Land - Wikipedia

5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Land
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is
the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by
the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2%
of Earth's surface and includes all continents and
islands. Earth's land surface is almost entirely covered
by regolith, a layer of rock, soil, and minerals that
forms the outer part of the crust. Land plays important
roles in Earth's climate system, being involved in the
carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and water cycle. One third
of land is covered in trees, another third is used for
agriculture, and one tenth is covered in permanent
snow and glaciers. The remainder consists of desert, Land abutting a body of water
savannah, and prairie.
Land terrain varies greatly, consisting of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, glaciers, and other
landforms. In physical geology, the land is divided into two major categories: Mountain ranges and
relatively flat interiors called cratons. Both form over millions of years through plate tectonics.
Streams – a major part of Earth's water cycle – shape the landscape, carve rocks, transport sediments,
and replenish groundwater. At high elevations or latitudes, snow is compacted and recrystallized over
hundreds or thousands of years to form glaciers, which can be so heavy that they warp the Earth's
crust. About 30 percent of land has a dry climate, due to losing more water through evaporation than
it gains from precipitation. Since warm air rises, this generates winds, though Earth's rotation and
uneven sun distribution also play a part.
Land is commonly defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth.[1] The word land may also collectively
refer to land cover, rivers, shallow lakes, natural resources, non-marine fauna and flora (biosphere),
the lower portions of the atmosphere (troposphere), groundwater reserves, and the physical results of
human activity on land, such as architecture and agriculture.[2] The boundary between land and sea is
called the shoreline.[3]: 625 [4]
Though modern terrestrial plants and animals evolved from aquatic creatures, Earth's first cellular
life likely originated on land. Survival on land relies on fresh water from rivers, streams, lakes, and
glaciers, which constitute only three percent of the water on Earth. The vast majority of human
activity throughout history has occurred in habitable land areas supporting agriculture and various
natural resources. In recent decades, scientists and policymakers have emphasized the need to
manage land and its biosphere more sustainably, through measures such as restoring degraded soil,
preserving biodiversity, protecting endangered species, and addressing climate change.
Etymology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 1/35
The word land derived from the Old English word land, meaning "ground, soil", and "definite portion
of the earth's surface, home region of a person or a people, territory marked by political boundaries".
It evolved from the Proto-Germanic *landą and from the Proto-Indo-European *lendʰ- "land, open
land, heath". The word has many cognates in other languages, such as Old Norse: land, Old Frisian:
land, Gothic: land, German: Land, Old Irish: land, Middle Welsh: llan "an open space", Welsh: llan
"enclosure, church", Breton: lann "heath", Church Slavonic: ledina "wasteland, heath", and Czech:
lada "fallow land". Etymological evidence within Gothic usage suggests that the original meaning of
land was "a definite portion of the earth's surface owned by an individual or home of a nation." The
meaning was extended to "solid surface of the earth". The original meaning is now associated with
"country".[5][6]
A country or nation may be referred to as the motherland, fatherland, or homeland of its people.[7]: 43
Many countries and other places have names incorporating the suffix -land (e.g. England,[8]
Greenland,[9] and New Zealand[10]). The equivalent suffix -stan from Indo-Iranian, ultimately derived
from the Proto-Indo-Iranian *sthāna-,[11] is also present in many country and location names, such as
Pakistan, Afghanistan and others throughout Central Asia.[12] The suffix is also used more generally,
as in Persian rigestân (‫" )ریگستان‬place of sand, desert", golestân (‫" )گلستان‬place of flowers, garden",
gurestân (‫" )گورستان‬graveyard, cemetery",[13] and Hindustân (‫" )هندوستان‬land of the Indo people".[14]
Physical science
The study of land and its history in general is called geography. Mineralogy is the study of minerals,
and petrology is the study of rocks. Soil science is the study of soils, encompassing the sub-disciplines
of pedology, which focuses on soil formation, and edaphology, which focuses on the relationship
between soil and life.
Formation
The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to

4.5672 ± 0.0006 bya (billion years ago);[15] therefore, the Earth itself
must have been formed by accretion around this time. The formation
and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with
the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a
molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and
flatten into a circumstellar disc, out of which the planets then grow
(in tandem with the star). A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust
(including primordial nuclides). In nebular theory, planetesimals
begin to form as particulate matter accumulates by cohesive
clumping and then by gravity. The primordial Earth's assembly took Artist's conception of Hadean
10–20 myr.[16] By 4.54 ± 0.04 bya, the primordial Earth had Eon Earth
formed.[17][18]
Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water
vapour. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by
asteroids, protoplanets, and comets.[19] In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the
oceans from freezing while the newly formed Sun was only at 70% luminosity.[20] By 3.5 bya, the
Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped
away by the solar wind.[21] The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by
eroding and transporting solids on the surface.[22]
Earth's crust formed when the molten outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid mass[23]
as the accumulated water vapour began to act in the atmosphere. Once land became capable of
supporting life, biodiversity evolved over hundreds of millions of years, expanding continually except
when punctuated by mass extinctions.[24]
The two models[25] that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day
forms[26] or, more likely, a rapid growth[27] early in Earth history[28] followed by a long-term steady
continental area.[29][30][31] Continents are formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by
the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of
years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly 750 mya (million years
ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart.[32] The continents
later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart
180 mya.[33]
Landmasses
A continuous area of land surrounded by an ocean

is called a landmass. Although it is most often
written as one word to distinguish it from the
usage "land mass"—the measure of land area—it
may also be written as two words.[34] There are
four major continuous landmasses on Earth:
Africa-Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarctica,
and Australia (landmass), which are subdivided
into continents.[35] Up to seven geographical Animated map showing the world's continents
regions are commonly regarded as continents. according to different models.
Ordered from greatest to least land area, these
continents are Asia, Africa, North America, South
America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.[36]
Terrain
Terrain refers to an area of land and its features, or landforms. It

affects travel, mapmaking, ecosystems, and surface water flow and
distribution. Over a large area, it can influence climate and
weather patterns. The terrain of a region largely determines its
suitability for human settlement: flatter alluvial plains tend to
have better farming soils than steeper, rockier uplands.[37]
Elevation is defined as the vertical distance between an object and

sea level, while altitude is defined as the vertical distance from an
object to Earth's surface.[38] The elevation of Earth's land surface A topographical map of Japan
varies from the low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to showing the elevation of the terrain.
a maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount
Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m
(2,615 ft),[39] with 98.9% of dry land situated above sea level.[40]
Relief refers to the difference in elevation within a landscape; for example, flat terrain would have
"low relief", while terrain with a large elevation difference between the highest and lowest points
would be deemed "high relief". Most land has relatively low relief.[41] The change in elevation between
two points of the terrain is called a slope or gradient. A topographic map is a form of terrain
cartography which depicts terrain in terms of its elevation, slope, and the orientation of its landforms.
It has prominent contour lines, which connect points of similar elevation, while perpendicular slope
lines point in the direction of the steepest slope.[42] Hypsometric tints are colors placed between
contour lines to indicate elevation relative to sea level.[43]
A difference between uplands, or highlands, and lowlands is drawn in several earth science fields. In
river ecology, "upland" rivers are fast-moving and colder than "lowland" rivers, encouraging different
species of fish and other aquatic wildlife to live in these habitats. For example, nutrients are more
present in slow-moving lowland rivers, encouraging different species of macrophytes to grow
there.[44] The term "upland" is also used in wetland ecology, where "upland" plants indicate an area
that is not a wetland.[45] In addition, the term moorland refers to upland shrubland biomes with
acidic soils, while heathlands are lowland shrublands with acidic soils.[46]
Geomorphology
Geomorphology refers to the study of the natural processes that shape land's surface, creating
landforms.[47]: 3 Erosion and tectonics, volcanic eruptions, flooding, weathering, glaciation, the
growth of coral reefs, and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's
surface over geological time.[48][49]
Erosion transports one part of land to another via natural processes, such as wind, water, ice, and
gravity. In contrast, weathering wears away rock and other solid land without transporting the land
somewhere else.[3]: 210–211 Natural erosional processes usually take a long time to cause noticeable
changes in the landscape—for example, the Grand Canyon was created over the past 70 million years
by the Colorado river,[50][51] which scientists estimate continues to erode the canyon at a rate of 0.3
meters (1 foot) every 200 years.[52] However, humans have caused erosion to be 10–40 times faster
than normal,[53] causing half the topsoil of the surface of Earth's land to be lost within the past 150
years.[54]
Plate tectonics refers to the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into "tectonic plates" that move
over the mantle.[3]: 66 This results in continental drift, with continents moving relative to each
other.[55] The scientist Alfred Wegener first hypothesized the theory of continental drift in 1912.[56]
More researchers gradually developed his idea throughout the 20th century into the widely accepted
theory of plate tectonics of today.
Several key characteristics define modern understanding of plate tectonics. The place where two
tectonic plates meet is called a plate boundary,[57] with different geological phenomena occurring
across different kinds of boundaries. For example, at divergent plate boundaries, seafloor spreading is
usually seen,[3]: 74–75 in contrast with the subduction zones of convergent or transform plate
boundaries.[3]: 78–80
Earthquakes and volcanic activity are common in all types of boundaries. Volcanic activity refers to
any rupture in Earth's surface where magma escapes, therefore becoming lava.[3]: 170–172 The Ring of
Fire, containing two-thirds of the world's volcanos, and over 70% of Earth's seismological activity,
comprises plate boundaries surrounding the Pacific Ocean.[58][59]: 68 [60]: 409–452 [a]
Climate
Earth's land interacts with and influences its climate heavily, since
the land's surface heats up and cools down faster than air or
water.[61] Latitude, elevation, topography, reflectivity, and land
use all have varying effects on climate. The latitude of the land will
influence how much solar radiation reaches its surface. High
latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes.[61] The
land's topography is important in creating and transforming
airflow and precipitation. Large landforms, such as mountain Clouds above Djibouti's, Eritrea's,
ranges, can divert wind energy and make air parcels less dense Somalia's and Yemen's land
and therefore able to hold less heat.[61] As air rises, this cooling territories
effect causes condensation and precipitation.
Different types of land cover will influence the land's albedo, a measure of the solar radiation that is
reflected, rather than absorbed and transferred to Earth.[62] Vegetation has a relatively low albedo,
meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun's energy. Forests have an albedo of 10–
15 percent while grasslands have an albedo of 15–20 percent. In comparison, sandy deserts have an
albedo of 25–40 percent.[62]
Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are
warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and
temperature of the region.[61]
Features
A landform is a natural or manmade[63] land feature. Landforms together make up a given terrain,
and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. Landforms include hills, mountains,
canyons, and valleys, as well as shoreline features such as bays and peninsulas.
Coasts and islands
The shoreline is the interface between the land and the ocean. It migrates each day as tides rise and
fall, and moves over long periods of time as sea levels change. The shore extends from the low tide
line to the highest elevation that can be reached by storm waves, and the coast stretches out inland
until the point where ocean-related features are no longer found.[3]: 625–626
When land is in contact with bodies of water, the land is likely weathered and eroded. The weathering
of a coastline may be impacted by the tides, caused by changes in gravitational forces on larger bodies
of water.[47]: 352–353 [64] The precise length of Earth's coastline is indeterminable due to the coastline
paradox.[65] According to The World Factbook, the coastline is around 356,000 kilometres
(221,000 mi), while according to the World Resources Institute, it is 1,634,701 kilometres
(1,015,756 mi).[66][67]
Coasts are important zones in

natural ecosystems, often home to
a wide range of biodiversity.[68] On
land, they harbour important
ecosystems such as freshwater or
estuarine wetlands, which are
important for bird populations and
other terrestrial animals. In wave-
protected areas they harbor
saltmarshes, mangroves or
seagrasses, all of which can
A simplified diagram of the littoral zone, which includes the coast and
provide nursery habitat for finfish,
nearby waters
shellfish, and other aquatic
species. Rocky shores are usually
found along exposed coasts and
provide habitat for a wide range of sessile animals (e.g. mussels, starfish, barnacles) and various kinds
of seaweeds. Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be found
between depths of 1–50 meters (3.3–164.0 feet).[69]
According to a United Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea.[70]
Because of their importance in society and high concentration of population, the coast is important
for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many ecosystem services to
humankind. For example, important human activities happen in port cities. Coastal fisheries
(commercial, recreational, and subsistence) and aquaculture are major economic activities and create
jobs, livelihoods, and protein for the majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like
beaches and seaside resorts generate large revenues through tourism. Marine coastal ecosystems can
also provide protection against sea level rise and tsunamis. In many countries, mangroves are the
primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. charcoal) and building material. Coastal ecosystems like
mangroves and seagrasses have a much higher capacity for carbon sequestration than many
terrestrial ecosystems, and as such can play a critical role in the near future to help mitigate climate
change effects by uptake of atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide.[71]
An isolated land habitat surrounded by water is an island,[72]: xxxi while a chain of islands is an

archipelago. The smaller the island, the larger the percentage of its land area will be adjacent to the
water, and subsequently will be coast or beach.[73] Islands can be formed by a variety of processes.
The Hawaiian islands, for example, even though they are not near a plate boundary, formed from
isolated volcanic activity.[72]: 406 Atolls are ring-shaped islands made of coral, created when
subsidence causes an island to sink beneath the ocean surface and leaves a ring of reefs around
it.[72]: 69 [74]
Mountains and plateaus
Mountains are features that usually rise at least 300 metres (980 ft) higher than the surrounding
terrain.[75] The formation of mountain belts is called orogenesis, and results from plate
tectonics.[3]: 448–449 For example, where a plate at a convergent plate boundary pushes one plate
above the other, mountains could be formed by either collisional events, such that Earth's crust is
pushed upwards,[3]: 454–460 or subductional events, where Earth's crust is pushed into the mantle,
causing the crust to melt, rise due to its low density, and solidify into hardened rock, thickening the
crust.[3]: 449–453
A plateau, also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a

highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the
surrounding area on at least one side, creating steep cliffs or
escarpments.[47]: 99 Both volcanic activity such as the upwelling of
magma and extrusion of lava, or erosion of mountains caused
from water, glaciers, or aeolian processes, can create plateaus.
Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding
environment as intermontane, piedmont, or continental.[76] A few
plateaus may have a small flat top while others have wide ones – Kukenán-tepui mesa in Gran
buttes are smaller ones with less extrusive and more intrusive Sabana National Park, Venezuela
igneous rock, while plateaus or highlands are the widest, and
mesas are a general-sized plateau with horizontal bedrock
strata.[77][78][79]
Plains and valleys
Wide, flat areas of land are called plains, which cover more than
one-third of Earth's land area.[80] When they occur as lowered
areas between mountains, they can create valleys, canyons,
gorges, and ravines.[81] A plateau can be thought of as an elevated
plain. Plains are known to have fertile soils and be important for
agriculture due to their flatness supporting grasses suitable for
livestock and facilitating the harvest of crops.[82] Floodplains
provided agricultural land for the some of the earliest A small, incised alluvial plain from
civilizations.[83] Erosion is often a main driver for the creation of Red Rock Canyon State Park
plains and valleys, with rift valleys being a noticeable exception. (California).
Fjords are glacial valleys that can be thousands of meters deep,
opening out to the sea.[84]
Caves and craters
Any natural void in the ground which can be entered by a human can be considered a cave.[85][86]
They have been important to humans as a place of shelter since the dawn of humanity.[87]
Craters are depressions in the ground, but unlike caves, they do not provide shelter or extend
underground. They are many kinds of craters, such as impact craters, volcanic calderas, and isostatic
depressions, such as the one in Greenland. Karst processes can create both solution caves, the most
frequent cave type, and craters, as seen in karst sinkholes.[88]
Layers
The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of soil and
subject to soil formation processes. Below it, the lithosphere encompasses both Earth's crust and the
uppermost layer of the mantle.[89] The lithosphere rests, or "floats", on top of the mantle below it via
isostasy.[3]: 463 Above the solid ground, the troposphere and humans' use of land can be considered
layers of the land.[2]
Land cover
Land cover refers to the material physically

present on the land surface, for example, woody
crops, herbaceous crops, barren land, and shrub-
covered areas. Artificial surfaces (including cities)
account for about a third of a percent of all
land.[90] Land use refers to human allocation of
land for various purposes, including farming,
ranching, and recreation (e.g. national parks);
worldwide, there are an estimated Land cover as classified by the International
2
16.7 million km (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland, Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) into 17
and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of classes
pastureland.[91]
Land cover change detection using remote sensing and geospatial data provides baseline information
for assessing the climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity, as well as natural resources, in
the target areas. Land cover change detection and mapping is a key component of interdisciplinary
land change science, which uses it to determine the consequences of land change on climate.[92] Land
change modeling is used to predict and analyze changes in land cover and use.[93]
Soil
Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and

organisms that together support life. Soil consists of a solid phase
of minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix),[3]: 222 as well as a
porous phase that holds gases (the soil atmosphere) and water
(the soil solution).[94][95] Accordingly, soil is a three-state system
of solids, liquids, and gases.[96] Soil is a product of several factors:
the influence of climate, relief (elevation, orientation, and slope of
terrain), organisms, and the soil's parent materials (original
minerals) interacting over time.[97] It continually undergoes Cross section of rankers soil, with
development by way of numerous physical, chemical and plants and protruding roots near the
biological processes, which include weathering and top
erosion. [47]:
1 48–150
Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness, soil ecologists regard soil as an
ecosystem.[98] Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for
nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and
a medium for plant growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services.[99] Since
soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains a prominent part of the
Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of
species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored.[100][101]
Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-
reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging from ozone depletion and
global warming to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth's carbon cycle,
soil acts as an important carbon reservoir,[102][103] and it is potentially one of the most reactive to
human disturbance[104] and climate change.[105] As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils
will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher temperatures,
a positive feedback (amplification).[106] This prediction has, however, been questioned on
consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover.[107]
Continental crust
Continental crust is the layer of igneous,

sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks that forms
the geological continents and the areas of shallow
seabed close to their shores, known as continental
shelves. This layer is sometimes called sial because
its bulk composition is richer in aluminium silicate
and has a lower density compared to the oceanic
crust,[108] called sima which is richer in
magnesium silicate. Changes in seismic wave
velocities have shown that at a certain depth (the Map of the Mohorovičić discontinuity's depth from the
Conrad discontinuity), there is a reasonably sharp surface, otherwise known as the Earth's crust
contrast between the more felsic upper continental thickness
crust and the lower continental crust, which is
more mafic in character.[109]
The composition of land is not uniform across the Earth, varying between locations and between
strata within the same location. The most prominent components of upper continental crust include
silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, and magnesium.[110] The continental crust consists of lower density
material such as the igneous rocks granite[111] and andesite. Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic
rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.[112] Sedimentary rock is formed from the
accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and compacted together. Nearly 75% of the
continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.[113]
The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth's surface include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica,
pyroxene and olivine.[114] Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and
dolomite.[115] The rock that makes up land is thicker than oceanic crust, and it is far more varied in
terms of composition. About 31% of this continental crust is submerged in shallow water, forming
continental shelves.[110]
Life science
Land provides many ecosystem services, such as mitigating climate change, regulating water supply
through drainage basins and river systems, and supporting food production. Land resources are
finite, which has led to regulations intended to safeguard these ecosystem services, and a set of
practices called sustainable land management.[2]
Land biomes
A biome is an area "characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife."[116][117] There are five
major types of biomes on land: grasslands, forests, deserts, tundras, and freshwater.[116] Other types
of biomes include shrublands,[b] wetlands,[c] and polar ice caps.[119] An ecosystem refers to the
interaction between organisms within a particular environment, and a habitat refers to the
environment where a given species or population of organisms lives. Biomes may span more than one
continent, and contain a variety of ecosystems and habitats.[120]
Deserts have an arid climate, generally defined to mean that

they receive less than 25 centimetres (9.8 in) of precipitation
per year. They make up around one fifth of the Earth's land
area, are found on every continent, and can be very hot or
very cold (see polar desert). They are home to various animals
and plants, which evolved to be tolerant of droughts. In
deserts, most erosion is caused by running water, usually
during violent thunderstorms, which cause flash floods.
Deserts are expanding due to desertification, which is caused
by excessive deforestation and overgrazing.[121][3]: 598–621 White Desert National Park in Egypt
Tundra is a biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid

temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra
comes through Russian тундра (tundra) from the Kildin Sámi
word тӯндар (tūndâr) meaning "uplands", "treeless mountain
tract".[122] There are three regions and associated types of
tundra: Arctic tundra[123] alpine tundra,[123] and Antarctic
tundra.[124]
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Many
definitions of "forest" are used throughout the world,
incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land A forest in Ryssbergen, Sweden
use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United
Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a
forest as: "land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy
cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include
land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use."[125] Types of forests include
rainforests, deciduous forests, and boreal forests.
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge
(Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found, along with variable proportions of
legumes like clover and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except
Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the
largest biomes on earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. There are different types of
grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands, and agricultural grasslands.[126]
Savannas are grasslands with occasional, scattered trees.
Fauna and flora
Land plants evolved from green algae, and are called embryophytes. They include trees, shrubs, ferns,
grass, moss, and flowers. Most plants are vascular plants, meaning that their tissues distribute water
and minerals throughout the plant.[127] Through photosynthesis, most plants nourish themselves
from sunlight and water, breathing in carbon dioxide and breathing out oxygen. Between 20 and 50%
of oxygen is produced by land vegetation.[128]
Unlike plants, terrestrial animals are not a monophyletic group—that is, a group including all
terrestrial animals does not encompass all lineages from a common ancestor. This is because there are
organisms, such as the whale, that evolved from terrestrial mammals back to an aquatic lifestyle.[129]
Many megafauna of the past, such as non-avian dinosaurs, have become extinct due to extinction
events, e.g. the Quaternary extinction event.[130]
Humans and land

Land is "deeply intertwined with human development."[2]: 21 Humans depend on land for subsistence,
and can develop strong symbolic attachments to it. Access to land can determine "survival and
wealth," particularly in developing countries, giving rise to complex power relationships in production
and consumption. Most of the world's philosophies and religions recognize a human duty of
stewardship towards land and nature.[2]
Culture
Many humans see land as a source of "spirituality, inspiration,

and beauty." Many also derive a sense of belonging from land,
especially if it also belonged to their ancestors.[2] Various religions
teach about a connection between humans and the land (such as
veneration of Bhumi, a personification of the Earth in
Hinduism,[132] and the obligation to protect land as hima in
Islam), and in almost every Indigenous group there are etiological
stories about the land they live on.[2] For Indigenous peoples, Mount Fuji in early summer seen
connection to the land is an important part of their identity and from the International Space
culture,[133] and some religious groups consider a particular area Station. Mount Fuji is a geological
of land to be sacred, such as the Holy Land in the Abrahamic feature of the land that is of great
religions.[134] cultural and religious
significance.[131]
Creation myths in many religions involve stories of the creation of
the world by a supernatural deity or deities, including accounts
wherein the land is separated from the oceans and the air. The Earth itself has often been personified
as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures, the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility
deity. To the Aztecs, Earth was called Tonantzin—"our mother"; to the Incas, Earth was called
Pachamama—"mother earth". The Chinese Earth goddess Hou Tu[135] is similar to Gaia, the Greek
goddess personifying the Earth. In Norse mythology, the Earth giantess Jörð was the mother of Thor
and the daughter of Annar.[136] Ancient Egyptian mythology is different from that of other cultures
because Earth (Geb) is male and the sky (Nut) is female.[137]
Ancient Near Eastern cultures conceived of the world as a flat disk of land surrounded by ocean. The
Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts reveal that the ancient Egyptians believed Nun (the ocean) was a
circular body surrounding nbwt (a term meaning "dry lands" or "islands").[138] The Hebrew Bible,
drawing on other Near Eastern ideas, depicts the Earth as a flat disc floating on water, with another
expanse of water above it.[139] A similar model is found in the Homeric account of the 8th century BC
in which "Okeanos, the personified body of water surrounding the circular surface of the Earth, is the
begetter of all life and possibly of all gods."[140]
The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early Greek philosophers, a belief espoused by
Pythagoras. Contrary to popular belief, most educated people in the Middle Ages did not believe the
Earth was flat: this misconception is often called the "Myth of the Flat Earth". As evidenced by
thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, the European belief in a spherical Earth was widespread by this
point in time.[141] Prior to circumnavigation of the planet and the introduction of space flight, belief in
a spherical Earth was based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels
drawn with the shape of other planets.[142]
Travel
Humans have commonly traveled for business, pleasure,

discovery, and adventure, all made easier in recent human history
as a result of technologies like cars, trains, planes, and ships. Land
navigation is an aspect of travel and refers to progressing through
unfamiliar terrain using navigational tools like maps with
references to terrain, a compass, or satellite navigation.[143]
Navigation on land is often facilitated by reference to landmarks –
enduring and recognizable natural or artificial features that stand A train traveling across the
out from their nearby environment and are often visible from long Voronezh Oblast, Russia
distances.[144] Natural landmarks can be characteristic features,
such as mountains or plateaus, with examples including Table
Mountain in South Africa, Mount Ararat in Turkey, the Grand Canyon in the United States, Uluru in
Australia, and Mount Fuji in Japan.[145]
Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of divergence, and one of convergence.
The former saw humans moving out of Africa, settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures
in relative isolation.[146] Early explorers settled in Europe and Asia; 14,000 years ago, some crossed
the Ice Age land bridge from Siberia to Alaska and moved southbound to settle in the Americas.[147]
For the most part, these cultures were ignorant of each other's existence.[146] The second period,
occurring over roughly the last 10,000 years, saw increased cross-cultural exchange through trade
and exploration, marking a new era of cultural intermingling.[146]
Trade
Human trade has occurred since the prehistoric era. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance
commerce from c. 150,000 years ago.[148] Major trade routes throughout history have existed on land,
such as the Silk Road which linked East Asia with Europe[149] and the Amber Road which was used to
transfer amber from Northern Europe to the Mediterranean Sea.[150] The Dark Ages led trade to
collapse in the West, but it continued to flourish among the kingdoms of Africa, the Middle East,
India, China, and Southeast Asia. During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the economic centre of
the world, and luxury goods were commonly traded in Europe. Physical money (either barter or
precious metals) was dangerous to carry over a long distance. To address this, a burgeoning banking
industry enabled the shift to movable wealth or capital, making it far easier and safer to trade across
long distances. After the Age of Sail, international trade mostly occurred along sea routes, notably to
prevent intermediary countries from being able to control trade routes and the flow of goods.
In economics, land refers to a factor of production. It can be leased in exchange for rent, and use of its
various raw material resources (trees, oil, metals).[151]
Land use
For more than 10,000 years, humans

have engaged in activities on land such
as hunting, foraging, controlled burning,
land clearing, and agriculture. Beginning
with the Neolithic Revolution and the
spread of agriculture around the world,
human land use has significantly altered
terrestrial ecosystems, with an
essentially global transformation of
Earth's landscape by 3000 years
ago.[152]: 30 [153][154] From around 1750,
human land use has increased at an
accelerating rate due to the Industrial World map of land use as of 2017. A historical distribution of land
Revolution, which created a greater use, beginning at 10,000 BCE, is shown at the bottom-right.
demand for natural resources and
caused rapid population growth.[152]: 34
Agriculture includes both crop farming and animal husbandry.[155] A third of Earth's land surface is
used for agriculture,[156][157]: 126 with estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and
33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.[91] This has had significant impacts on Earth's
ecosystems. When land is cleared to make way for agriculture, native flora and fauna are replaced
with newly introduced crops and livestock.[152]: 31 Excessively high agricultural land use is driven by
poor management practices (which lead to lower food yields, necessitating more land use), food
demand, food waste, and diets high in meat.[157]: 126
Urbanization has led to greater population growth in urban areas in the last century. Although urban
areas make up less than 3 percent of Earth's land area, the global population shifted from a majority
living in rural areas to a majority living in urban areas in 2007.[152]: 35 People living in urban areas
depend on food produced in rural areas outside of their cities, which creates greater demand for
agriculture and drives land use change well beyond city boundaries.[152]: 35 Urbanization also
displaces agricultural land because it mainly takes place on the most fertile land. Urban expansion in
peri-urban areas fragments agricultural and natural lands, forcing agriculture to move to less fertile
land elsewhere. Because this land is less fertile, more land is needed for the same output, which
increases the total agricultural land use.[158]: 119
Another form of land use is mining, whereby minerals are extracted from the ground using a variety
of methods. Evidence of mining activity dates back to around 3000 BCE in Ancient Egypt.[152]: 34
Important minerals include iron ore, mined for use as a raw material; coal, mined for energy
production; and gemstones, mined for use in jewellery and currency.[152]: 34
Law
The phrase "the law of the land" first appeared in 1215 in the Magna Carta, inspiring its later usage in
the United States Constitution.[159] The idea of common land also originated with medieval English
law, and refers collective ownership of land, treating it as a common good.[2] In environmental
science, economics, and game theory, the tragedy of the commons refers to individuals' use of
common spaces for their own gain, deteriorating the land overall by taking more than their fair share
and not cooperating with others.[160] The idea of common land suggests public ownership; but there
is still some land that can be privatized as property for an individual, such as a landlord or king. In the
developed world, land is expected to be privately owned by an individual with legal title, but in the
developing world the right to use land is often divided, with the rights to land resources being given to
different people at different times for the same area of land.[2] Beginning in the late 20th century, the
international community has begun to recognise Indigenous land rights in law, for example, the
Treaty of Waitangi for Māori people, the Act on Greenland Self-Government for Inuit people, and the
Indigenous Peoples Rights Act in the Philippines.[133]
Geopolitics
Borders are geographical boundaries imposed either by

geographic features (oceans, mountain ranges, rivers) or by
political entities (governments, states, or subnational entities).
Political borders can be established through warfare, colonization,
or mutual agreements between the political entities that reside in
those areas;[161] the creation of these agreements is called
boundary delimitation.[162]
Many wars and other conflicts have occurred in efforts by

participants to expand the land under their control, or to assert
control of a specific area of considered to hold strategic, historical,
or cultural significance. The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th Israel within internationally
centuries became the largest contiguous land empire in history recognized borders shown in dark
through war and conquest.[163] green; Israeli-occupied territories
shown in light green
In the 19th-century United States, a concept of manifest destiny
was developed by various groups, asserting that American settlers
were destined to expand across North America. This concept was used to justify military action
against the indigenous peoples of North America and of Mexico.[164][165][166][167]
The aggression of Nazi Germany in World War II was motivated in part by the concept of
Lebensraum ("living space"), which had first became a geopolitical goal of Imperial Germany in
World War I (1914–1918) originally, as the core element of the Septemberprogramm of territorial
expansion.[168] The most extreme form of this ideology was supported by the Nazi Party (NSDAP).
Lebensraum was one of the leading motivations Nazi Germany had in initiating World War II, and it
would continue this policy until the end of World War II.[169]
Environmental issues
Land degradation is "the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity"
of land as a result of human activity.[170]: 42 Land degradation is driven by many different activities,
including agriculture, urbanization, energy production, and mining.[170]: 43 Humans have altered
more than three-quarters of ice-free land through habitation and other use, fundamentally changing
ecosystems.[171] Human activity is a major factor in the Holocene extinction,[172] and human-caused
climate change is causing rising sea levels and ecosystem loss. Environmental scientists study land's
ecosystems, natural resources, biosphere (fauna and flora), troposphere, and the impact of human
activity on these.[2] Their recommendations have led to international action to prevent biodiversity
loss and desertification, and encourage sustainable forest and waste management.[173] The
conservation movement lobbies for the protection of endangered species and the protection of natural
areas, such as parks.[174]: 253 International frameworks have focused on analyzing how humans can
meet their needs while using land more efficiently and preserving its natural resources, notably under
the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals framework.[173]
Soil degradation
Human land use can cause soil to

degrade, both in quality and in
quantity.[170]: 44 Soil degradation can be
caused by agrochemicals (such as
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides),
infrastructure development, and mining
among other activities.[170]: 43–47 There
are several different processes that lead
to soil degradation. Physical processes,
such as erosion, sealing, and crusting, World map of soil degradation
lead to the structural breakdown of the
soil. This means water cannot penetrate
the soil surface, causing surface runoff.[170]: 44 Chemical processes, such as salinization, acidification,
and toxication, lead to chemical imbalances in the soil.[170]: 44 Salinization in particular is
detrimental, as it makes land less productive for agriculture and affects at least 20% of all irrigated
lands.[157]: 137 Deliberate disruption of soil in the form of tillage can also alter biological processes in
the soil, which leads to excessive mineralization and the loss of nutrients.[170]: 44
Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which fertile areas become increasingly
arid as a result of natural processes or human activities, resulting in loss of biological
productivity.[175] This spread of arid areas can be influenced by a variety of human factors, such as
deforestation, improper land management, overgrazing,[176] anthropogenic climate change,[177] and

overexploitation of soil.[178] Throughout geological history, desertification has occurred naturally,
though in recent times it is greatly accelerated by human activity.[176][179][180]
Pollution
Ground pollution is soil contamination via pollutants, such as hazardous waste or litter. Ground
pollution can be prevented by properly monitoring and disposing of waste, along with reducing
unnecessary chemical and plastic use. Unfortunately, proper disposal of waste often is not
economically beneficial or technologically viable, leading to short-term solutions of waste disposal
that pollute the earth. Examples include dumping harmful industrial byproducts, overusing
agricultural fertilizers and other chemicals, and poorly maintaining landfills. Some landfills can be
thousands of acres in size, such as the Apex Regional landfill in Las Vegas.[181]
Water pollution on land is the contamination of non-oceanic hydrological surface and underground
water features such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands, aquifers, reservoirs, and groundwater
as a result of human activities.[182]: 6 It may be caused by toxic substances (e.g., oil, metals, plastics,
pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, industrial waste products),[183] stressful conditions (e.g.,
changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, unpleasant taste or
odor, and changes of salinity),[184] or pathogenic organisms.[185]
Biodiversity loss
Biodiversity loss is the "decrease in

biodiversity within a species, an
ecosystem, a given geographic
area, or Earth as a whole". It can
be caused by natural disasters, or
by humans activity, but the latter is
more impactful.[186] Agriculture
can cause biodiversity loss as land
is converted for agricultural use at
a very high rate, particularly in the
tropics, which directly causes
habitat loss. The use of pesticides
and herbicides can also negatively
impact the health of local
species.[170]: 43 Ecosystems can
also be divided and degraded by
infrastructure development Red List Index of biodiversity (2019)
outside of urban areas.[170]: 46
Biodiversity loss can sometimes be reversed through ecological restoration or ecological resilience,
such as through the restoration of abandoned agricultural areas;[170]: 45 however, it may also be
permanent (e.g. through land loss). The planet's ecosystem is quite sensitive: occasionally, minor
changes from a healthy equilibrium can have dramatic influence on a food web or food chain, up to
and including the coextinction of that entire food chain. Biodiversity loss leads to reduced ecosystem
services, and can eventually threaten food security.[187] Earth is currently undergoing its sixth mass
extinction (the Holocene extinction) as a result of human activities which push beyond the planetary
boundaries. So far, this extinction has proven irreversible.[188][189][190]
Resource depletion
Although humans have used land for its natural resources since ancient times, demand for resources
such as timber, minerals, and energy has grown exponentially since the Industrial Revolution due to
population growth.[152]: 34 When a natural resource is depleted to the point of diminishing returns, it
is considered the overexploitation of that resource.[191] Some natural resources, such as timber, are
considered renewable, because with sustainable practices they replenish to their previous
levels.[192]: 90 Fossil fuels such as coal are not considered renewable, as they take millions of years to
form, with the current supply of coal expected to peak in the middle of the 21st century.[192]: 90
Economic materialism, or consumerism, has influenced destructive patterns of modern resource
usage, in contrast with pre-industrial usage.[193]
See also
Public land
Solid earth
Notes
a. The exact number of volcanoes depends on the geographic boundaries used by the source. This
number excludes Antarctica and the western islands of Indoesia and includes the Izu, Bonin, and
Mariana Islands.
b. World Wildlife Fund's definition of 14 biomes includes Temperate grasslands, savannas and
shrublands, Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, and Deserts and xeric shrublands.[118]
c. World Wildlife Fund's definition of 14 biomes includes Flooded grasslands and savannas, and
Mangroves, which are both wetlands.[118]
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External links
PhysicalGeography.net educational website (http://www.physicalgeography.net/)
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5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia

The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to

A continuous area of land surrounded by an ocean

Terrain refers to an area of land and its features, or landforms. It

Elevation is defined as the vertical distance between an object and

Coasts and islands

Coasts are important zones in

An isolated land habitat surrounded by water is an island,[72]: xxxi while a chain of islands is an

Mountains and plateaus

A plateau, also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a

Plains and valleys

Caves and craters

Land cover refers to the material physically

Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and

Continental crust is the layer of igneous,

practices called sustainable land management.[2]

Deserts have an arid climate, generally defined to mean that

Tundra is a biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid

Fauna and flora

Humans and land

Many humans see land as a source of "spirituality, inspiration,

Humans have commonly traveled for business, pleasure,

For more than 10,000 years, humans

Borders are geographical boundaries imposed either by

Many wars and other conflicts have occurred in efforts by

Human land use can cause soil to

deforestation, improper land management, overgrazing,[176] anthropogenic climate change,[177] and

Biodiversity loss is the "decrease in

6. Hoad, T. F., ed. (2003) [1996]. "land" (https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/97801

98. Ponge, Jean-François (2015). "The soil as an ecosystem" (https://link.springer.com/article/10.100

112. Staff. "Layers of the Earth" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130211014443/http://volcano.oregonst

192. "Chapter 5 – Land Resources and Human Security" (https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/file

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