POA - Suite 3

Electromagnetic Fields
Electromagnetic Waves
For fast-varying phenomena, the displacement current cannot be
neglected, and the full set of Maxwell’s equations must be used
G
G ∂B ( t )
∇× E = −
dt
G
G G ∂D ( t )
∇× H = J +
∂t G G G G
G F = q ( E + v × B)
∇⋅ D= ρ
G
∇⋅B= 0
G G
D=ε E
G G
B=µ H
© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 33

The two curl equations are analogous to the coupled (first order)
equations for voltage and current used in transmission lines. The
solutions of this system of equations are waves. In order to obtain
uncoupled (second order) equations we can operate with the curl
once more. Under the assumption of uniform isotropic medium:
G
G ∂ (∇ × B( t)) ∂ G
∇ × ∇ × E ( t) = − = −µ ∇ × H ( t )
∂t ∂t
G 2G
∂ J ( t) ∂ E ( t)
= −µ − µε
∂t ∂ t2
G
G G ∂ ( ∇ × D( t) ) G ∂ G
∇ × ∇ × H ( t) = ∇ × J + = ∇ × J + ε ∇ × E ( t)
∂t ∂t
G
G ∂ H ( t)
2
= ∇ × J − εµ
∂ t2
From vector calculus, we also have

G G 2G
∇ × ∇ × E ( t ) = ∇∇ ⋅ E ( t ) − ∇ E ( t )
G G 2G 2G
∇ × ∇ × H ( t ) = ∇∇ ⋅ H ( t ) − ∇ H ( t ) = −∇ H ( t )
1 G
∇ ⋅ B( t ) = 0
µ
Finally, we obtain the general wave equations

2G G
2G G ∂ E(t) ∂ J(t)
∇ E ( t ) − ∇∇ ⋅ E ( t ) − µ ε =µ
2 ∂t
∂t
G
2G ∂ H(t)
2 G
∇ H(t) − µε = −∇ × J ( t )
∂t

In a region where the wave solution propagates away from charges

and flowing currents, the wave equations can be simplified
considerably. In such conditions, we have
G
ρ = 0 ⇒ ∇ ⋅ E ( t) = ρ / ε = 0
G
J ( t) = 0
and the wave equations assume the familiar form
2G
2G ∂ E(t)
∇ E(t) − µε =0
∂ t2
G
2G ∂ H(t)
2
∇ H(t) − µε =0
∂t

When currents and charges are involved, the wave equations are
difficult to solve, because of the terms
G G
∇ ( ∇ ⋅ E ( t )) and ∇ × J(t)
It is more practical to have equations for the electric potential and

for the magnetic vector potential, which contain linear source
terms dependent on charge and current, as shown below.
We saw earlier that the divergence of the magnetic vector potential

must be specified. The simple choice made in magnetostatics of
zero divergence is not suitable for time-varying fields. Among the
possible choices, it is convenient to adopt the Lorenz gauge
Time-varying fields – Lorenz gauge Magnetostatics (d.c.)
G ∂φ G
∇ ⋅ A ( t ) = −µ ε ∇⋅ A= 0
∂t

Starting from the definitions G

G G G ∂ A( t )
B( t ) = ∇ × A E(t) = − − ∇φ
∂t
we obtain again the wave equation by applying the curl operation
G G G 2G
µ∇ × H ( t ) = ∇ × ∇ × A ( t ) = ∇∇ ⋅ A ( t ) − ∇ A ( t ) =
G
G ∂ A( t )
2
∂φ
= µ J − εµ − εµ∇
2 ∂t
∂t
G
= ∇∇ ⋅ A ( t )
With the application of Lorenz gauge
2 G
2G ∂ A( t ) G
∇ A( t ) − ε µ = −µ J ( t )
∂ t2

For the electric potential we have
G G ρ
∇ ⋅ D( t ) = ρ ⇒ ∇ ⋅ E(t) =
ε
G
G  ∂ A( t )  ρ
∇ ⋅ E(t) = ∇ ⋅ − − ∇φ  =
 ∂t  ε
∂ G ρ
−∇ φ − ∇ ⋅ A ( t ) =
2
∂t ε
After applying the Lorenz gauge once more, we arrive at the
potential wave equation
2 ∂ 2φ ρ
∇ φ − εµ =−
2 ε
∂t

In engineering it is very important to consider time-harmonic fields

with a sinusoidal time-variation. If we assume a steady-state
situation (after all transients have died out) most physical situations
may be investigated by considering one single frequency at a time.
This assumption leads to great simplifications in the algebra. It is

also realistic, because in practical electromagnetics applications
we often have a dominant frequency (carrier) to consider.
The time-harmonic fields have the form

G G G G
E ( t ) = E0 cos ( ω t + ϕ E ) H ( t ) = H0 cos ( ω t + ϕ H )
We can use the complex phasor representation

G
E ( t ) = Re E0 e e{
G jϕ E jωt
} G
{
G jϕ H jωt
H ( t ) = Re H0 e e }

We define
G G jϕ E G
E = E0 e = phasor of E ( t )
G G jϕ H G
H = H0 e = phasor of H ( t )
Maxwell’s equations can be rewritten for phasors, with the time-

derivatives transformed into linear terms
G
G ∂ E(t)
jω E = phasor of
∂t
2 G
2G ∂ E(t)
− ω E = phasor of
∂ t2

In phasor form, Maxwell’s equations become

G G
∇ × E = − jωµ H
G G G
∇ × H = J + jωε E
G
∇⋅D = ρ
G
∇⋅B = 0
G G
D=εE
G G
B=µH
G G G G
F = q ( E + v × B)
where all electromagnetic quantities are phasors and functions only

of space coordinates.

Let’s consider first vacuum as a medium. The wave equations for

phasors become Helmholtz equations
2G G
2
∇ E + ω µ0 ε0 E = 0
2G 2 G
∇ H + ω µ0 ε0 H = 0
The general solutions for these differential equations are waves

moving in 3-D space. Note, once again, that the two equations are
uncoupled.
This means that each equation contains all the necessary

information for the total electromagnetic field and one only needs to
solve the equation for one field to completely specify the problem.
The other field is obtained with a curl operation by invoking one of
the original Maxwell equations.

At this stage we assume that a wave exists, and we do not yet

concern ourselves with the way the wave is generated. So, for the
sake of understanding wave behavior, we can restrict the Helmhlotz
equations to a simple case:
• We assume that the wave solution has an electric field which is

uniform on the { x , y }-plane and has a reference positive
orientation along the x-direction. Then, we verify that this is a
reasonable choice corresponding to an actual solution of the
Helmholtz wave equations. We recall that the Laplacian of a
scalar is a scalar
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f
∇2 f = + +
2 2
∂x ∂y ∂ z2
and that the Laplacian of a vector is a vector
2G
∇ E = iˆx∇ 2 E x + iˆy∇ 2 E y + iˆz∇ 2 E z

The Helmholtz equation becomes:
G G 2
∂ Ex ˆ
2 2
∇ E + ω µ0 ε0 E = ix + ω2µ 0 ε 0 ( E x iˆx ) = 0
∂ z2
Only the x-component of the electric field exists (due to the chosen
orientation) and only the z-derivative exists, because the field is
uniform on the { x , y }-plane.
We have now a one-dimensional wave propagation problem

described by the scalar differential equation
∂2 Ex
+ ω2 µ 0 ε 0 E x = 0
∂ z2

This equation has a well known general solution
A exp ( − jβ z ) + B exp ( jβ z )
where the propagation constant is

ω
β = ω µ0 ε0 =
c
The wave that we have assumed is a plane wave and we have
verified that it is a solution of Helmholtz equation. The general
solution above has two possible components
A exp ( − j β z ) Forward wave, moving along positive z
B exp ( j β z ) Backward wave, moving along negative z
For the simple wave orientation chosen here, the problem is

mathematically identical to the one solved earlier for voltage
propagation in a homogeneous transmission line.

If a specific electromagnetic wave is established in an infinite

homogeneous medium, moving for instance along the positive
direction, only the forward wave should be considered.
A reflected wave exists when a discontinuity takes place along the

path of the forward wave (that is, the material medium changes
properties, either abruprtly or gradually).
We can also assume that the amplitude of the forward plane wave
solution is given and that it is in general a complex constant fixed
by the conditions that generated the wave
A = E0 e jϕ
We can write at last the phasor electric field describing a simple

forward plane wave solution of Helmholtz equation as:
G
E x ( z) = E0 e jϕ e− jβ z iˆx

The corresponding time-dependent field is obtained by applying the

inverse phasor transformation
G
{ } {
Ex ( z , t ) = Re E x ( z ) e jω t iˆx = Re E0 e jϕ e− jβ z e jω t iˆx }
= E0 cos ( ω t − β z + ϕ ) iˆx
The phasor magnetic field is obtained directly from the Maxwell

equation for the electric field curl
G
(
jϕ − jβ z ˆ
∇ × E = ∇ × E0 e e
G
ix = − jωµ 0 H )
G
H=−
(
∇ × E0 e jϕ e− jβ z iˆx )
jωµ 0

We then develop the curl as
 iˆx iˆy iˆz 

 
(
jϕ − jβ z ˆ
∇ × E0 e e ix = det 
 ∂x
∂
) ∂ ∂
∂ y ∂ z
=
Ex ( z)  
 E x ( z) 0 0 
=
(
∂ E0 e jϕ e− jβ z ) iˆy − (
∂ E0 e jϕ e− jβ z ) iˆz =
∂z ∂y
=0
= − jβ E0 e jϕ e− jβ z iˆy

The final result for the phasor magnetic field is
G − j β E0 e jϕ e− jβ z ˆ
H y ( z) = − iy =
jωµ
ω µ 0ε 0
= E0 e jϕ e− jβ z iˆy =
ω µ0
ε0 jϕ − jβ z ˆ ε0
= E0 e e iy = E x ( z ) iˆy
µ0 µ0
We define
µ0
= η0 ≈ 377 Ω = Intrinsic impedance of vacuum
ε0

We have found that the fields of the electromagnetic wave are

perpendicular to each other, and that they are also perpendicular
(or transverse) to the direction of propagation.
z
H
y

Electromagnetic power flows with the wave along the direction of

propagation and it is also constant on the phase-planes. The
power density is described by the time-dependent Poynting vector
G G G
P(t) = E(t)× H (t)
The Poynting vector is perpendicular to both field components, and

is parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
When the wave propagates on a general direction, which does not

coincide with one of the cartesian axes, the propagation constant
must be considered to be a vector with amplitude
G
|β |=ω µε
and direction parallel to the Poynting vector.

The condition of mutual orthogonality between the field

components and the Poynting vector is general and it applies to
any plane wave with arbitrary direction of propagation. The mutual
orientation chosen for the reference directions of the fields follows
the right hand rule.
G
E( x, y, z) x
y
G z
H ( x, y, z)
G G
β, P

So far, we have just verified that electromagnetic plane waves are

possible solutions of the Maxwell equations for time-varying fields.
One may wonder at this point if plane waves have practical physical
relevance.
First of all, we should notice that plane waves are mathematically

analogous to the exponential basis functions used in Fourier
analysis. This means that a general wave, with more than one
frequency component, can always be decomposed in terms of
plane waves.
• For periodic signals, we have a discrete set of waves which are

harmonics of the fundamental frequency (analogy with Fourier
series).
• For general signals, we must consider a continuum of

frequencies in order to decompose in terms of elementary plane
waves (analogy with Fourier transform).

From a physical point of view, however, the properties of a plane

wave may be somewhat puzzling.
Assume that a steady-state plane wave is established in an ideal

infinite homogeneous medium. On any plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation (phase-planes), the electric and magnetic
fields have uniform magnitude and phase.
The electromagnetic power, flowing with a phase-plane of the wave,

is obtained by integrating the Poynting vector, which is also
uniform on each phase-plane. For a plane where the Poynting
vector is non-zero, the total power carried by the wave is infinite
G G G
∫ plane P ( t) = ∫
plane
E ( t) × H ( t) → ∞
In many practical cases, we approximate an actual wave with a

plane wave on a limited region of space, thus considering an
appropriate finite power.

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Review of Boundary Conditions

Consider an electromagnetic field at the boundary between two
materials with different properties. The tangent and the normal
component of the fields must be examined separately, in order to
understand the effects of the boundary.
G
Medium 1 G H1
ε 1 ; µ1
Hn1
G
H t1
boundary
G
G G Ht 2
Medium 2 Hn2 H2
ε2; µ2

Tangential Magnetic Field
Medium 1 G
ε 1 ; µ1 H t1
G G
boundary
H n3 H n4 a
G
Medium 2 Ht2 y
ε2; µ2
b
z
. x
Ampère’s law for the boundary region in the figure can be written as
G ∂H y ∂H x
∇×H⇒ − = J z + jω ε E z
∂x ∂y

In terms of finite differences approximation for the derivatives
H n4 − H n3 H t1 − H t 2
− = J z + jω ε E z
b a
If one lets the boundary region shrink, with a going to zero faster
than b,
H n3 − H n4
H t 2 − H t1 = lim ( J z a + jωε E z a + a )
a→ 0 b
for materials with finite conductivity
⇒ H t 2 − H t1 = 0 Tangential components are conserved
for perfect conductors

⇒ H t 2 − H t1 = lim ( J z a) = Js (surface current)
a→ 0

For a general boundary geometry
G G G
nˆ × (H t1 − H t 2 ) = Js
nˆ = unit vector normal to the surface

In the case of a perfect conductor, the electromagnetic fields go
immediately to zero inside the material, because the conductivity is
infinite and attenuates instantly the fields. The surface current is
confined to an infinitesimally thin “skin”, and it accounts for the
discontinuity of the tangential magnetic field, which becomes
immediately zero inside the perfect conductor.
For a real medium, with finite conductivity, the fields can penetrate
over a certain distance, and there is a current distributed on a thin,
but not infinitesimal, skin layer. The tangential field components on
the two sides of the interface are the same. Nonetheless, the
perfect conductor is often a good approximation for a real metal.

Tangential Electric Field
Medium 1 G
ε 1 ; µ1 E t1
G G
boundary
E n3 E n4 a
G
Medium 2 Et2 y
ε2; µ2
b
z
. x
Faraday’s law for the same boundary region can be written as
G ∂ E y ∂E x
∇×E⇒ − = jω µ H z
∂x ∂y

In terms of finite differences approximation for the derivatives
E n4 − E n3 E t1 − E t 2
− = jωµ H z
b a
If one lets the boundary region shrink, with a going to zero faster
than b,
E n3 − E n4
E t 2 − E t1 = lim ( jωµ H z a + a )
a→ 0 b
⇒ E t 2 − E t1 = 0 Tangential components are conserved
For a general boundary geometry
G G
nˆ × (E t1 − E t 2 ) = 0

Normal components
Medium 1 G G
ε 1 ; µ1 Dn1 Bn1
boundary
ρs + + + + + + w
G G
Medium 2 Dn2 Bn2 y
ε2; µ2
Area
z
. x
Consider a small box that encloses a certain area of the interface

with
ρ s = interface charge density

Integrate the divergence of the fields over the volume of the box:
G G G
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ D dr = ∫∫∫ ρ dr
Volume Volume
Divergence ⇓ theorem
G G G
∫∫
w D ⋅ n̂ ds = Flux of D out of the box
Surface
G G
∫∫∫ ∇ ⋅ B dr = 0
Volume
Divergence ⇓ theorem
G G G
∫∫
w B ⋅ n̂ ds = Flux of B out of the box
Surface

If the thickness of the box tends to zero and the charge density is
assumed to be uniform over the area, we have the following fluxes
G
D-Flux out of box = Area ⋅ (D1n − D2 n ) =
= Total interface charge = Area ⋅ ρ s
G
B-Flux out of box = Area ⋅ (B1n − B2 n ) = 0
The resulting boundary conditions are
D1n − D2 n = ρ s B1n − B2 n = 0
The discontinuity in the normal component of the displacement

field D is equal to the density of surface charge.
The normal components of the magnetic induction field B are

continuous across the interface.

For isotropic and uniform values of ε and µ in the two media
G G G G
Dn1 − Dn2 = ε1E n1 − ε 2 E n2 = ρ s
G G G G
Bn1 − Bn2 = µ1H n1 − µ 2H n2 = 0
Even when the interface charge is zero, the normal components of

the electric field are discontinuous at the interface, if there is a
change of dielectric constant .
The normal components of the magnetic field have a similar

discontinuity at the interface due to the change in the magnetic
permeability. In many practical situations, the two media may have
the same permeability as vacuum, µ0, and in such cases the normal
component of the magnetic field is conserved across the interface.

SUMMARY
If medium 2 is
perfect conductor
G
H t1 G G G G
ε 1 , µ1 H t1 = H t 2 nˆ × H t1 = J s
G ε 2 , µ2 G
Ht2 Ht2 = 0
G
E t1 G G G
ε 1 , µ1 E t1 = E t 2 E t1 = 0
G ε 2 , µ2 G
Et2
Et2 = 0
G G G G
H n1 ε 1 , µ1 µ1H n1 = µ 2 H n2 H n1 = 0
G ε 2 , µ2 G
H n2 H n2 = 0
G G G G
E n1 ε 1 , µ1 ε 1E n1 = ε 2 E n2 +ρ s E n1 = ρ s ε 1
G ε 2 , µ2 G
E n2 E n2 = 0

Examples:
An infinite current sheet generates a plane wave (free space on
both sides)
x
Js
-z +z
y
H
G
Js ( t ) = − Jso cos(ω t ) iˆx
G
Phasor J s = − Jso iˆx
The E.M. field is transmitted on both sides of the infinitesimally thin

sheet of current.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
G G G
nˆ × (H t1 − H t 2 ) = J s
G G
H t1 − H t 2 = Jso iˆx
G G
E t1 = E t 2
G G
E t1 = η 0 H t1
G G
Symmetry ⇒ H t1 = H t 2
Jso Jso
H1 = H2 = −
2 2

A semi-infinite perfect conductor medium in contact with free space

has uniform surface current and generates a plane wave
x
Perfect Free Space
Conductor
Js
-z +z
y
H
G
J s = − Jso cos(ω t ) iˆx
The E.M. field is zero inside the perfect conductor. The wave is only
transmitted into free space.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
G G G
nˆ × (H t1 − H t 2 ) = J s
G G G
H t1 − H t 2 = H t1 − 0 = Jso iˆx
G
Et2 = 0
G G
Asymmetry ⇒ H t1 ≠ H t 2
H t1 = Jso Ht2 = 0

Electromagnetic Waves in Material Media

In a material medium free charges may be present, which generate
a current under the influence of the wave electric field. The current
Jc is related to the electric field E through the conductivity σ as
Jc = σ E
The material may also have specific relative values of dielectric

permittivity and magnetic permeability
ε = εr εo µ = µr µo

Maxwell’s equations become
∇ × E = − jωµ H
σ
∇ × H = σ E + jωε E = jω(ε − j )E
ω
In phasor notation, it is as if the material conductivity introduces an
imaginary part for the dielectric constant ε. The wave equation for
the phasor electric field is given by
∇ × ∇ × E = ∇∇ ⋅ E − ∇ 2 E = − jωµ ∇ × H
= − jωµ(J c + jωε E)
⇒ ∇ 2 E = jωµ(σ + jωε )E
We have assumed that the net charge density is zero, even if a
conductivity is present, so that the electric field divergence is zero.

In 1-D the wave equation is simply
∂ 2E x
= jωµ(σ + jωε )E x = γ 2 E x
∂ z2
with general solution
E x ( z) = A exp(−γ z) + B exp( γ z)
1 ∂E x σ + jωε
H y ( z) = − = ( A exp(−γ z) − B exp( γ z) )
jωµ ∂ z jωµ
1
= ( A exp(−γ z) − B exp( γ z) )
η
These resemble the voltage and current solutions in lossy
transmission lines.

The intrinsic impedance of the medium is defined as
jτ jωµ
η= η e =
σ + jωε
For the propagation constant, one can obtain the real and imaginary
parts as
γ= jωµ(σ + jωε ) = α + jβ
1/ 2
 2 
ω µε  σ
 
α= 1 +   − 1
2   ωε  
 
1/ 2
 2 
ω µε  σ
 
β= 1 +   + 1
2   ωε  
 
Phase velocity and wavelength are now functions of frequency

−1 / 2
( )
ω 2  σ
2 
vp = =  1+ + 1
β µε  ωε 

−1 / 2
( )
2π 2  σ
2 
λ= =  1+ + 1
β f µε  ωε 

The intrinsic impedance of the medium is complex as long as the
conductivity is not zero. The phase angle of the intrinsic
impedance indicates that electric field and magnetic field are out of
phase. Considering only the forward wave solutions
E x ( z) = A exp( −γ z) = A exp( −α z) exp( − jβ z)
1 1
H y ( z) = A exp( −γ z − jτ ) = A exp( −α z) exp( − jβ z − jτ )
η η

In time-dependent form
E x ( z, t ) = Re { A exp( jθ ) exp( −α z) exp( − jβ z) exp( jω t )}

= A exp( −α z) cos(ω t − β z + θ )
1
H y ( z, t ) =
η
{
Re A exp( jθ ) exp( −α z) exp(− jβ z − jτ ) exp( jω t ) }
1
= A exp( −α z) cos(ω t − β z + θ − τ )
η
where the integration constant has been assumed to be in general a

complex quantity as
A = A exp( jθ)

Classification of materials
Perfect dielectrics - For these materials σ = 0
Propagation constant Phase velocity

β = ω ε r ε o µ rµ o ω 1
vp = =
α=0 β µ r µ oε r ε o
Medium Impedance Wavelength

jωµ µ rµ o 2π v p 1
η= = λ= = =
jωε ε rε o β f f µ r µ oε r ε o

Imperfect dielectrics – For these materials σ ≠ 0 but (σ/ωε)<<1
σ
γ= jωµ(σ + jωε ) = jω µε 1 − j
ωε
σ µ
≈ + jω µε + …
2 ε
σ µ
α≈ β ≈ ω µε
2 ε
ω 1 2π 1
vp = ≈ λ= ≈
β µε β f µε
−1
jωµ jωµ  σ  2 µ
η= = 1 − j  ≈
σ + jωε jωε  ωε  ε

If (σ/ωε)<<1, the errors made in the approximations for α, β, vp

2
and λ are very small, since only terms of order (σ/ωε) or higher
appear in the expansions. The error is slightly higher fo the
medium impedance η since the expansion contains a term of order
(σ/ωε).
The simple rule of thumb is that approximations for imperfect

dielectric can be applied when
σ
≤ 0.1
ωε
When the condition above is verified, the imperfect dielectric
behaves in all respects like a perfect dielectric, except for an
attenuation term in the fields.
The quantity σ/ωε is called Loss Tangent.

Good conductors – For these materials σ ≠ 0 but (σ/ωε)>>1
γ= jωµ (σ + jωε ) ≈ jωµσ = ωµσ j

π  1 1 
= ωµσ exp( j ) = ωµσ + j = πf µσ (1 + j )
4  2 2
α ≈ πf µσ β ≈ πf µσ
ω 4 πf 2π 4π
vp = ≈ λ= ≈
β µσ β f µσ
jωµ jωµ ωµ π
η= ≈ = exp( j )
σ + jωε σ σ 4
ωµ  1 1  π fµ
= + j = (1 + j )
σ  2 2 σ

The simple rule of thumb is that approximations for good conductor

can be applied when
σ
≥ 10
ωε
Note that for a good conductor the attenuation constant α and the
propagation constant β are approximately equal.
The medium impedance η has nearly equal real and imaginary

parts, therefore its phase angle is approximately 45°.
This means that in a good conductor the electric and magnetic

fields have always a phase difference τ = 45° = π /4.

Also, in a good conductor the fields attenuate very rapidly. The

distance over which fields are attenuated by a factor exp(−1.0) is
1 1
=δ= = Skin depth
α π f µσ
A typical good conductor is copper, which has the following

parameters:
σ = 5.80 × 10 7 [S/m]
ε ≈ εo
µ ≈ µo

Copper remains a good conductor at extremely high frequencies.

Another good conductor example is sea water at relatively low
frequencies
σ ≈ 4.0 [S/m]
ε ≈ 80ε o
µ ≈ µo
At a frequency of 25 kHz
σ
≈ 36, 000
ωε

Perfect conductor - For this ideal material σ →∞
For this material, the attenuation is also infinite and the skin depth
goes to zero. This means that the electromagnetic field must go to
zero below the perfect conductor surface.
General medium - When a material is not covered by one of the limit

cases, the complete formulation must be used. We can classify a
material for which the conditions (σ/ωε)<<1 or (σ/ωε)>>10 are
invalid as a general medium.
The simple rule of thumb for general medium is
σ
10 > > 0.1
ωε

Power Flow in Electromagnetic Waves

The time-dependent power flow density of an electromagnetic wave
is given by the instantaneous Poynting vector
G G G
P(t) = E(t)× H (t)
For time-varying fields it is important to consider the time-average

power flow density
G 1 TG 1 TG G
P( t ) = ∫ P( t ) dt = ∫ E( t ) × H ( t ) dt
T 0 T 0
where T is the period of observation.

Consider time-harmonic fields represented in terms of their phasors

G G G G
E( t ) = Re { E exp( jω t )} = Re{E} cos ω t − Im{E} sin ω t
G G G G
H ( t ) = Re { H exp( jω t )} = Re{H} cos ω t − Im{H} sin ω t
The time-dependent Poynting vector can be expressed as the sum

of the cross-products of the components
G G G G
E( t ) × H ( t ) = Re{E} × Re{H} cos2 ωt
G G
+ Im{E} × Im{H} sin 2 ωt
G G G G
− ( Re{E} × Im{H} + Im{E} × Re{H} ) cos ωt sin ωt
(Note that: cos ωt sin ωt = 1 sin 2ωt )

2

The time-average power flow density can be obtained by integrating

the previous result over a period of oscillation T . The pre-factors
containing field phasors do not depend on time, therefore we have
to solve for the following integrals:
T
1 T 2 1  t sin 2ωt  1
∫
T 0
cos ωt dt =  +
T 2 
4ω  0 2
=
T
1 T 2 1  t sin 2ωt  1
∫
T 0
sin ωt dt =  −
T 2 
4ω  0 2
=
T
1 T 1  sin ωt 
2
∫
T 0
cos ωt ⋅ sin ωt dt = 
T  2ω 
 =0
0

The final result for the time-average power flow density is given by
G 1 TG G
P( t ) = ∫ E( t ) × H ( t ) dt
T 0
1 G G G G
= ( Re{E} × Re{H} + Im{E} × Im{H} )
2
Now, consider the following cross product of phasor vectors
G G* G G G G
E × H = Re{E} × Re{H} + Im{E} × Im{H}
G G G G
+ j ( Im{E} × Re{H} − Re{E} × Im{H} )

By combining the previous results, one can obtain the following

time average rule
G 1 TG G 1 G G*
P( t ) = ∫ E( t ) × H ( t ) dt = Re E × H
T 0 2
{ }
We also call complex Poynting vector the quantity
G 1 G G*
P = E× H
2
NOTE: the complex Poynting vector is not the phasor of the time-
dependent power nor that of the time-average power density!
G G G G
P( t ) = Re {P} ( don't try P( t ) = Re {P exp( jωt )} )
Phasor notation cannot be applied to the product of two time-

harmonic functions (e.g., P( t )), even if they have same frequency.

Consider a 1-D electro-magnetic wave moving along the z-direction,

with a specified electric field amplitude Eo
E x ( z) = Eo exp( −αz) exp(− jβz)

Eo
H y ( z) = exp(−αz) exp( − jβz) exp(− jτ )
η
The time-average power flow density is
1  −αz − jβ z o −α z jβ z jτ 
*
G 1 G G*
{
P( t ) = Re E × H = Re  Eo e e
2 2 
}
E
η
e e e 


−2 α z −2 α z
1
= Eo
2
2e
η
1
Re e jτ = Eo
2
2 e
{ }
η
cos τ
Power in a lossy medium decays as exp(-2α z)!

Consider the same wave, with a specified amplitude for the

magnetic field
H y ( z) = Ho exp(−αz) exp(− jβz)
E x ( z) = η Ho exp(−αz) exp(− jβz) exp( jτ )
The time-average power flow density is expressed as
G 1
{
P( t ) = Re η Ho e−αz e− jβ z Ho* e−αz e jβ z e jτ
2
}
1 2 −2 α z
= η Ho e cos τ
2
If α is the attenuation constant for the electromagnetic fields

⇒ 2α is the attenuation constant for power flow.

If the wave is generated by an infinitesimally thin sheet of uniform

current Jso (embedded in an infinite material with conductivity σ)
we have for propagation along the positive z-direction (normal to
the plane of the current sheet):I
Jso Jso
Ho = Eo = η
2 2
G 2
Jso
P( t ) = η e−2αz cos τ
8
For this ideal case, an identical wave exists, propagating along the
negative z-direction and carrying the same amount of power.

Poynting Theorem
Consider the divergence of the time-dependent power flow density
G G G G G G G
∇ ⋅ P ( t ) = ∇ ⋅ ( E ( t ) × H ( t ) ) = H ( t ) ⋅ ∇ × E ( t ) − E( t ) ⋅ ∇ × H ( t )
The curls can be expressed by using Maxwell’s equations

G G
G G ∂H G G G ∂E
∇ ⋅ P( t ) = −µ H ( t ) ⋅ − σ E ( t ) ⋅ E( t ) − ε E ( t ) ⋅
∂t ∂t
∂ 1 2  ∂ 1 
= − σE ( t ) −  ε E ( t )  −  µ H 2 ( t ) 
2
∂t  2  ∂t  2 
Density of Rate of change Rate of change
dissipated of stored electric of stored magnetic
power energy density energy density
This is the differential form of Poynting Theorem.

Now, integrate the divergence of the time-dependent power over a

specified volume V to obtain the integral form of Poynting theorem
G G
∫ ∇ ⋅ P( t) dV = w
∫∫ P( t) ⋅ ds = Power Flux through S
V S
2 ∂ 1 2 ∂ 1
= −∫ σE ( t ) dV − ∫ ε E ( t ) dV − ∫ µ H 2 ( t ) dV
∂t 2 ∂t 2
V V V
Power dissipated Rate of change Rate of change
in volume of electric energy of magnetic energy
stored in volume stored in volume

Typical applications
G G
Pin ( t ) Pout ( t )
α=?
1 m2
L
G G  Watts 
Pout ( t ) = Pin ( t ) exp(−2αL)  
2
 m 
G
1  Pout ( t )   Nepers 
⇒α=− ln  G   m 
2 L  Pin ( t ) 

Example:
G  Watts  G  Watts 
Pin ( t ) = 30  2  ; Pout ( t ) = 5  2  ; L = 20 m
 m   m 
 Nepers 
⇒ α = 0.0448 
 m 
Pay attention to the logarithms:
G G
 Pout ( t )   Pin ( t ) 
ln  G  = − ln  G 
 Pin ( t )   Pout ( t ) 

SURFACE A SURFACE B
G G
∫∫ Pin ( t ) = Power IN ∫∫ Pout ( t ) = Power OUT
A B
Power dissipated
between A and B?
Area = Area(A) = Area(B)

G G
Power IN = ∫∫ P( t ) A dS = P( t ) A ⋅ Area
A
G G
Power OUT = ∫∫ P ( t ) B dS = P ( t ) B ⋅ Area
B
G G
P( t ) B = P ( t ) A exp( −2αL )
Power dissipated = Power IN − Power OUT
Example
2
Area = 5 m ; L = 1.0 cm; f = 1.0 GHz; Eo = 10 V/m
ε = ε o ; µ = µ o ; σ = 0.45755 S/m
σ
⇒ = 8.2244637 General Lossy medium
ωε
η = 130.88∠ 0.725rad = 130.88∠ 41.534D
G
α = 40.0 Ne/m; Pin ( t ) = 0.286 W/m2 ;
G G
Pout ( t ) B = Pin ( t ) A exp( −2α L) = 0.12845 W/m2 ;
G
Power IN = Area ⋅ Pin ( t ) = 1.43 W
G
Power OUT = Area ⋅ P ( t ) B = 0.6423 W
Power dissipated = Power IN − Power OUT = 0.7876 W

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Electromagnetic Fields

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 33

From vector calculus, we also have

Finally, we obtain the general wave equations

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 35

In a region where the wave solution propagates away from charges

and the wave equations assume the familiar form

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 36

It is more practical to have equations for the electric potential and

We saw earlier that the divergence of the magnetic vector potential

Time-varying fields – Lorenz gauge Magnetostatics (d.c.)

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 37

Starting from the definitions G

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 38

For the electric potential we have

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 39

In engineering it is very important to consider time-harmonic fields

This assumption leads to great simplifications in the algebra. It is

The time-harmonic fields have the form

We can use the complex phasor representation

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 40

Maxwell’s equations can be rewritten for phasors, with the time-

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 41

In phasor form, Maxwell’s equations become

where all electromagnetic quantities are phasors and functions only

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 42

Let’s consider first vacuum as a medium. The wave equations for

The general solutions for these differential equations are waves

This means that each equation contains all the necessary

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 43

At this stage we assume that a wave exists, and we do not yet

• We assume that the wave solution has an electric field which is

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 44

The Helmholtz equation becomes:

We have now a one-dimensional wave propagation problem

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 45

This equation has a well known general solution

where the propagation constant is

B exp ( j β z ) Backward wave, moving along negative z

For the simple wave orientation chosen here, the problem is

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 46

If a specific electromagnetic wave is established in an infinite

A reflected wave exists when a discontinuity takes place along the

We can write at last the phasor electric field describing a simple

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 47

The corresponding time-dependent field is obtained by applying the

The phasor magnetic field is obtained directly from the Maxwell

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 48

We then develop the curl as

 iˆx iˆy iˆz 

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 49

The final result for the phasor magnetic field is

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 50

We have found that the fields of the electromagnetic wave are

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 51

Electromagnetic power flows with the wave along the direction of

The Poynting vector is perpendicular to both field components, and

When the wave propagates on a general direction, which does not

and direction parallel to the Poynting vector.

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 52

The condition of mutual orthogonality between the field

© Amanogawa, 2006 – Digital Maestro Series 53

So far, we have just verified that electromagnetic plane waves are