AGPT04J-08 Guide To Pavement Technology Part 4J Aggregate and Source Rock

Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4J:
Aggregate and Source Rock
Sydney 2008
Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4J: Aggregate and Source Rock
Publisher
First edition project manager: David Hubner
Austroads Ltd.
Level 9, 287 Elizabeth Street
First edition prepared by: Binh Vuong, Geoff Jameson and Barry Fielding Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 8265 3300
Abstract
austroads@austroads.com.au
The purpose of this Part of the Guide to Pavement Technology is to provide www.austroads.com.au
information and guidance on classification and description of source rocks;
properties of source rock materials that need to be specified to ensure a About Austroads
durable end product; and quality assurance testing.
Austroads is the peak organisation of Australasian
It is recognised that local knowledge of material behaviour along with the road transport and traffic agencies.
experience and knowledge of the various construction authorities will give rise
to differences in the test values and types of tests used in specifications. Austroads’ purpose is to support our member
Austroads, however, encourages uniformity of practice in respect of organisations to deliver an improved Australasian
specification of road construction materials and it is hoped that the publication road transport network. To succeed in this task, we
of this Part will assist to facilitate this. undertake leading-edge road and transport
research which underpins our input to policy
development and published guidance on the
design, construction and management of the road
network and its associated infrastructure.
Keywords Austroads provides a collective approach that
crushed rock, durability, hardness, secondary minerals, degradation, delivers value for money, encourages shared
soundness, strength knowledge and drives consistency for road users.
Austroads is governed by a Board consisting of
Edition 1.1 published August 2018 senior executive representatives from each of its
eleven member organisations:
• Format updated.
• Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
Edition 1 published September 2008
• Roads Corporation Victoria
• Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads
• Main Roads Western Australia
ISBN 978-1-921329-87-6 Pages 26 • Department of Planning, Transport and
Infrastructure South Australia
Austroads Project No. TP1151
• Department of State Growth Tasmania
Austroads Publication No. AGPT04J-08
• Department of Infrastructure, Planning and
Logistics Northern Territory
© Austroads Ltd 2008 • Transport Canberra and City Services
Directorate, Australian Capital Territory
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the
Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without • Australian Government Department of
the prior written permission of Austroads. Infrastructure and Regional Development
• Australian Local Government Association
• New Zealand Transport Agency.
This Guide is produced by Austroads as a general guide. Its application is discretionary. Road authorities may vary their practice
according to local circumstances and policies. Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not
accept responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Contents
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Scope ....................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background .............................................................................................................................................. 2
1.2.1 Improved Understanding of Durability ........................................................................................ 2
1.2.2 Increased Heavy Vehicle Loadings ............................................................................................ 3
1.2.3 Improved Quarry Plant ............................................................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Uniformity of Practice in Specification ........................................................................................ 3
2. Classification and Description of Source Rocks ................................................................................ 4

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Igneous Rocks .......................................................................................................................................... 5
2.3 Sedimentary Rocks .................................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 Metamorphic Rocks .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.5 Natural Sands and Gravels ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.6 Blast Furnace Slag ................................................................................................................................... 8
3. Properties Requiring Specification ...................................................................................................... 9

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Rock Distress Mechanisms ...................................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Durability................................................................................................................................................. 10
3.4 Developments in Durability Assessment ................................................................................................ 11
3.5 Types and Descriptions of Durability Tests ............................................................................................ 12
3.5.1 Wet/dry Strength Variation ....................................................................................................... 12
3.5.2 Los Angeles Value .................................................................................................................... 13
3.5.3 Sulphate Soundness Loss ........................................................................................................ 13
3.5.4 Degradation Factor ................................................................................................................... 14
3.5.5 Accelerated Soundness Index .................................................................................................. 14
3.5.6 Secondary Mineral Content ...................................................................................................... 15
3.5.7 Unsound Stone Content ........................................................................................................... 15
3.5.8 Alkali Reactivity ........................................................................................................................ 16
3.5.9 Weathering Quality Index for Course Aggregate...................................................................... 17
3.6 Approaches to Durability Control ............................................................................................................ 17
3.7 Specification of Durability ....................................................................................................................... 18
3.7.1 Uniform Sources ....................................................................................................................... 18
3.7.2 Durability Changes with Product Size ...................................................................................... 18
3.7.3 Blended Materials ..................................................................................................................... 19
3.7.4 Non-uniform Sources ................................................................................................................ 19
3.7.5 Recycled Materials ................................................................................................................... 19
4. Quality Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 20

4.1 Assessment of Rock Source .................................................................................................................. 20
4.2 Sampling ................................................................................................................................................. 20
4.3 Testing .................................................................................................................................................... 21
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 23
Appendix A Classification and Description of Source Rocks ................................................................. 24
Tables
Table 2.1: Classification of igneous rocks by composition ........................................................................ 6
Table 3.1: Durability characteristics of crushed aggregates .................................................................... 11
Austroads 2008 | page i

Table 4.1: Australian and New Zealand Standards source rock test methods ........................................22
Figures
Figure 3.1: Los Angeles value test equipment .......................................................................................... 13
Figure 3.2: Degradation factor test equipment .......................................................................................... 14
Figure 3.3: Petrological microscope and mineral point counter ................................................................ 15
Figure 3.4: Assessment of unsound stone content using reference samples ..........................................16
Figure 4.1: Sampling rock spalls ............................................................................................................... 21
Austroads 2008 | page ii

1. Introduction
1.1 Scope
The source rocks used to produce crushed rock pavement materials must possess characteristics which will
ensure that the product will have the necessary strength and durability, both immediately and in the long-
term, to withstand handling during construction, weathering agents and traffic stresses.
Part 4J of the Guide to Pavement Technology presents Australasian practice in the selection and testing of
source rock for pavement construction materials. It is primarily applicable to crushed rock pavement
materials, not soft rock and natural gravels. In most cases these products are obtained from commercial
quarry sources, although it is possible to produce them from suitable rock won during construction. The
necessary properties of strength and durability are not limited to rocks of one classification type but can be
found in many of the forms of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks as well as in some forms of
pedocrete (e.g. calcrete, silcrete, etc). No individual rock type by its description or classification can be
guaranteed to be a suitable source rock. Conversely however, some rock types are highly unlikely to ever be
a suitable source material. That is not to say that for less severe environmental conditions or low traffic
volume roads, and where better quality alternative materials are not available, less strong and/or less
durable rock might not be used with qualified success.
Part 4J of the Guide to Pavement Technology supersedes three of the five parts of the NAASRA publication
series ‘Pavement Materials’ which was published during the 1980s:
• Part 2 – Natural Gravel, Sand-Clay and Soft and Fissile Rock
• Part 3 – Crushed Rock
• Part 4 – Aggregates.
Relevant sections of Part 1 of the NAASRA publication series Pavement Materials – Search will be
incorporated into Part 4: Pavement Materials of the Guide to Pavement Technology. This Part outlines the
procedures for the location and field evaluation of deposits of granular materials potentially suitable for
pavement construction. These sources include surface deposits and the technically more complex large,
permanent quarry sites.
Relevant sections of Part 5 of the NAASRA series – Quality Description and Assurance – will be
incorporated into Part 8 of the Guide to Pavement Technology. This Part introduces the basic properties of
quality assessment and discusses the significance of variability and sampling risks to the specifications and
assessment of quality.
The Guide addresses the factors which lead to the appropriate selection and specification of source rock by
reference to:
• the physical properties affecting material requirements, including the properties that affect structural
adequacy, serviceability, durability, volume instability, permeability, compaction and handling and working
• the classification and description of rocks
• quality assurance testing.
This Guide should be read in conjunction with the other parts of the Pavement Technology series:
• Part 1 Introduction to Pavement Technology
• Part 2 Pavement Structural Design
• Part 3 Pavement Surfacings
Austroads 2008 | page 1

• Part 4 Pavement Materials

– Part 4A Granular Base and Subbase Materials
– Part 4B Asphalt
– Part 4C Materials for Concrete Road Pavements
– Part 4D Stabilised Materials
– Part 4E Recycled Materials
– Part 4F Bituminous Binders
– Part 4G Geotextiles and Geogrids
– Part 4H Test Methods
– Part 4I Earthworks Materials
– Part 4J Aggregate and Source Rock
– Part 4K Seals
– Part 4L Stabilising Binders
• Part 5 Pavement Evaluation and Treatment Design
• Part 6 Unsealed Pavements
• Part 7 Pavement Maintenance
• Part 8 Pavement Construction
• Part 9 Pavement Work Practices
• Part 10 Subsurface Drainage.
Further details on all available Austroads documents can be found at www.austroads.com.au.
1.2 Background
Since NAASRA published Pavement Materials – Part 3 (Crushed Rock) in 1976, a much better
understanding of the performance and characterisation of granular materials has been developed. Factors
that have influenced these developments include the following.
1.2.1 Improved Understanding of Durability
A number of significant pavement failures caused directly by the use of non-durable source rock for crushed
rock base, led to national and international research that has resulted in the development of new or modified
test procedures for the characterisation and specification of source rock and crushed rock products. A better
understanding of the part played by the mineralogy of the source rock in the long-term durability of the
manufactured product has been a key outcome of the development work.
The relationship between source rock mineralogy and product durability is a complicated interaction which
depends greatly on the way the products are manufactured and used in service. While the mineralogy within
a manufactured product may have an influence on its likely long-term durability, it is only one of many factors
that need to be considered.

1.2.2 Increased Heavy Vehicle Loadings
The gross vehicle mass, axle loads, tyre pressures and heavy traffic volumes have all been steadily
increasing in recent years. New generation vehicles with unusual axle group configurations, tyres, and
suspensions are also being introduced. These factors have resulted in the need for better quality crushed
rock products in unbound pavement base and subbase construction, particularly in the rural areas of
Australia where project based crushing contracts rather than existing commercial quarry sources may
predominate.
Consideration needs to be made as to what materials are available in different geographical areas. If local
project materials in a given region are not suitable then importation of commercially available alternatives
may be a viable option. Alternatively the road designer may need to consider what is available and look at
alternative material options, e.g. recycled.
1.2.3 Improved Quarry Plant
Improvements in the design and operation of quarry plant have led to the production of crushed rock
products that are within closer tolerance of the specified limits. In some cases, for rock deposits with
consistent and suitable geology and mineralogy, it may be possible to achieve a product within the specified
limits in a single crushing and screening process.
However within a quarry deposit, there are usually variations depending on where extraction is occurring at
the time and this, combined with the fact that screens wear and gradings vary often means that some form of
blending is necessary in the production of road base to provide consistent specification conformance. The
blending of separate crushed components or the addition of fine materials or fillers often results in a crushed
rock product that has the desired characteristics of strength, workability, cohesion and permeability.
Notwithstanding these quarry plant and production improvements, the quality of the raw feed still needs to be
managed and controlled. The particular circumstances of the specified requirement in relation to the quality
of the source rock and the control of the processes will dictate the final production strategy.
1.2.4 Uniformity of Practice in Specification
One of the strategic goals of Austroads is to work toward national uniformity of practice with respect to the
specification of road construction materials and to encourage the use of appropriate National Standards. A
number of Australian Standards have recently been published which provide a basis for the preparation of a
works specification for aggregates and rock for engineering purposes (Australian Standard AS2758 series).
Test Methods for the sampling and testing of aggregates have also been developed (Australian Standard
AS1141 series) which are referenced in AS2758. These Standards are being progressively adopted by road
authorities and industry, supplemented, where appropriate, by modification or by methods developed to
address specific local requirements. The test methods are discussed in more detail in Sections 3 and 4 of
this Guide.

2. Classification and Description of Source Rocks
2.1 Introduction
Knowledge of the geological origin and history of rocks used in the production of crushed rock may give
some indication of the likely quality of the product. The engineering properties of a rock are influenced by a
number of factors, principal amongst these are:
• rock mineralogy
• grain size and texture
• rock mass structure
• degree of weathering.
The classification of rock used in the production of crushed rock is based upon the mineralogy, grain size
and texture or fabric of the rock, and a petrographic description will allow a confident definition of these
properties. It is important for the source to be correctly identified and classified in accordance with a
recognised classification system. An accurate petrographic description requires adequate geological training
and experience. The standard microscope thin section for a petrographic description is prepared from a
sample of the rock that measures only about 60 mm x 25 mm that is ground to 30 µm thickness. This may
not be representative of the whole of the rock mass that is to be quarried and processed. A number of
samples representing several areas within a source location should be prepared as thin sections to
adequately classify the rock type and describe the source.
Rocks derive their strength from a combination of hard constituent minerals, the interlock of particles and,
where applicable, the cementitious nature of any intergranular matrix. Minor degrees of decomposition along
intergranular boundaries can reduce significantly the strength of a rock. Depending on the rock mineralogy,
strong and tough rock when first quarried may deteriorate considerably on exposure to open surface
conditions if any one of the components, present in even a moderate amount, becomes unstable and
weakens under those conditions.
Examination of the rock under a petrographic microscope can reveal the presence and distribution of weaker
weathered minerals and/or minerals that will degrade rapidly on exposure to surface environment conditions.
While petrographic examination can be an important tool for identifying mineralogy, care must be exercised
in the extrapolation of such examinations to predict source rock quality and the product performance and
durability under different in-service uses and environments.
Degradation of rock strength and toughness due to weathering will result in an increase in the rock
permeability and, in turn, a further increase in the rate of weathering; the degradation activity of the rock
compounds and increases rapidly and potentially catastrophically.
With the exception of the pedocretes and possibly several other rock types (e.g. some of the crystalline
limestones), source rocks suitable for crushed pavement material have formed in regimes associated with
higher levels of temperature and pressure. These regimes are significantly different to that of the earth’s
surface and, as a result, the minerals and structures of strong and competent source rocks may become
unstable. Although a rock deposit at the earth’s surface is in a significantly different environment to that
associated with its formation, it is usually not until the rock has been excavated, crushed and placed in
service as a pavement material that it becomes fully and extensively exposed to the surface environment
and any potential to deteriorate can rapidly evolve.
This guide has adopted the rock classification system that is contained in AS 1726 Geotechnical Site
Investigation (1993). It is reproduced in detail in Appendix A.

2.2 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock material. This can occur at the
earth’s surface or at depth. The final solidified form of the rock, i.e. its mineralogy, grain size and structure,
will depend largely on the chemical composition of the original magma and the cooling regime. A number of
physical and chemical processes within the molten or semi-molten rock as well as changes in the
environment can occur during the cooling process. There can be post solidification changes that will also
influence the final form of an igneous rock. Because of this, an igneous rock may not be homogeneous
throughout its mass. Variations can be broad and gradual as well as localised, abrupt and erratic.
The terminology used to describe igneous rocks is broadly based on the rock’s mineralogy, grain size and
form but has in many cases originated from historical circumstances where a rock of a particular
mineralogical form was given a name and all similar type rocks were given the same name.
The descriptive terminology does not necessarily represent the engineering or materials properties of a rock.
Because igneous rocks are generally multi-minerallic, the boundaries for descriptions between similar rock
types may overlap.
One of the criteria for classification of igneous rocks is on the basis of the crystal grain size; coarse grained
is >2 mm, intermediate grained is <2 mm and >0.2mm and fine grained is <0.2 mm. There are irregularities
to this as in the case of porphyry that has intermediate and/or coarse crystals in a fine grained matrix.
Another criteria for classification is on the basis of total silica content (in silicate minerals and as free silica or
quartz); >66% and having free quartz is described as acid; <66% but >52% and possibly having free quartz
is intermediate; <52% and very rarely with free quartz is described as basic. Again there are anomalies such
as quartz-saturated basalts or tholeiites.
Listed are several igneous rock types which commonly, but not always, have forms that are suitable for
pavement construction materials.
Basalt is a fine grained, basic, dark coloured igneous rock; its form can be dense, vesicular or porphyritic. It
can be tough but is generally non-abrasive to crushing plant. It can be susceptible to late stage secondary
mineralisation that will render it unsound when exposed to the atmosphere.
Dolerite & Gabbro are intermediate grained and coarse grained basic rock forms respectively that have
similar overall chemical composition to that of basalt but with different mineral assemblages because of
different formation conditions. Because of their different grain sizes they have different properties in terms of
crushing characteristics and the nature of the crushed fines that are generated.
Granite is an acidic, coarse grained igneous rock comprised primarily of feldspar (several varieties) and
quartz with lesser amounts of a mafic mineral (Mg Fe silicates) like biotite or hornblende. The term granite is
used very broadly to describe igneous rocks of a similar nature although the correct geological description
may be different according to the mineralogy and the percentage ratios of those minerals. ‘Granites’ can vary
in the properties of strength, toughness and soundness (as resistance to weathering). Because of the free
silica content, it can be abrasive to crush; crushed particle shape tends to be equant and the finer particles
(i.e. those less than the grain rock size) from crushing can be of single mineralogy.
Diorite, granodiorite, tonalite, syenite, andesite and monzonite are all similar rocks of the granite suite
but are differentiated on the basis of the quartz content and/or dominant feldspar type. Like granites they can
demonstrate a range of levels of toughness, degree of weathering etc.
Rhyolites are fine grained acidic rocks with an overall chemical composition similar to granites. Their fine
grained nature will give them a tendency to crush to a flaky particle shape, the free silica content renders
them abrasive and even highly abrasive.

The igneous rock term porphyry describes a textural feature of rock where intermediate and coarse grained
crystals are dispersed in a fine grained matrix that is usually of a similar chemical composition. The
properties of porphyry relate more to the fine grained matrix component of the rock.
Table 2.1: Classification of igneous rocks by composition
Property Acidic Intermediate Basic

Free silica % 66 52 to 66 < 52
Specific Gravity (t/m3) < 2.75 - >2.75
Colour Light - Dark
Free Quartz Yes Possible Rare
2.3 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks result from the accumulation of both the physical and chemical weathered rock products
in environments at or near the earth’s surface and the subsequent hardening or cementation of those
products to a rock form. The hardening and cementation may occur at the surface or due to burial and
consolidation under subsequent accumulated sediments. The process of induration of the rock can grade
into metamorphism as the pressure and temperature conditions of burial progressively become more
intense.
There are broad classification criteria that will define sedimentary rocks according to certain characteristics
however these are not applied in common terminology. The terminologies often used to identify sedimentary
rocks may reflect only one aspect of the rock (e.g. siltstone describes a sedimentary rock that is comprised
primarily of silt sized particles) or they may have wider descriptive connotations (e.g. an arkose which is a
sand sized granular rock comprising of quartz grains and a nominal 25% of feldspar grains). Alternatively,
the rock may be described by its basic chemical composition without any connotation to a textural form (e.g.
limestone is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium carbonate but it may be of widely varying
granular forms and physical properties).
Sedimentary rock terminology may use a qualifying term (e.g. dolomitic sandstone).
Pedocretes are cemented soil horizons that can be regarded as sedimentary rocks; they result from the
cementing agent mineral being deposited from solution in the soil horizon, e.g. calcrete.
There are types of sedimentary rocks that, subject to the degree and type of induration or hardening that
may have occurred, could be suitable for pavement material.
Arenaceous (sandy) rocks. Types include sandstone, quartzite (almost totally quartz sand grains) arkoses
and greywackes; these can be suitable but require strong cementing agents or bonding mechanisms. The
descriptions of some of these rocks may be modified.
Argillaceous (clayey) rocks. These are fine grained sedimentary rocks and include siltstones, mudstones
and shales. The degree of cementation and bonding is critical but the finer particle size and/or finely
laminated rocks of this group tend to be less suitable.
‘Chemical’ sedimentary rocks. Typically these are limestones and dolomites however there can be sandy,
silty and clayey (marl) varieties. Limestone, dolomite and less frequently magnesite represent a range of
carbonate rocks that can compositionally vary from 100% Ca carbonate through to 100% Mg carbonate;
dolomite is nominally 50%Ca:50%Mg carbonate. Because the carbonate minerals can recrystallise readily in
the induration stages, these rocks may display even a coarse crystalline structure. Pedocretes may be
included in this group.

2.4 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism describes a process whereby an existing (parent) rock form can become altered by the
effects of heat and/or pressure. It can result in multiple changes to the rock including the regrowth of crystals,
a rearrangement of the chemical structure with the formation of new minerals and the imposition of new
textural and structural fabrics in the rock. Metamorphism can overprint igneous, sedimentary and even
existing metamorphic rock types. The composition and form of a metamorphic rock is dependent upon the
chemical composition of the parent rock and the levels of the applied pressure and temperature; rocks of
different mineralogy and fabric can result from different forms of metamorphism affecting a common parent
rock.
For sedimentary rocks, there is a continuum from the processes of induration to those of metamorphism; the
boundary between induration and metamorphism may be indistinct and the term meta-sediment can be
applied to rocks that retain substantial sedimentary characteristics with some overprint of metamorphic
features.
Metamorphic rock type terminology may only describe the fabric and texture of the rock (e.g. gneiss) and a
qualifying term may be used to describe the mineralogy although not necessarily the dominant mineralogy
but a distinctive mineralogy (e.g. garnet gneiss).
Some commonly used metamorphic terms include:
Granulite, a uniformly granular rock that generally does not display an imposed metamorphic fabric, but may
display some characteristics of the parent rock. Granulites can be suitable as pavement materials subject to
mineral assemblage.
Gneiss, a medium to coarse grained metamorphic rock that displays some alignment and orientation of the
mineral grains. A granitic gneiss has a mineralogical composition similar to that of granite but may not
necessarily be a metamorphosed granite. Gneisses can be suitable for pavement materials in some
circumstances. However, the extent of development of mineral grain alignment may influence the shape of
crushed particles; crushed rock products with excessively platy particles may not be suitable. Selection of
appropriate crushing plant may influence crushed particle shape.
Schist, a fine grained metamorphic rock with a dominant percentage and alignment of what are usually
micaceous mineral grains (e.g. chlorite schist); a schist will readily split along sometimes irregular surfaces
parallel to the grain alignment. Schists are rarely suitable for high quality pavement materials due to particle
shape and the quality of crushed fines, some being highly micaceous.
Hornfels, a fine to very fine grained rock generally resulting from the metamorphism, primarily due to heat,
of mudstone or similarly fine grained sediment. Hornfels, if tough and durable, can be suitable for pavement
material.
2.5 Natural Sands and Gravels
Unconsolidated deposits of sands and gravels are unlikely, without some form of processing, to have the
necessary properties to be used directly for high performance pavements. The mechanisms that have
created the deposit, typically weathering and transportation, are both likely to have imposed factors, like
rounded particle shape, unsuitable particle size distribution, excessive plasticity etc, to render the natural
material unusable. The coarse rock fragments however may be appropriate as a source of hard rock, like
their parent rock deposit, that is suitable for crushing to produce the pavement material. These types of
deposits may also be suitable as sources for the additive materials for blending to other crushed rock
materials to achieve specified requirements.
Natural sands and river gravels are however essential to the concrete supply and asphalt industries and may
be suitable sources of crushed aggregates for other purposes.

2.6 Blast Furnace Slag
Iron and steelmaking slags have been used extensively in New South Wales for road construction for almost
50 years. Slags may be considered as suitable to be crushed for pavement materials provided that they are
sufficiently strong, tough and durable.
Crushed slag varies considerably and usually consists of a mixture of stony, vesicular and glassy pieces.
The first of these forms are reasonably hard and tough, but the vesicular pieces may be somewhat softer
and the glassy pieces may be brittle.
Blast furnace slags containing more than 3% ferrous oxides (FeO) will disintegrate on immersion in water
when the sulphur (S) content of the slag is 1% or more. Disintegration is attributed to iron and manganese
sulphide when in contact with water forming hydroxides and expanding the slag particles. Slag liable to iron
unsoundness can be distinguished by its reddish surface or, at higher iron contents, by its very dark
appearance and magnetic properties. Test methods AS 1141.36 – Sulfur in metallurgical slag, crushed rock
or other pavement materials, and AS 1141.37 - Iron unsoundness are used to assess this disintegration
potential.
Slag materials should be exposed to weathering before being used as concrete aggregate due to changes in
particle volume on exposure to weathering. This generally requires stockpiling for at least six months.
Guidance on the use of slag in road construction can be found in the Australasian Slag Association
publication - A Guide to the Use of Iron and Steel Slag in Roads.

3. Properties Requiring Specification
3.1 Introduction
Crushed rock and aggregates for use in pavements and surfacings can be produced from igneous,
metamorphic or sedimentary rock. The source rock must possess the characteristics that will enable the
product to have the strength and durability to withstand the construction processes and, in the long term,
weathering and traffic induced stresses.
To be realistically viable, the quarrying process must operate on bulk quantities of rock and is not able to be
selective on a scale of the order of one or two metres or less. The physical actions of blasting, crushing and
screening can remove some unwanted components in the rock if they break to a small size or pulverise
readily. However, if the unwanted component material is present in sufficiently large levels or is only
moderately weak, it may persist through these processes and contaminate the products. Stripping of
overburden and selective quarrying may be required to reduce the level of the contaminant. Wet ground
conditions, either natural or directly due to weather, can activate adherent clay materials present in a rock
mass and can influence the extent of control measures required in quarrying, screening and crushing. Such
control measures commonly include blending with low plasticity material to reduce the overall effects of the
clays in the pavement material, and washing, scrubbing or flocculation during aggregate production.
3.2 Rock Distress Mechanisms
In the ground, the rock environment is generally constant in terms of stress, moisture conditions and
temperature. Changes are usually limited in magnitude and occur very slowly.
Distress mechanisms in service differ from those that occur due to weathering or alteration of the in situ rock,
except in a few special cases. They are mainly responses to the changed stress/moisture/temperature
environment, without any change in mineralogy. There are some exceptions, typically where sulphides, most
commonly pyrite, are present. These tend to oxidise and hydrate, forming sulphuric acid. In some rocks this
may react with carbonate minerals, ultimately forming gypsum and a variety of hydrated iron oxides and
hydroxides. The reactions are expansive and may disrupt the rock fabric.
In crystalline rocks, distress mechanisms may involve the response of clays and related minerals to moisture
and reduced confining pressure. These responses include the development of fracturing parallel to the
cleavage of the minerals and expansion of the basal spacing of clay minerals due to the penetration of water.
The latter is a very common cause of durability problems in basic igneous rocks, especially where the clays
are of the highly expansive smectite group.
In service, rock particles commonly change by the following mechanisms:

• Crushing, where the rock has inadequate strength to carry the imposed loads, may be caused by the
compaction process or traffic. This is unlikely to occur in normal and high quality quarry products but can
be common for marginal rock types. For those materials, breakdown from excessive reworking, very
heavy compaction equipment or in service wheel loadings may be significant. Crushing is much more
likely if the particle can fail by an indirect tensile mechanism, rather than in confined compression. Particle
shape can also influence the potential for crushing.
• Self-abrasion, where the cyclic loadings due to traffic results in the rounding of particles and wear of
surfaces in contact with other rock particles. This can change the shear strength of the pavement layer
either directly, through a reduction in the mechanical interlock between coarse particles, or indirectly,
through the release of clayey fines which respond differently to moisture changes and changes to the
particle size distribution.

• The generation of internal stresses due to the response of the constituent minerals to changing moisture
conditions (e.g. stresses due to expansive clay minerals). These stresses may result in particles breaking
into individual crystals (where the clays are concentrated on grain boundaries or mineral cleavages within
coarse grained rocks) or into a clayey material with a variable silt and sand content (where the clays
comprise secondary replacement of the original constituent minerals or a glassy groundmass).
• The generation of internal stresses due to expansive reactions with chemicals in the service environment
(e.g. sulphides with water and oxygen).
• The decomposition of particles due to chemical reactions (e.g. carbonates in acid water conditions) which
can create weaker porous particles or reduce the physical size of particles.
These mechanisms may operate simultaneously, although normally one will predominate.
The durability of a rock depends on its ability to resist weathering agents. Physical and chemical changes in
rocks, produced at or near the surface by atmospheric agents, result in disintegration and decomposition and
are commonly grouped under the general name of weathering. The action of physical agents is called
‘disintegration’; it results in the rock breaking into smaller particles without its identity being destroyed.
The process by which mineral particles are changed into new compounds with less desirable characteristics
is known as ‘decomposition’. Disintegration and decomposition can occur together but one process is
generally dominant. The incidence of decomposition is higher in humid and warm areas, while disintegration
is more likely in regions of large temperature range.
Rock-forming minerals can be classified as either primary or secondary. The action of a number of geological
processes can cause the alteration or reconstitution of primary minerals to produce secondary minerals. The
description of these processes can include deuteric alteration, hydro-thermal alteration, low grade
metamorphism, as well as the action of groundwater and weathering. Where the secondary minerals are
clay or clay-like, the greater the percentage of these minerals and the degree of their dispersion,
the more the internal bonding of minerals may be weakened.
Major studies of the effects of secondary minerals on the performance of crushed rock products used as
pavement materials have been carried out overseas and in Australia (e.g. Scott 1955; Weinert 1960; Minty
1960; Nyoeger 1964). Igneous and metamorphic rocks derive their hardness and strength from the tough
constituent minerals and the strong interlock between multitudes of small, angular crystals. Even a small
amount of decomposition affecting only the margins of the crystals can seriously weaken rocks. Some rocks,
even though strong and tough when freshly quarried, degrade rapidly after exposure to air and water.
Microscopic examination generally reveals that the secondary minerals in these rocks have deeply
weathered. The degradation of weathered rock is associated with increasing permeability.
Generally, durability requirements for aggregates obtained from homogeneous rock sources can be inferred
from petrographic assessments that describe the geological history and origin of the source rock. However,
such petrographic assessments should always be verified by the use of other durability and strength test
procedures as homogeneous rock sources may produce a range of products having different durability
properties depending on the quarrying and crushing/screening processes used to control durability.
The distress mechanisms that can operate in a compacted pavement material are generally quite different to
those of the parent source rock. Such pavement distress mechanisms are described in Part 4A: Granular
Base and Subbase Materials of the Guide to Pavement Technology.
3.3 Durability
In broad terms, durability is that property of a rock which enables its particles to retain their dimensions and
mechanical properties in service. Durability is the abrasion and weathering resistance of a material. It
describes the changes in the performance of a material under repeated loading and long-term weathering.

Components of durability may be measured by physical test procedures (e.g. wet/dry strength variation, Los
Angeles value and degradation factor tests). The purpose of specifying these individual durability test limits is
to ensure that materials will not significantly break down, resulting in a change to the particle size and shape
and increases in the fines-content and fines-plasticity during construction and throughout the life of the
pavement. These factors strongly affect the engineering properties of unbound materials (shear strength,
stiffness and permanent deformation) and, hence their long term performance.
There are a number of properties that have to be considered in assessing rock durability. The failure
mechanisms involved with each property are different and so are the field behaviours that are to be guarded
against by the specification. Table 3.1 shows the durability characteristics of crushed aggregates.
In general terms, there is a sympathetic relationship between these properties – as one varies, so the others
tend to. The properties of strength, hardness and toughness are often closely correlated with one another.
There are also systematic relationships between these properties and soundness, but these are often
specific to individual sources or closely related groups of sources.
Table 3.1: Durability characteristics of crushed aggregates
Strength The ability of the aggregate to withstand applied loads in service. This is one of the
fundamental performance requirements for all applications, although the absolute strength
needed varies with the application.
Hardness The ability of the aggregate to withstand abrasion by other materials which come into
contact with it. Mainly relevant to surfacing applications.
Toughness The ability of the aggregate to withstand impact loadings. Mainly relevant to ensuring particle
integrity during processing (e.g. mixing) or placement (e.g. during and after sealing).
Soundness The ability of the aggregate to withstand the effects of fluctuations in moisture content and
temperature in service. An essential property in all applications, to ensure that particle
strength and integrity is retained.
It is quite possible for a rock to meet several of these durability requirements and fail others. As an example,
the occurrence of rock which is ‘strong, hard, tough but not sound’ is relatively common in nature. Much of
the testing of durability is aimed at detecting and eliminating such materials, which change their physical
properties over time.
There may be a trade-off between durability and other properties in quarry products. In surfacing aggregates,
for instance, there is a broad inverse relationship between durability and skid resistance. For pavement
materials, some highly durable rocks have poor crushing characteristics that may result in a fines-deficient,
hard-to-work product. This arises because of the physical difficulty of breaking such rock down to provide
sufficient and/or suitable fines.
The available test procedures are all empirical and involve different failure mechanisms (generally more than
one). They were originally developed to address particular serviceability problems, in a specific environment,
often very different to the applications for which they are now used.
3.4 Developments in Durability Assessment
The durability tests used in Australia were (and to some extent, still are) largely based on US work in the
1930s and British practice after World War 2. Most tests were originally developed for aggregates (concrete
or sealing) where the imposed loads are greater or service conditions are more extreme. They were adapted
to other uses as the need for ‘durability’ was recognised as applying across the range of engineering
applications of rock.
Problems with durability were first identified in the 1960s as stocks of original, high quality rock sources
started to become depleted. This led to the development of local, empirically derived specifications, generally
based on US and some British test procedures and some locally developed approaches. The major drivers
were problems with basalts in Melbourne and volcanic breccias in Sydney.

Further work in the 1970s and 1980s led to a refinement in these specifications and the introduction of new
or modified tests, or a reduction in overlaps in testing. The general tendency has been to reduce the variety
of tests required and to simplify specification limits. Attempts have also been made to adjust the required
testing frequencies to take account of the inherent quality of the source and the consistency and scale of the
production process.
3.5 Types and Descriptions of Durability Tests
Durability tests for aggregates generally involve one or more of the following:
• the imposition of a load on the aggregate particles – the load(s) may be imposed gradually or rapidly,
once or repeatedly, and the test portion may or may not be confined
• saturation of the sample
• the imposition of wet/dry cycles
• the imposition of hot/cold cycles (often in conjunction with the former)
• the introduction of a chemical which can penetrate into the rock and influence its mechanical behaviour
• an investigation of the mineral composition of the rock.
The distress mechanisms by which the tests operate are different, to varying degrees, from those that apply
in the field. In some cases, there is no ‘distress mechanism’ but rather a correlation between the test results
and field behaviour – the most obvious example being the Secondary Mineral Content (used for basalts),
where the test result is simply the proportion of a given class of constituents. This in fact represents, as an
extreme case, something that is true of all the durability tests. As none of them reproduce field behaviour
exactly, an empirical relationship has to be established between the test result and in-service performance,
which will in turn be used to set a specification limit.
Commercial quarries usually produce a range of products such as concrete aggregate, sealing aggregate,
asphalt aggregate, as well as crushed rock. The durability test suite derives from all of these applications and
may involve distress mechanisms which are quite different from those occurring in pavements (e.g.
abrasion). The use of the same tests throughout the range of products reflects the fact that durability is an
inherent property of the source rock. Any test which empirically correlates with durability in one service
environment is therefore likely to correlate with durability in others, although the appropriate specification
limits may vary.
The following sections briefly describe the durability tests currently specified in Australasia.
3.5.1 Wet/dry Strength Variation
This test was originally, and is still commonly known as, the 10% Fines Test. The test involves crushing a
test portion of aggregate in a steel cylinder, and adjusting the applied load to produce 10% of arbitrarily
defined fines. The main failure mechanism is an indirect tensile failure, analogous to the point load strength.
Most aggregate particles suffer several failures of this type during the test. There are also crushing failures of
asperities that may be more analogous to shear failure. The test measures strength loss due to saturation.
If loads at the nominal ‘strengths’ reported are converted to an actual strength figure, it would range from 5.6
MPa (at 100 kN) to 28 MPa (at 500 kN). These are larger than point-load strengths would be for the same
rock, especially at the low end. This probably reflects multiple failure modes and the effects of partial
confinement.
The wet strength is a direct measure of load-carrying ability. High wet/dry variation normally correlates to
poor soundness properties.
The wet strength is a direct measure of load-carrying ability of saturated materials. High wet/dry variation
normally correlates to poor soundness properties.

The test was developed for normal ‘aggregate’ sources of igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks but
can be applied to all forms or rock types.
The Crushing Resistance of Coarse Aggregate under a Specified Load (NZS 4407:1991 Test 31.10) is
similar except the percentage of fines generated by the application of a specified load is measured on a dry
aggregate test sample and the results provide an estimate of dry strength and not necessarily of soundness.
3.5.2 Los Angeles Value
The test involves placing a portion of aggregate in a steel drum, fitted with an internal baffle, with a specified
number of steel balls, the drum then being rotated a fixed number of times (see Figure 3.1). Distress is
mainly by impact loading, with some contribution from self-abrasion. The test was originally developed in the
context of wear resistance in cold areas (where the surfacing is trafficked by studded tyres) and for relatively
low strength rocks such as limestone.
The test result is determined by sizing the post-test material at a specified sieve size (1.8 mm) with the ratio
of the -1.8 mm fraction to the original charge mass giving the LA value. The higher the LA value, the less
durable the rock. Because the post-test sizing has been chosen arbitrarily, some anomalous results can
occur when the natural particle size for breakage of the stone is larger than the specified sieve size aperture.
For example, granite with coarse grained feldspars which naturally fracture (cleave) to a size just greater
than this arbitrary aperture size can give a low LA value even though there might be almost total breakdown.
Figure 3.1: Los Angeles value test equipment
The result is sensitive to the grading of the test portion and to the number of steel balls included in the test.
Adjustments are specified in the procedure to compensate for this.
There is a broad correlation of the Los Angeles Value test results with Wet/Dry Strength Variation Test.
3.5.3 Sulphate Soundness Loss
The test involves five cycles of soaking of an aggregate sample in saturated sodium sulphate solution,
followed by oven drying. It was originally developed as a quick substitute for freeze-thaw testing and for the
testing of fissile rock types. Distress is due to stresses induced by a combination of wet/dry and
heating/cooling cycles, together with crystallisation pressure from the sodium sulphate solution within the
pores or defect planes of the aggregate during the drying cycle.

The test correlates poorly with other tests and suffers from poor repeatability. The results are very dependent
on particle size, a consequence of variation to the surface area/volume ratio and its effect on the degree of
saturation achieved during the wetting cycle. The presence and size of natural pores within an aggregate
particle has also been shown to be significant with some porous or finely vesicular rock types recording
anomalously poor test values. Sources also differ in their sensitivity to the test.
High loss results are a fairly reliable indication of poor durability. Low loss results are ambiguous and not a
guarantee of soundness.
3.5.4 Degradation Factor
The test works through self-abrasion of a sample of pre-graded aggregate, in water, and involves the
measurement of the proportion of silt-sized and clay-sized fines generated (see Figure 3.2). It is used as an
index of the current stage of decomposition of the source rock and has been applied to both igneous and
metamorphic sources. Low results (representing a high proportion of generated fines) correlate with poor
durability in service.
Figure 3.2: Degradation factor test equipment
3.5.5 Accelerated Soundness Index
The test is applied to basaltic sources and involves the measurement of the proportion of fines produced
after a number of cycles of immersion of an aggregate in boiling ethylene glycol. Distress is by fracturing due
to stresses induced by enhanced swelling/contraction of expansive clay minerals and to thermal stresses.
The test is primarily sensitive to the presence of smectite clays and has been applied to basaltic rocks. Low
values correlate to poor durability.

3.5.6 Secondary Mineral Content
In this test, the proportion of secondary minerals (late-stage crystallisation, alteration and weathering
products) is estimated in rock thin sections using a petrological microscope fitted with a point-counting device
(see Figure 3.3). This provides a measure of mineralogical composition and does not involve any failure
mechanism. The test limits were developed through empirical correlations with the performance of
Melbourne basalts and subsequently with other basalts in Victoria, where the secondary minerals are largely
smectite clays.
The test depends on secondary minerals being identifiable by optical means. A high secondary mineral
content in basaltic rocks correlates with poor durability in service. The test is often difficult to perform in
altered rocks with an originally glassy groundmass or a high opaque mineral content.
Figure 3.3: Petrological microscope and mineral point counter
3.5.7 Unsound Stone Content
This is not strictly a ‘test’ in itself but rather a procedure which classifies aggregate particles by visual
comparison with reference specimens, the soundness (or otherwise) of which have been established by one
or more of the methods in Sections 3.5.2 to 3.5.6 (see Figure 3.4). High proportions of unsound stone are
correlated with poor durability in service.
In principle, the procedure can be applied to any source for which visual distinctions can be made reliably, on
the basis of the reference specimens.

Figure 3.4: Assessment of unsound stone content using reference samples
3.5.8 Alkali Reactivity
Alkali-aggregate reaction refers to the reaction between alkali hydroxide (sodium and potassium hydroxides),
evolved to high concentrations in the pore solution of hydrated cement, and reactive constituents in
aggregate. Although, generally, the alkali originates largely from the hydration of the cement phase, certain
aggregates and supplementary cementitious materials, as well as chemical admixtures and mixing water
could significantly contribute to the alkali content of the concrete. The alkali content of the individual
ingredients and the total available alkali content of the concrete would need to be known in order to assess
the risk of ASR in the presence of reactive aggregate. Depending on the type of aggregates, the specific
reaction may be alkali-silica reaction (ASR), and alkali-carbonate reaction (not reported in Australia yet).
ASR has been shown to occur in many structures in Australia. It is prudent when using siliceous aggregates
to be aware of the degree of reactivity, so that appropriate counter-measures can be taken or another type of
aggregate used.
The main product of ASR is hydrated alkali silica gel containing a certain amount of lime, which expands as
water is imbibed during its evolution, and exerts pressure on the surrounding matrix. The ASR products can
be observed by petrographic analysis and sometimes by unaided eye. ASTM C856-04 (concrete
petrography) is relevant to existing structures and outlines procedures for the determination of concrete
conditions using a stereomicroscope on an as-received sample, and polarising microscope and
metallographic microscope on thin section samples. Petrographic analysis combined with the point-counting
technique can provide information on the potential for ASR of some aggregates. If they obviously contain
sufficient quantities of reactive materials, they can be classed as potentially reactive without further testing.
Very fine-grained or severely altered aggregates can not be properly assessed by this method. Hence,
aggregates are not to be accepted as non-reactive based on the results of this test alone.
Assessment of alkali-reactivity potential of concrete aggregate is based on the accelerated mortar bar test
and criteria developed by Shayan et al. (1988). RTA NSW and VicRoads have adopted this test as RTA
T363 and RC 376.03 methods. The accelerated test uses the same type of mortar bars as those of ASTM
C227 or AS 1141-38 (now obsolete), stored in 1M NaOH solution at 80°C.
Concrete prism tests ASTM C1293 and RTA T364 are conducted at 38°C, 100% RH. They are also
appropriate, but take one year to conduct, and do not always detect slowly reactive aggregates (Shayan,
2001). A more rapid version of concrete prism test is conducted at 60C, 100% RH, and is now known as the
Rilem Test Method AAR-4. This test enables classification of aggregates in 3-4 months, but universally
agreed limits have not yet been set for it.

3.5.9 Weathering Quality Index for Course Aggregate
This test allows for categorisation of source material into a number of quality grades based on the resistance
of aggregate to the effects of 10 cycles of wetting, drying, heating and cooling. Degradation of any unsound
aggregate is accelerated by application of 100 cycles of a small hand roller (6 – 6.5 kg) after each cycle of
wetting and drying. The percentage retained on the 4.75mm sieve, together with the ‘cleanness value’ of the
coarse aggregate (Test method NZS 4407.3.9) allow a weathering quality index to be assigned to the
material.
3.6 Approaches to Durability Control
Ideally, the final product used in the pavement would be one in which every particle retains its dimensional
and strength properties unchanged throughout and preferably beyond, the service life of the pavement. This
is not possible in the real world, and so the practical objective is to obtain a product in which those properties
are retained sufficiently so that the strength and deformation characteristics of the pavement layer are still
adequate at the end of its design life. That life should be determined by the structural properties of the layer,
rather than limited by adverse changes in its constituent particles.
Some change in the properties of individual particles is therefore tolerable. The requirement is to impose
limits on those changes, so that they do not create localised or pervasive defects which reduce the structural
properties of the pavement layer to below design values or acceptable performance levels. This translates, in
practice, to limiting the proportion of particles which do not have the necessary durability.
As noted above, durability is a property which is largely inherent to the source rock. Unlike manufactured
properties such as shape and grading, which are largely determined by the crushing and screening process,
durability can only be influenced by either:
• The selection of the rock to be crushed - by adequately stripping overburden soils and excluding from the
production processes zones of highly weathered rock. Such zones of less durable material may be left in
situ be used for other purposes.
• Concentrating undesirable material in one size fraction which can then be removed from the processing
stream. Most commonly this is done by scalping off fines through a grizzly before primary crushing. If the
feed material is particularly contaminated with plastic or weathered fines, or is wet, a second scalp may
be required after the primary crushing stage. As the least durable material is usually inherently weaker
and tends to concentrate in the fines at each stage of crushing, the durability of the coarse aggregates
produced can sometimes be greater than that of the fine aggregates manufactured from the same run of
crushing.
Both may be undertaken simultaneously, but the economics of the process mean that the final product will
normally represent no better than the best 50-60% of the original source material. Selective crushing implies
that the durability of the source rock can be assessed visually and that this assessment is reliable.
It is possible to minimise this situation by scalping the run of the crushing plant after the primary crushing
stage and then re-crushing only the remaining clean rock spalls to achieve the required particle size
distribution; this process may require the use of particular crushers that are more suited to producing higher
percentages of fines.
For some rock types, e.g. basaltic rocks, control over the durability of the fine aggregate fraction may be a
particular problem in crushed rock pavement materials. As noted, the crushing process tends to concentrate
the least durable rock into the fine fractions, where it may not be detected by standard aggregate tests and is
too coarse to be found by tests on the fines (e.g. Atterberg limits). In principle, this issue must be addressed
directly by testing the potentially affected fractions, such as by using the Degradation Factor – Crusher Fines
test (RC 370.05), or by indirect means, such as testing the shear strength of the product, possibly under
repeated loading.

3.7 Specification of Durability
As is obvious from the previous discussion, there are complex relationships between the failure mechanisms
occurring in service and those occurring in the available laboratory tests. Some of the tests do not involve
any distress mechanism (e.g. secondary mineral content). The relationships between test results and
performance are empirical, and derived from a limited set of performance data. This range is usually
constrained by either geography or rock type. Often, a relationship between durability and field performance
may have been developed in a single location where the combination, for example, of high usage, coastal
climate and high traffic volumes has led to the early detection of durability problems. Because of this
empirical basis, specification limits based on individual test procedures do not translate readily into new
environments; it is impossible to be confident about these relationships outside the range of the available
data.
The range of possible failure modes means that at least two tests are needed to gain reasonable control
over durability, one aimed at the strength/hardness/toughness properties and the other at the soundness of
the rock. Specification of only one of these may be adequate if the source materials and its behaviour is well
understood but otherwise both are essential. Strength, hardness and toughness requirements are normally
addressed by Wet Strength, Crushing Resistance or Los Angeles Value limits. Soundness requirements are
controlled by one or more of the Wet/Dry Strength Variation, Sulphate Soundness Loss, Degradation Factor,
Accelerated Soundness Index, and Secondary Mineral Content, and Weathering Quality Index.
Specifications take two broad approaches to the control of durability:

1. Control may be primarily applied to the source material, with a simpler assessment method for the
product as delivered, with the final product required to contain a minimum proportion of durable stone.
The durability of the stone in the end-product is identified visually, by comparison with reference
specimens.
2. Control may be primarily applied to the end-product. In this case, size fraction would be specified to
meet a particular limit, when tested in accordance with a given test method.
The first approach requires a substantial and on-going commitment to testing, classification and inspection of
the source rock and end-product. It necessitates the identification and classification of all variations in the
source rock, and also requires that they be visually distinguishable, at least to the point where the durable
material can be separated from the non-durable material. When consistently applied, this approach allows
very close control of the durability properties of the rock under all circumstances.
In the second approach, samples of the final product are tested to include the full range of variation in
properties that may be present. There are several common circumstances which such a durability
specification will have to address the following.
3.7.1 Uniform Sources
These are very rare, and the easiest to control under most circumstances.
3.7.2 Durability Changes with Product Size
This is common, even with sources which are geologically uniform and whose properties remain constant
with time. It arises from the normal pattern of reduction in rock strength with weathering and the increased
ease of crushing the weaker material, which concentrates in the finer fractions. This occurs, to some extent,
in all sources other than those that are uniformly fresh. This can be addressed by testing several size
fractions.

3.7.3 Blended Materials
The final product contains rock from two or more sources which have different properties. The blending may
extend through a range of size fractions, or be concentrated in one size fraction. This situation can be
addressed by testing the various sources separately, or testing several size fractions (the latter is especially
appropriate if the blending is only conducted in one size range).
3.7.4 Non-uniform Sources
These commonly generate a product, the durability of which may change substantially with time. As well this
may vary with the size fraction being tested (as above and for the same reasons) and among the different
particles in a given size fraction. A special case arises with sources such as river gravels, where the source
may be uniform on the macro-scale but individual cobbles are of different rock types and weathering states.
These are in some respects more similar to blended aggregates, except that the sources cannot be tested
separately. This problem can be addressed by paying attention to lot size and definition, testing several size
fractions and increasing the frequency of testing. In extreme cases, a move to source rock testing may be
more appropriate (this was the reason for the original development of the Unsound Stone Content procedure
in Victoria).
Quality Assurance (QA) specifications tend to place the onus for durability control on the producer, and to
limit the ability of the specifier to exert control at the source. However, the producer must ultimately exert that
control in some way, if an acceptable product is to be supplied.
3.7.5 Recycled Materials
The product currently most commonly recycled is demolition concrete, though the use of materials such as
asphalt planings and industrial wastes and slags is becoming more widespread. Reclaimed glass and
returned pre-mix concrete are also used as blended additives in crushed rock. Recycled materials are
generally dealt with as for other crushed rocks, with additional requirements added to limit undesirable
components (mainly ‘foreign materials’ such as soil, other pavement material or various building products).
No special durability tests are normally specified, as the product mainly consists of concrete aggregate and
mortar, both of which can be properly assessed by the conventional tests.
Where difficulties arise with durability in the aggregate fraction, they are normally associated with the
presence of one or more of the following:
• weak or porous cement/mortar fragments
• poor durability aggregate in the source concrete
• excess foreign materials (e.g. brick).
Part 4E: Recycled Materials of the Guide to Pavement Technology provides further description and advice
on the use and specification of recycled materials for pavement construction.

4. Quality Assessment
To ensure that a crushed rock will have those qualities essential for satisfactory performance it may be
necessary to specify requirements relating both to the source rock, and to the crushed rock product. If it is
known that the source rock is of acceptable quality, a specification for the crushed product only may be all
that is required. Tests that may be specified for the assessment of crushed rock can be grouped generally as
follows:
• source rock tests
• product tests (material as supplied)
• product tests (material after compaction).
Source rock tests should establish that the source is durable and suitable for the intended application.
Product tests should only be based upon material as delivered, as the supplier has no control over what
happens to the supplied material during placement, compaction and pavement surfacing. The behaviour of
the supplied material after it has been delivered is the pavement construction contractor’s responsibility, as
ownership for the materials has transferred at that point.
Test procedures for source rock are only briefly outlined in this section of the Guide and the relevant test
method should be consulted for details of the scope and procedure. Product tests are described in the Guide
to Pavement Technology, Parts 4A, 4B, 4C and 4K.
4.1 Assessment of Rock Source
A number of the attributes of a crushed rock product are linked to the properties of the source rock from
which it is produced. Assessments of quarried sources may involve inspections, sampling and testing of the
rock from the quarry face and/or from surge piles produced after primary crushing and scalping.
These inspections, sampling and testing may be carried out on a regular basis during the term of the crushed
rock supply or may be carried out prior to production and supply. The frequency of inspection or investigation
of a particular rock source is typically governed by the rate of production, the inherent variability and
durability of the rock type being extracted and the potential for poor quality materials to be quarried. The
quarrying and production operations must be carefully managed to prevent contamination of the fines
fraction with non-durable material, i.e. highly weathered rock and overburden material.
Source rock testing has been found to be particularly important for those rock types which have the potential
to degrade rapidly after crushing and during the service life of the pavement. Crushed rock produced from
some basic igneous rocks types (e.g. basalt), has been found to be susceptible to rapid in-service
degradation if the source rock is significantly altered or weathered. However, not all basalts are easily
degraded or variable, and this can usually be confirmed via a test results history of satisfactory product
performance.
4.2 Sampling
Source rock sampling is carried out according to AS 1141.3.2 Sampling – Rock Spalls, Boulders and Drill
Core (see Figure 4.1). When sampling rock spalls from the quarry it is important to select materials which will
be used in the crushed product. Where sampling of the source rock is the preferred or specified method of
assessment, it is common to sample (and keep separate), the different material types which occur within the
source. These materials can then be tested separately and durability classifications derived for each.
Reference samples of each material type tested can then be prepared and used in product assessment.

Figure 4.1: Sampling rock spalls
Where crushed rock blends are proposed, with materials derived from sources which have different
properties, sampling and testing should be undertaken on the separate source rock components as well as
the blend to confirm that the blend has appropriate durability.
4.3 Testing
The aim of source rock testing is to characterise the rock types present within a quarry source. For hard rock
quarries, where the product is to be crushed, source rock testing is carried out on uncontaminated and
representative spall samples which are selected from the stockpile of shot rock on the basis of colour, grain
size, texture and grade of weathering or alteration. The test samples are prepared by crushing the spalls in
the laboratory. Durability assessment based upon the testing of rock spalls is only as accurate and
representative as the selection of spalls sampled, hence the use of the results of this testing does not
guarantee that a product of similar durability will be supplied, and regular checking of the product against
reference samples should be carried out.
While source rock testing is important and provides valuable information on the source geology and
mineralogy, product testing is equally as important as it allows classification of likely quarry product durability
in a given service environment. Both source rock and product testing are required, and good specification
should direct the material supplier through what is required without unnecessary duplication of testing.
Where rock types display gradational changes in components that have characteristics that might influence
the durability test values, then it is important to ensure the samples are representative of component
variation. Sampling of spalls direct from the face rather than the stockpile of shot rock could be required. This
may be particularly critical in sampling for a petrographic assessment, to ensure that any variation in
mineralogical composition is identified.
Properties which are commonly assessed by testing are rock strength (hardness or resistance to abrasion)
and durability.
Source rock tests may include those listed in Table 4.1. Given that these tests are optional, different
agencies can make a selection from those available such that the tests appropriately reflect the quality of
local materials for a works specification.

Table 4.1: Australian and New Zealand Standards source rock test methods
Standard Description
AS 1141 Method for Sampling and Testing Aggregates
1141.22 Wet/dry strength variation
1141.23 Los Angeles value
1141.24 Aggregate soundness – evaluation by exposure to sodium sulfate solution
1141.25.1 Degradation factor – source rock
1141.26 Secondary minerals content in basic igneous rocks
1141.27 Resistance to wear by attrition
141.28 Ball mill value
1141.29 Accelerated soundness index by Reflux
1141.36 Sulfur in metallurgical slag, crushed rock or other pavement material
1141.37 Iron unsoundness
AS 1289 Methods of Testing Soils for Engineering Purposes
1289.4.2.1 Soil chemical tests – determination of the sulfate content of a soil and the sulfate content of the
ground water (normal method)
AS 2758 Aggregates and rock for Engineering Purposes
2758.1 Concrete aggregates
2758.2 Aggregates for sprayed bituminous surfacing
2758.5 Asphalt aggregates
NZS 4402 Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes
4402.4.1.3 New Zealand Vibrating Hammer Compaction Test at Optimum Water Content
NZS 4407 Methods of sampling and testing road aggregates
4407.3.9 The Cleanness Value of Coarse Aggregate
4407.3.10 The Crushing Resistance of Coarse Aggregate Under a Specified Load
4407.3.11 Weathering Quality Index of Coarse Aggregate
4407.3.15 The California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
A works specification should specify all the tests appropriate for the source rock and/or samples submitted
during the tender process. The full range of tests may not necessarily be applied to control acceptance of the
product during the performance of a contract.

References
Australasian Slag Association, 2002, A Guide to the Use of Iron and Steel Slag in Roads, Wollongong, NSW.
Minty, EJ 1960, The physical properties of aggregates used for roadworks in New South Wales in relation to
their petrological characteristic’, thesis submitted to the University of New South Wales for the award of
the degree of Master of Science in the School of Mining Engineering and Applied Geology.
Nyoeger, E 1964, Petrological investigation into the secondary minerals of an older basalt flow north of
Melbourne. Proceedings of the 2nd Australian Road Research Board Conference, 1964, Melbourne, vol.
2, part 2, Australian Road Research Board, Vermont South, Vic., pp.997-1007.
Scott, LE 1955, Secondary minerals in rock as a cause of pavement and base failure. Highway Research
Board proceedings, vol. 34, Highway Research Board, Washington DC, pp.412-417.
SHAYAN, A., DIGGINS, R.G., IVANUSEC, I., and WESTGATE, P.L.,1988. Accelerated testing of some
Australian and overseas aggregate for alkali aggregate reactivity. Cement and Concrete Research,
Vol. 18, No. 6, 843-851.
SHAYAN, A. ,2001. Validity of accelerated mortar bar tests methods for slowly reactive aggregates-
Comparison of test results with field evidence. Concrete in Australia, vol. 27 No. 2, pp 24-26.
Weinert, HH 1960, Determination of the soundness of weathered basic ingenuous rock (dolerites) in road
formations, report RS/6/60, National Institute of Road Research, Pretoria, South Africa.
Australian Standards
AS 1726-1993, Geotechnical Investigations.
AS 2758-1996, Aggregates and rock for engineering purposes.
AS1141.3.2 – 1999, Sampling – Rock Spalls, Boulders and Drill Core.
New Zealand Standards

NZS 4402 - Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes
NZS 4407 - Methods of Sampling and Testing Road Aggregates

Classification and Description of Source

Rocks
The system adopted here is that contained in AS 1726 – Geotechnical Site Investigation.
Composition of Rock Material
The following main features of composition should be mentioned:
Rock Type
An aid to the identification of rock for engineering purposes is given in Tables A1 and A2. The Tables follow
general geological practice but are intended as a guide only. Geological training is required for the
satisfactory identification of rocks. Engineering properties cannot be inferred from rock names in the table.
The Tables do not deal with pedocretes which require a special classification.
Grain Size
A descriptive classification scheme is built into Table A1 and Table A2. Grain size refers to the average
dimension of the mineral or rock fragments comprising the rock. It is usually sufficient to estimate the size by
eye, which may be aided by a hand lens in the assessment of fine-grained or amorphous rocks. The limit of
unaided vision is approximately 0.06 mm.
Texture and Fabric
The texture of a rock refers to individual grains. Terms frequently used include: porphyritic, crystalline,
cryptocrystalline, granular, amorphous and glassy. The arrangement of grains, referred to as the rock fabric,
may show a preferred orientation.
Colour
The colour of a rock should be described in the 'moist' condition using simple terms such as: black, white,
grey, red, brown, orange, yellow, green or blue. These may be modified as necessary by 'pale', 'dark', or
'mottled'. Borderline colours may be described as a combination of these colours (e.g. 'red-brown', not,
reddish-brown').

Table A1: An aid to identification of rocks for engineering purposes - sedimentary rocks
(AS 1726 Geotechnical Site Investigation)

Table A2: An aid to the identification of rocks for engineering purposes – metamorphic and igneous rocks
(AS 1726 Geotechnical Site Investigation)
NOTES to Table A1 and Table A2:

1 Principal rock types (generally common) are shown in bold type in capitals, e.g. GRANITE. Less common rock types
are shown in medium type, e.g. Greywacke.
2 Granular rocks may be distinguished from crystalline rocks by scratching with a knife which should remove whole
grains from cement matrix in the granular rocks. The separate grains may also sometimes be distinguished using a hand
lens. Siliceous rocks are generally harder and more resistant to scratching than calcareous rocks.
3 In the Table the boundaries of the heavy lined box describe the conditions to which the rock name applies.

AGPT04J-08 Guide To Pavement Technology Part 4J Aggregate and Source Rock

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Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4J:

Aggregate and Source Rock

2. Classification and Description of Source Rocks ................................................................................ 4

3. Properties Requiring Specification ...................................................................................................... 9

4. Quality Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 20

Appendix A Classification and Description of Source Rocks ................................................................. 24

Austroads 2008 | page i

Austroads 2008 | page ii

Austroads 2008 | page 1

• Part 4 Pavement Materials

Further details on all available Austroads documents can be found at www.austroads.com.au.

1.2.1 Improved Understanding of Durability

Austroads 2008 | page 2

1.2.2 Increased Heavy Vehicle Loadings

1.2.3 Improved Quarry Plant

1.2.4 Uniformity of Practice in Specification

Austroads 2008 | page 3

2. Classification and Description of Source Rocks

Austroads 2008 | page 4

2.2 Igneous Rocks

Austroads 2008 | page 5

Table 2.1: Classification of igneous rocks by composition

Property Acidic Intermediate Basic

2.3 Sedimentary Rocks

Austroads 2008 | page 6

2.4 Metamorphic Rocks

Some commonly used metamorphic terms include:

2.5 Natural Sands and Gravels

Austroads 2008 | page 7

2.6 Blast Furnace Slag

Austroads 2008 | page 8

3. Properties Requiring Specification

3.2 Rock Distress Mechanisms

In service, rock particles commonly change by the following mechanisms:

Austroads 2008 | page 9

Austroads 2008 | page 10

Table 3.1: Durability characteristics of crushed aggregates

3.4 Developments in Durability Assessment

Austroads 2008 | page 11

3.5 Types and Descriptions of Durability Tests

3.5.1 Wet/dry Strength Variation

Austroads 2008 | page 12

3.5.2 Los Angeles Value

Figure 3.1: Los Angeles value test equipment

3.5.3 Sulphate Soundness Loss

Austroads 2008 | page 13

3.5.4 Degradation Factor

Figure 3.2: Degradation factor test equipment

3.5.5 Accelerated Soundness Index

Austroads 2008 | page 14

3.5.6 Secondary Mineral Content

Figure 3.3: Petrological microscope and mineral point counter

3.5.7 Unsound Stone Content

Austroads 2008 | page 15

Figure 3.4: Assessment of unsound stone content using reference samples

3.5.8 Alkali Reactivity

Austroads 2008 | page 16

3.5.9 Weathering Quality Index for Course Aggregate

3.6 Approaches to Durability Control

Austroads 2008 | page 17

3.7 Specification of Durability

Specifications take two broad approaches to the control of durability:

3.7.1 Uniform Sources