Energies 16 01199 v2

energies
Article
The Photometric Test Distance in Luminance Measurement of
Light-Emitting Diodes in Road Lighting
Dariusz Czyżewski
Lighting Technology Division, Electrical Power Engineering Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Warsaw University of Technology, Koszykowa 75, 00-661 Warszawa, Poland; dariusz.czyzewski@pw.edu.pl
Abstract: Over the last few years, light-emitting diodes have completely dominated the lighting
field. In road lighting, high-power LEDs have replaced traditional light sources. That is why various
technical aspects of LEDs have been researched extensively worldwide. However, little research
has been conducted in the area of luminance measurement. This paper reviews the methods for
measuring the luminance of high-power LEDs. Particular attention is paid to the influence of the
measurement distance on the measurement results. Next, the results of the tests using a modern image
luminance measuring device (ILMD) for luminance measurements are presented. It is concluded
that it is necessary to redefine the photometric test distance. The conducted research demonstrates
that an incorrectly selected test distance can lead to the huge errors of several hundred per cent
or more. In addition, the possible impact of the incorrect measurements on the design of road
lighting installations is presented. It is shown that a road lighting installation can use over 300%
more electrical energy compared to the installation based on the correct luminance measurements
of single LEDs. In the final stage of the research, the definition of the photometric test distance for
LED measurements using ILMD is proposed. The results of the research can also be useful for the
luminance measurements of other types of LEDs.
Keywords: LED; lighting technology; light-emitting diodes; road lighting; luminance; luminance
distribution; photometric test distance
Citation: Czyżewski, D. The

1. Introduction
Photometric Test Distance in
Luminance Measurement of Light-emitting diodes are among the most popular light sources. LEDs have practically
Light-Emitting Diodes in Road replaced traditional light sources on the market because of their advantages, such as high
Lighting. Energies 2023, 16, 1199. luminous efficacy [1–3], long operating time [4,5], a small size [6], insensitivity to shock,
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031199 high luminance [7–10], resistance to low temperatures [11] and easy control [12–15]. So, in
interior lighting, LEDs have replaced fluorescent lamps [16] and in road lighting, they have
Academic Editor: Jingjing Dong
replaced high-pressure sodium lamps [17,18]. In illumination, LEDs have replaced metal
Received: 7 December 2022 halide lamps [19,20], and in the automotive industry, LEDs have replaced incandescent
Revised: 28 December 2022 lamps [21,22], and there are many more such examples.
Accepted: 18 January 2023 In addition to the advantages, their other features seem to be important. These features
Published: 21 January 2023 are relatively low luminous flux from a single light-emitting diode [23,24], high luminance
(although this is not only an advantage), sensitivity to high-temperature operation [25],
and the low power factor of the power supply circuits [26].
That is why many researchers and engineers conduct numerous tests on LEDs, lumi-
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
naires with LEDs and lighting installations using LED luminaires.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
Researchers most often focus on investigating the effect of power supply on photomet-
distributed under the terms and
ric and colorimetric parameters, the correct and objective determination of the colour of
conditions of the Creative Commons
LED light [27–30]. They also analyse the reduction in a discomfort glare by LEDs [31–35],
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the temperature distributions [36–38], the system power supply [39,40] and many other as-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ pects. Unfortunately, very few publications are devoted to luminance measurements. There
4.0/). are some articles dealing with the topic of determining luminance distribution in interior
Energies 2023, 16, 1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031199 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 1199 2 of 20
lighting [41–43]. Such studies make it possible to identify the occurrence of a discomfort
glare [44]. In other papers, the researchers focus on assessing luminance distribution in
outdoor lighting [45]. Thanks to this kind of measurement, the luminance of light sources
and luminaires as well as the background luminance can be determined [46]. A too-high
luminance of light sources can create visual discomfort and annoyance for users. Hence,
tests of this type can help to identify the occurrence of a discomfort glare. Other tests of
this kind make it possible to determine luminance distribution on the road and assess
compliance with the standard requirements [47,48]. Including the mesopic vision in the
luminance measurements is another interesting aspect of the tests. It is important to note
that the mesopic vision appears in road lighting considerations [49,50].
Another topic discussed in the literature is the specific spectral distribution of light-
emitting diodes which frequently entails exposing humans to blue light hazards [51–53],
which affects melatonin suppression [54–56] and circadian rhythms [57–60].
However, very few papers focus on luminance distributions on the surface of light
sources and luminaires [61–65], and yet, in the case of light sources, luminance measure-
ments make it possible to determine the luminance distribution on the light-emitting
surface. These are the basic tests necessary to design luminaires correctly. In addition, it is
important to determine the luminance of the luminaire and its luminance distribution in the
surroundings [7,9,66,67]. Performing luminance measurements correctly is a difficult and
complex task. On the one hand, this is due to the need to use expensive and complicated
measuring equipment. On the other hand, it requires the professional knowledge of how
to perform such measurements correctly.
It is important to emphasize that the focus of this paper is the measurement of the
luminance distribution on the surface of high-power LEDs used in road lighting luminaires,
taking into account different methods of luminance measurement. Regardless of the
chosen measurement method, the selection of the correct measurement distance will be
an important aspect of measurement accuracy. The determination of the photometric
test distance of high-power LED sources in measurements using the image luminance
measuring device (ILMD) [68] will be a key point which, unfortunately, has been neglected
in the other research conducted so far. The research presented in this article will be used to
attempt to define the concept of the photometric test distance in LED measurements using
ILMD. In this paper, a manufacturer-calibrated luminance meter was used. The meter
had calibration factors set for each lens and the indicated measurement distances. These
distances were used in the presented measurements. The ILMD used was verified during
other studies [64]. These studies demonstrated the validity of the luminance distributions
obtained and were used to create luminance models of the light sources. Therefore, the
determination of additional sources of measurement error (e.g., image distortion in the
meter lenses, effects of high luminances on neighbouring pixels of the matrix, etc.) was
not considered.
The luminance of a light-emitting diode in a given direction can be determined indi-
rectly or directly. Therefore, depending on the method of measurement and the type of the
measuring equipment used, three basic measurement methods can be distinguished:
• The indirect method for measuring luminance;
• The direct method for measuring luminance using a spot luminance meter;
• The direct method for luminance measurements using the ILMD (image luminance
measuring device).
The indirect luminance measurement method uses the definition of luminance. This
method determines the average luminance of a luminous surface in a given direction
Lav (C,γ). During the measurement, a radiation detector is placed at a distance r longer
than the photometric test distance for determining luminance) from the luminous surface.
Then, by reading the current in the detector circuit, the illuminance E at the detector can be
determined. Knowing the distance from the light source, the luminous intensity in a given
direction can be determined. Then, by calculating the imaginary surface area S (the area
seen from a given direction (C, γ)) of the light source, the average luminance of the LED in
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21
be determined. Knowing the distance from the light source, the luminous intensity in a
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 3 of 20
given direction can be determined. Then, by calculating the imaginary surface area S (the
area seen from a given direction (C, γ)) of the light source, the average luminance of the
LED in a given direction can be determined according to relation (1) and Figure 1. The
a givenon
drawing direction
the left can
showsbe determined
the table whereaccording
the DCtopower
relation (1) and
supply andFigure 1. The
meters drawing
are placed.
Ononthe
theright,
left shows
you canthe seetable where the DC
the goniometer, thepower
mountedsupply
lightand meters
source withare
theplaced.
radiatorOn
(es-the
right, you can see the goniometer, the mounted light source with the radiator
pecially designed cooling system) and the photoelectric cell on the top. More details of (especially
designed
this cooling
test set-up system) and
are presented laterthe photoelectric
in this paper. cell on the top. More details of this test
set-up are presented later in this paper.
𝐸 𝑟2 𝑐𝑑
𝐿𝑎𝑣 (𝐶, 𝛾) = E r2 [ cd ].. (1)
L av (C, γ) = 𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐶,𝛾) 𝑚2 2 (1)
dScos(C, γ) m
Figure
Figure 1. 1.
TheThe set-up
set-up forfor indirect
indirect luminance
luminance measurement.
measurement.
InIn this
this method,
method, forfor
thethe measurement
measurement toto
bebe correct,the
correct, thedistance
distance between
between the
the light
light
source and the detector should be such that the photometric distance
source and the detector should be such that the photometric distance law can be applied. law can be applied.
The
The idea
idea is is
thatthatthethe distance
distance should
should bebe sufficient
sufficient enough
enough to to treat
treat thethe light
light source
source as as a point.
a point.
In the case of light sources with Lambertian distribution, the condition
In the case of light sources with Lambertian distribution, the condition is approximately is approximately
metmetif if
the thedistance
distanceininquestion
questionisisfive
fivetimes
times the
the length
length ofof the
the light
lightsource’s
source’slargest
largestdimension.
dimen-
However, it should be emphasised that only the average
sion. However, it should be emphasised that only the average luminance can luminance can be determined
be deter-
in this
mined inway. The luminance
this way. The luminancedistribution on the
distribution luminous
on the luminous surface of the
surface light
of the source
light sourcewill
not be known. Indirect luminance measurement becomes
will not be known. Indirect luminance measurement becomes more complicated when themore complicated when the
light source is additionally equipped with the optical system of directional
light source is additionally equipped with the optical system of directional reflection, e.g., reflection, e.g.,
a parabolic
a parabolic specular
specular reflector.
reflector. InIn this
this case,
case, luminance
luminance measurements
measurements need
need bebe calculated
calculated
from the distance longer than the photometric test distance. Theoretically, this is the
from the distance longer than the photometric test distance. Theoretically, this is the dis-
distance from which every point on the optical axis of the luminaire is illuminated by all
tance from which every point on the optical axis of the luminaire is illuminated by all
elementary reflections made on the reflector surface [69]. In this case, the photometric test
elementary reflections made on the reflector surface [69]. In this case, the photometric test
distance depends on the dimensions of the reflector and a light source [70], and the mean
distance depends on the dimensions of the reflector and a light source [70], and the mean
luminance of reflector’s input hole will be determined in the presented way. However, the
luminance of reflector’s input hole will be determined in the presented way. However,
indirect measurement becomes more complicated in the case of multi-source LED systems
the indirect measurement becomes more complicated in the case of multi-source LED sys-
(so-called LED arrays). In the literature, there have been several attempts to describe
tems (so-called LED arrays). In the literature, there have been several attempts to describe
the photometric distance including the far-field description covered in the International
the photometric distance including the far-field description covered in the International
Commission on Illumination (CIE) report [71]. However, conducting a laboratory test is
Commission on Illumination (CIE) report [71]. However, conducting a laboratory test is
recommended to determine the measuring distance properly [72]. At the same time, the
recommended to determine the measuring distance properly [72]. At the same time, the
average luminance measurement results obtained in this way will be difficult to interpret
as it will be problematic to determine the actual luminous surface area. This is because
on the LED array, there will be luminances close to the source luminance (the luminance
of the reflector or lens surface) and luminances close to zero, i.e., the areas between the
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 4 of 20
mini-reflectors or lenses. Hence, for multi-source systems the indirect method of luminance
measurement cannot be used or, rather, using this method can be difficult.
Currently, the direct methods are the main methods for measuring luminance. His-
torically, the tube luminance meter [73] was the first luminance meter to allow the direct
luminance measurement. Today, this is the most basic model of the luminance meter with
more educational than practical use. This meter consists of the tube with the internal
shutters (with a structure and colour that absorb light), a photometric cell on one side
and a shutter (that adjusts the measurement angle of the meter) on the other side. The
principle of measurement is to select a small solid angle connected with the light emission
(from the surface under test) from the entire half-space in a way that it covers the whole
active sur-face of the photocell. The current intensity in the photoelectric cell circuit if is
therefore dependent on the luminance of the measured surface L and on the constants of
the measuring system, as seen in Formula (2).
πd2o
i f = cE = cL (2)
4rs2
where:
c—proportionality factor,
do —input hole diameter (a shutter regulating the angle of light coming in),
rs —construction constant of the meter (distance from the entrance hole of the meter to the
intersection of the light rays inside the meter).
Luminance measurements are based on comparing the value of the measured lumi-
nance with in the standard one.
Modern luminance meters work similarly to a tube luminance meter. However, the
design of these modern meters is much more complex. They are usually equipped with the
complex optics to extend the path of the light rays (in the meter), allowing the luminance
of increasingly smaller areas to be measured. In contrast to a tube meter, measurements
with modern luminance meters involve comparing the measurement with the luminance
of the standard one automatically (the meters are pre-calibrated by the manufacturer).
The measurement principle of these meters is also based on selecting a small solid angle
connected with the light emission (from the surface under test) from the entire half-space
in a way that it covers the whole active surface of the photocell. Theoretically, luminance
measurement made using modern meters does not depend on a distance. However, the
person taking the measurement sees the entire perspective in the viewfinder of the device
(as in a camera) and the area (usually a circle) in which the average luminance measurement
is taken (the example of the view in the eyepiece of the meter is shown in Figure 2a). At
this point, it is important to make sure that the measurement field (the area of the circle
seen through the lens) covers only the area which average luminance is to be determined.
Hence, using modern luminance meters, the limiting photometric distance for mea-
surements is the distance for which the entire measurement field of the meter will be
directed at the tested surface. Figure 2a shows the example where the area of a luminous
LED source covers approximately 25% of the measuring field (the measurement field is
a black circle on white LED housing). In this case, if the area outside the light source
is unlit, the meter readings will be lower by 75%. Figure 2b shows a correctly selected
measuring distance where the measuring field only covers the surface of the light source
(the measurement field is a black circle on the inner ring white LED housing). Then, the
result will be correct, and the average luminance of the tested LED can be correctly deter-
mined. It is worth mentioning that there are traditional luminance meters that allow for
setting different sizes (angles) of the measuring area (different diameters of the measuring
location (circle) seen in the lens by the observer). It is then easier to adjust the distance
so that the measuring field covers the entire area in which the average luminance is to
be measured. In addition, if the meter allows for setting a sufficiently small measuring
field, the distribution of luminance can be determined in a simpler way. It can be achieved
(circle) seen in the lens by the observer). It is then easier to adjust the distance so that the
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 5 of 20
measuring field covers the entire area in which the average luminance is to be measured.
In addition, if the meter allows for setting a sufficiently small measuring field, the distri-
bution of luminance can be determined in a simpler way. It can be achieved by dividing,
byfor example,for
dividing, theexample,
LED surface
theinto
LEDnine areas into
surface and the spot
nine luminance
areas and thecan be measured
spot luminance in can be
the centre of each area.
measured in the centre of each area.
(a) (b)
Figure 2. (a) The view from the meter’s lens, showing the measuring field exceeding the size of the
Figure 2. (a) The view from the meter’s lens, showing the measuring field exceeding the size of
measured light source. The incorrect direct measurement of luminance is shown—the area of the
theilluminating
measured LED lightcovers
source. The incorrect
approximately 25% of direct measurement
the measuring of The
field. (b) luminance is shown—the
correct direct measure- area
of ment
the illuminating
of luminance—the LED area
covers approximately
of the luminous LED25% of100%
covers the measuring field. (b)
of the measurement The correct direct
field.
measurement of luminance—the area of the luminous LED covers 100% of the measurement field.
Matrix luminance meters (ILMDs) offer the most efficient measurement possibilities.
ILMDs
Matrix were developedmeters
luminance during (ILMDs)
the processofferof developing
the most digital
efficientcameras. The optical
measurement sys-
possibilities.
tem (lens),
ILMDs werethe correction during
developed filter (V(λ)
theadjustment),
process of the sensor (photosensitive
developing digital cameras. matrix)Theandoptical
system (lens), the correction filter (V(λ) adjustment), the sensor (photosensitiveormatrix)
the image sensor are the key elements of ILMDs. The optical system consists of several
andeventhemore
imagethansensor
a dozenarelenses
thewhich task is to project
key elements a sharp image
of ILMDs. onto a photosensitive
The optical system consists of
matrix (CCD or CMOS) without any distortions or interference. The ILMD has the ad-
several or even more than a dozen lenses which task is to project a sharp image onto
vantage of being able to work with multiple lenses (which requires a separate calibration
a photosensitive matrix (CCD or CMOS) without any distortions or interference. The
process). This makes it possible, for example, to analyse the luminance distribution in
ILMD has the advantage of being able to work with multiple lenses (which requires
large areas such as street lighting [74–77] and with different lens to analyse the luminance
a separate
distributioncalibration
on a veryprocess).
small LED This makes
area it possible, for example, to analyse the luminance
[7,62,78].
distribution in large areas such as street lighting
Based on the review of the studies of the luminance [74–77] and with an
photometry, different
urgent lens
need to hasanalyse
thearisen
luminance distribution
to determine on a from
the distance very which
small luminance
LED area on [7,62,78].
the surface of a light source or
Based oncan
a luminaire the be
review of the
correctly studies ofIncorrectly
determined. the luminance photometry,
measured luminance ancan
urgent
lead need
to has
arisen
poorlyto designed
determine the distance
luminaire fromconsequently,
optics and, which luminance on the
to incorrect surface
lighting of a light
designs. It cansource
or also result in false
a luminaire canglare evaluationdetermined.
be correctly from luminaires [79,80]. This
Incorrectly issue is addressed
measured luminance in this
can lead
to paper,
poorlyasdesigned
well as theluminaire
determinationopticsof the
and, distance from which
consequently, to high-power LEDs should
incorrect lighting designs. It
canbealso
tested in practical
result in falsemeasurements.
glare evaluationThis research will, of course,
from luminaires also be
[79,80]. relevant
This issueforisother
addressed
measurements using ILMDs. Figure 3 illustrates the relevance
in this paper, as well as the determination of the distance from which high-power of the discussed problem. LEDs
On the left image, the measurement range has been manually selected and the luminance
should be tested in practical measurements. This research will, of course, also be relevant
distribution along the road can be seen. On the right image, the ILMD automatically ad-
for other measurements using ILMDs. Figure 3 illustrates the relevance of the discussed
justed the measurement range to the maximum luminance. According to this measure-
problem.
ment, theOn the left of
luminance image, the measurement
light sources where luminance rangedistribution
has been manually
is oriented selected
by the and
the luminance distribution along the road can be seen. On the right image, the ILMD
automatically adjusted the measurement range to the maximum luminance. According to
this measurement, the luminance of light sources where luminance distribution is oriented
by the lenses, is several thousand cd/m2 . Of course, this result is significantly lower than
the correct result.
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 lenses, is several thousand cd/m2. Of course, this result is significantly lower than the cor-
6 of 20
rect result.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Measurement of road lighting, where in figure (a) the luminance range was selected man-
Figure 3. Measurement of road lighting, where in figure (a) the luminance range was selected
ually and in figure (b), where the ILMD software matched the meter range to the maximum lumi-
manually and in figure (b), where the ILMD software matched the meter range to the maximum
nance level of the luminaires.
luminance level of the luminaires.
2. 2. Materialsand
Materials and Methods
Methods
TheTheresearch
research was was carried
carried out out in
in aa photometric
photometricdarkroom
darkroom at at
a technical
a technical university
university in
in the European Union. A high-precision measuring set-up, shown in Figure 4, was
the European Union. A high-precision measuring set-up, shown in Figure 4, was used to
used to conduct tests to determine the photometric distance of high-power LEDs. This
conduct tests to determine the photometric distance of high-power LEDs. This set-up al-
set-up allowed measurements at distances of up to 1 m. The main component of the
lowed
standmeasurements
was a goniophotometerat distances of upallowed
(1), which to 1 m.forThethemain
fixingcomponent of the
of the specially stand was a
designed
goniophotometer
cooling system (2)(1), in which
the form allowed
of a heatforsink
the and
fixing of the
tested specially LEDs
high-power designed cooling sys-
(3). Before
tem
the(2) in the form the
measurements, of aLEDs
heat were
sink positioned
and testedusing high-power
two lasersLEDs (3).two-micrometre
(4) and Before the measure-
ments,
screwsthe (5) LEDs
placedwere positionedtable
on a measuring using(6).two
The lasers (4) and two-micrometre
goniophotometer allowed high-power screws (5)
LEDs on
placed to be tested in thetable
a measuring system(6).(C,γ). It also allowed theallowed
The goniophotometer photometric distance LEDs
high-power to be to be
changed
tested as itsystem
in the was possible
(C,γ). toIt move the luminance
also allowed meter (7) updistance
the photometric and down. toThe diodes were
be changed as it was
powered by the programmable DC power supply PPS 3210 (Motech) (8), and the electrical
possible to move the luminance meter (7) up and down. The diodes were powered by the
parameters were controlled with two laboratory multimeters (9), one acting as a voltmeter
programmable DC power supply PPS 3210 (Motech) (8), and the electrical parameters
and the other as an ammeter. The thermal conditions of the LEDs were controlled using an
were
Appia controlled with two
5510 temperature laboratory
meter multimeters
(10). Direct luminance (9), one actingwere
measurements as amade
voltmeter
with theand the
other as anColor
LMK98-3 ammeter.
Techno The
Teamthermal conditions
luminance, of the LEDs
colour measuring were(7)
camera controlled using an Appia
and interchangeable
5510 temperature meter (10). Direct luminance measurements
lenses (11). Micro and 50 mm lenses were used in the measurements. Each was fitted with were made with the
LMK98-3 Color
grey filters Techno
to reduce theTeam luminance,
luminance of the colour measuring
high-power LEDs tocamera (7) that
the level andcould
interchangea-
be
blerecorded directly
lenses (11). by the
Micro andluminance
50mm lenses meter. were
For measurement
used in thedistances above 1 m,
measurements. thewas
Each test fitted
set-up
with greyshown
filtersin to
Figure
reduce5 wastheused. It was equipped
luminance with a largerLEDs
of the high-power goniometer
to the which also could
level that
be recorded directly by the luminance meter. For measurement distances above 1itm, the
made the tests of the high-power LEDs in the (C, γ) system possible. This set-up made
possible to place an ILMD on the special stand and on the same axis with a goniometer and
test set-up shown in Figure 5 was used. It was equipped with a larger goniometer which
it allowed the meter to be moved over distances greater than 1 m.
also made the tests
Technical of the high-power
parameters of the LMK98-3 LEDs in the (C,
luminance γ) system
meter possible.
are provided This1.
in Table set-up made
it possible to place an ILMD on the special stand and on the same axis with a goniometer
and it allowed
Table the
1. Technical meter toofbe
parameters themoved over
LMK98-3 distances
Color luminancegreater
meter. than 1 m.
Technical parameters of the LMK98-3 luminance meter are provided in Table 1.
Parameter LMK98-3 Color
Sensor
Table 1. Technical parameters CCD meter.
of the LMK98-3 Color luminance Sony ICX 285 AL
resolution (effective pixels) 1380 (H) × 1030 (V)
pixel ratio
Parameter 6.45 µm × 6.45
LMK98-3 µm
Color
sensor area 8.9 (H) × 6.64 (V) mm2 (2/300 )
Sensor
video signal
CCD Sony ICX 285 AL
12 bit digital
resolutionmeasuring
(effectiverange
pixels) >300 Mcd/m1380with
2 (H)neutral
× 1030density
(V) filters
measurement
pixel ratio accuracy 3% (L standard
6.45 μm ×illuminant
6.45 μm A)
sensor area 8.9 (H) × 6.64 (V) mm2 (2/3″)
video signal 12 bit digital
measuring range >300 Mcd/m2 with neutral density filters
measurement accuracy 3% (L standard illuminant A)
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11
10
9 9 3
5 2 4
8 6
5
1
Figure 4. The set-up for precise luminance measurements (measurements up to 1 m), where: 1 –
goniophotometer, 2 - cooling system, 3 - tested high-power LEDs, 4 – laser, 5 - micrometre screw, 6
-Figure
measuring
4. table, 7The
- luminance
The set-up measuring meter,presented
set-up
for precise 8 - DC power
luminance supply,
in Figure 9 - laboratory
5 was used
measurements multimeter,
for distances above 1 m. 10
(measurements up- tem-
to 1 m), where:
perature meter, 11 - lens.
1—goniophotometer, 2—cooling system, 3—tested high-power LEDs, 4—laser, 5—micrometre
screw,
The6—measuring table,presented
measuring set-up 7—luminance meter,
in Figure 8—DC
5 was usedpower supply,above
for distances 9—laboratory
1 m. multimeter,
10—temperature meter, 11—lens.
The
Figure5.5.The
Figure measuring
measuring set-up
set-up for luminance
for luminance measurements
measurements above 1above
m. 1 m.
The measuring set-up presented in Figure 5 was used for distances above 1 m.
Before each measurement, the diodes were illuminated until thermal stability was
reached, which was monitored during the measurements.
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Before
Before
Before each
each
each measurement,
measurement,
measurement, the the
the diodes
diodes
diodes were
were
were illuminated
illuminated
illuminated until
until
until thermal
thermal
thermal stability
stability
stability was was
was
reached,
reached, which
which waswasmonitored
monitored during
during
reached, which was monitored during the measurements. thethe
measurements.
measurements.
Three
Three
Three high-power
high-power
high-power LEDsLEDs
LEDs fromfrom
from different
different
different manufacturers
manufacturers
manufacturers were
were
were selected
selected
selected for for
for this
this
thistest.
test.
test. The The
The
mainmain Three
criteria
criteria high-power
were
were thatthat
the LEDs
the
light
light from
sources different
sources should
shouldmanufacturers
bebepopular,
popular, wereavailable
widely
widely selected
available forand
and thiscurrently
test. The
main criteria were that the light sources should be popular, widely available andcurrently
currently
used main
used criteria
ininin
roadroad were
lighting
lightingthat the light sources
luminaires.
luminaires. TheThe shouldlight-emitting
selected
selected be popular, widely
light-emitting diodes
diodes available
varied
varied and
in currently
used road lighting luminaires. The selected light-emitting diodes varied inin
size
size
size and and
and
used in road lighting luminaires. The selected light-emitting diodes varied in size and
photometric
photometric andand electrical
electrical parameters
parameters (luminous
(luminous flux,flux,
rated
rated
photometric and electrical parameters (luminous flux, rated current, voltage and power).current,
current, voltage
voltage andandpower).
power).
photometric and electrical parameters (luminous flux, rated current, voltage and power).
Luminance
Luminance
Luminance distribution
distribution
distribution ofofof
all
allall
the the
the high-power
high-power
high-power LEDs
LEDs
LEDs selected
selected
selected for for
for testing
testing
testing was was
was close
close
close tototo
the the
the
Luminance distribution of all the high-power LEDs selected for testing was close to the
Lambert
Lambert
Lambert distribution.
distribution.
distribution. When
When
When choosing
choosing
choosing thethe
the high-power
high-power
high-power LEDs
LEDs
LEDs for
forfor
testing,
testing,
testing, ititwas
itwas
was important
important
important
Lambert distribution. When choosing the high-power LEDs for testing, it was important to
tototo
make
make
make sure
sure
sure thatthat
that the the
the photometric
photometric
photometric parameters
parameters
parameters were
were
were stable
stable
stableduring
during
during measurements.
measurements.
measurements. Two Two
Two
make sure that the photometric parameters were stable during measurements. Two LEDs
LEDsLEDs
LEDs (LED1
(LED1
(LED1 andand
and LED2)
LED2)
LED2) were
were
were fitted
fitted
fitted with
with
with primary
primary
primary optics.
optics.
optics.
(LED1 and LED2) were fitted with primary optics.
Table
Table
Table 2 shows
2 shows the the
mostmost important
important technical
technicalparameters
parameters ofofof
the thehigh-power
high-power LEDsLEDs se- se-
Table2 shows
2 shows the most
the most important
important technical parameters
technical parameters theof high-power
the high-power LEDs se-
LEDs
lected
lected
lected for for
testing
testing
for testing andand
andandranked
ranked
ranked in in
terms
terms
in terms of of
power
power
of power rating.
rating.
rating.
selected for testing ranked in terms of power rating.
Table
Table
Table2.2.The
2.The
The
summary
summary
summaryofofof
technical
technical
technicalparameters
parameters
parametersselected
selected
selected for
for
forpresentation
presentation
presentationofofof
high-power
high-power
high-powerLEDs.
LEDs.
LEDs.
Table 2. The summary of technical parameters selected for presentation of high-power LEDs.
Parameter
Parameter
Parameter LED1
LED1
LED1 LED2
LED2
LED2 LED3
LED3
LED3
Parameter LED1 LED2 LED3
appearance
appearance
appearance
appearance111 1
maximum dimension 3.45 mm 2.7 mm 4.5 mm

maximum
maximum
maximum
nominal dimension
dimension
luminous flux (85 ◦ C)
dimension 3.45
3.45
3.45
156 mmmm
lm mm 2.72.7
2.7
365mmmmmm
lm 4.54.5
4.5 mm
mm
693 mm
lm
nominal
nominal
colourluminous
nominal luminous
rendering
luminous fluxflux
index
flux (85(85
°C)
(CRI)
(85 °C)
°C) 156156
70lm
156 lm
lm 365365
365 70lm lm
lm 693693
693 lm
70lm
lm
colourtypical
colour forward
rendering
rendering current
index
index
colour rendering index (CRI)(CRI)
(CRI) 0.350
7070 A
70 0.700
7070 70A 0.640
7070 A
70
wattage 0.945 W 1.96 W 3.84 W
typical
typical
typical forward
forward
forward current
current
current 0.350
0.350
0.350 AAA 0.700
0.700
0.700 AA 0.640
0.640 AA
maximum junction temperature 150 ◦C 135 ◦ CA 0.640
125 ◦AC
wattage
wattage
wattage
thermal resistance 0.945
0.945
0.945
3.0 ◦ C/WWWW 1.961.96
1.96C/W
2.4 ◦ W WW 3.84
3.84
3.84 W
1.8 K/WWW
maximum
1 maximum
maximum junction
junction
junction
The pictures of temperature
temperature
temperature
high-power 150
LEDs are taken from 150
the°C
150 °C sheets of light
°C
data 135135
135 °C °Cmanufacturers.
°C
source 125125
125 °C °C
°C
thermal
thermal
thermal resistance
resistance
resistance 3.03.0
3.0°C/W°C/W
°C/W 2.42.4
2.4 °C/W °C/W
°C/W 1.81.8
1.8 K/WK/W
K/W
The
111 The
Thepictures
pictures
picturesofofof
The tests high-power
high-power
high-power
were LEDs
LEDs
LEDs
carried are
out are
aretaken
for taken
taken from
from
from
single the
the
the
LEDs data
data
data
and sheets
sheets
sheets
the ofofof
moduleslight
light
lightsource
source
sourcemanufacturers.
manufacturers.
manufacturers.
consisting of 4 or 16 LEDs.
The measurements were conducted for the following different photometric distances:
180TheThe
The
mm,tests
tests
tests
280were
were
were
mm, carried
carried
carried
306 out
mm, out
outforfor
for
370 single
single
single
mm, LEDs
LEDs
LEDs
486 mm,andand
andthe
655 the
the modules
mm, modules
modules
818 mmconsisting
consisting
consisting
and 940 ofof
of
44or
mm. 4oror
16 16
LEDs.
16
They LEDs.
LEDs.were
The
The
made using the set-up for precise measurements which is shown in Figure 4. The rest of180
The measurements
measurements
measurements were
were
were conducted
conducted
conducted forfor
forthethe
thefollowing
following
following different
different
different photometric
photometric
photometric distances:
distances:
distances: 180
180
the
mm,
mm,
mm, 280280
280 mm,
mm,
mm,
measurements 306
306
306mm,mm,
mm,
were 370370
370mm,mm,
mm,
carried 486
out 486
486
formm,mm,
mm, 655655
655
distances: mm,mm,
mm, 818
1354 818
818
mm,mm mm
mm and
and
and
3778 940
mm, 940
940 mm. mm.
mm.
8049 They
mm They
They were
and were
were mademade
made
11,465 mm.
using
using
using
They thethe
theset-up
were set-up
set-up for
made for
forprecise
on precise
precise measurements
measurements
measurements
the second measurement which
which
which isisis
shown
set-up shown
shown
shownininin
Figure
Figure
Figure
in Figure4.4.4.
TheThe
The
5. Forrestrest
rest ofofof
LED1 the
the
the
and
measurements
measurements
measurements
LED2, the supply were
werecarried
carried
werecurrents out
out
carried were for
out forfor
distances:
distances:
0.7distances:
A, while the1354
1354
1354 mm,
LED mm,
mm, 3778
3778 mm,
3778 was
current mm,
mm,0.68049
8049
8049 mm mm and
A. mm and 11465 and11465
11465
mm.
mm.
mm. They
They
They werewere
were made
made
made on on
onthethe
the second
second
second measurement
measurement
measurement set-up
set-up
set-up shown
shown
shown ininin
Figure
Figure
Figure 5.5.5.
For For
For LED1LED1
LED1
and
and
3.LED2,
and LED2,
Results
LED2, the the
the supply
supply
supply currents
currents
currents were
were
were 0.70.7
0.7A, A,
A,while
while
while the
the
the LEDLED
LED current
current
current waswas
was 0.60.6
0.6 A. A.
A.
The first essential step of the study was to determine and analyse the luminance
3.3.3.
Results
Results
Results
distribution from the direction of the optical axis from as close distance as possible. For
thisThe The first
purpose,
The first
first essential
essential
a macro
essential stepstepofofof
lens
step the
wasthe
the study
study
used
study was was
where
was tototo
determine
thedetermine
photometric
determine and and
and analyse
analyse
distance
analyse thethe
the luminance
was luminance
180 mm.
luminance dis-dis-
dis- As
the result
tribution
tribution
tribution from
from ofthe
from the
the measurements,
direction
direction
direction ofofof
the the
the changes
optical
optical
optical axis infrom
axis
axis mean
from
from luminance
asasas
close
close
close and as
distance
distance
distance maximum
asas
possible.
possible.
possible. luminance
For For
For thisthis
this
were determined
purpose,
purpose,
purpose, aamacro
amacro
macro lens for
lens
lens wasthe
was
was various
usedused
used where areas
where
where the
the marked
thephotometric
photometric
photometric on the tested was
distance
distance
distance LEDs.
was
was 180 The
180
180 mm. areas
mm.
mm. AsAsAsmarked
the the
the result
result
result for
analysis
ofofof
the the covered
measurements,
measurements, 0.5%–1%–5%–10%–25%–50%–75%–100%
changes
changes in in
mean
mean luminance
luminance
the measurements, changes in mean luminance and maximum luminance were deter- and and maximum of
maximumthe luminous
luminance
luminance area
were of
were the
deter-LEDs,
deter-
respectively,
mined
mined
mined for for
for the the
the as
variousshown
various
various in Figure
areas
areas
areas marked
marked
marked 6. on
Theon
on centre
the the
the tested of the
tested
tested LEDs. marked
LEDs.
LEDs. The The
The regions
areas
areas
areas was atfor
marked
marked
marked thefor
for geometric
analysis
analysis
analysis
centre
covered
covered
covered of the individual
0.5%-–1%–5%–10%–25%–50%–75%–100% LEDs.
0.5%-–1%–5%–10%–25%–50%–75%–100%
0.5%-–1%–5%–10%–25%–50%–75%–100% Thanks to this analysis,
ofofofthe the
the it was
luminous
luminous
luminous possible
area
area
area to
ofofof
the determine
the
the LEDs,
LEDs,
LEDs, re- in
re-
re-
which area
spectively,
spectively,
spectively, asasasthe
shown
shown maximum
shown ininin
Figure
Figure
Figure luminance
6.6.6.
TheThe
The of the
centre
centre
centre LED
ofofof
thethe
the ismarked
marked located
marked and whether
regions
regions
regions waswas
was atatat
thethis
the
the area is the
geometric
geometric
geometric
smallest
centre
centre
centre ofofof
the(of
the
the those
individual
individual analysed)
individual LEDs.
LEDs.
LEDs. and
Thanksclosest
Thanks
Thanks totototothis
this the
this geometric
analysis,
analysis,
analysis, itititcentre
was was
was of the to
possible
possible
possible LED,
toto i.e., the most
determine
determine
determine ininin
relevant
which
which areaareafrom
the the the
maximum point
maximum of view
luminance
luminanceof optical
of of
the system
theLED LED
which area the maximum luminance of the LED is located and whether this area is the is design.
is
located
located andandwhether
whether thisthisarea
area is is
the the
smallest
smallest
smallest In(ofthe
(of
(of next
those
those
those stage
analysed)
analysed)of
analysed) the
and
and research,
and closest
closest
closest the
tototo
the
theeffect
thegeometricof
geometric
geometric the supply
centre
centre
centre current
ofofof
thethe
the LED, on
LED,
LED, the
i.e., luminance
i.e.,
i.e.,the the
the mostmost
most
distribution
relevant
relevant
relevant fromfrom
from of
the
the the
thepointtested
point
point ofofofLEDs
viewview
view was
ofof
of checked.
optical
optical
optical system
system
system In design.
this case, no effect of supply current on the
design.
design.
luminance
InInIn
the the
the next distribution
next
next stagestage
stage ofofofon
the the
the the LED surface
research,
research,
research, the the
the effect was
effect
effect found.
ofofof
the the
the supplyHowever,
supply
supply current a change
current
current onononthe the
the inluminance
luminance
luminance
luminance
levels
distribution
distribution
distribution was found:
ofofof
the the
the tested
tested
tested LEDsLEDs
LEDs was was
was checked.
checked.
checked. InInIn
thisthis
this case,
case,
case, nonono
effect
effect
effect ofofof
supply
supply
supply current
current
current ononon
the •
the For
luminance
luminance LED1 for a
distribution maximum
distribution on onthe supply
theLEDLED current
surface
surface
the luminance distribution on the LED surface was found. However, a change in lumi-was of
was 2.0
found. A,
found. the maximum
However,
However, a luminance
change
a change in in
lumi-value
lumi-
nance
nance
nance levels
levels
increased
levels was was
was 49.1 Mcd/m2 . The tested LED was mounted in the module consisting of
found:
found:
tofound:
16 LEDs;
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 9 of 20
• For LED1 for a maximum supply current of 2.0 A, the maximum luminance value
increased to 49.1 Mcd/m2. The tested LED was mounted in the module consisting of
• For LED2 for16aLEDs;
maximum supply current of 1.8 A, the maximum luminance value
increased• to For
76 LED2
Mcd/m for a2 .maximum
Similarly to LED1,
supply current the tested
of 1.8 A, the LED2
maximum wasluminance
mounted in the
value
increased
module consisting ofto16
76LEDs;
Mcd/m2. Similarly to LED1, the tested LED2 was mounted in the mod-
• For LED3 forulea consisting
maximum of 16 LEDs;
supply current of 1.0 A, the maximum luminance value
• For LED3 for a maximum supply current of 1.0 A, the maximum luminance value
increased to 24.8 Mcd/m 2
increased to 24.8.Mcd/m
The tested LED LED
2. The tested waswas mounted
mountedin inthe module
the module consisting
consisting of of
4 LEDs. 4 LEDs.
(LED1) (LED2)
(LED3)
Figure 6. LED1, Figure 6. LED1,

LED2, andLED2,
LED3, andwith
LED3,thewitheight
the eight measurement areas
measurement areasplotted, on the
plotted, onluminance dis-
the luminance
tributions from the direction of the optical axis (C0γ0).
distributions from the direction of the optical axis (C0γ0).
The main objective of the research was to determine the effect of the photometric
The maindistance
objective of the research
on luminance was
distribution andtoluminance
determine theforeffect
levels of thehigh-power
the selected photometric
LEDs. LED2, distribution
distance on luminance the light source and
with the smallest dimensions,
luminance levels for wasthechosen for the high-power
selected graphical
LEDs. LED2, presentation of the measurement results. The results of the measurements are presented
the light source with the smallest dimensions, was chosen for the graphical
in Figure 7. The right-hand figure shows the magnified picture of luminance distribution.
presentation of the measurement
In contrast, the left-hand results. Thethe
figure shows results
size of of
LED2theacross
measurements
the whole CCD arematrix
presented
of
in Figure 7. The
the right-hand
luminance meter.figure
Thisshows the magnified
way of presenting picture
the results allowed ofa luminance distribution.
preliminary assessment
In contrast, the left-hand
of the figure
size of the shows
light source in the sizetooftheLED2
relation wholeacross the whole
image recorded CCD
by the ILMD.matrix
The of
the luminancematrix
meter.of This
16 LED2s
waywasof tested. This allowed
presenting for a similar
the results allowedtemperature distribution
a preliminary as in
assessment
road lighting luminaires where such modules are used. The LEDs were placed 30 mm
of the size of apart
the light source in relation to the whole image recorded by the ILMD. The
horizontally from each other and 20 mm apart vertically from each other. Figure 7
matrix of 16 LED2s was
shows only one tested.
LED forThis allowed
distances fromfor180amm
similar
to 370temperature
mm. Six LEDs distribution
were visible foras in
road lighting luminaires where such modules are used. The LEDs were placed 30 mm apart
horizontally from each other and 20 mm apart vertically from each other. Figure 7 shows
only one LED for distances from 180 mm to 370 mm. Six LEDs were visible for distances
from 486 mm to 655 mm. Twelve LEDs were visible for distances of 818 mm, while all
sixteen LEDs were visible from 940 mm to 11,465 mm. In Figure 7, the left images show the
view recorded by the entire array. The right image, however, shows a magnification of the
measured LED. In this way, it is possible to see how the number of pixels onto which the
image is projected changes and how the image deformation (pixelation) progresses. This
can be particularly seen for the largest distance of 11,465 mm—the last right image.
distances from 486 mm to 655 mm. Twelve LEDs were visible for distances of 818 mm,
while all sixteen LEDs were visible from 940 mm to 11,465 mm. In Figure 7, the left images
show the view recorded by the entire array. The right image, however, shows a magnifi-
cation of the measured LED. In this way, it is possible to see how the number of pixels
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 onto which the image is projected changes and how the image deformation (pixelation) 10 of 20
progresses. This can be particularly seen for the largest distance of 11,465 mm—the last
right image.
LED2 whole image (distance 180 mm) LED2 zoom (distance 180 mm)
LED2 whole image (distance 11,465 mm) LED2 zoom (distance 11,465 mm)
Figure 7. The view of the luminance distribution on the surface of LED 2 for different measurement
Figure 7. The view of the
distances luminance
(the left picture showsdistribution on LED
the view of the actual theimage
surface
on theof
measurement LED
ILMD, and2the
for different
right picture
shows a magnification of the image of the tested LED2).
distances (the left picture shows the view of the actual LED image on the ILMD, and the right picture
shows a magnification of the image of the tested LED2).
4. Discussion
According to the assumptions made, the initial stage of the research was to determine
the luminance from the direction of the optical axis from as close distance as possible. The
measurement results and their analysis are summarised in Table 3. Measurement areas
are shown in Figure 6.
Table 3. Mean luminance, maximum luminance, and minimum luminance for different areas of
examined LED surfaces (LED1, LED2 and LED3).
Luminance [Mcd/m2] on power LED surface for each C0γ0 direction

The analysed area on the
LED1 LED2 LED3
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 11 of 20
4. Discussion
According to the assumptions made, the initial stage of the research was to determine
the luminance from the direction of the optical axis from as close distance as possible. The
measurement results and their analysis are summarised in Table 3. Measurement areas are
shown in Figure 6.
Table 3. Mean luminance, maximum luminance, and minimum luminance for different areas of
examined LED surfaces (LED1, LED2 and LED3).
Luminance [Mcd/m2 ] on Power LED Surface for Each C0γ0 Direction

The Analysed Area on
LED1 LED2 LED3
the LED Surface
Lmax Lavr Lmin Lmax Lavr Lmin Lmax Lavr Lmin
Area no 1 20.25 12.78 1.43 33.00 18.44 0.49 16.82 10.50 1.44
Area no 2 20.25 14.97 6.17 33.00 22.59 1.09 16.82 11.47 5.31
Area no 3 20.25 16.51 9.04 33.00 25.87 3.51 16.82 12.37 6.63
Area no 4 20.25 17.95 11.76 33.00 27.53 20.73 16.82 11.92 7.04
Area no 5 20.25 18.60 13.20 32.45 28.08 20.73 15.45 10.40 7.04
Area no 6 20.25 18.80 15.08 32.45 28.16 22.60 13.90 9.46 7.04
Area no 7 20.11 19.04 17.05 31.41 28.49 24.06 9.41 8.58 8.15
Area no 8 20.11 19.29 17.96 30.86 28.44 24.15 8.86 8.50 8.15
By analysing the luminance distributions on the LED surface (shown in Figure 6), it
can be seen that they are not uniform. The luminance image is more ordered on LED3,
which lacked the original optical system. Hence, it can be concluded that the original
optical system can influence the non-uniformity of the luminance distribution. On the
surface of LED3, eight micro-chips with luminance close to the maximum luminance can
be distinguished.
From the tests summarised in Table 3, it can be seen that in none of the LEDs tested is
the maximum luminance found in the centre of the LED or even in the area closest to the
centre (area number 8). In the case of LED1, the maximum luminance occurs in the area
number 6. In LED2 and LED3, the maximum luminance occurs in the area number 4.
For LED1 and LED2, it was found that the larger the test area, the lower the average
luminance. This is due to the lack of many micro-LEDs on the luminous surface and the
temperature distribution conditions on the LED surface. The situation is different for LED3.
The way the microchip is distributed determines the formation of local luminance maxima.
Hence, the average luminance increases from an area number 1 to an area number 3 (where
it reaches its highest value) and then decreases from an area number 3 to an area number 8.
The disparity between the maximum luminance and the average luminance measured
for the entire LED area (area no. 1) ranges from less than 80% for LED2 to around 60% for
LED1 and LED3.
The next stage of the analysis was to determine the effect of photometric distance on
the distribution and luminance levels for the high-power LEDs selected for the test. The
measurement results with their analysis are summarised in Table 4 for LED2.
The first column of Table 4 shows the distances from which the luminance was mea-
sured on the surface of the LEDs selected for the presentation. The second and third
columns present the results of the maximum and average luminance measured on the
LEDs’ surface for a given photometric distance. The fourth column lists the number of
pixels covered by the image of the measured LED for a given measurement distance. The
next columns contain calculations, where the result obtained for a distance of 180 mm is
the reference. For example, in the second row of results, in the fifth column, the maximum
luminance measured for a distance of 280 mm was divided by the maximum reference
luminance, i.e., that measured for 180 mm. Then it was multiplied by 100 to give the result
in percentage. In the last column, the results were multiplied by 1000 to get the result in
the per mil.
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 12 of 20
Table 4. The summary of test results and calculations, the effect of varying the photometric distance
on the maximum and mean luminance results for LED2.
Summary of LED2 Research Results Summary of LED2 Calculation Results

Photometric
Distance Lmax Lavr Number of Pixels (Px) Lmax(x) /Lmax(180) · 100 Lavr(x) /Lavr(180) · 100 Px/Px(max) · 1000
[mm]
[Mcd/m2 ] [Mcd/m2 ] [-] [%] [%] [‰]
180 33.0 17.8 51,730 100 100 36.11
280 32.4 17.7 11,790 98.2 99.6 8.23
306 32.3 17.5 8925 97.9 98.5 6.23
370 31.2 17.5 5097 94.5 98.3 3.56
486 30.4 16.4 2701 92.1 92.2 1.89
655 39.4 15.6 1293 89.1 87.7 0.90
818 29.2 14.9 1169 88.5 83.8 0.82
940 29.1 13.7 641 88.2 77.3 0.45
1354 28.4 12.1 333 86.1 68.3 0.23
Energies 2023,
3778 16, x FOR PEER
22.5REVIEW 10.2 33 75.2 57.5 13 of 21
0.023
8049 9.74 2.74 17 31.2 15.4 0.012
11,465 3.19 0.91 9 14.8 5.1 0.0063
The results are summarised in Figure 8 for the maximum luminance to facilitate the
The results are summarised in Figure 8 for the maximum luminance to facilitate the
analysis of how the image size (expressed in the number of pixels) changes with changing
measurement
measurementdistance
distancefor
forindividual
individualLEDs.
LEDs.
Figure 8. The relative maximum luminance (related to Lmax for 180 mm) for LED1. LED2 and LED3
Figure 8. The relative maximum luminance (related to Lmax for 180 mm) for LED1. LED2 and LED3
asasthe
thefunction
functionofofpixel
pixelnumber.
number.
Analysing the obtained results presented in Table 4 and Figure 8, it can be concluded
Analysing the obtained results presented in Table 4 and Figure 8, it can be concluded
that the maximum luminance changes with the measurement distance. It was observed
that the maximum luminance changes with the measurement distance. It was observed
that the higher the measurement distance, the lower the number of pixels forming the LED
that the higher the measurement distance, the lower the number of pixels forming the
image on the ILMD and the lower the value of the read maximum luminance. Taking the
LED image on the ILMD and the lower the value of the read maximum luminance. Taking
maximum luminance read from the nearest photometric distance as a reference, it can be
the maximum luminance read from the nearest photometric distance as a reference, it can
noticed that at least 99% of this luminance was obtained for:
be noticed that at least 99% of this luminance was obtained for:
• LED1 for a distance of 370 mm, where the image size was less than 5900 px;
• • LED1LED for a distance
2 for none of the of 370 mm, where
distances thethan
greater image 180size
mm was less than 5900
measurement px;
distance. It was
• LED 2 for none of the distances greater than 180 mm
estimated that the image should be at least 25,000 px in size; measurement distance. It was
• estimated
LED 3 forthatnonetheofimage should be
the distances at least
greater 25,000
than px inItsize;
180 mm. was estimated that the image
• LED 3 forbe
should none of the
at least distances
40,000 px in greater
size. than 180 mm. It was estimated that the image
should be at least 40,000 px in size.
From the analysis, it was determined that for the maximum luminance to be at 99% of
the From
maximumthe analysis,
luminance it was determined
obtained for thethat for accurate
most the maximum luminance
measurement forto
allbeLEDs,
at 99% the
ofsize
the of
maximum luminance obtained for the
the LED image should cover at least 40,000 px.most accurate measurement for all LEDs, the
size ofItthe
wasLED
alsoimage shouldthat
determined cover at least
at least 90% 40,000
of thepx.
percentage of maximum luminance was
It was
obtained for:also determined that at least 90% of the percentage of maximum luminance
was obtained for:
• LED3 at a distance of 818 mm, where the image size was less than 2177 px.
The analysis shows that for the maximum luminance to be at 90% of the maximum
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 13 of 20
• LED3 at a distance of 818 mm, where the image size was less than 2177 px.
The analysis shows that for the maximum luminance to be at 90% of the maximum
luminance obtained for the most accurate measurement for all LEDs, the size of the LED
image should cover at least 3000 px.
The REVIEW
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER results are summarised in Figure 9 for the average luminance to facilitate the 14 o
measurement distance for individual LEDs.
Figure 9. The relative

Figureaverage luminance
9. The relative (related
average to Lavr(related
luminance for 180to
mm)
Lavrfor
forLED1, LED2
180 mm) forand LED3
LED1, as and LED
LED2
a function of thea number
function of
of pixels on theofILMD
the number pixelsarray.
on the ILMD array.
As in the previous
As in thecase, analysing
previous case,the obtained
analysing theresults
obtained presented in Table in
results presented 4 and
Table 4 and F
Figure 9, it canure
be9,concluded that the average luminance changes with the measurement
it can be concluded that the average luminance changes with the measurement
distance. It was observed
tance. It wasthat the higher
observed the higher
that the measurement distance, the
the measurement lower the
distance, the lower
numberthe numbe
of pixels forming the LED image on the matrix of the ILMD meter and the
pixels forming the LED image on the matrix of the ILMD meter and the lower the valower the
value of the read average
of the luminance.
read average Taking Taking
luminance. the average luminance
the average read from
luminance readthe nearest
from the nearest p
photometric distance
tometric distance as a reference, it can be seen that at least 99% of thiswas
as a reference, it can be seen that at least 99% of this luminance luminance w
obtained for: obtained for:
• LED1 for•a distance of 280
LED1 for mm, where
a distance of 280the image
mm, sizethe
where was 12,970
image sizepx;
was 12,970 px;
• LED2 for•a distance of 280 mm, where the image size was 8925
LED2 for a distance of 280 mm, where the image size px; was 8925 px;
LED3 for mm, where
mm, sizethe
where was 26,610
image sizepx.
was 26,610 px.
The analysis shows that forshows
The analysis the average
that forluminance
the averagetoluminance
be at 99% to
of be
theataverage lumi-
99% of the average lu
nance obtained for the most accurate measurement for all LEDs, the size of the LED image
nance obtained for the most accurate measurement for all LEDs, the size of the LED im
should cover at least 20,000
should cover atpxleast
(estimated from
20,000 px Figure 9).
(estimated from Figure 9).
Furthermore, Furthermore,
it was determinedit wasthat at least 90%
determined that per cent90%
at least of the
peraverage
cent of luminance
the average lumina
was obtained for:
was obtained for:
LED1 for mm, where
mm, sizethe
where was just size
image under 2881
was justpx;
under 2881 px;
• LED2 at a• distance of 486 mm, where the image was less than 2701 px;
LED2 at a distance of 486 mm, where the image was less than 2701 px;
• LED3 at a• distance
LED3ofat655 mm, where
mm, sizethe
where was less size
image thanwas
3481less
px.than 3481 px.
The analysis shows that for shows
The analysis the average luminance
that for to beluminance
the average at 90% of the mean
to be luminance
at 90% of the mean lu
obtained for the most accurate measurement for all LEDs, the size of the LED
nance obtained for the most accurate measurement for all LEDs, the size image should
of the LED im
cover at least 3000
shouldpxcover
(estimated from
at least 3000Figure 9).
px (estimated from Figure 9).
The luminanceThe characteristics of LEDs are the
luminance characteristics offundamental
LEDs are theset of information
fundamental used
set of in
information u
the design of the luminaire optic. Thus, if the shown differences in luminance levels were
in the design of the luminaire optic. Thus, if the shown differences in luminance lev
were used for photometric calculations of road lighting, the fundamentally different
culation results for road lighting designs would be obtained.
It was therefore decided to analyse how the incorrectly chosen luminance measu
ment distance could affect the energy efficiency of road lighting. This type of anal
results from the fact that all tested LEDs were from road lighting luminaires produced
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 14 of 20
used for photometric calculations of road lighting, the fundamentally different calculation
results for road lighting designs would be obtained.
It was therefore decided to analyse how the incorrectly chosen luminance measure-
ment distance could affect the energy efficiency of road lighting. This type of analysis
results from the fact that all tested LEDs were from road lighting luminaires produced by
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEWthe recognised manufacturers. 15 of 21
A dual-carriageway expressway with three lanes and the width of 11.25 m of each
carriageway was chosen for the analysis. The calculations assumed luminance coefficient
qo = 0.07 and a maintenance factor of 0.8. A luminaire from the recognised manufacturer
was selected with one of the tested LEDs. The specifications of the luminaire are summa-
was selected with one of the tested LEDs. The specifications of the luminaire are sum-
rised in Table 5. Lighting class M2 [81] was assumed for each of the two carriageways.
marised in Table 5. Lighting class M2 [81] was assumed for each of the two carriageways.
The centre lane was 2 m wide. Double sided staggered layout of luminaires was assumed.
The centre lane was 2 m wide. Double sided staggered layout of luminaires was assumed. It
It was also assumed that the number of lighting hours for the luminaires would be 4200 h
was also assumed that the number of lighting hours for the luminaires would be 4200 h per
per year. The simulation calculations used the definitional term luminance, i.e., the rela-
year. The simulation calculations used the definitional term luminance, i.e., the relationship
tionship
betweenbetween
luminanceluminance and luminosity
and luminosity (LID) in(LID) in direction.
a given a given direction.
Table 5. Technical data for a luminaire fitted with high-power LEDs.

Table 5. Technical data for a luminaire fitted with high-power LEDs.
Technical Parameter Luminaire for M2 Class
luminaire
luminairephotometric intensitycurves
photometric intensity curves (LPIC)
(LPIC)
light source type LED

light source
number type
of LEDs LED
160
number
luminaire of LEDs
luminous flux 160[lm]
28,900
luminaire
luminaire power flux
luminous 196 [W]
28,900 [lm]
CCT
luminaire power 4000
196 [W]K
Ra 70 [-]
CCT 4000 K
Ra 70 [-]
Certain limits were adopted in the placement of luminaires. These are summarised in
Certain
Table 6. limits were adopted in the placement of luminaires. These are summarised
in Table 6.
Table 6. Luminaire placement ranges.
Table 6. Luminaire placement ranges.
Technical parameter Luminaire for M2 class
spacing (S) (module) [m] 35–60
spacing (S) (module) [m]
luminaire height (H) [m] 35–60
10–14
luminaire height
inclination (H)(Q)
angle [m][◦ ] 10–14
0–15
overhang
inclination (OH)
angle (Q)[m]
[°] 0–150–2
overhang (OH) [m] 0–2
Five cases were considered in the analysis. In the first reference case, the luminance
Five cases were considered in the analysis. In the first reference case, the luminance
distribution on the LED2 surface (mounted in the luminaire) was measured from a distance
distribution on the LED2 surface (mounted in the luminaire) was measured from a dis-
of 280 mm. This fact ensured that the photometric data of the luminaire were consistent
tance of 280 mm. This fact ensured that the photometric data of the luminaire were con-
with the manufacturer’s catalogue data. In other cases, photometric distances of 306 mm,
sistent with the manufacturer’s catalogue data. In other cases, photometric distances of
486 mm, 1354 mm and 3778 mm were adopted, which resulted in the lowering of the
306 mm, 486 mm, 1354 mm and 3778 mm were adopted, which resulted in the lowering
luminaire’s lighting performance. The results of the analysis are summarised in Table 7.
of the luminaire’s lighting performance. The results of the analysis are summarised in
Table 7.
Table 7. The analysis of the effect of the photometric distance of single LEDs on the results of light-
ing installation projects.
Arrangement
Indicator Indicator Energy/10 km
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 15 of 20
Table 7. The analysis of the effect of the photometric distance of single LEDs on the results of lighting
installation projects.
280 mm
57/14/5/2
Arrangement of
13 1.22 69.0 289.77
(reference)
Photometric Distance of the Indicator Dp Indicator De Power/10 km Energy/10 km
Luminaires S/H/Q/OH 2
LEDs Used in themm
306 Luminaire 56/14/0/2
[m/m/ ◦ /m] 13 m2 )]
[mW/(lx [kWh/m1.24/year] [kW/10 km]
70.2 [MWh/10 km/year]
294.71
280 mm486 mm
(reference) 54/13.5/5/2
57/14/5/2 14
13 1.29
1.22 72.9
69.0 306.23
289.77
306 mm 56/14/0/2 13 1.24 70.2 294.71
1354
486 mmmm 41/12/5/2
54/13.5/5/2 18
14 1.7
1.29 95.6
72.9 401.72
306.23
3778
1354 mm mm 36/10/10/2
41/12/5/2 20
18 1.94
1.7 109.0
95.6 457.70
401.72
3778 mm 36/10/10/2 20 1.94 109.0 457.70
8049
8049 mm mm 14/9/10/2
14/9/10/2 50
50 4.98
4.98 278.3
278.3 1177.18
1177.18
The first column of Table 7 presents the distances at which the LEDs used in the road
luminaireThedescribed
first columnin Table 5 were
of Table measured.
7 presents The second
the distances column
at which gives used
the LEDs the luminaire
in the road
spacing
luminaireparameters
describedin the spacing
in Table (S) [m]/luminaire
5 were measured. The height (H)column
second [m]/inclination
gives theangle (Q)
luminaire
[°]/overhang (OH) [m] in
spacing parameters convention,
the spacing according to the ranges
(S) [m]/luminaire defined
height (H)in[m]/inclination
Table 5. The lumi- angle
naires ◦ ]/overhang
(Q) [were placed in such[m]
(OH) a way as to ensure
convention, the highest
according to theenergy
rangesefficiency
defined in ofTable
the given
5. The
luminaires
lighting were placed
installation. in such
The third a wayshows
column as to ensure the highest
the calculated energy
power efficiency
density of the
indicator given
(Dp).
lighting installation. The third column shows the calculated power
The annual energy consumption indicator (De) was calculated in the fourth column. The density indicator (Dp).
Thecolumn
fifth annualgives
energy
theconsumption
power of theindicator (De)
installation was
that calculatedtwo
illuminates in the fourth column.
carriageways over The
a
fifth of
length column
10 km.gives the column
The last power of the installation
shows the energy that illuminates
consumed by thetwo carriageways
lighting over
installation
fora one
length of 10 km. The last column shows the energy consumed by the lighting installation
year.
forUsing
one year.
the data collected in Table 7, the energy consumed to illuminate a 10-km road
section stretchthe
Using wasdata collectedfor
determined in aTable
given7,LED
the photometric
energy consumeddistanceto and
illuminate
luminairea 10-km
ar-
road section stretch was determined
rangement. The results are shown in Figure 10. for a given LED photometric distance and luminaire
arrangement. The results are shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10. The comparison of energy consumption for an installation lighting a 10-km road. Different
Figure 10. The comparison of energy consumption for an installation lighting a 10-km road. Differ-
photometric distances of individual LEDs installed in the luminaire were used for the comparison.
ent photometric distances of individual LEDs installed in the luminaire were used for the compari-
son.
In Figure 10, as previously presented, it was assumed that the reference energy con-
sumption would be for an LED photometric distance of 280 mm. The energy consumption
In Figure 10, as previously presented, it was assumed that the reference energy con-
thus calculated to illuminate 10-km road section was considered to be the reference value
sumption would be for an LED photometric distance of 280 mm. The energy consumption
(100%). Hence, it can be concluded that an increase in the luminance photometric distance
thus calculated to illuminate 10-km road section was considered to be the reference value
of the individual LEDs used in the luminaire increases the electricity consumption and
(100%). Hence,
decreases theitenergy
can be concluded
efficiency of that an lighting
that increase installation.
in the luminanceFor aphotometric
photometric distance
distance
of of
the306
individual LEDs used in the luminaire increases the electricity consumption
mm, an increase in electricity consumption was 1.7% compared to the reference and
decreases
installation (280 mm). A further rise in the photometric distance to the value of 486 of
the energy efficiency of that lighting installation. For a photometric distance mm
306 mm, an energy
increased increase in electricitybyconsumption
consumption was 1.7%
5.7%. The further compared
increases in the to the reference
photometric in-
distance
stallation (280 mm).
for individual LEDsA resulted
further rise in increased
in the the photometric distance
electricity to the value
consumption. For of 486 mm of
a distance
increased
1354 mm, energy consumption
the increase by 5.7%.
was 38.6%; for aThe further
distance of increases
3778 mm, in thethe photometric
increase distance
was already 58%;
forand
individual LEDs resulted in the increased electricity
for a distance of 8049 mm, the growth was as high as 306.3%. consumption. For a distance of
1354 mm, the increase was 38.6%; for a distance of 3778 mm, the increase was already 58%;
and for a distance of 8049 mm, the growth was as high as 306.3%.
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 16 of 20
Based on the presented test results, the following analysis can be conducted. Increasing
the photometric distance of individual LEDs to 3778 mm resulted in a 42.5% decrease in
the average luminance over the LED area (according to Table 4). If, on the basis of these
results, the luminaires were designed and located to illuminate 10 km of dual carriageway
(on the basis of these results), this would result in an increase in electricity consumption of
more than 306%.
Analysing Figure 10, it can be seen that the way the luminance of individual LEDs in
luminaires is measured can directly affect the energy efficiency of road lighting. Increasing
the luminance photometric distance of the LEDs increased electricity consumption for
a lighting installation using the previously measured LEDs.
It needs to be highlighted that errors in luminance distribution measurements should
be identified at the level of additional verification measurements such as measurement of
luminous flux or LID.
5. Conclusions
In this paper the reviews of the methods for measuring luminance on the surface of
high-power LEDs are presented. However, these research results can also be useful for
other luminance measurements. The correct and accurate measurement methodology for
indirect and direct methods using a classic luminance meter is shown. For these methods,
the photometric distance for luminance measurements is defined.
However, this study focuses on the practical measurements of luminance distribution
using a modern matrix luminance meter. In the case of the ILMD meter, it has been found
that the photometric distance influences the results of the measured luminance levels on
the surface of high-power LEDs. Too big photometric distance lowered the maximum and
the average luminance results in relation to the reference results. Since in the literature
there is no definition for the photometric distance for luminance measurements using the
ILMD meter, it has been decided to propose the following definition:
The photometric test distance for luminance measurements with the ILMD meter is
the distance from which the measured image is projected onto a sufficient number of pixels
of the photosensitive matrix to ensure that the luminance meter readings are constant
and repetitive.
The proposed definition considers only the aspect of photometric distance. Other
possible measurement errors (e.g., distortion of the image by the meter lens) are not
included in this definition.
If the image is too small after passing through the optical system of the luminance
meter, the local maxima may not be visible. The obtained image may not cover all the pixels
on the photosensitive matrix and this image is averaged over these extreme pixels. In this
case, significant deviations of up to several hundred per cent can occur in the luminance
meter readings.
The conducted tests have shown that reducing the luminance measurement distance
should be the focus of luminance measurements. In this way, the measured object will
form the image which will cover as many pixels of the ILMD meter matrix as possible. The
developed approach ensures the accurate luminance measurement. This approach is in
contrast to luminous intensity measurements where the distance should be longer to obtain
correct results.
According to the conducted research, it was found that the luminance distribution on
the surface of high-power LEDs used in road lighting is not uniform. It has been shown
that in none of the tested LEDs, the maximum luminance is in the centre of the LED or
even in the area closest to the centre. Designers of the optical systems should take into
consideration this fact. In addition, it was discovered that the LED driving current does
not affect the luminance distribution on the LED surface. In this case only the luminance
level changes.
Based on the tests and their analysis, it was determined that for the maximum lumi-
nance to be at 99% of the maximum luminance obtained for the most accurate measurement
Energies 2023, 16, 1199 17 of 20
for all LEDs, the LED image size should cover at least 40,000 pixels. In the case of the
average luminance, it was determined that for the average luminance to be at 99% of
the average luminance obtained for the most accurate measurement for all LEDs, the
size of the LED image should cover at least 20,000 pixels. The obtained results were for
a monochrome matrix. For matrices with Bayer filters, the number of pixels needs to be
increased proportionally.
Since the whole analysis was conducted for non-uniform luminance distributions
how the photometric distance would affect the luminance measurements for a source with
uniform luminance was also analysed. For this purpose, the luminance standard was
measured from different distances. In this case, the effect of the photometry distance on the
luminance measurement results was also discovered. These results support the validity of
the conducted research and the proposed definition of the photometric test distance.
The incorrect results of the luminance distribution on the LED surface may increase
the energy consumption of the lighting installation. It is therefore recommended to verify
the luminaire parameters by determining the luminance distribution and/or the luminous
flux of the luminaire. This will allow incorrect LED luminance models to be eliminated at
the early stage of the production process.
The high measurement accuracy is guaranteed only by the measurements of the lumi-
nance distributions from a distance ensuring an adequate image size on the ILMD matrix.
Hence, final recommendations have been made:
• The image of the investigated LEDs on the ILMD CCD should be as big as possible;
• Measurements from a long distance with a large focal length lens are the ideal solution;
• It is best to measure each LED separately in a multi-source LED module;
• Incorrectly determined luminance of the light source may influence incorrect designs
of luminaire optics. That is why other verification measurements (e.g., luminous flux
or LID) are recommended.
The presented test results have confirmed the considerable measurement possibilities
of ILMD meters. The possibility to measure luminance level and its uniformity simulta-
neously is particularly convenient and valuable. At the same time, the test results have
showed that good knowledge and experience of the person performing the measurements
are necessary to make luminance measurements correctly. During measurements, it is
essential to remember about the influence of the photometric distance on the reliability of
the test results. A lack of this knowledge can lead to significant measurement errors.
Further research will be devoted to examining how the photometric distance of LEDs
affects the correctness of luminance measurements that determine glare reduction in road
lighting. In addition, the aspects concerning the impact of other measurement errors on the
luminance distribution results are planned to be researched further.
Funding: This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to express his gratitude to Signify Poland for covering
the cost of publishing the research results.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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energies

Citation: Czyżewski, D. The

Energies 2023, 16, 1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031199 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 1199 8 of 20

maximum dimension 3.45 mm 2.7 mm 4.5 mm

Figure 6. LED1, Figure 6. LED1,

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

Luminance [Mcd/m2] on power LED surface for each C0γ0 direction

Luminance [Mcd/m2 ] on Power LED Surface for Each C0γ0 Direction

Summary of LED2 Research Results Summary of LED2 Calculation Results

Figure 9. The relative

Table 5. Technical data for a luminaire fitted with high-power LEDs.

light source type LED

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 21

Funding: This research received no external funding.

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