Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493

Axial pressure pro"les and solids concentration distributions

in the CFB bottom zone
P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther*
Technical University Hamburg-Harburg, Derickestr. 15, Arbeitsbereich Verfahrenstechnik 1, D-21071 Hamburg, Germany
Received 10 September 1998

Abstract

The solids concentration distribution in the bottom zone of a cold model CFB unit was measured with "ber-optical probes and by
c-ray absorption. A higher solids concentration at the wall and a lower concentration in the center of the riser was found. Starting at
the distributor, the time and cross-sectional average solids volume concentration increases slightly or remains constant with height up
to a height H from where it drops o!. H may be de"ned as the height of a bottom zone. The comparison with the axial pressure
@ @
pro"le indicates the presence of strong local acceleration e!ects in the bottom zone. A core-annulus approach is presented to model
the contribution of acceleration to the axial pressure drop.  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Circulating #uidized bed; Bottom zone; Pressure pro"le; Solids concentration; Solids acceleration; Acceleration model

1. Introduction lent state. Svensson, Johnsson and Leckner (1996) inves-

The solids concentration in a CFB varies strongly with
height. This is particularly valid in the lower part of the
riser. Therefore the #ow structure of the CFB is com-
monly described by a dense bottom zone and an upper
dilute region (e.g. Kunii & Levenspiel, 1991; Svensson,
Johnson & Leckner, 1993). With respect to reactions in
the CFB this bottom zone is of particular importance
despite its comparatively small height. The reasons are
the high solids holdup in the lower section of the riser
and the high educt concentrations close to the gas dis-
tributor. In contrast to the upper dilute zone, where
numerous studies of the local #ow structure have been
performed (cf. Berruti, Chaouki, Gatfroy, Pugsley & Pa-
tience), there exist only few studies concerning the #ow
structure in the bottom zone of a circulating #uidized
bed. Bai, Shibuya, Masuda, Nakagawa and Kato (1996)
investigated the #ow structure in the bottom zone of
a CFB by means of a solids momentum probe. In com-
parison to the upper dilute region they found much
larger #uctuations in the bottom zone. They suggested
that the solids in the bottom zone are in a violent turbu-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 0-49-40-428783039; fax: 0-49-40-
428782678.
E-mail address: werther@tu-harburg.de (J. Werther)
tigated the bottom bed regimes in the Chalmers CFB
boiler using pressure measurements. They calculated
time-averaged bottom bed voidages and studied the pres-
sure #uctuations. They argued that no transition to a tur-
bulent #uidization regime occurred; instead the bottom
bed was found to be in an `exploding bubble regimea.
Werther and Wiesendorf (1998) who performed measure-
ments with capacitance probes in the bottom zone of the
Chalmers CFB boiler observed the existence of a core-
annulus-like #ow structure in that they found high solids
concentrations at the wall and lower concentrations in
the center of the furnace. By cross-correlating the signals
of a two-channel probe they measured local solids
velocities. At the wall the solids velocity was in the
downward direction. By using a momentum probe and
capacitance tomography Rhodes, Sollaart and Wang
(1998) found that the core-annulus structure of the upper
dilute region is extended into the bottom zone.
The above investigations show that up to now no
general agreement about the #ow structure in the bottom
zone has been reached yet. The objective of the present
work is therefore a detailed investigation of the local
solids distribution inside a cold model CFB using "ber-
optical probes and a radiometric measurement system.
The results of these experiments are compared with the
axial pressure pro"le, to obtain information about ac-
celeration e!ects in the bottom zone. Furthermore, a

0009-2509/99/$ - see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 0 9 - 2 5 0 9 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 2 8 9 - 4
5486 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493
theoretical approach is presented to quantitatively char-
acterize the solids acceleration.
2. Experimental
The experiments were performed in a cold model CFB
unit with a diameter of 0.4 m and a height of 15.6 m
(Fig. 1). In contrast to previous investigations (e.g.
Schoenfelder, Kruse & Werther, 1996) the externally cir-
culating solids were returned at a height of 1 m. The gas
distributor consisted of nine bubble caps. The height
coordinate h is counted from the lower edge of the bubble
cap where the #uidizing gas is entering into the bed. The
facility is equipped with a lot of pressure taps to measure
the axial pressure pro"le. The sum of the individual
di!erential pressure measurements was always compared
with a measurement of the pressure drop along the riser.
The deviation was found to be less than 5%. Operating
conditions typical of CFB combustors were chosen
(u"3}5 m/s, G "5}50 kg/m s). Quartz sand (d "
Q 
65 lm, d "200 lm, d "340 lm, d "130 lm)
  
was used in the experiments.
Fig. 1. Schematic of the CFB system.
Solids concentrations were measured by c-ray absorp-
tion by placing a Cs137-source outside the riser and
detecting the attenuation of the c-rays on their way
through the column by a scintillation counter placed on
the opposite side (Hartge, Li & Werther, 1986). Since this
method yields a solids concentration averaged along the
path of the c-rays, additional local measurements inside
the #uidized bed were carried out by means of "ber-
optical re#ection probes to measure the radial concentra-
tion pro"les at di!erent heights. The local instantaneous
solids concentration is deduced from the voltage signal
;(t) by (cf. Werther, Hartge & Rensner, 1993):


;(t)!; (t) L
c (t)"  , (1)
T a
where ; (t) is the signal level at c "0. The calibration
 T
exponent n is determined by measurements in a
solid}liquid mixture (Rensner & Werther, 1991). The
calibration constant a was obtained by an in situ calib-
ration described by Werther and Wiesendorf (1998)
which assigns the 99%-value of the cumulative probabil-
ity distribution of the probe signal to the solids volume
concentration c at minimum #uidization conditions
TKD
and the 0.1% value to the solids-free state (c "0).
T
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Flow structure in the bottom zone
Fig. 2 shows solids volume concentration sequences
recorded in the bottom zone (h"0.29 m) at a super"cial
gas velocity of 3 m/s (riser pressure drop *p"1.0;
10 Pa). The signals were taken in the center of the riser
(r"0 m), at a position r"0.16 m and close to the wall
(r"0.195 m).
In the center (Fig. 2a) denser regions and nearly
solids-free regions are alternating. The solids concentra-
tion in the dense region is lower than the solids concen-
tration at minimum #uidization conditions, plateaus of
high concentrations are hardly observable. Closer to the
wall (Fig. 2b) the solids concentration in the dense region
reaches the level of solids concentrations at minimum
#uidization conditions and marked plateaus are ob-
served. As in the center, the dense regions are interrupted
by voids. At the wall (Fig. 2c) the solids concentration
oscillates between two levels } the solids concentration of
the dense level corresponds to minimum #uidization con-
ditions, but totally solids-free regions are rarely seen.
The interpretation of the signal traces in the bottom
zone is di$cult. It is not clear whether the bed is more be-
having as a bubbling #uidized bed or is in the turbulent
#uidization regime. A comparison with other authors'
results (e.g. Lancia et al., 1988; Chehbouni, Chaouki, Guy
& Klvana, 1994) could lead to the conclusion that in the
 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493 5487

core region turbulent #uidization is more probable
whereas the wall region is rather a dense bubbling
#uidized bed.
3.2. Radial proxles of the solids concentration
Radial concentration pro"les in the dense bottom zone
and the splash zone were measured with "ber-optical
probes. The results obtained at super"cial gas velocities
of 3 and 4 m/s are shown in Fig. 3. For all heights the
solids concentration has its lowermost value in the center
of the riser, and increases towards the wall. In the bottom
zone solids volume concentrations c of about 0.15 are
T
observed in the center of the CFB whereas at the wall
solids concentrations c of about 0.4 are reached. These
T
results are in good agreement with the measurements by
Werther and Wiesendorf (1998) in the Chalmers boiler
and Rhodes et al. (1998). With increasing height the

Fig. 2. Flow structure in the bottom zone, "ber-optical probe (measurement height h"0.29 m, super"cial gas velocity u"3 m/s, riser pressure drop
*p"1.0;10 Pa, external solids circulation rate G "9.3 kg/m/s).
Q

Fig. 3. Radial solids concentration pro"les measured with "ber-optical probes and calculated with Eq. (3).
5488 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493

solids concentrations are decreasing in the center as well

as at the wall.
In order to determine the cross-sectional average
solids volume concentration from c-ray absorption
which yields the average solids volume concentration
along the diameter of the riser, information on the radial
solids distribution is needed. To calculate the cross-sec-
tional average of the solids concentration the measured
radial voidage pro"les were approximated by a relation-
ship suggested by Patience and Chaouki (1992):


e H!e(r) k#2 r I
" ) , (2)
e H!e 2 R

e is the cross-sectional average bed voidage. The expo-

nent k characterizes the radial dependence of the voidage,
and was set to k"4 for all measurements. The exponent
j "xes the centerline void fraction e(0). Patience and
Chaouki (1992) found that in the upper dilute zone the
centerline void fraction was equal to the average void
fraction raised to the power 0.4. In the present study it
was found that j depends on the height h above the gas
distributor, and mainly on the position inside or outside
the bottom zone region. The bottom zone height H is
@
de"ned here by the vertical solids concentration pro"le
(cf. following section). The present experiments are well
described by Eq. (3):


e H!e(r) r  Fig. 4. Line-averaged solids concentration measured by the c-ray ab-
"3 )
e H!e R sorption and "ber-optical probes (u"3 m/s).


0.6 if h)H ,
h @
with 0.8!0.2 ) if H (h(2H ,
H @ @ the axial direction is observed in the bottom zone (cf.
0.4 @ if 2H )h.
@ Figs. 4b}e and 5c}e). After reaching a maximum, the
Fig. 3 presents the comparison between the measured
solids volume concentration and the calculations accord-
ing to Eq. (3) for di!erent heights h.
3.3. Vertical proxles of the solids concentration
Solids volume concentrations were measured using
the radiometric measurement system for super"cial gas
velocities between 3 and 5 m/s (riser pressure drop
*p"6;10}20;10 Pa). Figs. 4}6 show the line aver-
ages of the solids concentration measured by the c-ray
absorption. The corresponding values for the optical
probes were calculated from the local measurements with
the aid of Eq. (3). The solids concentrations obtained
from the "ber-optical probes are in good agreement with
the c-ray absorption values. If the riser pressure drop is
low (Figs. 4a and 5b) the solids concentration in the
bottom zone is almost constant with height. Above a cer-
tain height, the solids concentration then starts to de-
crease. If the solids holdup is increased (larger riser
(3) pressure drop) an increase of the solids concentration in
solids concentration is decreasing. The height at which
this maximum is observed increases with the riser pres-
sure drop. Only in the cases of a gas velocity of u"4 and
5 m/s with the riser pressure drops of *p"8;10 and
1.4;10 Pa, respectively (Figs. 5a and 6) no constant
section of the solids concentration was observed. Never-
theless, the high solids concentration of c "0.2 at the
T
lowermost position in Fig. 5a indicates the existence of
a bottom zone right below 0.2 m in this latter case. In Fig.
6 the assumption is made that H is reached at 0.16 m
@
above the distributor.
With these measurements, the height of bottom zone
may be de"ned as the point where the solids concentra-
tion starts to decrease. The characteristic height so de-
"ned corresponds well with the bottom height
determined by the method of Svensson et al. (1993) who
used the axial pressure pro"le to obtain the height of the
bottom zone. The axial pressure pro"les corresponding
to Figs. 4b and 5b are shown in Fig. 7. The reference
pressure p was taken at the outlet of the primary

cyclone. The pressure pro"le in the lower part of the CFB
 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493
Fig. 5. Line-averaged solids concentration measured by the c-ray ab-
sorption and "ber-optical probes (u"4 m/s).
Fig. 6. Line-averaged solids concentration measured by the c-ray ab-
sorption (u"5 m/s).
can in both cases be approximated by a straight line.
According to Svensson et al. (1993) the height of the
bottom zone is de"ned where the straight line starts to
deviate from the measured pressure pro"le. The H -value
@
of 0.4 m obtained from the pressure pro"le compares well
with the value 0.39 m following from the solids volume
concentration measurements in Fig. 4b. The correspond-
5489
Fig. 7. Axial pressure pro"les (p is at the cyclone exit).

ing H -value from Fig. 7b and Fig. 5b are 0.22 and 0.26,
@
respectively.
3.4. Height of bottom zone as function of the operating
conditions
The in#uence of the operating conditions on the height
of the bottom zone is shown in Fig. 8 where H is plotted
@
as a function of the riser pressure drop. The parameter is
the super"cial gas velocity. The height of the bottom
zone is seen to increase linearly with the pressure drop.
To obtain a bottom bed at all, the riser pressure drop,
which is related to the total solids inventory, must obvi-
ously exceed a minimum value. This "nding is in good
agreement with the considerations of Kunii and Leven-
spiel (1991) concerning the e!ects of the total solids
holdup on the axial solids distribution in fast #uidized
beds. For a given riser pressure drop the height of the
bottom zone is decreasing with increasing super"cial gas
velocity which was also observed by Johnsson, Svensson
and Leckner (1992). The reason is that for a given pres-
sure drop with increasing gas velocity a larger fraction of
the solids is displaced into the upper dilute zone.
3.5. Comparison of the vertical solids concentration
proxles with the pressure proxle
It has often been discussed in the literature whether
acceleration e!ects in the bottom zone of a CFB might
a!ect the accuracy of cross-sectional average solids vol-
ume concentration values calculated from the axial pres-
sure pro"le (e.g. Weinstein & Li, 1989; Louge & Chang,
1990). Since in the present work the c-ray absorption
method yields the line-average concentration, Eq. (3) was
used to iteratively calculate cross-sectional average solids
volume concentrations from the measured line averages.
5490 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493

Fig. 8. Height of the bottom zone as function of riser pressure drop for
di!erent super"cial gas velocities.

The resulting values are plotted in Fig. 9 together with
the apparent solids concentration c
T 
!dp/dh
c " , (4)
T  o )g
Q
calculated from the axial pressure pro"le. The compari-
son shows that in the bottom zone the pressure drop
method clearly overestimates the solids concentration.
Further downstream in the splash zone c underesti-
T 
mates the solids volume concentration. The comparison
leads to the conclusion that an acceleration of the solids
in the entry zone of the riser is compensated by a deceler-
ation of the solids in larger heights above the distributor.
3.6. Acceleration ewects in the bottom region of a CFB
The measurements shown in Fig. 9 were carried out
below the solids return line (cf. Fig. 1). Since the cross-
sectional average solids #ux is equal to zero below the
solids return line, the considerations by Weinstein and Li
(1989), who calculated the contribution of the acceler-
Fig. 9. Cross-sectional averaged solids volume concentrations ob-
tained from the c-ray absorption (*) and from the pressure pro"le (䊏),
respectively.
Since the overall solids #ux balance has to be ful"lled, the
downward #owing solids have to change their direction
of #ow in the bottom zone. The necessary acceleration
force for the change of the #ow direction of the solids is
supplied by the #uidizing gas and thus results in an
additional pressure drop which is observed in the pres-
sure measurements. In the splash zone, right above the
bottom zone a region with a low apparent solids concen-
tration is observed. This indicates a pressure recovery
due to backfalling solids in this region. The movement of
solids is schematically shown in Fig. 10. Neglecting the
contributions of the gas, horizontal convection #uxes and
wall friction and assuming an up#owing (u) and a down-
#owing (d) phase, the axial pressure drop for stationary
conditions can be calculated from a force balance accord-
ing to Werdermann (1992) as following:


dp 1 d(m ) v ) d(m ) v )
ation of the external circulating solids on the axial pres- ! " S S # B B #c ) o ) g. (5)
sure drop, cannot be used in the present case to explain dh A dh dh T Q
the large deviation between c and the solids volume
T  The pressure drop along a di!erential height element dh
concentration obtained from the c-ray attenuation. In- is then given by
stead, the local solids #uxes have to be considered. It is
widely known, that in the upper dilute region of a CFB 1
[p(h#dh)!p(h)]" (!m (h#dh) ) v (h#dh)
a core-annulus #ow structure exists with up#owing solids A(h) S S
in the center and downwards falling solids clusters at the
wall (cf. Berruti et al., 1995). The radial solids concentra- 1
#m (h) ) v (h))# (!m (h#dh)
tion pro"les depicted in Fig. 3 indicate that a core- S S A(h) B
annulus #ow structure exists in the bottom zone, too. ;v (h#dh)#m (h) ) v (h))!c (h) ) o ) g ) dh. (6)
This assumption is reinforced by the recent "ndings by B B B T Q
Schlichthaerle, Li and Werther (1998), who observed Eqs. (5) and (6) may be used to calculate the local
intense gas backmixing in the wall region of the bottom pressure balance regardless of the distribution of the
zone which was attributed to local solids down#ow. solids #uxes over the cross-section of the riser, i.e. the
 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493 5491

where d is the thickness of the wall zone at the height

U@
H of the bottom zone. Above the bottom zone the
@
simplifying assumption is made that the thickness of the
wall zone is assumed to decrease linearly to zero at the
top of the riser (height H):
h!H
r (h)"d ) @ #(R!d ), h*H . (10)
A U@ H!H U@ @
@
The following calculation aims at a description of the
bottom zone. Below the entry of the solids return line the
total upward #ow in the core zone m (h) is equal to the
A
total downward #ux in the annulus m (h). The latter
U
Fig. 10. Schematic of the change of the #ow direction of the solids in
quantity may be calculated from
the bottom zone of a CFB.
m (h)"p ) (R!r(h)) ) o ) c (h) ) v . (11)
U A Q TU U
The downward solids velocity v in the wall zone is
core-annulus structure with down#ow at the wall region U
assumed to be independent of height h. The solids velo-
and up#ow in the core is taken into account as well as
city in the core zone v is obtained from
continuous distributions of upward and downward A
#uxes, respectively, over the riser's cross-sectional area. m (h)
v (h)" A . (12)
In the case of the core-annulus structure the upward #ux A p ) r(h) ) o ) c (h)
m is identical to the mass #ux in the core m while the A Q TA
S A
downward #ux m may be replaced by the mass #ux m in The cross-sectional average solids concentration is de-
B U "ned by
the wall zone. Similarly v and v may be replaced by
S B
v and v , respectively. c (h) ) p ) R"c (h) ) p ) r(h)#c (h) ) p ) (R!r(h)).
A U T TA A TU A
(13)
3.7. A core-annulus model to calculate the pressure drop
The pressure pro"le may now be calculated from Eq. (6).
To estimate whether the observed deviations between Eq. (4) is then used to obtain the apparent solids concen-
the average solids concentration and the apparent solids tration from the pressure pro"le. All the input para-
concentration are due to local acceleration e!ects, Eq. (6) meters of the calculations are listed in Table 1.
will now be used to calculate the pressure drop "rst and As is shown in Fig. 11 the calculated apparent solids
then the apparent solids volume concentration. A simple concentration in the bottom zone is much larger than the
core-annulus model is suggested for this purpose. The true average solids concentration. Above the bottom
model assumes a wall zone the thickness of which in- zone the calculated apparent solids concentration is
creases from the distributor to the bottom bed height lower than the calculated solids concentration. The re-
H and decreases again in the splash zone (cf. Fig. 10). In sults of the model calculations correspond well to the
@
the bottom zone the solids concentrations in the core average solids concentration measured by the c-ray ab-
zone c and in the wall zone c are assumed to be sorption and to the apparent solids concentration ob-
TA TU
constant. In the splash zone the solids concentrations of tained from the measured pressure pro"le. The di!erence
both regions are assumed to decrease linearly with between the bottom zone and the splash zone is not only
height: a di!erent solids concentration pro"le, i.e. increasing
(h!H ) solids concentration in the bottom zone and decreasing
c (h)"(c !c ) ) @ #c , h*H , (7) solids concentration with height in the splash zone. In the
TA TA T@A H !H T@A @
 @ bottom zone the down#owing solids #uxes in the wall
(h!H )
c (h)"(c !c )) @ #c , h*H . (8)
TU TU T@U H !H T@U @
 @ Table 1
The respective solids volume concentrations in the bot- Input parameters of the core-annulus model calculation leading to
tom zone c and at a reference height H in the splash Fig. 11 (operating conditions: u"3 m/s, *p"1.0;10 Pa, G "
T@  Q
zone c are taken from the radial concentration pro- 9.3 kg/m/s)
T
"les measured by "ber-optical probes (cf. Fig. 3b).
Bottom zone Inter- Splash zone Solids
In the bottom zone the thickness of the wall zone is
face velocity
given by a linear relationship for the core radius r
A
h H c c d H c c v
@ T@A T@U U@  TA TU U
r (h)"!d ) #R, h)H , (9) 0.39 m 0.15 0.35 0.06 m 1.44 m 0.04 0.2 !2 m/s
A U@ H @
@
5492 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493

Notations

a calibration constant of "ber-optical probes, V

A cross-sectional area of the riser, m
c solids volume concentration, dimensionless
T
c apparent solids volume concentration, dimen-
T 
sionless
d thickness of the wall zone at H , m
U@ @
d particle diameter, lm
N
d surface mean diameter, lm
NQ
d 5%-value of the cumulative mass distribution,
N
lm
d 50%-value of the cumulative mass distribution,
Fig. 11. Calculation of the average and the apparent solids concentra- N
tion (operating conditions: u"3 m/s, *p"1.0;10 Pa, G " lm
Q d 95%-value of the cumulative mass distribution,
9.3 kg/m/s). N
lm
g gravity constant, m/s
G external solids circulation rate, kg m/s
Q
region are decelerated, diverted into the horizontal direc- h height above gas outlet, m
tion and accelerated again in upward direction. The H height of the riser, m
pressure pro"le must therefore lead to an overestimation H height of the bottom zone, m
@
of the average solids concentration in this region. On the H reference height in the splash zone, m

other hand, the splash zone is characterized as the re- j exponent de"ned by Eq. (2), dimensionless
gion where a large amount of the solids ejected from the k exponent de"ned by Eq. (2), dimensionless
bottom bed are falling back and thus lead to a decreasing m solids mass #ux, kg/s
solids concentration with increasing height. The pressure n exponent de"ned by Eq. (1), dimensionless
pro"le will here underestimate the solids concentration. p pressure, Pa
The measurements and the model also show, that the p reference pressure at cyclone exit, Pa

steep gradient in the pressure pro"le which is used to *p riser pressure drop, Pa
obtain the bottom bed height is mainly a result of the r radial position, m
di!erent #ow structures in bottom zone and splash zone, r radius of the core zone, m
A
respectively, and is not only caused by the decrease of the R diameter of the riser, m
solids concentration. This explains why the height of t time, s
the bottom bed can be obtained by densely spaced pres- u super"cial gas velocity, m/s
sure measurements, whereas the determination of the ; signal of "ber-optical probes, V
local solids concentration is prevented by acceleration ; signal of "ber-optical probes for c "0, V
 T
e!ects. v solids velocity, m/s
e voidage, dimensionless
e cross-sectional average voidage, dimensionless
4. Conclusions o solids density, kg/m
Q
The measurements performed in a cold model CFB Subscripts
show the existence of a bottom zone which is character-
ized by a constant or increasing solids concentration with b bottom zone
height. Cross-sectional average solids volume concentra- c core zone
tions in the range between 0.2 and 0.3 were observed in d down#owing phase
the bottom zone. The determination of the bottom zone ref reference height in the splash zone
height from the c-ray absorption measurements and from u up#owing phase
the pressure pro"le led to almost identical results. The w wall zone
height of the bottom zone increased with the riser pres-
sure drop and decreased with increasing gas velocity. The
comparison of the apparent solids concentration de- Acknowledgements
duced from the pressure pro"le with the solids concentra-
tion obtained from the c-ray absorption measurements This work was supported by the Deutsche Fors-
indicates the presence of local acceleration e!ects in the chungsgemeinschaft within the Sonderforschungsbereich
bottom zone. SFB 238.
 P. Schlichthaerle, J. Werther / Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 5485}5493
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