely, or it may
constitute all of the falling-rate period.

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 Figure 8. Typical drying-rate curve for constant-drying conditions: (a) plot of data as free moisture versus
time, (b) rate of drying curve as rate versus free moisture content. (Geankoplis et al., 2018)

Drying in Constant Rate Period

Drying of different solids under different constant conditions of drying will often give curves of
different shapes in the falling-rate period, but in general, the two major portions of the drying-rate
curve—constant-rate period and falling-rate period—are present.
• In the constant-rate drying period
o The surface of the solid is initially very wet and a continuous film of water exists on the
drying surface. This water is entirely unbound water and it acts as if the solid were not
present.
o The rate of evaporation under the given air conditions is independent of the solid and
is essentially the same as the rate from a free liquid surface. Increased roughness of
the solid surface, however, may lead to higher rates than from a flat surface.
o If the solid is porous, most of the water evaporated in the constant-rate period is
supplied from the interior of the solid.
o This period continues only as long as the water is supplied to the surface as fast as it
is evaporated.
o Evaporation during this period is similar to that in determining the wet bulb temperature,
and in the absence of heat transfer by radiation or conduction, the surface temperature
is approximately the same as the wet bulb temperature.

Drying in the Falling Rate Period

• Point C in Fig. 8b is at the critical free moisture content XC.

o At this point, there is insufficient water on the surface to maintain a continuous
film of water. The entire surface is no longer wetted, and the wetted area continually
decreases in this first falling-rate period until the surface is completely dry, at point
D in Fig. 33.5-1b.
• The second falling-rate period begins at point D when the surface is completely dry.
o The plane of evaporation slowly recedes from the surface. Heat for the evaporation is
transferred through the solid to the zone of vaporization. Vaporized water moves
through the solid into the air stream.

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 o In some cases, no sharp discontinuity occurs at point D, and the change from partially
wetted to completely dry conditions at the surface is so gradual that no distinct change
is detectable.
• The amount of moisture removed in the falling-rate period may be relatively small, but the time
required may be long. This can be seen in Fig. 8.
o The period BC for constant-rate drying lasts for about 3.0 h and reduces X from 0.40
to about 0.19, a reduction of 0.21 kg H2O/kg dry solid. The falling-rate period CE lasts
about 9.0 h and reduces X only from 0.19 to 0.

Moisture Movements in Solids During Drying in the Falling-Rate Period

When drying occurs by evaporation of moisture from the exposed surface of a solid, moisture must
move from the depths of the solid to the surface. Here are some of the mechanisms of this movement
that affect the drying during the constant- rate and falling-rate periods.

• Liquid diffusion theory.

o According to this theory, diffusion of liquid moisture occurs when there is a
concentration difference between the depths of the solid and the surface.
o This method of moisture transport is usually found in nonporous solids where single-
phase solutions are formed with the moisture, such as in paste, soap, gelatin, and glue.
It is also found drying the last portions of moisture from clay, flour, wood, leather,
paper, starches, and textiles.
o In drying many food materials, the movement of water in the falling-rate period also
occurs by diffusion.
o The moisture diffusivity DAB usually decreases with decreased moisture content, so
that the diffusivities are usually average values over the range of concentrations used.
Materials drying in this way are usually said to be drying by diffusion, although the
actual mechanisms may be quite complicated. Since the rate of evaporation from the
surface is quite fast, that is, the resistance is quite low compared to the diffusion rate
through the solid in the falling-rate period, the moisture content at the surface is at the
equilibrium value.
o The shape of a diffusion-controlled curve in the falling-rate period is similar to Fig. 9a.
▪ If the initial constant-rate drying is quite high, the first falling-rate period of
unsaturated surface evaporation may not appear.
▪ If the constant-rate drying is quite low, the period of unsaturated surface
evaporation is usually present in region CD in Fig. 9b and the diffusion-
controlled curve is in region DE.

Figure 9 Typical drying-rate curves: (a) diffusion-controlled falling-rate period, (b) capillary-controlled falling-
rate period in a fine porous solid. (Geankoplis et al., 2018)

• Capillary movement in porous solids.

o When granular and porous solids such as clays, sand, soil, paint pigments, and
minerals are being dried, unbound or free moisture moves through the capillaries and
voids of the solids by capillary action, not by diffusion.
o This mechanism, involving surface tension, is similar to the movement of oil in a lamp
wick.
o A porous solid contains interconnecting pores and channels of varying pore sizes. As
water is evaporated, a meniscus of liquid water is formed across each pore in the
depths of the solid. This sets up capillary forces by the interfacial tension between the
water and the solid. These capillary forces provide the driving force for moving water
through the pores to the surface. Small pores develop greater forces than do large
pores.
o At the beginning of the falling-rate period at point C in Fig. 9b, the water is being
brought to the surface by capillary action, but the surface layer of water starts to recede
below the surface. Air rushes in to fill the voids. As the water is continuously removed,
a point is reached where there is insufficient water left to maintain continuous films
across the pores, and the rate of drying suddenly decreases at the start of the

ChE 324 – Separation Processes 1 - Drying P a g e | 12

 second falling-rate period at point D. Then, the rate of water vapor diffusion in the pores
and the rate of heat conduction in the solid may become the main factors in drying.
o In fine pores in solids, the rate-of-drying curve in the second falling-rate period may
conform to the diffusion law; the curve is concave upward, as shown in Fig. 9b.
o For very porous solids, such as a bed of sand, where the pores are large, the rate-of-
drying curve in the second falling-rate period is often straight, and hence the diffusion
equations do not apply.

• Effect of shrinkage.
o A factor often greatly affecting the drying rate is the shrinkage of the solid as moisture
is removed.
o Rigid solids do not shrink appreciably, but colloidal and fibrous materials such as
vegetables and other foodstuffs do undergo shrinkage.
o The most serious effect is that a hard layer may develop on the surface that is
impervious to the flow of liquid or vapor moisture and thus slows the drying rate;
examples are clay and soap.
o For many food products, if drying occurs at too high a temperature, a layer of closely
packed, shrunken cells, which are sealed together, forms at the surface. This presents
a barrier to moisture migration and is known as case hardening.
o Another effect of shrinkage is to cause the material to warp and change its structure.
This can happen when drying wood.
o To decrease these effects of shrinkage, it is sometimes desirable to dry
with moist air. This decreases the rate of drying so that the effects of shrinkage on
warping or hardening at the surface are greatly reduced.

E. Calculation Methods for a Constant-Rate Drying Period

Method Using Drying Curve

To estimate the time of drying for a given batch of material, the best method is based on actual
experimental data obtained under conditions where the feed material, relative exposed surface area,
gas velocity, temperature, and humidity are essentially the same as in the final drier. Then, the time
required for the constant-rate period can be determined directly from the drying curve of free moisture
content versus time.

Method using a rate-of-drying curve for a constant-rate period.

Instead of using the drying curve, the rate-of-drying curve can be used. The drying rate R is defined
by Eq. (3) as:
𝐿𝑠 𝑑𝑋
𝑅=−
𝐴 𝑑𝑡
Rearranging and integrating over the time interval for drying from X1 at t1 = 0 to X2 at t2 = t:
𝑡 =𝑡 𝐿𝑠 𝑋1 𝑑𝑋
𝑡 = ∫𝑡 2=0 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ Equation 4
1 𝑋 𝑋2 𝑅

If the drying takes place within the constant-rate period, so that both X1 and X2 are greater than the
critical moisture content XC, then R = constant = RC. Integrating Eq. (2) for the constant-rate period,
𝐿
𝑡 = 𝐴𝑅𝑠 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2 ) Equation 5
𝑐

Method Using Predicted Transfer Coefficients For Constant-Rate Period

In the constant-rate period of drying, the surfaces of the grains of a solid in contact with a drying air
flow remain completely wetted. As stated previously, the rate of evaporation of moisture under a given
set of air conditions is independent of the type of solid and is essentially the same as the rate of
evaporation from a free liquid surface under the same conditions. However, surface roughness may
increase the rate of evaporation.

During this constant-rate period, the solid is so wet that the water acts as if the solid were not there.
The water evaporated from the surface is supplied from the interior of the solid. The rate of evaporation
from a porous material occurs by the same mechanism as that occurring at a wet bulb thermometer,
which is essentially constant-rate drying.

• Equations for predicting constant-rate drying

ChE 324 – Separation Processes 1 - Drying P a g e | 13

 o Drying of a material occurs by mass transfer of water vapor from the saturated surface of the
material through an air film to the bulk gas phase or environment. The rate of moisture
movement within the solid is sufficient to keep the surface saturated. The rate of removal of
the water vapor (drying) is controlled by the rate of heat transfer to the evaporating surface,
which furnishes the latent heat of evaporation for the liquid. At steady state, the rate of mass
transfer balances the rate of heat transfer. To derive the equation for drying, we neglect heat
transfer by radiation to the solid surface and also assume no heat transfer by conduction from
metal pans or surfaces. Assuming only heat transfer to the solid surface by
convection from the hot gas to the surface of the solid and mass transfer
from the surface to the hot gas (Fig 6), we can write equations that are the same as those for
deriving the wet bulb temperature TW.

Equation 6 Heat and mass transfer in constant-rate drying. (Geankoplis et al., 2018)

o The rate of convective heat transfer q in W (J/s, btu/h) from the gas at T °C (°F) to the
surface of the solid at TW°C, where (T – TW) °C = (T – TW) K, is

𝑞 = ℎ(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 )𝐴 Equation 7

where ℎ = heat − transfer coefficient in W/m2 · K (btu/h · ft 2 · °F)

𝐴 = exposed drying area in m2 (ft 2 )
The equation of the flux of water vapor from the surface is:

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑘𝑦 (𝑦𝑤 − 𝑦) Equation 8

Approximating:
𝑀
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑘𝑦 𝑀𝐵 (𝐻𝑤 − 𝐻) Equation 9
𝐴

The amount of heat needed to vaporize NA kg mol/s·m2(lbmol/h·ft2) water, neglecting the small
sensible heat changes:

𝑞 = 𝑀𝐴 𝑁𝐴 𝜆𝑤 𝐴 Equation 10

Equating Eqs. (7) and (10), and substituting Eq. (9) for NA,

𝑞 ℎ(𝑇−𝑇𝑤 )
𝑅𝑐 = 𝐴𝜆 = 𝜆𝑤
= 𝑘𝑦 𝑀𝐵 (𝐻𝑤 − 𝐻) Equation 11
𝑊

In the absence of heat transfer by conduction and radiation, the temperature of the solid is at
the wet bulb temperature of the air during the constant-rate drying period. Thus, the rate of
drying RC can be calculated using the heat-transfer equation h(T – TW)/λW or the
mass transfer equation kyMB(HW – H). However, it has been found that using the heat-transfer
equation (8) is more reliable, since an error in determining the interface temperature TW at the
surface affects the driving force (T – TW) much less than it affects (HW – H).
𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ
𝑅𝑐 = 𝜆 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 ℃)(3600) (SI) Equation 12
ℎ∙𝑚2 𝑤

𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝐻2 𝑂 ℎ
𝑅𝑐 = 𝜆 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑤 ℉) (English)
ℎ∙𝑓𝑡 2 𝑤

To predict RC in Eq. (12), the heat-transfer coefficient must be known. For the case where
the air is flowing parallel to the drying surface, the following equation can be used for air.

ChE 324 – Separation Processes 1 - Drying P a g e | 14

 1
0.8 3
𝑁𝑁𝑢 = 0.0366𝑁𝑅𝑒,𝐿 𝑁𝑃𝑟 Equation 13

However, because the shape of the leading edge of the drying surface causes more
turbulence, the following can be used for an air temperature of 45–150°C and a mass velocity
G of 2450– 29 300 kg/h·m2 (500–6000 lbm/h·ft2) or a velocity of 0.61–7.6 m/s (2–25 ft/s):

ℎ = 0.0204𝐺 0.80 (SI)

ℎ = 0.0128𝐺 0.80 (English) Equation 14

where in SI units 𝐺 = 𝜐𝜌 kg/h·m2 and h is W/m2·K. In English units,

G is in lbm/h·ft2 and h in btu/h · ft2 · °F.

When air flows perpendicular to the surface for a G of 3900–19500 kg/h·m2 or a velocity of
0.9–4.6 m/s (3–15 ft/s),

ℎ = 1.17𝐺 0.37 (SI)

ℎ = 0.37𝐺 0.37 (English) Equation 15

Equations (13)-(14) can be used to estimate the rate of drying during the constant-rate period.
However, experimental measurements of the drying rate are preferred whenever possible. To
estimate the drying time during the constant-rate period, substituting Eq. (11) into (5)
𝐿𝑆 𝜆𝑤 (𝑋1 −𝑋2 ) 𝐿𝑠 (𝑋1 −𝑋2 )
𝑡= = 𝐴𝑘 Equation 16
𝐴ℎ(𝑇−𝑇𝑤 ) 𝑦 𝑀𝐵 (𝐻𝑤 −𝐻)

IV. Examples

Example 1

Time of Drying from a Drying Curve

A solid whose drying curve is represented by Fig. 8a is to be dried from a free moisture content X1 =
0.38 kg H2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.25 kg H2O/kg dry solid. Estimate the time required.

Solution: From Fig. 8a for X1 = 0.38, t1 is read off as 1.28 h. For X2 = 0.25, t2 = 3.08 h. Hence, the
time required is t = t2 – t1 = 3.08 – 1.28 = 1.80 h.

Example 2

Drying Time from a Rate-of-Drying Curve

Repeat Example 1 but use Eq. (5) and Fig. 8b.

Solution: As stated previously, a value of 21.5 for LS/A was used to prepare Fig. 33.5-1b from 33.5-
1a. From Fig. 8b, RC = 1.51 kgH2O/h·m2. Substituting into Eq. (5)

𝑳𝒔 𝟐𝟏. 𝟓
𝒕= (𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 ) = (𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓 𝐡
𝑨𝑹𝒄 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏

This is close to the value obtained from Example 1

Example 3

Prediction of Constant-Rate Drying

An insoluble wet granular material is dried in a pan 0.457 × 0.457 m (1.5 × 1.5 ft) and 25.4 mm deep.
The material is 25.4 mm deep in the pan, and the sides and bottom can all be considered to be
insulated. Heat transfer is by convection from an air stream flowing parallel to the surface at a velocity
of 6.1 m/s (20 ft/s). The air is at 65.6°C (150°F) and has a humidity of 0.010 kg H2O/kg dry air.
Estimate the rate of drying for the constant-rate period using SI and English units.

Solution

ChE 324 – Separation Processes 1 - Drying P a g e | 15

 For a humidity H = 0.010 and dry bulb temperature of 65.6°C, using the humidity chart from, the wet
bulb temperature TW is found to be 28.9°C (84°F) and HW = 0.026 by following the adiabatic saturation
line (the same as the wet bulb line) to the saturated humidity. Using Eq. (11) to calculate the humid
volume,

The density for 1.0 kg dry air + 0.010 kg H2O is

The mass velocity G is

Using Equation 14

At TW = 28.9°C (84°F), λW = 2433 kJ/kg (1046 btu/lbm) from the steam tables

Substituting into Eq. (12) and noting that (65.6 – 28.9) °C = (65.6 – 28.9) K,

The total evaporation rate for a surface area of 0.457×0.457 m2 is

V. Additional Readings

Read Section 12 in Perry’s 8th ed. (Psychrometry, Evaporative Cooling, and Solids Drying)

VI. Self-Check

Quiz will be uploaded to the google classroom.

VII. References

Geankoplis, C. J., Hersel, A. A., & Lepek, D. (2018). Transport Processses and Separation Process
Principles (Fifth Edit). Pearson Education, Inc.

Green, D. W., & Perry, R. H. (2008). Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc. https://doi.org/10.1036/0071422943

NPTEL. (2014). Introduction and Types of Driers. NPTEL – Chemical Engineering – Chemical Engineering
Design - II, 1–39. https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/103103027/pdf/mod4.pdf

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