MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY
PREPARED BY
DR. OMAR ALOBAIDI
 CHAPTER 2
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

1. Appearance: means color and texture, and it refer to Visual appearance , the way in
which object looks like, reflect and transmit of light and the surface texture conditions.

2. Density: It is defined as the mass of material per unit volume. Units used to measure
density are kg/m3 and g/cm3. The main two type of density that we will come across very
often in this subject are:-
a. Bulk density = total mass of the material / total volume of the material. Air spaces are
included.
b. Solid Density = total mass of material / volume of material only (voids are not included)
Relative Density is defined as the density of the material to the density of pure water, and
equal to solid density of material / density of water. Since it is a ratio between two
quantities of the same units, relative density has no unit.
Ex :- Calculate the void volume of 2 kg of concrete taking the values of solid and bulk
densities as 2700 kg/m3 and 2500 kg/m3.
• Solid volume = mass/solid density = 2/2700 = 0.000741 m3
• Bulk volume = mass/bulk density = 2/2500 = 0.000800 m3
• Void volume = Bulk volume – Solid volume
• = 0.000800 – 0.000741 = 0.000059 m3
• = 0.000059 m3 x (106 cm3/1m3) = 59 cm3
Type of Material Material Bulk density in KN/m3

Metals Aluminium 27
Brass 83.3
Copper 89.3
Lead 113
Steel 77
Timber Softwood 2-6.5
Hardwood 6.5-12
Boards Fiberboard-MDF >6
Fiberboard-softboard <3.5
Particleboard-chipboard 4.8-8
Plywood 4.5-7
Bricks/ Concrete Calcium silicate brick 18.5-21
Concrete 21-25
Light weight concrete 5.6-20
Cement/Aggregate Cement 13 ( solid density 31.5)
Gravel 14.3 ( solid density 26)
Sand 16 ( solid density 27)
Finishes Ceramic 20-22
Marble 27
Plaster 14.4
Thermal Insulators Expanded polystyrene 0.15-0.30
Fiber glass quilt 0.16-0.48
Foamed polyurethane 0.24-0.40
Liquids Water 10
CONT. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1. Durability: The property of a material to resist the combined action of atmospheric

and other factors.
2. Thermal capacity: The property of a material to absorb heat.
3. Thermal conductivity: It is the amount of heat flow in a material.
4. Porosity: It is the ratio of the volume of pores to that of the specimen.
5. Water absorption: It is the ability of a material to absorb and retain water.
Mechanical Properties
1. Force
➢ When any object interacts with another body, through direct contact or
through actions at a distance, an action of push or pull is experienced by
both objects. This push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's
interaction with another object is known as force.

➢ All forces are classified into two categories:

➢ contact forces- which is the force exerted when two physical objects
come in direct contact with each other
➢ forces resulting from action-at-a-distance- such as Gravitational or
Electromagnetic force, which can exert themselves even across the
vacuum or space Section Title
2. Mass
➢ Mass (M) is a dimensionless quantity representing the amount of matter in a particle
or object.
➢ The standard unit of mass in the SI system is the kilogram (kg).
➢ The mass of an object is thus defined and calculated from its acceleration when a
force is applied, i.e. from the equation of Newton's second law
➢ F = M*a. -- (1)

Section Title
3. Gravity
For Gravity, the second category of force explained above, which is normally
the largest force acting on a structure, the relation (1) for on the earth's
surface; the gravitational force on a mass M is given as:

F = Mg, where g = 9.81 m/s2 -- (2)

This gravitational force on an object is known as its weight. An object will

therefore have a weight of 9.81N per kg of mass on earth’s surface and will
change on moon, due to difference in its gravitational force.
Note:
The basic unit for Force and Load is the Newton (N) where 1N = 1kg.m/s2
One kilogram (kg) weight is therefore equal to 9.81 N. Section Title
4. Strength

➢ Strength of any material is its ability to withstand stresses or resist

deformation when subjected to stresses.
➢ In civil engineering area, depending on the type of loading and thereby
stresses, the following term of strength is used:

• Compressive strength – under compressive loads generally used for brittle

materials such as Concrete
• Tensile strength- under tensile loads generally used for elastic materials
• Shear strength – under shear load
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Section Title
 Shearing Deformation
Normal Deformation

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Generally it is believed that Compressive forces help the materials by pressing
them inwards and thus help the atoms to come closer and bond strongly and
therefore should not lead to failure of material. However, in case of compressive
force/stress in one direction (Uniaxial compression), both shear and tensile
stresses are acting as shown in Figure

Section Title
5. Stress

➢ It is defined as measure of internal resistance in a material of an object,

when it is subjected to externally applied load/force.
➢ For direct (uniaxial) tensile (pulling) or compressive (pushing) loading/force,
the stress is designated by σ (sigma)
➢ Stress (σ) = [Force/ Load (W)] / [Cross Sectional Area (A)]

Section Title
Similarly, the shear stress τ (tau) is a measure of internal resistance of the
material of an object to an externally applied shear force/load. This stress is
defined for the condition shown in the below figure as:

Shear Stress (τ) = Load (W)

Area (A) resisting shear

Section Title
Stress:

Let us consider a rectangular bar of some cross – sectional area and

subjected to some load or force (in Newtons )
Let us imagine that the same rectangular bar is assumed to be cut into two
halves at section XX. The each portion of this rectangular bar is in
equilibrium under the action of load P and the internal forces acting at the
section XX has been shown

Now stress is defined as the force intensity or force per unit area. Here we
use a symbol s to represent the stress.
Section Title
TYPES OF STRESSES

1. Compressive strength: is defined as the ability of material to resist the direct pressure of
applied compression force.
2. Tensile strength: the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being
stretched or pulled before breaking.
3. Rupture strength: The differential stress that a material sustains at the instant of
breaking, or rupture. The term is normally applied when deformation occurs at
atmospheric confining pressure and room temperature.
4. Shear strength: the strength of a material to withstand the type of yield or structural
failure where the material or component fails in shear.
5. Thermal Stress: the stress produced by any change in the temperature of the material.
Thermal stress is induced in a body when the temperature of the body is raised or
lowered and the body is not allowed to expand or contract freely. Thermal stress
includes both heat and cold stress.
6. Flow Stress: the stress that must be applied to cause a material to deform at a constant
strain rate in its plastic range.
7. Fatigue stress: is defined as a process of progressive localized plastic deformation
occurring in a material subjected to cyclic stresses and strains at high stress
concentration locations that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a
sufficient number of fluctuations.
THERMAL STRESS INDUCED BUCKLE IN RAILWAY
THERMAL STRESS INDUCED BUCKLE IN TILES
Fatigue failure in asphalt pavement
Note:

The unit of stress used generally by engineers is Newton per millimeter square,
written in short as N/mm2, but for calculations, Pascal is used in SI system,
where

1 Pascal = 1 Newton per square meter

Therefore, 1 MPa = 1.0 X 106 N/m2 or 1 N/mm2
The MKS unit for stress is the kg/m.s2

Also, Stress and Pressure have the same units

The following link can be used for practicing these unit conversions:

http://users.nlamerica.com/kevin/Pressure.htm
Section Title
6. Strain

➢ When a body is subjected to external loading/force, it results in developing

stresses in that body.
➢ The result of this stress is deformation, which can be reversible or
temporary, or irreversible/permanent.
➢ The measure of these observed deformations relative to original dimension
is known as Strain and is defined as change in length to original length:
Strain ε = Increase in Length ( ∆L)
Original Length (L)
Where, increase in length (∆L) = Final Length (L2) – Original Length (L1)

Section Title
Strain is a unit less (dimensionless) quantity and only condition is that both (∆L) and
L should be measured/represented in same unit.

If the deformation is temporary or reversible (elastic), the resulting strain is called

Elastic Strain” whereas when the deformation is permanent/irreversible (plastic),
the strain is known as “Plastic Strain”
Elasticity: is the property of material to deform temporary and return to it’s
original dimension after stress removal.
Plasticity: is the property of material to deform permanently and does not return
to it’s original dimension after stress removal.

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Elastic and Plastic deformation and strain

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➢ Under elastic deformation conditions, the material regains its shape when
the load is removed.

➢ whereas case of plastic deformation, which is also called “yielding”, the

material losses its shape as it does not come back to its original dimension
after the removal of load.

➢ The strength of materials like concrete or ceramics is therefore defined in

terms of stress required for fracture.

➢ In case of ductile materials, such as steels, brass, aluminum, etc, the strength
is defined with respect to 0.2 % proof stress (stress required to produce 0.2
% permanent strain in such materials. Section Title
Stress-Strain curve of an elastic (ductile) Stress-Strain Diagram of non-ductile material
material
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➢ In the stress –strain diagrams above, the area under the curve gives
the amount of energy absorbed or work done during the loading and
unloading of a material.

➢ The work done or energy absorbed is the product of average force

applied and the distance through which the force acts on the material
i.e.

➢ Energy = Average Force X Distance through which it acts

The area under the stress strain curve gives the strain energy per
unit volume having unit as joules per metre3 (J/m3).
Therefore, Strain energy per unit volume = 1/2 stress x strain (because
for right angle triangle, Area = 1/2 Base X Height)
Or
Section Title
Stress Strain Diagram of some materials
a=glass or chalk, b=steel, c=aluminum alloys
, d=concrete, e=rubber

Section Title
 Stress Strain Diagram of Cement, Aggregate and
Concrete
The stress-strain diagram for hardened cement paste is nearly
linear till it’s very end unlike metals and alloys like steel (no
yielding) whereas the aggregate is completely linear and deforms
less (less strain) at the same stress thereby meaning that it is
more rigid than the cement paste.

Comparison of Stress-Strain Diagram of

Hardened Cement Paste, Aggregate and
Concrete
Section Title
Internal Structure of Concrete
Corresponding to Various Zones in
Stress-Strain Curve of Concrete

Section Title
7. Elastic Modulus

In the stress strain curve, the elastic or linear region of the curve
follows the “Hook’s law”, which states that the strain induced in a
material in this region is directly proportional to Stress applied or

Stress is proportional to strain

Or, Stress = E X Strain,

Or E = Stress/Strain,
Where E is elastic Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
Modulus of Elasticity Section Title
Sample Exercise Question 1:
Calculate the Modulus of Elasticity of the material of a wire of circular cross section,
having diameter of 1.0 mm, when the length of wire increases by 8 mm when the wire is
loaded with 500 N force. The length of the wire is 2.5 m.

Answer:
Given:
Load on wire = 500 N; Length of wire (l) = 2.5 m; Increase in length of wire (Dl) = 8 mm
= 0.008 m Diameter (d) of wire = 1.0 mm = 1.0 X 10-3 m
Therefore radius of wire (r) = ½ d = ½ X 1.0 X 10-3 m = 0.5 X 10-3 m
Now, Area (A) of a circular wire = r2 =   (0.5  10-3)2 = 7.85  10-7 m2
Also, Stress = Force or Load/Area = 500 N  7.85  10-7 m2 = 6.37  108 N/m2 or Pa
Strain = Dl /l = 0.008  2.5 = 0.0032
Since Elastic Modulus E = Stress / Strain, therefore
= 6.37  108 Pa  0.0032
= 2.0  1011 Pa or 2.0  102 GPa
Section Title
Sample Exercise Question 2:
Calculate the elastic strain energy per unit volume for the material of wire
given in Q 1

Answer:

As solved in Q 1 above, Area (A) = 7.85  10-7 m2 ; also, given length (l )=

2.5 m;
Force or load (F) = 500 N; Change in length (Dl) = 8 × 10-3 m
Formula:

Therefore Strain energy per unit volume = 0.5 × 500 × 8 × 10-3 ÷ (7.85 
10-7 × 2.5)

Or Strain Energy per Unit volume of Material = 1.02 × 106 J

Section Title
8. Poisson's Ratio

Poisson’s Ratio gives the amount by which a solid body "spreads out sideways"
when subjected to a load from above.

Poisson’s Ratio is defined as ratio of (lateral strain) to the (vertical strain) and is
dimensionless. Or

Poisson’s ratio (ν) = - Lateral Strain or Transverse Strain (ε lateral)___

Vertical Strain or Axial Strain or Longitudinal Strain (ε Axial)

Section Title
➢ Any isotropic material (material which have same arrangement of
material in all directions, like metals have only one Poisson’s Ratio,
whereas materials like timber and fiber glass sheets which have a
"grain direction" or “Fiber direction” will have a number of different
Poisson's ratios corresponding to loading and deformation in
different directions.
➢ There are some materials which rather expand instead of
contracting in perpendicular direction, when stretched.
➢ Such materials have a negative Poisson ratio. Polymer foams are
one such material.
➢ For all stable isotropic materials, the numerical values of Poisson’s
ration lies between +½ and −1.
➢ The symbol used for Poisson’s Ratio is ν (nu) but sometimes µ is
also used. Section Title
Example Sample Question 3:
Calculate the strain in a wire of length 1.5 m which elongates by 2 mm
when a load is applied.

Answer

Given: Length of wire (l) = 1.5 m; Change in length of wire (Dl) = 2 mm

= 2.0 X 10-3 m
Strain = Change in Length (Dl) / Original Length (l)
= 2 × 10-3 / 1.5 = 0.0013 or 0.13 % strain

Section Title
Example Sample Question 4:

The diameter of wire of 3 mm initial diameter decreases by .005 mm. If the material of wire
has three times the axial strain as in Q 3 above, calculate the Poisson’s Ratio for the
material of the wire.

Answer

Given: Original diameter of wire (d) = 3 mm; change in diameter of wire (Δd) = .005 mm,
Longitudinal or axial strain as calculated in Q 3 = 0.13 %,
Therefore axial strain for the material of wire for this question = 0.13 x 3 = .39 %

Poisson's ratio = Transverse Strain / Axial Strain

Transverse Strain = Δd / d = 0.005/3 = 0.00167 = 0.167%.

Therefore the Poisson's ratio = 0.167/0.39 = 0.428
Section Title
EXAMPLE

1) A hollow steel tube with inner diameter of 60 mm is used to carry a tensile load of
300 KN. If the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2 . Determine the outer diameter.
SOLUTION

• Inner diameter=d=60mm
• Outer diameter = D= ?
• Load=P= 300 KN= 300,000 N
• Allowable stress= σ = 120 MN/m^2= 120 N/mm^2
• A= P/ σ = 300000/120 = 2500 mm^2
• A= π/4 (D^2-d^2)
• D= 82.36 mm
 Density Tensile Elastic
Material (kg/m3) Strength Modulus Toughness Hardness
(N/mm2) (KN/mm2)

Pine (Softwood) 500 90 9 High Low

Parallel to Grain

Oak (Hardwood)
700 140 10 High Medium
Parallel to Grain
Butyl Rubber 900 10 0.1 High Low
Rigid PVC 1100 50 2.5 Medium Medium
Clay Brick 1900 3 20 Low High
Concrete 2300 3 30 Medium Medium
Glazing Glass 2600 100 70 Low Medium

Mild Steel 7800 300 210 High Very

High

Pre-stressed 7800 2000 210 High Very

Steel High
Practice Questions:
1.
a. A circular steel bar having an initial diameter of 25mm and length of
2 m is subjected to tensile load of 1500kg. Calculate the length of the
bar when this applied load is completely applied, if the material of bar
has Elastic modulus of 240 GPa.
b. If the Poisson's ratio of the material of wire is 0.4 what will the
diameter of the bar be when supporting the load?

Section Title
2. A steel bar having length 100 m and diameter 10 mm is subjected to tensile testing on UTM results in following observation:
Load( kN) Extension (mm)
0 0
1.88 0.01
5.65 0.03
9.42 0.05
11.30 0.06
18.84 0.1
22.61 0.12
26.38 0.14
28.26 0.15
29.4 0.2
30.6 0.3
31.1 0.365
31.8 0.5
34.2 1
37.8 1.9 (failure)
Draw a (to the scale) Stress – Strain Diagram of this material and calculate the following:
a. Elastic modulus
b. the ultimate stress
c. The yield stress
d. The 0.2% proof stress
e. Explain which of these measurements is used for specification of steel and why it is used .
Section Title
9. FATIGUE STRENGTH: If a material is continually loaded and unloaded (e.g., the springs
in a car), the permanent strain from each cycle slowly decreases. This may be seen from
Figure shown in below. Eventually, the sample will fail, and the number of cycles it takes
to fail will depend on the maximum stress that is being applied
10.CREEP is the slow irreversible deformation of materials under static load. It is
surprisingly large for concrete, and tall buildings get measurably shorter during
use (the guide rails on the lifts sometimes buckle).
11.Ductility – which have large plastic deformation before failure (say strains > 1%)
12.Brittleness – with little or no plastic deformation before failure (say strains <
0.1%).
13.Impact - is defined as its capability to resist a sudden applied load or force. It is
normally conveyed as the amount of mechanical energy absorbed in the process
of deformation under the applied impact loading and is expressed as energy lost
per unit of thickness ft.lb/in or J.cm.
14. Harness: is the property of material to resist the penetration of harder body.
15. Stiffness: the measure of a material's ability to return to its original form after being
acted on by an external force. It refers to the material's ability to resist external forces
and still return to its original form. These forces include bending, stretching, and other
forms of strain.
16. Toughness: is a fundamental material property measuring the ability of a material to
absorb energy and withstand shock up to fracture; that is, the ability to absorb energy in
the plastic range.
17. Malleability: is the ability of materials to resist frequent hammering and deform
permanently under hammering but without failure. OR the quality of something that can
be shaped into something else without breaking, like the malleability of clay. Malleability
— also called plasticity — has to do with whether something can be molded.
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