Module 4

YOUPERMEABILITY ANDOR
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SEEPAGE

Engr. Paciencia J. Polinar

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OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE

1.1 PURPOSE OF MODULE

This module will discuss the various terms and parameters used in the flow of water through
soils and explain how to calculate the average coefficient of permeability of soil for horizontal
and vertical flow in stratified soils.

1.2 MODULE TITLE AND DESCRIPTION

1.2.1 Title: Permeability and Seepage
1.2.2 Description: This module comprises of the following topics: Darcy’s Law,
Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability, Flow
Through Permeable Layers, Empirical Relations for
Hydraulic Conductivity, Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity
In Stratified Soil, Flow Through Layers of Aquifers,
Hydraulic of Wells and Two-Dimensional Flow of Water
Through Soils
1.3 MODULE GUIDE
In this module, you are expected to go through a self-study learning over the explanations,
examples, suggested readings given and assessments (e.g., assignments, quizzes, etc.) to
check understanding of the module. Moreover, an online setting of forum (for possible
question and answer) may also be conducted to further enhance your understanding on this
module.

1.4 MODULE OUTCOME

Upon successful completion of this module, you are expected to devise a flow net of soils in
at least three locations showing the calculations of permeability and seepage of water in soil
in your area using an improvised apparatus/device.
1.5 MODULE REQUIREMENTS
Upon completion of this module, you should have devised a flow net of soils in at least three
locations showing the calculations of permeability and seepage of water in soil in your area
using an improvised apparatus/device.
What Do You Know?
Direction: Answer the following questions as concise as possible.
1. Why is permeability important in civil engineering studies?
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2. What is the relationship between permeability and seepage?

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3. What does stratified soil mean?

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Key Terms

Permeability is a measure of how easily a fluid can flow through a porous medium. In
geotechnical engineering, the porous medium is soils and the fluid is water.

Seepage flow refers to the flow of fluid (water) in permeable soil layers such as sand.
Adsorbed water is the water layer formed around the soil particle especially in the case of
fine-grained soils.
Hydraulic gradient a line joining the points of highest elevation of water in a series of vertical
open pipes rising from a pipeline in which water flows under pressure
Hydraulic conductivity is another term used for permeability.
Aquifer an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or
unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt).
Artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer containing groundwater under positive pressure.

Learning Plan

Think About It

Question:

What do you think will happen to a structure if the soil is permeable and seepage flow is
strong?
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Activity 1
How does water flow through soil?

In this activity you will be able to observe how water flows for the different types of soil.

Prepare the following materials:

✓ five 6-ounce clear plastic cups with four small holes punched in each with ballpoint
pen
✓ five 10-ounce clear plastic cups
✓ 1 graduated kitchen measuring cup or improvised measuring cup
✓ 1 pitcher of water
✓ 1 large spoon or scoop for transferring samples to cups
✓ A clock with a second hand or a timer
✓ Soil
▪ A garden soil (use natural soil collected outside, not recently soaked
with water)
▪ Sand
▪ Pea-size gravel
▪ Dry powdered clay
▪ Silt
Procedure:
1. Fill each clear plastic cups with the soils you collected.
2. Then, pour water individually recording the time until the water totally stops dripping.

Try These

1. During a constant head permeability test on a sample of sand, 150 cu. cm. of water were
collected in 2 mins. The sample had a length of 10 cm and a diameter of 5.08 cm. The head
was maintained at 20 cm.

a. Compute the coefficient of permeability.

b. What type of soil is this?
c. Compute the seepage velocity if the porosity of soil is 0.30.

2. In a constant head permeability test in the laboratory, the following are given:

Length of soil specimen 25 cm

Cross sectional area of soil specimen 105 cm

If the value of the hydraulic conductivity is 0.014 cm/sec and a flow rate of 120 cm3/min must
be maintained through the soil, determine the following:

a. Head difference across the specimen.

b. Discharge velocity under the test condition.
c. Seepage velocity if the porosity of soil sample is 0.20.
3. For a variable head permeability test, the following are given:

Length of soil specimen 200 mm

Area of soil specimen 1000 mm2
Area of stand pipe 40 mm2
Head difference at time t = 0 is 500 mm
Head difference at time t = 3 min is 300 mm

a. Compute the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec.

b. Compute the seepage velocity if the porosity of soil = 0.25.
c. What was the head difference at time t = 100 sec.

4. From the figure shown, the thickness of a permeable soil layer is 1.1 meter making an
angle of 14⁰ with the horizontal. K = 4.87 x 10-2 cm/sec.

a. Compute the hydraulic gradient.

b. Compute the cross sectional area at right angles to the cross-section shown.
c. Compute the flow rate in m3/hr/m.
5. From the Figure shown:

a. What is the equation in determining the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the

horizontal direction.
b. What is the equivalent coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction if each soil
layer is 3m thick and has the given values of K1, K2, K3 and K4.
c. What is the total flow?

6. A layered soil is shown in the figure.

a. Compute the value of the total head loss “h” if the hydraulic gradients are equal to i1 =
0.38, i2 =0.40, i3 =0.41, i4 = 0.39.
b. Compute the value of the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction.
c. Compute the value of the discharge if the cross sectional area perpendicular to the
direction of flow is 6 m2 and average hydraulic gradient is 0.40.

7. A channel runs almost parallel to a river as shown in the figure. The water level in the river
has an elevation of 36 m and the elevation of the channel is 33 m. The river and channel are
600 m apart and a pervious formation of average thickness of 9 m and
hydraulic conductivity of 0.08 m/hr joins them together.

a. Compute the hydraulic gradient.

b. Compute the rate of seepage flow from the river to the channel per meter width in liters
per day.
c. If the seepage velocity is 0.048 m/day, compute the void ratio of the pervious medium.
8. A pumping test was carried out to determine the permeability of a sand layer in an
unconfined aquifer with the piezometric level before pumping located at 1.85 m below the
ground surface. At a steady-state pumping rate of 58.7 m3/hr the drawdown in the
observation wells were respectively 2.91 m and 0.88 m. the distances of the observation
wells from the center of the test well were 15 m. and 35 m. respectively. If the location of the
aquiclude (impermeable layer) is 16.2 m. below the ground surface, compute the coefficient
of permeability K:

9. A permeability pumping test was carried out in a confined acquifer with the piezometric
level before pumping is 2.18 m. below the ground surface. The aquiclude (impermeable
layer) has a thickness of 5.7 m. measured from the ground surface and the confined acquifer
is 7. m. deep until it reaches the acquiclude (impermeable layer) at the bottom. At a steady
pumping rate of 15. 6 m3/hour the drawdown in the observation wells were respectively
equal to 1. 62 m. and 0.4 m. the distances of the observation wells from the center of the
test well were 15 m. and 32 m. respectively.
10. A dam section is shown with sheetpiles driven at a depth of 8 m below the ground
surface. The coefficient of permeability of the permeable layer in the vertical and horizontal
directions are kz = 0.02 mm/sec and kx = 0.04 mm/sec respectively. Calculate the seepage loss
of the dam in liters/sec/m if it is a non-isotropic soil.

What’s Up?

How was it so far? To check your answers, see solutions from Besavilla’s book, Basic
Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, 3rd Edition: Permeability (pp. G-210 – G-233), and
Flow Nets (pp. G-285 – G-294) or any Editions of Besavilla’s book (You can still find the
problems there). Do you have the same answer?

Let's Dig Deeper

Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which water can
flow from points of high energy to low energy.
Why study of flow water necessary in soil mechanics?

It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage under various hydraulic
conditions.

Darcy’s Law

Pore spaces between soil particles are all interconnected so that water is free to flow within
the soil mass. Water will flow from zones of higher to lower pore-water pressure. In
considering flow of water, the pressure is normally express in terms of pressure head or head
measured in metres of water.
The Total Head (h) causing a water flow is given by Bernoulli’s equation;

The quantity of seepage or volume of flow per unit time, q

Where A is the cross-sectional area of flow

Coefficient of Permeability

The coefficient of permeability, k, may be defined as the flow velocity produced by a

hydraulic gradient of unity. It is a measure of the resistance to flow offered by the soil.
Permeability is affected by:
a. The porosity of the soil.
b. The particle size distribution
c. The shape and orientation of soil particles.
d. The degree of saturation or the present of air.
e. The type of ion and thickness of adsorbed layers of clay minerals.
f. The viscosity of the soil water which varies with temperature.

Table below shows the range of coefficient of permeability of main soil types and their
drainage characteristics.

Approximation of k – Hazen’s Formula

The most widely used approximation of k is one suggested by Hazen for filter sands:

k = CkD210 (mm/s)

Where Ck = experiemental coefficient dependent on the nature of soil

D10 = effective size (mm)

Determination of k in the Laboratory

The Constant-head Permeability Test

The constant head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-grained
soils (k > 104 m/s)
Example

A constant head permeability test uses a permeameter with piezometer attached to its sides.
The graduated cylinder collects 800 cu.m. of water in 100 seconds. The diameter of the soil
sample is 18 cm. Elevation of the water in the upper piezometer is 180 cm and that of the
lower piezometer is 116 cm. The pizometer tips are spaced 20 cm on center.

a. Compute the hydraulic gradient.

b. Compute the hydraulic conductivity.
c. Compute the seepage velocity if the void ratio of the soil sample is 0.56

Solution:

a. Hydraulic gradient

i = h/L
i = (180 – 116)/3(20)
i = 1.07
b. Hydraulic conductivity

q = kiA A = π/4(18)2 k = q/iA

q = 800/100 = 254.5 cm2 = 8/(254.5)(1.07)
= 8 cm3/s k = 0.0294 cm/sec

c. Seepage velocity

V = q/A n = e/(1 + e) Vs = V/n

V = 8/254.5 n = 0.56/(1 + 0.56) Vs = 0.031/0.36
V = 0.031 cm/sec n = 0.36 Vs = 0.086 cm/sec

The Falling-head Permeability Test

The falling head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of fine-grained soils
such as fine sands, silts and clays.

Example

A falling-head hydraulic conductivity test has been conducted on a clay sample in a

permeameter as shown in the figure. The soil sample was 29 mm in diameter and 90 mm tall.
The standpipe had an inside diameter of 6 mm. The water level in the bath surrounding the
sample was 120 mm above the laboratory counter top and the water level in the standpipe
fell from a height of 510 mm to 261 mm above the counter top in 46 hours and 35 minutes.
a. Compute the hydraulic gradient.
b. Compute the hydraulic conductivity.
c. Compute the role of flow of water in the soil.

Solution:

a. Hydraulic gradient

i = h/L
i = (390 – 141)/190
i = 2.77
b. Hydraulic conductivity

K = (aL/Ai) ln (h1/h2) A = π/4(20)2 i = 46(60) + 35

a = π/4(6)2 = 314.16 mm2 i = 2795 mm
a = 28.27 mm2
K = 28.27(90)/314.16(2795) ln (390/141)
K = 2.95 x 10-3 mm/min
K = 2.95 x 10-4 cm/min
c. Rate of flow

Q = kiA
Q = 2.95 x 10-4 (2.77)( π/4)(2)2
Q = 2.57 x 10-3 cm3/min

Field Permeability – Steady State Pumping Test

Field methods should be used when permeability values are of significant importance. Field
pumping test can be very expensive to carry out, but offer a high level of reliability as
compared to laboratory tests on just soil samples. Field pumping test can be economically
done in boreholes during site investigation, provided the pumping and the observation
sequences are carefully planned and controlled.
Pumping tests involve the measurement of pumped quantity from a well, together with
observation in other wells of the resulting drawdown of the groundwater level. A steady state
is achieved when, at a constant rate of pumping, the levels in the observation wells also
remain constant.
The analysis of results of pumping test depends on whether the aquifer (the water bearing
soil or rock layer) “confined” or “unconfined”.

Pumping Test in an Unconfined Acquifer

The coefficient of permeability, k, at steady state is calculated as:

Where q = the rate of pumping
r = the radial distance to the observation well from the pumping well
h = the observed water level in the observation well.
h = hO - d
d = observed drawdown
hO = initial saturated height of the aquifer

Example

A pumping test was made in pervious gravels and sands extending to a depth of 50 ft, where a
bed of clay was encountered. The normal ground water level was at the ground surface.
Observation wells were located at distances of 10 and 25 ft from the pumping well. At a
discharge of 761 ft3 per minute from the pumping well, a steady state was attained in about
24 hr. The draw-down at a distance of 10 ft was 5.5 ft and at 25 ft was 1.21 ft. Compute the
hydraulic conductivity in ft/sec.

Solution:
Pumping Test in a Confined Acquifer

Solution:
Where D = thickness of the aquifer
q = rate of pumping
r = radial distance to the observation well from the pumping well
h = observed water level in the observation well.
h = hO – d
hO = initial saturated height of the aquifer
d = observed drawdown

Example

A field pumping test was conducted from an aquifer of sandy soil of 4 m thickness confined
between two impervious strata. When equilibrium was established, 90 liters of water was
pumped out per hour. The water elevation in an observation well 3.0 m away from the test
well was 2.1 m and another 6.0 m away was 2.7 m from the roof level of the impervious
stratum of the aquifer. Find the value of k of the soil in m/sec.

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL FLOW IN STRATIFIED SOILS

Where soil consists of a number of soil layers of different soil types each with different
coefficients of permeability in the horizontal (x) and vertical (z) directions, the average or
equivalent horizontal and vertical coefficients of permeability will be different.
Example

In a falling head permeameter, the sample used is 20 cm long having a cross-sectional area of
24 cm2. Calculate the time required for a drop of head from 25 to 12 cm if the crosssectional
area of the stand pipe is 2 cm2. The sample of soil is made of three layers. The thickness of
the first layer from the top is 8 cm and has a value of k1 = 2 x 10-4 cm/sec, the second layer of
thickness 8 cm has k2 = 5 x 10-4 cm/sec and the bottom layer of thickness 4 cm has k3 = 7 x 10-
4 cm/sec. Assume that the flow is taking place perpendicular to the layers
EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Hazen Formula (for fairly uniform sand)

k (cm/sec) = c (D10)2

where: c = a constant that varies from 1 to 1.5

D10 = effective size, mm

Casagrande (for fine to medium clean sand)

k = 1.4e2k0.85

where: k = a constant that varies from 1 to 1.5

k0.85 = k at void ratio of 0.85
Kozeny-Carman Equation
k = C1(e3/1 + e)

where k is the hydraulic conductivity at a void ratio of e and C1 is a constant

Samarasinhe, Huang, and Drnevich

k = C3(en/1 + e)

where C3 and n are constants to be determined experimentally.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

The seepage taking place in soil around sheet piling, dams, under water-retaining structures
and through embankments and earth dams are two-dimensional.
Consider a two-dimensional flow underneath a dam;

Consider a two-dimensional flow underneath a dam.

General Flow Equation

Assuming water to be incompressible and no volume change in the soil skeleton;

Quantity of flow into the soil element = Quantity of flow out of the element

Flow Net

The Laplace equations describe two sets of orthogonal curves: those of constant ϕ called
equipotential lines and those of constant ψ called flow lines.
A graphical representation of equipotential lines and flow lines to form a flow net

A graphical construction of equipotential lines and flow lines is called a flow net. Once a flow
net has been drawn its graphical properties may be used in the solution of seepage
problems, example in the determination of seepage quantity and seepage pressures.
The interval between adjacent equipontential lines represents a difference in head, h and
the interval between adjacent flow lines represents a flow quantity of Δq.
Examples of Flow Net Constructions
Seepage Pressure

The work done by water during seepage results in a seepage force, J being exerted on the soil
particles.

The set-up below, when the valve at level A-A is fully open, the flow through the soil will be
under the influence of the head of hs. An upward acting seepage force is exerted on the soil
particles between level C-C and B-B.
When the valve is fully closed, the water level will rise until it reaches the level O-O, the same
level as the water in the reservoir (which is made constant). At this point there will be no
seepage, the seepage force has been balance by the additional weight of water between
level A-A and O-O.
Then seepage force, J = ɣwhsA
Since the flow is constant the seepage force acting on the soil will also be constant between
level C-C and B-B.

Therefore the seepage force per unit volume, j = ɣwhsA/LA

hs /L = I, hydraulic gradient

Then, j = iɣw

The seepage force per unit volume (j) is usually referred to as seepage force.
QUICK CONDITION AND CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
DESIGN OF SOIL FILTERS
Summary

Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids through which
water can flow from points of high energy to low energy.
The Total Head (h) causing a water flow is given by Bernoulli’s equation.
Coefficient of permeability is a measure of the resistance to flow offered by the soil.
The two methods of determining k in the laboratory are the constant head
permeability test and falling head permeability test.
The constant head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of coarse-
grained soils.
The falling head test is used to determine the coefficient of permeability of fine-
grained soils such as fine sands, silts and clays.
Pumping tests for confined and unconfined aquifer are field methods to determine k.
Where soil consists of a number of soil layers of different soil types each with
different coefficients of permeability in the horizontal (x) and vertical (z) directions,
the average or equivalent horizontal and vertical coefficients of permeability will be
different.
The seepage taking place in soil around sheet piling, dams, under water-retaining
structures and through embankments and earth dams are two-dimensional.
A graphical construction of equipotential lines and flow lines is called a flow net.
Suggested Readings
▪ Role of Geotechnical Properties of Soil on Civil Engineering Structures. Retrieved Aug.
15, 2020, from http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.re.20170704.03.html
▪ Permeability and Seepage. Retrieved Aug. 15, 2020, from
https://www.geoengineer.org
▪ Permeability Characteristic and Behavior of Filled Cracked Rock in the Triaxial Seepage
Experiment. Retrieved Aug. 15, 2020 from
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ace/2019/3591629/
▪ Soil Mechanics: Flow od Water in Soils. Retrieved Aug. 15, 2020 from
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/geotechnical-engineering/119946-
geotechnical-topics-soil-permeability
▪ Flow of Water Through Soils. Retrieved Aug. 15, 2020, from
https://silo.tips/download/chapter6-flow-of-water-through-soils#
▪ Constructing Flow Nets. Retrieved Aug. 15, 2020, from https://geology.humboldt.edu

Assessment

Devise a flow net of soils in at least three locations showing the calculations of permeability
and seepage of water in soil in your area using an improvised apparatus/device.

Self-Assessment Checklist

√ X

Head loss, h

Hydraulic gradient, i

Coefficient of permeability, k

Permeability

Seepage

Flow Net
References

❖ Besavilla, Venancio Jr., Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering 3rd Edition.

❖ Gillesania, Diego, Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering (2009).
❖ Braja M. Das, Principles of Foundation Engineering 8th Edition (2016).
❖ VNS Murthy, Principles and Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
ANSWERS KEY

What Do You Know?

1. Why is permeability important in civil engineering?

Permeability gives the idea about the stability of the foundations, seepage through
embankments, etc.
2. What is the relationship between permeability and seepage?
Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water. While seepage is the flow of
water through soils. Therefore, the more permeable the soil, the greater is the seepage.
3. What does stratified soil mean?
Stratified soils are those that are characterized by abrupt porosity changes at various depths
within the potential active root zone. These changes in dimensions of the spaces between
soil particles affect water and air movement and can limit the depth of the active root zone.