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8.0 Wall and Partitions

Cavity walls consist of two masonry wall ‘leaf’ separated by a hollow space (cavity). The leaf is commonly
masonry such as brick or concrete block. Masonry is an absorbent material, and therefore will slowly draw
rainwater or even humidity into the wall. The cavity serves as a way to drain this water back out through
weep holes at the base of the wall system or above windows.

The masonry of a cavity wall can be brickwork, block work or similar. Different masonry materials can be
used on either side of the cavity. The cavity is initially empty but can be filled with insulation by various
methods. Cavity walls are more time consuming –and therefore slightly more expensive– to build than walls
with the two skins bonded together, but they provided better sound and heat insulation and most
importantly resistance to rain penetration.

The main purpose of this wall is to prevent the penetration of the moisture to the internal surface and
thereby possibly protect the internal (main/load-bearing) wall from weathering affects and to improve the
insulation values.

Cavity wall insulation is used to reduce heat loss through a cavity wall by filling the air space with a porous
material. This immobilizes the air within the cavity (air is still the actual insulator), preventing convection,
and can substantially reduce space heating costs.

During construction of new buildings, cavities are often filled with glass fiber wool or rock wool panels
placed between the two leaves (sides) of the wall, but many other building insulation materials offer various
advantages and many others are also widely used. For existing buildings that were not built with insulated
cavities, a fibrous material such as cellulose insulation or glass wool is blown into the cavity through
suitably drilled holes until it fills the entire wall space. Foam can also be used for this purpose.

Construction of Cavity Wall (Building Regulation Requirements)

Cavity walls do not require special masonry units. The outer part of the cavity wall is usually brick masonry.
The inner wall may also be of brickwork, but it is often constructed of structural clay tile, concrete blocks, or
plain or reinforced concrete. Bonds for cavity wall should be stretcher bond for ½ bricks leaves and any
ordinary bond such as English bond or Flemish bond for leaves for which 1 brick or more in thickness.

Materials: as per specification and requirement of crushing/density etc.

Constructional:
Bricks/blocks to comply with requirements are properly
bonded and solidly set in mortar. The leaves must be tied
with approved ties (BS 1243:1964) and at approved spacing
The cavity should be >50mm and <75mm in the width at
any level

a) Foundation:

When a cavity wall is constructed on a foundation wall it is

essential that a properly-designed gutter be installed between
the foundation and the wall. The metal flashing which forms the
gutter is placed beneath the outer part of the wall, and is shaped

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so that it turns up behind the outer wall and is carried into a mortar
joint of the inner wall. The gutter collects water that moves down the
cavity and must be drained.
For this purpose mortar may be omitted from the vertical joints of
the bottom course of bricks in the outside wall; usually every third
joint along the course is left open.
The cavity wall below DPC or GL is usually filled with a weak mix of
concrete thus creating a solid wall. This practice is more often
followed to overcome the pressure of soil on two sides, which create
a tendency for the wall to move closer towards each other (in case of
a cavity presence in between). To achieve additional strength a 1 ½ B
wall can be used, with a cavity above.
Separate DPC is laid for the two wall leaves. Cavity to be carried
150mm below DPC to prevent passage of moisture. At opening jambs
vertical DPC treatment is advisable, unless other suitable measures
are taken.

b) Wall Ties

During construction of a cavity wall the inner and outer parts are anchored by metal ties laid in the
horizontal mortar joints. They are arranged in a definite pattern. Although, the cavity is not bridged in any
way, non corrosive building metal ties are used to connect the two skins of walls. As there is no definite
bonding into wall thickness the height of the wall is restricted, building metal ties embedded in the
horizontal mortar joints of each wall skin provides the required vertical stability. With the wall ties, the
cavity wall is nearly as stable as a solid wall of the same thickness as the two skins.
Function of ties is to anchor the two parts of the cavity wall together so that adequate strength may be
obtained. The tie must be strong in itself, and enough of it must be embedded in mortar to provide
adequate anchorage. It should be at least 3/16 inch in diameter and should be bent at both ends to form 2-
inch legs. In addition, it must be corrosion-resistant so that it is not destroyed by rusting in service; for this
reason the use of non-ferrous ties is desirable.

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c) Openings

At opening jambs vertical DPC treatment is advisable, unless other suitable measures are taken.

d) Eves or Parapet

The cavities usually starts at the about 150mm below the DPC level and end up at the eaves level in case of
sloping roofs or under copings on case of parapet walls.

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e) Ventilation of Cavity

For the proper air circulation and the escape route of the
water from the cavity ventilation is provided above the DPC
level. Air bricks are provided for this purpose.

The key advantages or positive aspect (pros) of cavity wall construction are:

• Restriction of moisture passing through the wall. The wall works on the principle that water can
pass through the porous outer leaf, but then collects on the inside of the outer leaf and runs down
to ‘weep holes’, either at ground level or above windows, where it can escape.
 Better thermal insulation. Both the air gap and the use of thermally-efficient inner leaf concrete
blocks increase the thermal insulation of the wall, leading to reduced heat loss.
 No need of external rendering
 A normal 225mm cavity wall has a higher sound insulation value than a standard one brick thick
wall.
 Enables use of cheaper and alternative materials for inner wall construction
 Cheaper and economical solution for insulation
 There is possibility of reduction in the amount of masonry used in construction

The key dis-advantages or negative aspect (cons) of cavity wall construction are:

• Corrosion of the wall ties. Steel will corrode if not properly protected. Wall ties were usually
protected with a coat of bituminous paint. Also ties were covered with a coating of zinc
(‘galvanized’) which gave them better protection.
• Dampness caused by careless building practice. Wall ties have little tabs of metal (‘drips’) in the
middle to enable any water which passes into the cavity to fall off them. If, due to poor building
practice, mortar is allowed to collect on the tie when the wall is built, this will let water pass along
the tie into the inner leaf, causing damp patches to appear on the inside of the wall.
 Requires a high standard of design and workmanship and good supervision during construction
 Need to include vertical DPC to all openings
 Slightly expensive in cost than standard one brick thick wall.

Causes of Deterioration of cavity wall

The main cause of deterioration of cavity walls is wall tie corrosion. If inadequately protected, the steel ties
will rust due to the presence of air and water in the cavity. The constituents of mortar droppings can
accelerate this process. When steel corrodes it will expand up to ten times the thickness of the parent
metal. The ends of the wall ties embedded in the outer leaf will lift the bricks above, causing a horizontal
crack to appear in the mortar joint.

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Curtain Wall

Introduction

A curtain wall system is a lightweight exterior cladding which is hung on the building structure, usually from
floor to floor. In other words, curtain wall is a term used to describe a building façade which does not carry
any dead load from the building other than its own dead load. These loads are transferred to the main
building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain wall is designed to
resist air and water infiltration, wind forces acting on the building, seismic forces, and its own dead load
forces.

Curtain walls are typically designed with extruded aluminum members, although the first curtain walls were
made of steel. The aluminum frame is typically infilled with glass, which
provides an architecturally pleasing building, as well as benefits such as
daylighting and environmental control. Other common infill include:
stone veneer, metal panels, louvers, and operable windows or vents.

They are a form of external lightweight cladding attached to a frame

structure forming a complete envelope around the structural frame.
Curtain walls are designed to span multiple floors, and take into
consideration design requirements such as: thermal expansion and
contraction; building sway and movement; water diversion; and thermal
efficiency for cost-effective heating, cooling, and lighting in the building.

The basic concept of most curtain walls is a series of vertical mullions

spanning from floor to floor interconnected by horizontal transoms
forming openings into which can be fixed panels of glass or in-fill panels
of opaque materials. Most curtain walls are constructed by using a patent
or proprietary systems produced by metal window manufacturers.

Curtain Wall Terminology

The basic structure of a curtain wall is actually quite simple. One or more grid structures are nested
together to form a complex design. Each grid can be horizontal or vertical, spaced evenly or repetitively,
and might have other grids nested within it.

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Grid:
Grid is a collection of one or more cells defined by a division. A grid references a division to determine its
orientation and spacing. A division is not a grid, but rather the rules used to create one. Each grid is a
distinct item, but the same division can be referenced by several grids.

Division:
Division defines the spacing of each grid of the curtain wall. A division establishes the number of cells in a
single direction (Horizontal or Vertical).

Cell:
The space formed by the division of a grid. This space can be filled with the contents of an infill or another
Nested Grid.

Frame:
The outermost edge of a grid on all sides is termed as frame. Each Frame component is defined by its width
and depth and can also optionally use a custom profile shape.

Mullion:
Mullion is the edge between each cell. Each Mullion component is defined by its width and depth.

Infill:
Infill can be comprised of solid material or it can reference one of several object style types (such as
another curtain wall or a door or window).

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The primary objectives of curtain walling systems are:

• Provide an enclosure to the structure for necessary protection against weathering/privacy

• Make use of dry construction methods
• Impose on to the structural framework, minimum load in the form of claddings
• Exploit an architectural feature.

The requirements of curtain walling systems are:

a) Resistance to elements
• Impervious joints (allow local thermal movement)
• Mastics, sealants, gaskets, synthetic rubber or PVC used

b) Assist in maintaining designed internal temperatures(glazed area increases solar radiation within
rooms)
• deep recessed windows, with external vertical fins/louvers
• internal HVAC
• reflective glass

c) Adequate strength (stiffness/anchorage) depends on:

• Height of building
• Degree of exposure
• Location of building

d) Provide required degree of resistance; to weather

e) Easy to assemble/fix; prefabricated panels

f) Sound insulation; reduction achieved by

• reducing glass area
• using sealed windows or thicker glass
• double glazing (150-200mm gap)

a) Provide for thermal/structural movement; use of slotted bolts, mastic/bitumen

In-fill panels

Infill refers to the large panels that are inserted into the curtain wall between mullions. Infills are typically
glass but may be made up of nearly any exterior building element. The panels used to form opaque areas in
a curtain walling system should have the following properties, viz.:

• Lightweight
• Rigid
• Impermeable
• Suitable fire resistance
• Suitable resistance to heat transfer
• Good durability requiring little or no maintenance

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Various materials used are:

Metal

Vitreous enameled steel/aluminum sheets

Thin coating of glass is fused on metal surface at 600-800oC: results in very hard, impervious, acid and
corrosion resistant panel to withstand severe abrasion, finish to be non crazing/cracking and attractive with
the strength of the metal base. It has a “U” value of 1.14 W/m2oC.

Concrete

Preferably cladding of framed structures of dense, light and small panels in vertical or horizontal patterns or
any other suitable shapes. The panel can be made composition with a stone fascia to improve the
appearance feature. The concrete backing gives the strength and the stone the natural elegance.

Plastics (GRP) glass reinforced plastics

Very popular because it has the qualities that are required for such materials. They are most importantly
cheap and easily available, and molded to any shape or design requirement.

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Partition Wall

Introduction:

Internal walls or partitions provide a physical separation within a building-isolating certain

activities providing privacy and security. They must be robust enough to take various fixings for
furniture and equipment, and be sufficiently durable to withstand the wear and tear associated
with the activities of the building in which they are located. They must also be designed cohesively
with the rest of the building in terms of textural appearance, etc. Partitions or "party walls" may
be required to provide fire resistance, thermal insulation, sound control etc. They may take many
forms such as load bearing-required to carry part of the floor and roof loads of the building-built in
situ, or a simple prefabricated office partition simply providing a psychological divide between
spaces. Load bearing internal walls will assist in distributing the combined loads (dead, live and
wind) of the building down to the foundation system then to the supporting soil.

Load bearing partitions are frequently used in small scale domestic buildings and are commonly
built of brick or block work in a similar fashion to external walls. At most they are required to
support only domestic loads from floors or roofs. Therefore, a single 102.5mm thick brick (half
brick) or 75-100mm thick block is generally adequate. On the ground floors, the partitions rest
either on concrete floor or on the beam spanning between the main walls. In multi-storeyed
building, it is placed just paralleled above the beam so that its weight is transferred by beam to
column and column to foundation. In total self weight of partitions may considerably affect the
total load carried on the frame-work and on the foundations.

The lighter the partitions, the lighter and smaller will become the structural elements, and as a
whole building become economical. The thickness of partition will affect the amount of useable
floor space available in the building.

The partition wall should fulfill the following requirements:

• Should be strong enough to carry its own load.

• Should be strong enough to resist impact to which the occupation of building is likely to
subject them.
• Should have the capacity to support suitable decorative surface.
• Should be stable and strong enough to support some wall fixtures, wash basins, etc
• Should be light and thin as much as possible
• Should be act as a barrier when it divides two rooms.
• Should be fire resistant.

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Advantages

• The open space or hall can be divided into number of rooms

• More useable space can be obtained, as much thinner partitions can be used
• By isolating different rooms, privacy and security can be obtained to some extend
• They are better sound insulation
• Some partitions may be fire resistant
• They can be constructed as per the design and necessity in any position
• They can even be replaced and fitted as per the requirement
• These are economical
• They provide better interior space (aesthetically)
• These provide various materials according to the requirement for its construction
• The maintenance cost is very low

Types

Partition walls can be of different types according to the materials used, construction and
requirements.

a) Low cost partitions

- Brick Partitions
- Asbestos Sheet or G.I Sheet Partition

b) Concrete Partitions

c) Light weight partitions

- Clay block partition
- Wood wool slab partition
- Plaster slab partition
- Timber partition

d) Steel – Metal lath partition

e) Glass partition / window wall

a) Low cost partitions

The name itself clarifies as cheap materials are used for partitions. They can be of bricks or of G.I
Sheets.

- Brick Partitions

Brick partitions are quite common since they are the cheapest one. They are of three types:

Plain brick partition

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Reinforced brick partition

Brick nogging partitions

Plain brick partition

Usually constructed of half brick wall. The bricks are laid as

stretchers, in cement mortar Plaster on both sides is
considerably strong and fire resistant Plain brick partition.

Reinforced brick partition

Meshed
Stronger than ordinary brick partition Used when reinforcement
better longitudinal bond is required and when the
partition wall has to carry other super imposed loads
Thickness of wall is kept to ½ brick wall (10 cm)
The reinforcement consists of steel meshed strips,
called Exmet, made from thin rolled steel plates which
are cut and spread by a machine.
Such a strip is called expanded metal and provided at
every third course.
Another form of reinforcement can also be used which
is known as Bricktor, made up of number of straight
tension wires.

Brick nogging partitions

Consists of brick work (½ brick thickness), built up within the frame work of wooden members
The frame work consists of sill, head, vertical
members called studs and horizontal member
called nogging.
Studs are placed at 4 to 6 times the brick length
and nogging are housed into the studs at vertical
interval of 60 to 90 cm.
This frame work provides stability to the partition
against lateral loads and vibrations caused due to
the adjoining door.
The bricks are usually laid flat or they may be laid
on edges. Mixture of 1:3 cement mortar is used.
The brick work is plastered on both sides. The
surface of timber frame work coming into contact
with the brick work is coated with coal tar.

Brick nogging partition

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Asbestos Sheet or G.I Sheet Partition

Asbestos or G.I sheets can be fixed to suitable frame of wood, to act

as partition wall. The sheets can be fixed either to one side of the
frame, or to both sides. These are economical, light weight and fairly
strong. A better form is made from patented slabs of asbestos for e.g.
two plain sheets (10mm) are attached to an inner corrugated sheet
(5mm). These sheets are joined by cement mortar. Such partitions are
more fire resistant, and provide insulation against heat and sound.
Galvanized corrugated.
Sheets can also be used in place of asbestos corrugated sheets. Asbestos cement slab

b) Concrete Partitions

Consists of concrete slabs, plain or reinforced, supported laterally between vertical members.
These slab may be either pre-cast or cast-in-situ
Cast-in-situ concrete partitions are usually 80 – 100 mm thick, cast monolithically with the
intermediate columns. These partitions are rigid and stable along the vertical and horizontal
directions. However these partitions require costlier framework.
Pre-cast concrete slabs are commonly used for partitions. These slabs may be quite thin than cast-
in-situ, 25 mm to 40 mm and are secured to pre-cast posts. Concrete mix usually adopted is 1:2:4.
The joints are filled with cement mortar.
Another form of concrete partition is made from pre-cast T – shaped or L – shaped units. A light
weight, hollow partition is obtained, without any necessity of vertical post. 1:3 ratio of cement
mortar is used for jointing.

Cast in situ concrete partition

Plan of alternate courses

Elevation
Precast concrete units
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c) Light weight partitions

Lightweight partitions can achieve high levels of sound insulation when the correct balance of
plasterboard, frame and mineral wool insulation are selected. They allow for fast subdivision of a
basic building envelope to form the rooms of a building and can provide the required
performance. Often, this is achieved by simply increasing the mass by adding extra layers of
plasterboard.

Clay block partitions

Prepared from clay or terra-cotta, they may be either solid or hollow

For light partitions, hollow clay blocks are commonly used. These
blocks are usually 30cm long, 20cm high and 5 to 15 cm wide.
Blocks are provided with grooves on top, bottom and sides, which
provide rigid joints and serves key to plaster. The blocks are laid in
cement mortar and are good insulation for heat and sound with fire
resistant properties.
Hollow Clay Block

Wood wool slab partition

- Consists of long, tangled, wood fibres, uncompacted, coated and bound together with
cement or plaster.
- The rough open surface provides an excellent key for plaster
- Have sufficient heat and sound insulating properties
- The unit weight of such slabs is only 480 kg/m², thus such partitions are extremely light
weight
- Slabs can be sawn and nailed
- Wood wool slabs have large movement due to changes in moisture content, thus
movement must be properly restrained
- Care must be taken at the heads of openings to preserve a crack free plaster finish

Plaster slab partitions

- Plaster slabs or plaster boards are made from burnt gypsum or plaster of paris, mixed with
sawdust or other fibrous material to reduce its weight
- Such slabs are light weight and have insulating properties against heat and sound
- Are cast in moulds, of size 100 to 200cm long, 30cm high and 50 to 100 mm thick, hollow
slabs of greater thickness can also cast
- The surfaces may be smooth or rough, rough surfaces serves as key for plaster while
smooth surfaces are not plastered

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Timber partition

- These are light weight but are costlier

- Consists of wooden frame work, properly supported on floor and fixed to the side walls
- The frame work is made up of horizontal and vertical members, can either be plastered or
covered with boarding from both sides
- It is likely to decay or eaten by termites
- It is not fire resistant
- Its use is reducing day by day
- Two types of wooden partitions may be used

Common or stud partition

Trussed or braced partitions

Common or stud partition

- Consists of a frame work of vertical

members called studs and horizontal
members called noggings
- Noggings impart rigidity to studs
- Studs are 10cm x 5cm in section and are
spaced at 30 to 45 cm apart
- Nogging pieces are cut tightly and fixed
between the stud and nailed
- A stud of short length, such as the one
provided on an opening, is called
puncheon
- The upper and lower horizontal members
of the frame are known as head and sill
respectively
- The head and sill are 10 cm x 75 mm in section

Trussed or braced partitions

- Such partitions are provided where there is no

means of supporting the partition except at
their ends
- The frame work is similar to stud partition,
but inclined members called braces, and steel
straps and bolts are additionally used
- For more rigidity and strength, an additional
horizontal member known as inter-tie is
provided between head and sill
- Such partitions even carry floor load, in
addition to its own weight

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d) Steel – Metal lath partition

- It is constructed by placing 2 cm or 2.5 cm channels vertically called studs and fixing metal
lath to it on one side
- Plaster is then applied to both sides
- The channels are spaced 15 to 30 cm apart
- Metal lath is tied to channels by galvanized iron wire
- The channels are fixed to the floor and roof by driving holes
- Thickness of such partitions may vary from 5 and 7.5 cm
- If hollow partition is required, metal lath is fixed to the channels on both sides and then
plastering them
- For thicker hollow walls, built up channels, consisting of channels braced by flat strips are
used
- These are thin, strong, durable and considerably fire resistant

Solid Wall Hollow Wall

Metal Lath Braced channel studs

Metal Lath Partition

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e) Glass partition / window wall

Glass partition wall are constructed using either glass sheets or hollow blocks.

Glass sheet partition

- In this type of construction, a wooden framework is used in which glass sheets are fixed
- Wooden framework consists of a number of horizontal and vertical posts, suitably spaced,
to divide the entire area into number of panels
- The glass sheets are placed in position in the panels either by using timber beadings or by
putty which is made of linseed oil and whiting chalk
- Such partitions are light weight, vermin-proof, sound proof and damp proof
- Ordinary glass is quite weak and requires frequent replacement. Therefore, strong varieties
of glass, such as wired glass, bullet proof glass and three ply glass are also available

Plan

Elevation

Hollow block partition

- Hollow glass blocks are translucent units of glass, which are

light in weight, available in different sizes and shapes and
thickness
- Usually square ( 14 x 14 cm² or 19 x 19 cm²), with a normal Hollow glass block
thickness of 10cm
- The jointing edges are painted internally and sanded externally to form a key for mortar
- The front and back faces may either be plain or decorative, sometimes fluted
- The glass blocks are usually laid in cement-lime mortar (1:1:4), using fine sand

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- All joints should be filled properly and carefully

- For blocks upto 15 cm in height, expanded metal strips reinforcement is placed in every
third and fourth course
- If the height of the block is more than 25 cm, the reinforcement is placed in every course
- Provision for expansion should be suitably made along the jambs and head of each panel

Glass block walls

- Another type of glass blocks are in the form of

glass bricks with joggles and end grooves
- Loads other than self weight of the wall should
not be transmitted to it
- Foam glass can be used in wall for insulating and
sound proof for conditional buildings
- Foam glass can easily be cut and worked with
common masonry tools
- The pieces are joined together with hot asphalt
or asphaltic cements and can be plastered with a
suitable medium
- Pre-fabricated construction can also be done
with foam glass

Advantages

o Provides sufficient light/ ventilation and vision to outward

o Provide sound insulation
o They are fire resistant
o Only required amount of light can be admitted to inward direction
o Increase the internal appearance
o They are light weight
o They are even termite proof and damp proof

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