CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Lighting is an essential provision for any workplace. It is preferable to provide uniform illumination over the entire

workplace by combining both natural and artificial lighting. Localized lighting may be required in certain cases to

cut costs and improve illumination. Good lighting helps us to see and to recognize hazards. It can reduce visual

strain and discomfort. Poor lighting may affect workers' performance and health as poor visibility increases the

chances of errors being made. (Simple Guide to Health Risk Assessment 2003).

Many elements have affected the environments, and the environments have directly affected people. Well

designed environments make people happy and energized. (Samani, 2012). These elements start with building

structures shape, form, color, light, finishes, and so on. Sometimes, the influence of light in the environment is

much more than other elements. Understanding the relationship between light, the environment and interior spaces

can help architects to improve interior designs for better performances.

1|Page
To design for visual comfort, you need to know how to measure light intensity as it affects interior spaces. The

measurement and perception of light can be an in-depth topic. There are basically two approaches to conducting a

lighting assessment in a workplace, by means of checklist, or lighting measurement. This study is going to focus on

the lighting measurement using the workshops in the department of building of university of Jos as a case study.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

There is a fact that people work better in places they feel comfortable (Samani, 2012). In fact, A well designed

environment has effect on user’s health, physically and mentally (Erwine & Heschong, 2002), as well as their

productivity and performance especially in workshops. Since learning has a special place and role in people’s life;

providing such conditions to improve this situation needs special attention. A lot of spaces today are blindly

designed, not considering the maximum and minimum amount of light required by activities in such spaces. There

is need therefore for architects to know the measures of light intensity on working surfaces and provide the

adequate amount needed from their designs, ranging from sizes of fenestrations, geographical orientations of

buildings, choices of artificial lighting, with respect to types of activities to be carried out in the corresponding

spaces.
2|Page
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this research is to measure the light intensity on working surfaces in workshops. The objectives are as

follows:

a) Identify from literature the minimum light level required for working surfaces in workshops.

b) Measure what light level is obtained in the workshops under study.

c) Evaluate the risk and decide whether improvement measures are needed to protect the workshop users.

d) Provide architectural design solutions that will solve the lighting problems in the workshops

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Based on the stated aim and objectives, the study wishes to give answers to the following questions;

(a) What is the nature of the light intensity on the workshop’s working surfaces?

(b) What are implications of poor or inadequate light intensity on working surfaces?

(c) What are the problems and prospects of light intensity on working surfaces in the workshops?

3|Page
1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study is going to be carried out in the University of Jos, using the workshops in the department of building

as case study, a light measuring instrument will be used, and data will be compiled and represented in a visible

and interpretive way. Since the study is going to be limited to workshops in University of Jos, the findings of

this research cannot be generalized to interior spaces that serves function not directly similar or exactly the

same as the one considered in this research, as studies cannot be generalized to places that have completely

different solar radiation pattern, and other geographical factors that directly affects light.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

This study will be conducted in order to review existing literature on the advances and experiences on the

measurement of light intensity on working surfaces. This will be done to ascertain existing designs and

technologies that are appropriate and can be adopted for the building department workshops, and other workshops

in Jos as a whole.

4|Page
The method used for data collection, the justification of data and the analytical method adopted will be examined.

This Research will involve information gotten through two main sources; Primary and Secondary sources.

(i) PRIMARY SOURCES: This research will involve the measurement of light intensity using a lux meter in the

workshop, and the administration of questionnaires to the users of the workshop, having individualized views been

taken through writing. Information will be gotten through personal observation of the case study area as well.

(ii) SECONDARY SOURCE: Information generated through secondary sources is data that has been generated,

documented or published by organizations and scholars. Such sources of information would be comfortably used

appropriately and acknowledged. Such information is gotten from the internet, academic textbooks, related

journals, newspapers publications etc.

5|Page
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0. GENERAL REVIEW ON LIGHT IN ARCHITECTURE

2.1 LIGHT

Light is defined as the natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things visible. Visible light is electromagnetic

radiation whose wavelength falls within the range to which the human retina responds that is between 390nm

(violet light) and 740nm (red). White light consists of roughly equal mixture of all visible wavelengths, which can

be separated to yield the colors of the spectrum (Oxford dictionaries 2009 Edition).

2.1.1 SOURCES OF LIGHT

According to Skwirk interactive schooling year 6, light is categorized into “natural” and “artificial” sources,

a) NATURAL LIGHT SOURCE;

Our main source of natural light is the sun; the sun is a star that is a huge ball of gas. Explosions at the center of the

sun produces large amount of energy, this energy is released as light and heat; some of this light reaches the earth

6|Page
and gives us daylight. The light that comes from the sun is known as white light. Other sources of natural light are

the moon and the stars. The wave of light emitted from the sun is known as “solar radiation”.

b) ARTIFICIAL LIGHT SOURCE;

Humans have been able to create and control light for thousands of years. The earliest form of lighting was with

fire such as burning woods, candles, gas or oil, candles were made out of beeswax or tallow (animal fat), and oil

lamps used plants or animal oils. Now the most convenient source of artificial light is the electric light.

Electric lights have several types and their uses, some examples are lighting emission diodes (LED), halogen bulbs,

fluorescent, incandescent, etc.

2.2 LIGHT INTENSITY

Light intensity is simply the measure of light, the rate at which radiation hits a working surface is the light intensity

of that surface, and Light intensity is measured in units of LUX – lumens per square metre. The brightness of light

can mean different things, for example the amount of light source, is luminous flux, (lumens) the amount of light

falling on a surface is illuminance (lux), and the amount of light reflected off a surface is luminance (cd/m2 ) these

7|Page
quantities are different because the farther a surface is from a light source, the less the light that falls on the surface

and the darker a surface is the less incident light it reflects, this is because light follows the inverse square law. For

example a point source like a candle that cause an illuminance of 1 lux on an object a meter away would cause an

illumination of 1/4 lux on the same object two meters away or 1/9 lux on the same object three meters away

(Autodesk sustainability workshop 2011).

2.3 APPROACHES TO LIGHTING ASSESSMENT

According to lighting assessment in the work place 2008, there are basically two approaches to conducting a

lighting assessment in a work place by the checklist method and the lighting measurement method.

2.3.1 LIGHTING ASSESSMENT BY CHECKLIST

This is a simple assessment that usually does not involve measurement. For example, if the work place is an office,

with the checklist the researcher can spot most lighting problem such as dim working environment, defective

lamps, strong glare and reflections. Possible solutions to such problems are also provided in this assessment.

8|Page
2.3.2 LIGHTING ASSESSMENT BY MEASUREMENT

In some situation, the researcher conducts lighting intensity measurement for the purpose of verification, e.g. when

the adequacy of the lighting level is low for the task / activities involved. Compared with the checklist approach,

lighting measurement has the advantage of providing objectives, accurate and comprehensive information about

the lighting condition. This information will be useful for the assessor to draw an evidence-based conclusion and

formulate specific improvement measures.

2.4 MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT INTENSITY

The measurement of light intensity is so broad that terms need to be defined and precise as to what is being

measured and its corresponding metric.

2.4.1 LUMINOUS FLUX

The amount of light being given off by a particular source in all direction is called luminous flux or luminous

power. It is the measure of total perceived power of light, it is measured in lumens. Lumens are a useful metric in

comparing how bright a light source is, a 60w incandescent bulb is about 850 lumens (Autodesk sustainability
9|Page
workshop 2011). “Radiant flux” is the related measure that quantifies the total power of the electromagnetic

radiation from a source (not just visible light, also infra-red and ultraviolet) and is measured in wax.

2.4.2 LUMINOUS INTENSITY

The amount of light that travels a certain direction from a source is called the luminous intensity, and is measured

in candelas. A candle emits1 candela in all directions; this candle will emit a total of 12.6 lumens (Autodesk

sustainability workshop 2011). When modeling lighting and day lighting, this properties are coded into the light

sources one uses, whether it the sun (and the assumed sky conditions), or the light bulbs and fixtures used.

2.4.3 ILLUMINANCE

This is where this study is concentrated. The amount of light falling on a surface is called “illuminance” and is

measured in lux (Metric unit = lumen/m2) or foot-candles. (English unit = lumen/ ft2). 1 foot candle = 10.8 lux.

(Autodesk sustainability workshop 2011). This is the measurement this study will work with for optimizing visual

comfort because building regulations uses illuminance to specify the minimum light levels for specific tasks and

environment. The brightness of the sky is often given using illuminance values measured on an unobstructed

horizontal plane, some common illumination levels are in the table below.

10 | P a g e
 CONDITIONS ILLUMINATION ILLUMINATION

FTCD LUX

Full daylight 1,000 10,752

Overcast day 100 1,075

Very Dark day 10 107

Twilight 1 10.8

Deep twilight 0.1 1.08

Full moon 0.01 0.108

Quarter moon 0.001 0.0108

Starlight 0.0001 0.0011

Table 1; Representation of Total Illumination level Available from the Sky

Source; Autodesk Sustainability Workshop (2011)

11 | P a g e
2.4.4 COMFORTABLE ILLUMINATION LEVELS

It is the designer’s responsibility to ensure that the occupants of spaces he or she is designing have the required

level of light for their various activities, and try to get as much of that light from natural lighting, this levels are

usually measured on the work surfaces in buildings. Areas can be too dim or too bright and this level depends on

task to be carried out in such spaces, the intensity of light required for a studio space or a space where electronic

components are assembled is far greater than the intensity of light required to safely exit a building.

The following is a table of commonly recommended light levels for different activities in building spaces.

STANDARD FOOT- CHARACTERISTIC OF REPRESENTATIVE

ILLUMINANCE CANDLES ACTIVITY ACTIVITY

(lux) (ftcd)

50 5 Interiors rarely used for visual task Cable tunnels, nighttime,

(no perception of details) sidewalks, parking lot

100 - 150 10 - 15 Interiors with minimal demand for Corridors, changing room,

visual acuity (limited perception of loading bay

12 | P a g e
 details)

200 20 Interiors with low demand for visual Foyers and entrances, dining

acuity (some perception of details) rooms, ware house, rest rooms

300 30 Interiors with some demand of visual Libraries, sports and assembly

acuity (frequently occupied spaces) halls, teaching spaces, lecture

theatres

500 50 Interiors with moderate demands for Computer work, reading and

visual acuity (some low contrast, color writing, general offices, retail

judgment task) shops, kitchens

750 75 Interiors with demand for good visual Drawing offices, chain stores,

acuity (good color judgment, inviting workshops, general electronic

interior) works

1000 100 Interiors with demand for superior Detailed electronic assembly,

visual acuity (accurate color judgment drafting, cabinet making,

13 | P a g e
 and low contrast) supermarkets

1500 – 2000+ 150 – 200+ Interiors with demand for maximum Hand tailoring precision

visual acuity (low contrast, optical aids assembly, detailed drafting,

and local lighting will be od advantage assembly of minute mechanisms

Table 2; Recommended Illuminance Level for Different Tasks

Source; Autodesk Sustainability Workshop (2011)

For the purpose of this research, interiors with demand for good visual acuity which serves spaces like drawing

offices, chain stores, workshops general electric work, etc. will be a point of focus. This carries a standard

maintained illuminance of about 750 lux.

2.4.5 LUMINANCE

Luminance is the light reflected off of surfaces, and measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2) or nits

(imperial units). Luminance is what we perceive when looking at a scene or when using a camera, the quality and

intensity of light that reaches our eyes does depend on material properties of the surface (color, reflectance,

14 | P a g e
texture). While luminance is used in understanding the qualitative measures of the success of a design, it is not

good measure of light quantity. Because the human eye can adjust for a huge range of illumination levels over 3 –

4 orders of magnitude, from bright day light in the 10’s of thousands of lux (1000’s of fc), to meter 10’s of lux

(single-digit fc) a visual rendering of a bright and not so bright space are difficult to measure. Can you tell by

looking at the visual renderings that there is over 100 times more light intensity on the wall in the day image than

the night?

15 | P a g e
Plate 1 &2: Top; Visual Rendering Daytime
Bottom; Visual Rendering Nighttime
Source; Autodesk Sustainability Workshop 2011

Luminance renderings are useful for understanding qualities like light distribution and glare, but not for

understanding if the space has enough light for its intended use. Glare is determined by comparing the extremes of

luminance value that an occupant’s eyes will see from a given vantage point. (Autodesk sustainability workshop

2011)

16 | P a g e
2.5 MEASURES USED IN DAYLIGHTING DESIGN

Base on this measures, lighting designers use some additional metrics like daylight factor and day light autonomy

to help optimize and communicate the quantity and quality of daylight within a space. This is important because

the availability of day light can change a lot throughout the day based on sky conditions

2.5.1 DAYLIGHT FACTOR

The actual illuminance level in a space from day lighting can vary greatly due to the cloud cover and position of

the sun. To deal with these highly variable sky conditions, some building codes and design briefs use daylight

factors as the design criteria instead of illuminance on the working surfaces.

Daylight factors are expressed as a percentage of natural light falling on a work surface compared to that which

would have fallen on a completely unobstructed surface under the same sky conditions. According to Autodesk

sustainability workshop 2011, A daylight factor of 5% on an internal surface means that it recieved1/20th of the

maximum available natural light.

17 | P a g e
Plate 3; Daylight Factor Calculated and Visualized in Ecotect
Source; Autodesk Sustainability Workshop 2011

2.5.2 DAYLIGHT AUTONOMY (DA)

Daylight Autonomy is the percentage of working hours when lighting needs are met by daylight alone it is

measured by comparing daylight illuminance on a work surface to the minimum requirement over time. This is a

very popular metric and can tell you how often light needs to be on to meet specific illumination requirements

18 | P a g e
2.6 USEFUL DAYLIGHT ILLUMINANCE

This measures a percentage of time that a space receives adequate daylight, but it also quantifies when the lights

levels are too high and too low, UDI is based on three standards. ( which broadly line up with comfortable

illumination levels cited above )

a) Less than 100lux is insufficient daylight

b) Between 100lux and 2000lux is useful daylight

c) More than 2000lux is too much daylight and can result in visual and thermal discomfort

For the purpose of this research, useful day light will be an appropriate point of focus, as all measurements

and readings will be taken within the hours of useful daylight.

19 | P a g e
Plate 4; Illustration of Precision about Metrics for Lighting and Daylight
Source; Autodesk Sustainability Workshop 2011

From the plate above, this research is going to be focused on the amount of light falling on a surface in a

specific direction, “the illuminance” measured in lux.

20 | P a g e
2.7 SOLAR RADIATION PATTERN IN JOS

Sunrise and Sunset in Jos is within the average time range of about 12 hours. The sun rises between 6am to 6 30am

in the morning, and sets between 6pm to 6 30 pm in the evening. According to the table below, days appear longer

between the months of March and June.

Table 3; Solar Radiation Pattern of Jos

Source; Jimoh & Ogunrayewa (2015)

21 | P a g e
The highest intensity of sunlight heating the earth surface occurs between 11.00am and 1.00pm throughout the

year. A daily Solar Radiation average of over 4300wh/m² per annum is recorded in the city annually and the early

morning sun rises in the East at altitudes of between 8° and 35° between 6.00am to 7.00am daily throughout the

year. For most periods in the year, the sun sets in at relatively low altitudes from the west. (Jimoh & Ogunrayewa,

2015)

2.8 EFFECT OF LIGHT ON LEVEL OF PRODUCTIVITY

Lighting is a fundamental feature of the designing building environment. Good lighting should be comfortable for

all building users. With the modern technology, designing a lighting system to meet all requirements of an

environment is possible. Environment illumination is very important for determining the users' well-being and

productivity. According to Rufai et al 2013, the description of lighting quality exists when the environment

luminous is appropriate for the needs of the people who will use the space. These requirements are classified in six

groups:

1. Visual performance

22 | P a g e
2. Post- visual performance such as eating, reading, walking and all activities

3. Communication and social interaction

4. Mood state such as happiness, performance

5. Aesthetic judgments

6. Safety and health

According to Juslen and Tenner 2005, since changing light is achievable, certainly productivity and increase in

performance via the following mechanisms is possible:

1) Visual performance: When one has a good and clear view of any task he is performing, its enables him work

better.

2) Visual comfort: when obstructions that cause discomfort such as glare, flicker, etc. are properly taken care of,

concentration and performance will be improved.

3) Interpersonal relationship: when people can see each other better, they can have better communication and more

cooperation.

23 | P a g e
Solving existing lighting problem is very important because it will increase job satisfaction in workplaces and

encourage students in learning places for better performance.

Unsuitable lighting can be the cause of many problems, such as eyestrain to other musculoskeletal injuries. Light

arriving in human eyes has an essential non-visual biological effect on the human body; it impacts human health,

well-being and efficiency. Poor lighting has negative effects on students such as red or bloodshot eyes after

reading, being uncomfortable during reading or close work activities, skipping words or lines while reading or

writing, etc. (Johnson, 2011).

Physical environmental elements such as lighting, heating and acoustics are three aspects that should consider in

schools environment. Among these three elements lighting has a special place. Understanding the influences of

lighting quality on environment can enhance the learner’s performance in educational places. Providing an

appropriate lighting quality with the combination of daylight and artificial light in workshops will motivate

students to learn more and it will improve their performance. Therefore, the importance of a suitable visual

environment for learning environments deserves careful attention.

24 | P a g e
Plate 5; Showing Relationships between Lighting Conditions, Individual processes, and Individual Outcomes.
Source; Samani (2012)

25 | P a g e
2.9 IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL WORKSHOPS IN STUDENTS TRAINING

According to Rufai et al 2013, Technical workshops are recognized as that aspect of education which leads to the

acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge that will enable an individual to

develop his skills in a particular occupation for sustainable livelihood. These skills cannot be acquired in a vacuum

but rather in a well- established and functional workshop with the right tools, equipment and machines for effective

learning process. However, the desire to produce competent graduates in various fields of study can be achieved

when the facilities in the workshops are relevant and adequate for the programs as demanded by the curriculum of

the programs. This plays a very vital role in the learning process of students as being exposed to workshops, makes

students more prone towards getting better with each session. Designing workshops with the adequate light

intensity required for working surfaces, regulated artificial light and natural light rate for the workshops will play a

very vital role in the enhancement of knowledge said to be gained by users of the workshops. Adequate light

intensity on working surfaces provides visual comfort and visual performance.

26 | P a g e
Technical workshops offer students the opportunity of learning through hands experience. According to Rufai et al

2013, Schools providing better workshops makes teachers contribute better for their students, if the lecturers work

efficiently, then their students will also learn more by practically performing the experiments.

2.10 STEPS TO ACCESSING LIGHT INTENSITY ON WORKING SURFACES

This is a review on the research by Giberd and Motatsi on the environmental conditions in South African class

rooms that measures the intensity of light on working surfaces.

The classroom selected is representative of standard classrooms in public schools in South Africa. The building is

approximately 20 years old and is located in Attridgeville, a township in Pretoria, South Africa (latitude -25.7733,

longitude 28.0713). The physical properties and occupation of the classroom is described below.

2.10.0 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The case study classroom has the following physical characteristics:

1) The classroom is within in a linear, single storey block consisting of 4 classrooms.

2) The building envelope is composed of face brick walls with fenestration on

North and South walls and double pitched corrugated steel roof with a plasterboard ceiling.
27 | P a g e
3) The internal walls of classrooms are composed of face brick from the floor level to 1100mm above finished

floor level. Above this walls are finished in plaster and paint to the ceiling.

4) The North side of the block is characterized by center pivot steel windows school at 1568mm above finished

floor level. The openable area of one window is 0.84m2.

5) The South facing side of classroom block is characterized by a row of 1303mm x 1445 mm steel school

window, with top and bottom openable areas with the top window pivot having an openable area of 1.17 m2

(1303mmx978mm) and bottom hung window with an openable area of 0.6 m2 (1303mmx467mm). The lower

sections of these windows are all painted with dark green paint, to limit views and therefore distractions.

6) The classroom area size is 52.78 m2 (7440 mm x 7560mm).

7) A plan of the classroom and furniture layouts is provided in plates 6 and 7.

Plans are orientated with North to the top of the page

Occupation

The occupation schedule of the classroom is as follows:

1) The classroom was occupied by 44 learners throughout the morning.

28 | P a g e
2) Classes within the space are scheduled 08:00 to 13:30 with a 30 minutes break from 11:00 to 11:30

Plate 6; The Location of category T2-T10 Measurement Locations (T1 is taken externally in the Quad area).
Source; Giberd & Motatsi 2015

29 | P a g e
Plate 7; The Location of Category P1-P30 Measurement Locations.
Source; Giberd & Motatsi 2015

2.10.1 METHODOLOGY

In order to obtain data on both the performance of the building and the experience of occupants, two types of

measurements were taken. Type ‘T’ measurements are designed to reflect building performance and are
30 | P a g e
measurements of environmental conditions at uniform locations within the classroom, as indicated in plate 6. The

external T measurement (T1) was measured at the center of the external quad/assembly area and the internal T

points (T2-T10) are positioned 1200mm away from the 4 internal classroom walls and +/- 2581mm away from

each other. T measurements were taken every hour from 8:30 - 13:15, with measurements the classroom to ensure

consistent measurement locations. Type ‘P’ measurements are designed to reflect the actual experience of

occupants in the classroom. These measurements were taken at the desk locations of occupants as indicated by

locations ‘P’ in plate 7. There are 30 desks in the classroom and 28 of these were occupied. The number of

occupants at each desk varies from 1 to 4 students. The desks are marked and tagged P1 – P30 and measurements

were taken once, at 13:30, within a period of 15 minutes. Instrument used is a digital lux meter.

Lighting was measured at 730mm above finished floor level at the marked locations.

2.10.2 FINDINGS

Plate 8 below shows lighting levels in the classroom for different T locations over the morning (08:30 – 13:30).

31 | P a g e
Plate 8; Lighting levels for different T locations in the Classroom over a Morning.
Source; Giberd & Motatsi (2015)

Lighting levels for most locations reduce after 12.30. This is probably due to reduced external lighting levels as a

result of cloud cover. The figure shows that a number of locations (T2, T7, T4, & T5) had consistent lighting levels

of above 400lux, other locations (T6, T3) were just above the minimum requirement of 200lux. It also shows that

a number of locations (T8, T9, T10) where consistently below the minimum requirement of 200lux.
32 | P a g e
Plate 9 below shows lighting levels in the classroom for different desk (P) at 13:15.

Plate 9; Lighting Levels for different Desks (P) at 13:15.

Source; Giberd & Motatsi (2015)

33 | P a g e
Plate 9 shows that 19 desks (63%) have lighting levels under 200lux and 11 desks (39%) have lighting levels of

above 200lux. This shows that 63% of desk light levels that are below the minimum lighting standard of 200lux.

The figure also shows that only one row of desks in the classroom (row P25-P30) receive above 200lux. These

desks are adjacent to the low levels windows. Desks adjacent to the high level windows (P2 –P7) all receive less

than 200lux. Desks in the center of the classroom (P8 – P24) also appear to generally have less than 200lux. Desk

locations P9 and P16 have higher lighting levels than the rest of the desks in the center of the classroom. This is

probably due to light from the door. Desk location P1 has very high light levels (800lux) as this is beside the open

door. There are number of interesting findings in relation to lighting in the classroom that can be discussed.

Lighting levels:

The results show that lighting levels in some areas of the classroom are below the minimum of 200lux. As good

lighting levels are required to write and read, it is possible that poor lighting levels are negatively affecting the

quality of learning and should be addressed immediately.

a) Lighting levels near the door:

Plate 6 and 7 shows that lighting levels near the door (T2) are lower than lighting levels near windows early in the

morning. They then rise above lighting levels near windows and carry on rising even after lighting levels near
34 | P a g e
windows appear to drop due to cloud cover. This can probably be explained by the fact that lighting near the door

has a higher reflected component received from lighting reflected from the walkway. This reflected component is

proportionally lower in the early morning when sun angles are low and appears to be only marginally affected by

reduced sunlight intensity later in day. This suggests the following further investigations should be carried out.

1) Is there the potential to improve day lighting, both in intensity and consistency in classrooms through greater use

of reflected light?

2) Can surfaces, such as light coloured walkways adjacent to classroom be used to reflect light into classrooms?

3) Would a light shelf connected to walkway columns be effective in increasing reflected light into the classroom

through high level windows?

b) Lighting levels and the location and size of windows: Plate 8 and 9 show that the high level windows do not

contribute to lighting in the classrooms. This is probably due to the fact that these are located where they receive

limited light from the sky as they are immediately underneath the roof so are shaded and receive limited reflected

light from the walkway. The low level windows on the North provide light to desks immediately beside them, but

are not effective at distributing light further into the classroom.

35 | P a g e
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 STUDY AREA: UNIVERSITY OF JOS BUILDING DEPARTMENT

The University of Jos is bounded by latitude 90 57’ 30’’N and longitude 80 52’ 30”E-8053’ 45”E (Lar et al, 2012)

It is situated in Jos North local government and is characterized by ridges and isolated rocky hills separated by

extensive plains. Solar radiation within the study area is the same as that on the literature review, between 6.00a

m to 6.00pm, and experiences about 12 hours of daylight, with an average 2 hours maximum sunlight intensity

throughout the year between 11.00am to 1.00am, this condition is maintained consistently throughout the year.

3.1 CASE STUDY

The workshops are located at the building department of the University of Jos at the permanent site of the

university. The building is a linear single storey that consist of 3 workshops; the concrete workshop, the services

workshop, and the soil lab (See fig. 1). Directly opposite of the workshops, separated by a linear and covered walk

way is a lecture room and an exhibition room (See fig. 5).The workshops have fenestrations at the north and east

directions with a flat roof. It is characterized by a 1500mm by 1200mm sliding windows that have an openable area

36 | P a g e
of 0.85m2. The walls are painted off white, and the ceiling painted white. Every single workshop has about 6 to 9

openings, the three workshops have the same breadth of 10700mm and corresponding lengths of 8767mm for the

concrete lab, 6904mm for the services lab, and 10572mm for the soil lab (See fig. 1). There’s an office between

the concrete and the services lab. The workshops are often used by students as a practical aspect of the theory

taught in class, but not frequently used like the lecture rooms, students often make use of the workshop within

daylight hours.

3.2 CLIMATIC CONDITION OF STUDY AREA

According to Lar et al, (2012), the climate within the permanent site of the University is similar to what is

obtainable on the Jos-Plateau and determined by the altitude and position across the seasonal migration of the

Inter-tropical convergent zone (ITCZ). The wet season starts from April –October and the dry season from

November -March. The mean annual rainfall here is about 1,240mm with a peak value of about 320mm in the

month of August. The temperature around the area is equally high with a maximum of about 26ºc – 28ºc between

the months of March and April. .

37 | P a g e
A daily Solar Radiation average of over 4300wh/m² per annum is recorded in Jos annually. The sun rises in the

East at altitudes of between 8° and 35° between 6.00am to 7.00am daily throughout the year. For most periods in

the year, the sun sets in at relatively low altitudes from the west. (Jimoh & Ogunrayewa 2015)

3.3 DESCRIPTION OF WORKSHOP

The workshop in study has the following descriptions;

. The workshop is within in a linear, single storey block consisting of 3 workshops (See fig. 1).

. The building is composed of hollow brick walls with fenestration on the North and South walls with a corrugated

aluminum roofing sheet.

. The internal walls of the workshop are rendered and painted off white and the ceiling is painted white

. The North and South sides of the workshop are characterized by sliding, transparent glazed windows at 1100mm

from the floor level with an openable area of 0.85m2

38 | P a g e
. The interior of workshop is characterized by a well finished grey tiled working surface at 900mm from the floor

level, fixed around the interior walls and at the middle of workshop, right below the window level (See fig. 6).

. The workshop has a floor area of (10700 mm x 10572mm) (See fig. 1).

. The plan, section, and elevations of workshop are provided in figures 1, 2, 3 and 4. Orientation of plan is

indicated on the drawing.

. A layout of the workshop and its working surfaces is indicated in figure 5, and its interior perspective in figure 6.

. Workshop has 10 fluorescent bulbs, and it is occupied by 20 to 40 people at a time.

39 | P a g e
 FLOOR PLAN

Figure 1; Showing Floor Plan of Workshops

40 | P a g e
 FRONT ELEVATION

LEFT ELEVATION

Figure 2; Showing Elevations of Workshops

41 | P a g e
 BACK ELEVATION

RIGHT ELEVATION

Figure 3; Showing Elevations of Workshops

42 | P a g e
 SOIL LAB

SECTION XX

Figure 4; Showing a Section through the Soil Lab

43 | P a g e
 SOIL LAB

SERVICES LAB

COVERED WALK WAY

Figure 5; Showing Measurements Locations (L2 to L10) L1 is the Outdoor Light Intensity

44 | P a g e
Figure 6; Showing Interior Perspective of Soil Lab

45 | P a g e
Figure 7; Showing Interior Perspective of Soil Lab

46 | P a g e
Figure 8; Interior Images of Workshop Showing how Light Intensity Reduces as you Move away from Light Source

47 | P a g e
Figure 9; Interior Images of Workshop Showing Light Source

48 | P a g e
3.4 MEASUREMENT METHOD

The Type ‘L’ measurement is designed to reflect building performance and it is the measurements of light intensity

at uniform locations within the workshop, as indicated in figure 5. The external “L” measurement (L1) is the

measurement of light intensity of the outside environment of the workshop, and the internal ‘L’ points (L2-L10) are

positioned at the mid-point of all working surfaces at 900mm from the floor level in the workshop. ‘L’

measurements (measurements of light intensity) of the outdoor environment and on the marked mid points of the

working surfaces were taken every hour from 9:00am - 16:00pm. This represents the working hours of the

workshop. ‘L’ locations were marked on the working surfaces of the workshop and at the point where the outdoor

light intensity was first taken to ensure consistent measurements locations (See fig. 5). Instrument used for the

measurements is a digital lux meter. Questionnaires are being issued out as well to assess the experience of

occupants of the workshop.

49 | P a g e
3.5 SAMPLING METHOD

The questionnaire used contained questions that formed the basis of data collected. The questionnaire contained

structured questions to allow for clear expression of opinion by respondents. A sample of the questionnaire is

attached as (appendix 1). The questions were straight forward void of technical terms for easy understanding by the

respondents. It was distributed randomly among students of the department of building in the university, since the

major users of the workshops are from 200Level to 500Level; it was ensured that the questionnaires were

distributed within a certain population of every class of the users. The sampling technique continued until a

satisfactory number of respondents is attained. Appropriate statistical techniques will be employed to analyze the

data collected from the respondents.

50 | P a g e
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 RESULT PRESENTATION

4.1.0 RESPONDENTS PRESENTATION

The individual responses and views gotten from the questionnaires are collected and interpreted in percentages

represented by bar charts for clarity and easy understanding as shown below;

70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
1 - 2 years 3 - 4 years 5 - 6 years 7 - 8 years

Figure 10; How long have you been using the Workshop?

51 | P a g e
 90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Filament Fluorescent Energy bulb Rechargeable Others

Figure 11; What type of Artificial light do you use in your Workshop?

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Much Too Too Dull Slightly Just Right Slightly Too Bright Much Too
Dull Dull Bright Bright

Figure 12; Level of lighting satisfaction in Workshop

52 | P a g e
 120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
4am - 6am 6am - 10am 10am - 4pm 12pm - 4pm

Figure 13; What time of the day do you normally turn on the light?

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Acceptable Unacceptable

Figure 14; What is your general perception of lighting in workshop?

53 | P a g e
Figure 10 Shows that 60% of respondents have been using the workshop for about 3 to 4 years. This study reveals

that artificial light sources are being used during working hours between the hours of 10:00am to 4:00pm (See

Fig.13) and the artificial light sources are 80% fluorescent bulb and 20% energy bulb (See Fig.11). This research

also shows that user’s general perception of lighting in the workshop is 75% acceptable and 15% unacceptable

(See Fig.14). The acceptability of indoor light quality also shows that 70% find it just right, 10% find it slightly

dull, 15% find it slightly bright, and 5% find it too bright (See Fig.12).

4.1.1 MEASUREMENTS REPRESENTATION

For easy interpretation, understanding and clarity, the findings of the measurements above are presented in four

different graphs. Figure 15 is a representation of the measurement of the outdoor light intensity (L1) at a fixed

location from 9:00am to 16:00pm, figures 16, 17, and 18 are representations of the measurements of the marked

interior working surfaces (L2 to L10) in a row as shown in figure 6 above, from 9:00am to 16:00pm respectively.

54 | P a g e
TIME L1 (lux) L2 (lux) L3(lux) L4(lux) L5(lux) L6(lux) L7(lux) L8(lux) L9(lux) L10(lux)

9:00am 3750 1840 230 1860 1080 187 700 110 132 127

10:00am 4000 2020 270 2500 1300 214 886 115 156 180

11:00am 4200 2730 290 2220 1750 353 1075 136 85 91

12:00pm 5700 2760 288 2210 2500 292 1330 161 167 145

1:00pm 3500 2640 178 1390 2250 112 912 85 86 81

2:00pm 530 484 32 250 503 28 126 17 18 15

3:00pm 1050 768 58 388 683 46 212 32 29 26

4:00pm 825 697 47 315 670 45 188 29 27 25

Table 4; Showing Raw Data Obtained from Lux meter for different ‘L’ locations from 9am to 4pm

55 | P a g e
 Outdoor light Intensity L1

6000

5000

4000
Light Intensity (lux)

3000

L1 Outdoor light
2000 intensity

1000

0
9am 10am 11am 12pm 1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm

Figure 15; Outdoor lighting level (L1) from 9am to 4pm

56 | P a g e
 Indoor Light Intensity for a Row L2, L3, L4
3000

2500
Light Intensity (lux)

2000

L2

1500 L3
L4
750LUX
1000

500

0
9am 10am 11am 12pm 1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm

Figure 16; Indoor lighting level (L2 – L4) from 9am to 4pm

57 | P a g e
 Indoor Light Intensity for a Row L5, L6, L7
3000

2500

2000
Light Intensity (lux)

L5

1500 L6
L7
750LUX
1000

500

0
9am 10am 11am 12pm 1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm

Figure 17; Indoor lighting level (L5 – L7) from 9am to 4pm

58 | P a g e
 Indoor Light Intensity for a row L8, L9, L10
800

700

600
Light Intensity (lux)

500
L8

400 L9
L10

300 750LUX

200

100

0
9am 10am 11am 12pm 1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm

Figure 18; Indoor lighting level (L8 – L10) from 9am to 4pm

59 | P a g e
4.1.2 ANALYSIS OF RESULT

For all ‘’L’’ locations lighting level reduced drastically between the hours of 1:00pm to 3:00pm due to the sudden

change of weather as it was cloudy and about to rain (See fig.15, 16, 17 & Table 4). The result also shows the

‘’L’’ locations (L2 and L5) in the row close to the windows facing the North direction are consistently higher than

the standard illuminance of 750lux for a workshop through all hours of use (See fig. 17 & Table 4). ‘’L’’ locations

(L3, L6, L9) in the middle of the workshop with approximately a distance of 5350mm from all windows were

consistently below the standard illuminance of 750lux (See fig. 16, 17 & 18). The result also shows ‘’L’’ locations

(L8, L9, L10) in a row at the other end of the workshop where there are no openings consistently lower than the

standard illuminance of 750lux as well (See Fig. 18). This is due to the fact that light travelling through the

windows do no bend to meet the marked surfaces, whereas lighting locations (L4, L7) on the southern side of

workshop close to the windows are relatively okay as they are above standard illuminance of 750lux for all hours

of use, except for the sudden change in weather which has a drastic effect on all measurements. The result also

shows that 6 marked surfaces have lighting levels below the standard illuminance of 750lux which makes 60% of

60 | P a g e
surfaces, which can be corrected or further adjusted by the use of artificial light sources. 4 marked surfaces have

lighting levels above the standard illuminance of 750lux which makes 40% of the surfaces.

This result shows that the lighting levels close to the windows are sufficient, and lighting levels far from the

windows are below the lighting level required for a workshop of 750lux.

4.2 SUGGESTIONS

This research suggest that Lighting level can be improved in workshops by providing increased fenestration sizes

and numbers that are adequately oriented, and by using reflective wall surfaces such as light coloured paints to

reflect light and improve the intensity incident on working surfaces. It can further be improved by increasing the

number of artificial light sources and positioning them properly in the areas where they are needed the most.

61 | P a g e
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMARRY

This research was conducted in order to determine the measurement of light intensity on working surfaces. The

Soil Workshop in the department of Building, University of Jos was selected for this purpose as a case study.

Chapter one includes the introduction. The literature review, aspects of light, day lighting, and its measurements on

working surfaces are discussed in chapter two. Chapter three includes a case study of the subject workshop and the

area where it is located. Data collected from questionnaires and measurements were analyzed and reported in

chapter four.

This study was able to establish that;

a) 60% of surfaces do not meet the standard required light intensity of 750lux for a workshop

b) Only 40% of surfaces in study meet up and have light intensities above the required illuminance of 750lux

62 | P a g e
5.2 CONCLUSIONS

From the result of the analysis done in the study, the following conclusions can be drawn;

a) Working surfaces close to windows perform satisfactorily in regards to the standard illuminance of 750lux.

b) Working surfaces in the middle of the Workshop far from the windows have insufficient light incident on

their surfaces and do not meet the required 750lux illuminance.

c) Sizing, positioning and orientation of openings have utmost effects on the level of light intensity incident on

working surfaces in Workshops.

5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are put forward in the light of the results of the analysis, investigation carried out,

observations and problems enumerated which when carefully implemented are meant to improve and provide

adequate light intensity on working surfaces in workshops especially in University of Jos. It is recommended that

these Workshops could be improved upon by:

63 | P a g e
a) Using reflective wall surfaces to help reflect light which helps improve the amount of light incident on

working surfaces.

b) Giving utmost importance and consideration to increased fenestrations sizes, positioning and orientation

when designing Workshops.

c) Providing and positioning adequate artificial light sources at places where they are needed the most.

d) Embarking on similar researches in other regions as Annual solar radiation patterns differ from place to

place.

64 | P a g e
 REFERENCES

Autodesk Sustainability Workshop, retrieved December 2015 from

https://www.Sustainabilityworkshop.autodesk.com/buildings/measuring-light-levels

Erwine, B., & Heschong, L. (2002). Lighting for Learning. Paper presented at the Light fair International Seminar

Preview.

Gibberd, J. and Motsatsi, L. (2015). Are Environmental Conditions in South African Classrooms Conducive for

Learning? Department of Architecture, University of Pretoria. Retrieved https://www.academia.edu/4849243/

(Accessed february 2016).

Jago, E., & Tanner, K. (1999). Influence of the school facility on student achievement. Retrieved December 2015,

from http://www.coe.uga.edu/sdpl/researchabstracts/visual.html

Jimoh, A. O. & Ogunrayewa. M. O. (2015) Assessment of Daylight Intensity as a Function of the Ratio of the

Window Area and Total Room Volume for Office Buildings in Jos, Nigeria. International Journal of

Environmental Monitoring and Analysis. Vol. 3, No. 3, 2015, pp.

65 | P a g e
Johnson, L. A. (2011). Teaching outside the box: how to grab your students by their brains: Jossey-Bass.

Samani, S. A. (2012).The impact of Indoor Lighting on Students’ learning Performance in Learning Environment;

A knowledge Internalization Perspective. International Journal of Business and Social Science. Vol. 2, No. 24,

2012.

Smolders, K. C. & Beersma, (2015) D. G. Lighting for Health and Well Being in Work Places, Department of

Chronobiology, University of Groningen, Netherlands retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/3566474/

(Accessed December 2015)

66 | P a g e