Module 12: Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

“A baby is God’s opinion that life should go on.”

– Carl Sandburg | American Historian, Poet & Novelist

We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall continue to trace the
developmental process by following the infant or the baby who is just born up to when he reaches age
2. The period that comes after prenatal or antenatal stage is infancy, which in turn, is followed by
toddlerhood, infancy, and toddlerhood span the first two years of life.

Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns

The Cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the head grows
more than the body. This Cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus
also applies in the first months after birth. Infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower
limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head area because the top parts of the head –the eyes and the
brain- grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.

The proximodistal trend is the prenatal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus grows from the
inside of the body outwards. This also applies in the first month after birth as shown in the earlier
maturation of the muscular control of the trunk and arms, followed by that of hands and fingers. When
referring to the motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the development of motor skills
from the center of the body outward.

Height and Weight

 It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a couple of
weeks of birth. That is due to baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding. Once they adjust to
sucking, swallowing, and digesting, they grow rapidly.
 Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six months.
 In General, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
 A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second year of life.
 Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a natural curve of
steady development.

Brain Development
Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the spreading
connections of dendrites to each other. Remember neurons, dendrites, axon, synapses? You discussed
them in your General Psychology class. (You may wish to review on them.)

Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered and insulated by layers of fat
cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth. The process of myelination or Myelinization increases
the speed at which information travels through the nervous system.

At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the second birthday, the brain is
about 75% of its adult weight.

Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections between neurons than it can
possibly use. The brain eliminates connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The
infant’s brain is literally waiting for experiences to determine how connections are made.

A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969 revealed that the brains of rats that grew up in
the enriched environment developed better than the brains of the animals reared in standard or
isolated conditions. The brains of the “enriched” animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had more
neuronal connections and had higher levels of neuro- chemical activity. Such finding implies that
enriching the lives of infants who live in impoverished environments can produce positive changes in
their development (Santrock, 2002).

Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depressed environment (Circhetti,
2001, cited by Santrock, 2002).

Motor development

Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross motor skills
and fine motor skills.

Reflexes

The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve as survival mechanisms
before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes which are present at birth will generally
subside within a few months as the baby grows and matures.

There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that babies have are:

Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of an infant’s mouth.
Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they can latch unto a bottle or breast. The
sucking reflex is very strong in some infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.

Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is stroked. The baby responds
by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch and opening their mouth for feeding.

Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The strength of this grip is
strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in their grip.
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant respond by curling his or her
toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant will respond by spreading out their toes.

Startle/Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by throwing their arms and
legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull
their limbs back into their bodies.

Galant Reflex: The galant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is stroked next to the
spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his or her body toward the side which is being stroked.

Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are placed on their abdomens.
Whichever side the child’s head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs
will curl. (http://www.mamashealth.com/child/inreflex.asp)

Gross Motor skills

It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the infant’s first year of
life. This dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to
grab things off the cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk away from parent.

Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills, are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling the hand, fingers,
and thumb. The development of these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as writing,
drawing, and buttoning.

The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities that involve precise eye-hand coordination. The
development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined during the first two years of life. Initially,
infants show only crude shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand
rotation and coordination of

What are some research findings regarding newborns’ visual perceptions? Can newborns see?

The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision. By 6 months of age, vision
becomes better and by the first birthday, the infant’s vision approximates that of an adult. (Banks &
Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock, 2002)

Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz
(1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces
and concentric circles rather than at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern
perception has an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few things that babies learn to
recognize is their mother’s face, as mother feeds and nurses them.

Can newborns hear?

The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby. When in the womb, the
baby hears his/her mother’s heartbeats, the grumbling of his/her stomach, the mother’s voice and
music. How soothing it must have been for you to listen to your mother’s lullaby.
Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which means that stimulus must be
louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult.

Can newborns differentiate odors?

In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) “young infants who were breastfed showed a clear
preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad when they were 6 days old. This preference did not
show when the babies were only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to
recognize their mother’s breast pad odor.”

Can newborns feel pain? Do they respond to touch?

They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of stress) after a
circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al, 1997 cited by Santrock, 2002).

Babies respond to touch. In the earlier part of this module on motor development, you learned that a
newborn automatically sucks an object placed in his/her mouth, or a touch of the cheek makes the
newborn turn his/her head toward the side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to
suck.

Can newborns distinguish the different tastes?

In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made different facial expressions when they
tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock, 2002)

When saccharin was added to the amniotic fluid of a near-term fetus, increased swallowing was
observed.

This indicates that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.

Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable of intermodal
perception?

Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information about two or more
sensory modalities such as vision and hearing.

In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as early as at 3 ½ months old,
infants looked more at their mother when they also heard her voice and longer at their father when
they also heard his voice.

This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming through various modes
gets sharpened considerably through experience.

Summary of What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Physically

Domain: Physical Health, Well-Being and Motor Development

PHYSICAL HEALTH
Physical health can be defined as the normal functioning of the body. Representing one dimension of
total well-being, it’s about how your body grows, feels and moves, how you care for it, and what you put
into it

Standards 1: The child demonstrates adequate growth (weight, height, head circumference)

Standards 2: The child has adequate sensory systems to participate in daily activities.

0-6 months:

-Startles to loud sounds

-Visually follows a moving object from side to side

.-Visually follows a moving object up and down

-Reacts to pain by crying

-Withdraws or cries when in contact with something hot

-Withdraws or reacts with surprise when in contact with something cold

-Reacts with pleasure/smiles or relaxed expression when he/she tastes something delicious

Reacts by making a face/ frowns/ grimaces when he/she tastes something he/she does not like

7-12 months: (1 year)

-Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice

-Reacts by making face when he/she smells something foul

Standards 3: The child has adequate stamina to participate in daily activities.

-Pushes and/or pulls moderately heavy objects (eg, chairs, large boxes)

-Walks without tiring easily

13-18 months:(1 y 6 months)

-Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates

-Participates actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises

19-24 months:(2 years)

-Sustains physical activity (e.g. dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for at least 3-5 minutes

Motor Skills Development (Gross Motor Skills)

Gross motor skills are the abilities usually acquired during childhood as part of a child’s motor learning.
By the time they reach two years of age, almost all children are able to stand up, walk and run, walk up
stairs, etc.
Standards 1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements including large muscle
groups

•Based on your experiences, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a child on
the specified age?

0-6 months:

-Holds head steadily

-Moves arms and legs equally to reach at dangling object

-Rolls over

-Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs

-Sits with support

-Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this

7-12 months: (1 year)

-Sits alone steadily without support

-Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around

-Stands without support

- Stands from a sitting position without any help

-Squats from a standing position with ease

- Stands from a standing position with ease

-Bends over easily without falling

- Stands from a bent position without falling

-Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or furniture (cruises)

-Walks with one hand held

13 – 18 months: (1 y 6 months)

-Walks without support

-Walks backwards

-Walks up the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step

-Walks down the stairs with hand held, 2 feet on each step

-Jumps in place

- Climbs onto a steady elevated surface (e.g., bed, adult chair or bangko, etc.)
- Kicks a ball but with little control of direction

-Throws a ball but with little control of direction

-Throws a ball but with little control of speed

-Runs without tripping or falling

-Maintains balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge; between 2 lines) without assistance

-Moves with music when he hears it

-Can move body to imitate familiar animals

-Can move body to imitate another person/TV character

19 – 24 months: (2 years)

-Walks up the stairs with alternating feet, without help

-Walks down the stairs with alternating feet, without help

-Kicks a ball with control of direction

-Throws a ball with control of direction

-Throws a ball with control of speed

Motor Skills Development (Fine Motor Skills)

Fine motor skill is the coordination of small muscles in movement with the eyes, hands and fingers. Fine
motor skills aid in the growth of intelligence and develop continuously throughout the stages of human
development.

Standards 1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements

Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a child on
the specified age?

0-6 months:

-Hands open most of the time

-Brings both hands together towards dangling object/toy

-Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp objects

-Uses all 5 fingers in a raking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface

-Grasps objects with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging)

7-12 months:

-Pulls toys by the string

- Bangs 2 large blocks together

-Picks up objects with thumb and index fingers

-Grasps and transfers objects from hand to hand

-Grasps objects with the same hand all the time (definite hand preference established)

13-18 months:

-Puts small objects in/out of container

-Unscrews lids

-Unwraps candy/food

-Holds pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 fingers wrapped around pencil)

-Scribbles spontaneously

19-24 months:

-Colors with strokes going out of the lines

Personal Care and Hygiene (Activities of Daily Living)

Personal hygiene includes: cleaning your body every day. Washing your hands with soap after going to
the toilet. Brushing your teeth twice a day. Covering your mouth and nose with a tissue (or your sleeve)
when sneezing or coughing.

Standards 1: The child participates in basic personal care routines.

•Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by a child on
the specified age?

0-6 months:

-Sucks and swallows milk from breast/bottle

-Begins to take complementary or semi-solid foods by the end of 6 months

-Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undress bathed and while diaper is being changed

7-12 months:

-Holds a feeding bottle by himself

-Helps hold cup for drinking

-Chews solid foods well

-Feeds self with finger foods

-Scoops with a spoon with spillage

13 – 18 months:

-Feeds self with assistance

-Feeds self using fingers to eat rice/viands with spillage

- Feeds self using spoon with spillage

-No longer drinks from feeding bottle

-Drinks from cup unassisted

-Participates when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs

-Pulls down gartered short pants/underpants or panties

-Removes shoes/sandals

-Informs caregiver of the need to move his bowels so he/she can be brought to comfort room

-Takes a bath with assistance

-Brushes teeth after meals with assistance from adult

-Washes and dries hands under adult supervision

-Washes and dries face with the assistance of an adult

19-24 months:

-Gets drink for self unassisted

-Removes loose sando

-Removes socks :

-Informs caregiver of the need to urinate so he/she can be brought to the comfort room

-Goes to the designated place to urinate but sometimes wets his/her pants

-Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but sometimes still soils his/her pants

-Goes to the designated place to move his/her bowels but needs help with wiping or washing

-Brushes teeth after meals with adult supervision

-Washes and dries face under adult supervision

(Source: The Philippines Early Learning and Development Standards (ELDS) formulated by the Child and
Welfare Council now merged with the Early Childhood Care and Development Council)