HELLO : )

TECHNOLOGY
FOR TEACHING
AND LEARNING 1
TTL1 - TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND
LEARNING
MODULE 1 - INTRODUCTION TO TECHNOLOGY FOR
TEACHING AND LEARNING
“We need technology in every classroom and in
every student and teacher’s hand, because it is the pen
and paper of our time, and it is the lens through which we
experience much of our world.” – David Warlick
David Warlick has emphasized the significant role
of technology in making each person, especially the
learners, for a wide range of learning experiences that will
us understand how everything behaves. If this used in the
field of education, learning gaps, such as those things and
events that the learners cannot involve due to limitation of
resources and spaces, will be addressed. Closing these
gaps will help facilitate connectivity and awareness
making the learners a holistic individual that has a wide
range of knowledge.
Lesson 1 - Basic Concepts in Technology for Teaching
and Learning
It’s the teachers’ role to make the learners
learned individuals. But, providing information about
the topics and discussing the concepts won’t work
well in this modern world. What if learners
encountered problems regarding their family or
change of career? What if the learners will decide
what is the best choice among the options given?
Will the concepts and information help them solve
the problem? For today’s world, teaching should now
focus on teaching skills, not just concepts and
information. And with the limited resources in the
society and the obsolete information bounded in the
books, technological skill is one of the most
important skill that will address these issues. In the
field of education, these technological tools offer a
brand-new educational environment.
Let’s begin by understanding what technology means. The
word “technology” is from a Greek word techne which
means craft or art.
Many say that technology is everything from
cellphones, computer and televisions to movies and music.
Actually, technology is not just a product of human’s
inventions, but a process done in working the outcomes.
Technology refers to all ways that humans utilize their
inventions for their needs and desires. In simpler words, it
is an application of a scientific development.
Educational technology, on the other hand, is
basically technology’s involvement in the field of education.
It is how people utilize their inventions and discoveries as
ways to attained their educational needs and desires,
such as learning. As time goes by, educational technology
has had various definitions. But of those definitions, it is
from the Association for Educational Communications and
Technology (AECT) was widely acknowledged. AECT
(2004) stated that “educational technology is the study
and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using, and managing
appropriate technological processes and resources”.
As an overarching concept, educational
technology can be understood by differentiating the
concepts of instructional technology and technology in
education.
Instructional technology pertains to the theory and
practice of developing, designing, integrating, managing
and evaluating pedagogies, processes and resources to
achieve learning. Technology in education, on the other
hand, is any application of technology to support the
processes involved in education, such as finances, health,
foods, grade reporting and scheduling. It is said that
instructional technology is a specific idea of educational
technology as it directly deals with the application of
technology in teaching and learning; but technology in
education is not similar to what educational technology is
referring to.
Application:
Based on your experiences, you have been in the
educational institution for many years already. You have
seen how technology was slowly integrated to support
educational transactions. These technologies include the
use of computer, printers, sound system, television and
other hardware devices to facilitate administrative and
teaching activities effectively. As time progresses,
instructional software and multimedia resources started to
portray roles in the academe. These tools now facilitate
the use of educational technology in most, if not all,
academic institutions nowadays.
As discussed, some of these tools were directly
involved in honing learning and enhancing the teaching
practices. Digital projectors, educational videos and
computers became efficient instructional technology for
both the learners and you, the teachers. On the other
hand, sound system, programming software and survey
administration applications are some of the technology in
education used to help administrative works in the
educational institutions.
Lesson 2 - Historical Development for Educational
Technology
Learning history may bore someone. But, learning
history is also a way to analyze why something’s behavior
today and appreciate its existence even more. In the field
of technology, for example, learning how computer was
invented, how pictures are developed and how sounds are
transmitted develop anyone’s sense of appreciation and
provides a guide o how to make and do things
systematically. As teachers who will use technology in the
future classes, you will be oriented on the other tools,
though are already old, to be used at any part of your
lesson and be included on your repertoire of teaching VHS magnetic 2006
tools and pedagogies. TAPES tape
used to
Name of Time record
Tools the Tools Usage Encountered video
Is used to and sound.
RADIO convey 2004
information It is an
from one COMPUTER electronic 2010
place to device that
another manipulates
through information,
intervening or data.
media. Also used
Besides for in storing,
transmitting retrieving,
sound it is and
also used in processing
coded data. And
form. used to
encode
It contains a data,
FILM series of 2006 send email,
STRIPS still pictures and
for browse the
projection web.
the
sequence in
the strips Communication plays a very significant role in
one at a teaching as it enables the transmission of information from
time. Some the sender to the receiver; thus, the ‘ICT’ term was coined.
filmstrips The history of educational technology can be traced from
come with a how the modes of communication are developed.
tape of disc
recording Due to the lack of knowledge, ancient people utilized
that traditional technology to facilitate the mode of
contains the communication. These technologies served as a medium
narration. to realize learning.

This is like Human Voice is the earliest medium of communication.

OVERHEAD a film or 2007 Stories and folklores are transmitted through oral
PROJECTOR communication.
slide
projector
that Written documents were first seen around the 5th
uses light to century BC to transmit manuscripts and other written
project an documents.
enlarged
image into After used in India during the 12th century, slate boards
a and blackboards were used in the schools around 18th
screen. century.

It is a Books were utilized around the 18th century as way to

TELEVISION tele- 2004 compile information and compile contents.
communi-
cation
medium Although the traditional form of technology is still used
used for today, the onset of modernization paved way to
transmitting technological knowledge. Thus, technological tools were
moving invented. These tools were used by the government, in
images. the economy, and even in education.

It is a
Radio were first used in the educational programs around
1920's after the British Broadcasting Company (BBC)
used this for schools.
Filmstrips and filmstrips projector were used around
1940's to 1980's in giving inexpensive programmed
instructions for educational films.
Overhead projectors were used in lectures presentations
for around 1950's to early 1960's.
Televisions used fiber-optic cable around 1970's to
provide picture reception for educational television
channels like the National Geographic and the History
channel.
VHS tapes and audio tapes were used around 1970's to
1980's for video and audio recording.
Computers were adapted from the analytical engines
designed by Charles Babbage, and was used in the field
of educational around the 1990's.
The use of computer has even made the invention
of digital tools, such as the Internet, more rapid.
Computers even transformed into many versions.
According to Jawad Khan (2013), the generation of
computers has already five transitions. This will likely
increase as people are continuously designing things
digitally; and the education field is no exemption.
Application:
If educational experiences be traced back according to
how teachers utilized traditional and digital technology in
the classes, you have to go back to the time when
computers are not the center of the digital world yet.
• When you ask your grandparents, they will
definitely say that the mode of teaching during their times
were just the blackboard and the books as fountain of
information.
• Their teacher’s lectures act as guide that can
provide them the necessary knowledge they need in their
future jobs.
Teachers slowly realize that there are things learners
should learn but cannot experience the information by
themselves. With the emergence of technological tools,
this gap was gradually addressed. Learners can now
visualize what planets are and realize the physical
environment of the other parts of the Earth. Most of these
experiences were accomplished using digital technologies.
• Learners were able to hear the accents of the
other nationalities through the use of radio and audio
tapes.
• Educational cartoons and images of historical
significance were stored in film strips and can be
accessed for instructional purposes.
• Instead of writing in the blackboards, literary
texts can just be prepared ahead in acetate films to be
flashed in the overhead projectors.
• Television offers information through multimedia
presentations that learners can grasp with clear details.
• Computers allow learners to access updated
information and personal experiences of the individuals
which are away from them. Learners can also design and
craft outputs creatively and accurately with the use of
computers.
The advancement of technology paves a way for
the new tools. But that does not mean that the obsolete
ones will be replaced permanently. All of these tools serve
a purpose, and are very much useful as long as it aids in
realizing the aim of instruction.
Lesson 3 - Roles of Computer in Teaching for Leaning
Computers is starting to be everyone’s friend. It’s
probably hard to think of any job that does not use
computer in any transactions or tasks. School are not
exemptions in this phenomenon. It is probably hard for the
finance office and other administrative offices to work
efficiently without computers. And as the modernization
reaches its peak, classrooms are starting to use
computers to facilitate the teaching-learning process.
As you recall the first time of using computers,
struggles persist but the feeling of entertainment has been
irreplaceable. And as you journey towards finishing your
studies, computer has become your friend and its role has
been more than just a source of entertainment. Your
extensive use of computer has given you support in your
studies, just as your previous teachers utilized this for
their instructional tasks.
To be able to understand the functions of
computer, Taylor (1980) introduced the tutor, tool and
tutee model to visualize the role and educational functions
of computer.
TUTOR TOOL TUTEE
• Computer is • Computer helps • Computer does
used to teach facilitate tasks tasks based on
users specific and help users the users'
concepts and work efficiently. instructions.
skills.
• Computer • Computer gives • Computer
dictates what the ways for users to delivers what the
users should do manage and user asked from
and the users will organize outputs. it.
follow.
The tutor-tool-tutee functions of the computer
allows you to move your computer usage from a tutor, to a
tool, and eventually to a tutee. But, understanding the role
of a computer and its functions to education is not enough.
For many years, the use of computers has already
been studied and subjected to research. Although
computers provide accurate information, it cannot
understand how learners engage in the class and develop
motivation among themselves. Moreover, it cannot even Application:
identify the learning styles of the learners and guide them To further explore the role of computer as tutor, tool and
on what to do. Thomas and Boysen (n.d.) highlighted that tutee, examples are provided below with aim to maximize
computer will help learners learn concepts, but not, in any the benefits and minimizing the disadvantages of
way, substitute the role of the teacher in the instructional computer in the teaching-learning process.
process. It is useful to think that learners should work
collaboratively with computers for them to construct TUTOR
knowledge. • When you were still learning how to use technology
independently, you rely on the instructions provided online
As a learner, you are still on the ways of using computer through different sites and videos. In this way, you were
to satisfy your need for learning information, which able to maximize the information provided online. But in
computer can give you with ease. But soon, you will take doing this, you should have made sure that you were not
the role of a teachers, and this role of using the computer abusing your interaction with the computer by searching
will be different from how computers work with the teacher. malicious contents.
Thus, learning the advantages and benefits of using
computer in education will help future teachers like you. TOOL
• After learning how computer works, you were able to
Computers is an Reports and Multimedia utilize it to record and input data to secure your references
efficient storage presentations will resources is and other files. In this way, you can easily access the data
of information for be interactively facilitated to offer you have stored as compared to the knowledge written in
managing data and meaningfully learners to learn the notebooks which are often misplaced. However, you
and retrieval of conducted. realistically. have to make sure that the information you stored should
such data. be accurate enough, that is free from errors in content,
and from your own work.
Access to Homework, take- Other references
knowledge and home tasks and in any forms are TUTEE
information is other available to • As you start to develop yourself to be a teacher, you are
made easy. requirements simply and slowly exploring different software that will allow you to
may be submitted enhance the design presentations for your instructions. In this way, you
online; thus, delivery of will help enhance the relevance and creativity of your
saving papers. difficult topics. presentations with accurate and up-to-date contents.
However, you should make sure that these contents come
from valid sources and will ensure the learners' security
for learning.
Indeed, the positive effects of computers are inarguable.
However, computers also have disadvantage to the
teachers and learners. MODULE SUMMARY
 Technology refers to all ways that humans utilize their
Computers may Prolonged use of Pornographic and inventions for their needs and desires. In simpler words, it
affect the health computer may violent websites is an application of a scientific development.
and social cause discomfort may be accessed  Educational technology is the study and ethical practice
development if to face-toface easily and of facilitating learning and improving performance by
used excessively interactions. without consent. creating, using, and managing appropriate technological
processes and resources (AECT, 2004).
Cyberbullying Study habits may Cheating is done  Instructional technology pertains to the theory and
may exist for be affected due easily. practice of developing, designing, integrating, managing
irresponsible to the distractions and evaluating pedagogies, processes and resources to
users. and diverted achieve learning.
attention.
 Technology in education is any application of technology
to support the processes involved in education, such as
Dependence to finances, health, foods, grade reporting and scheduling.
computers may
affect learners'  The history of educational technology can be traced
way of back based on how the modes of communication are
understanding developed.
and writing  Human voice, written documents, slate board and
abilites, i.e. blackboard, and books were some of the traditional
spelling technologies used in ancient education.
 Radio, filmstrips, projectors, televisions, tapes and
computers were technological advancements that support
learning in a digital manner.
 All of the tools – traditional or digital - serve a purpose,
and are very much useful as long as it aids in realizing the
aim of instruction.
 Computer as a tutor is used to teach users specific
concepts and skills.
 Computer as a tool helps facilitate tasks and help users
work efficiently.
 Computer a tutee does tasks based on the users'
instructions.
 Computer will help learners learn concepts, but not, in
any way, substitute the role of the teacher in the
instructional process.
 Learners should work collaboratively with computers for
them to construct knowledge.
MODULE 2 - ICT POLICIES AND SAFETY ISSUES IN
TEACHING AND LEARNING
ICT is a modern tool which provides immense
effect in all fields of living. Especially in the field of
education, efficiency and effectiveness of teaching
methods and learning strategies were observed. However,
it is sad that not all learners experience such
advancement in education, especially those living in far-
flung areas. Moreover, ICT tools may also provide
negative impact to you and the learners, specifically in the
physical and social wellness. To lessen, if not eradicate,
these matters, the national and international government
and agencies worked together in helping the users, like
you, on how to utilize ICT in education effectively and
efficiently that will benefit the populace.
Lesson 1 - ICT National Policies for Teaching and
Learning
The world has undergone drastic change where
efficiency steps up to be great indicator of competitiveness.
Countries with better governance, transparency and
efficient bureaucracies will see greater investment flow,
jobs and will eventually provide a quality of life to the
populace. Moreover, individuals are trained to be
equipped with the 21st century skills as they are required
to be more efficient and advanced. ICT is the best tool to
cope with these changes.
As ICT becomes everyday tools in the lives of the
Southeast Asians, the governments of Southeast Asian
countries (SEAMEO Member Countries) devout in
bringing the ICT into schools. This will give opportunities
for learners to analyze information, solve problems,
communicate collaboratively, and will eventually make
them competitive in the 21st century market.
The SEAMEO in 2010 reported that the
Philippines is categorized under the Group 2 countries
based on the progress of ICT in education. Countries of
this level are in the infusing stage. This means that most
of the country’s ICT plans and policies in education are in
the process of being integrated in the existing teaching,
learning and administrative practices and policies.
However, struggles still prevail for some rural areas which
are still in the emerging stage, the lowest level in the scale.
With this, Philippine schools, being in the first level, need
to move up to be able to cope up with Group 1 countries
like Malaysia and Brunei Darussalam, which have
developed national ICT in education plans and policies.
Being in the Group 2 countries, Philippines has
recognized ICT as an empowering tool that will help boost
the country’s education system. So to foster the use of
ICT in education even more, the country developed the
Strategic Roadmap by the Commission for Information
and Communications Technology (CICT) to lay down
strategies and programs that will strengthen the country’s
ICT sector for the years 2006-2010. Unfortunately, there
were no records on its development, so this discussion
assumed that the plans were realized some time before.
The discussion will focus on the strategies and programs
which are related in the field of education. In this part, the
Roadmap first focused in ensuring the accessibility of the
ICT as support for learners’ education.
The Community e-Center Program
The Community e-Center Program provides
accessibility of ICT resources, such telecommunications
and Internet access, to the people living in the different
localities of the country. Internet in Schools (iSchools)
project is one focus of this program that gives public high
schools connectivity, Internet training, tech support and
monitoring and evaluation.
National Broadband Plan
Providing adequate bandwidth to the community
is keep to the ICT development. In this way, adequate use
of ICT will be available in most, if not all, parts of the
country. Presented below is the provision of broadband
connectivity in public high schools.
LOCATION TARGET
Key cities and 100% by 2010, jointly undertaken
municipalities by the private sector, LGU’s,
DepEd, & CICT
1st, 2nd, 3rd, & 4th 80% by 2010, jointly undertaken
class municipalities by the private sector, LGU’s,
DepEd, & CICT
Remaining 60% by 2010, jointly undertaken
municipalities by the private sector, LGU’s,
DepEd, & CICT
Last Mile Initiative
The government believes their role, along with the
private sector, in providing ICT services to the people
should ensure a free and fair competition in the
marketplace. But with some places are remote and
disadvantaged, the government strived to provide
Community e-Centers in these unserved areas. But once
the private sectors initiate for expansion in these areas,
the government is prepared to yield its access.
The Roadmap also highlighted the development
of human capital in education for sustaining human
development through the use of ICT. Harnessing the
human capital vis-a-vis ICT enables life-long learning. And
in the field of education, the focus of ICT in the human
capital is manifested through the ICT for Education
(ICT4E) program of the Department of Education. The
discussion below focused on the ICT4E program of the
DepEd as part of the Strategic Roadmap of the CICT.
Based on the vision of the Department of
Education (DepEd) as “21st Century Education for all
Filipino, Anytime, Anywhere”, the education system should
be able to integrate ICT in honing life-long and values-
centered learners, productive and responsible citizens.
These goals served as driving factors for DepEd in the
integration of ICT for their fiveyear strategic plan.
With this, the DepEd strived to enhance the curriculum,
develop the school personnel, and strengthen school
governance and management. To begin with, the DepEd
moved to enhancing the existing curriculum by
implementing these significant changes.
• Because of the scarcity of resources, they first
focused on the enhancement of the BEC by emphasizing
ICT learning targets – basic operations and concepts;
social, ethical and human issues; ICT for producing; ICT
for communicating; ICT for researching; and ICT for
problem-solving. Learners are expected to develop these
skills throughout their formal years of schooling. ALS
learners and TechnicalVocational High School learners
were included in this plan.
• The DepEd has designed materials to support
customized teaching for digital learning, and were made
available in the DepEd website. However, access
teachers’ accessibility and comprehensive inventory of its
use remains a challenge. So to bridge this gap, a sector-
wide Digital Content Development and Usability
Framework is drafted to intensify the use of Multimedia
Instructional Materials (MIM).
• With BESRA, the DepEd developed
Assessment Framework which entails on developing
assessment standards, tests and other instruments,
conducting training programs, and formalizing assessment
roles. Moreover, this plan is viewed to help widen different
assessment methods to efficiently facilitate assessment
planning, collections, analysis and reporting of data and
findings. Learners, in return, will be eased for paper-and-
pen tests focusing on multi-dimensional assessment tasks.
Aside from enhancing the curriculum, the competency
standards for educations, administrators, school officials
and non-teaching personnel were enhanced and
developed. The competency standards serve as guides
how one should perform and work. In this strategic plan,
all working in the education field should develop certain
threshold levels of ICT knowledge and skills. This can be
done by focusing some areas in education.
• The DepEd designed an Enterprise Architecture
(EA) on its first year of implementation with aims on
defining different hardware and systems for pedagogy and
development as well as in governance and management.
- The DepEd EA gave attention to the
administration and management by achieving the
maximum efficiency and effectiveness of the department’s
operations. One prescription emphasized the
minimalization of data reporting from school personnel to
emphasize their critical roles in developing teaching
pedagogies of their respective school.
- The DepEd EA gave assistance to teachers in
transforming to a more collaborative and learner-centered
teaching methods to attain the 21st century education for
all learners. Schools were trained to develop certain levels
of threshold of ICT knowledge and skills.
• The role of the ICT Governance as the body
who makes decisions on ICT in DepEd was strengthened.
Through adopting the ICT Governance Framework, the
DepEd can evaluate the ICT in relation to the
department’s needs and challenges, direct what ICT plans
and policies to propose, and monitor the performance of
the plans and the conformance with the policies.
The plan also emphasized the vital role of the community
in strengthening the performance of the schools around
them. DepEd’s coordination includes planning and
sustaining ICT investment to achieve collaboration from
the stakeholders.
• Parents are of great help in developing the 21st
century skills of their learners; thus, adhering to the
success of school-based management (SBM).
• Tertiary institution can act as partners of the
programs of their research groups about ICT plans and
implementation which would likely benefit the learners.
• Private sectors always offer way to provide the
school with resources, including the limitations of ICT
infrastructures.
• Community centers, such as Internet cafes and
other eCenters, cater digital divide that provides equity of
access among the learners.
• Local government units are always involved in
supplying what lacks from every school and provide
support in achieving a sustainable ICT-enabled school.
To concretize the plan of the DepEd, the Strategic
Roadmap of the CICT included initiatives supporting the
ICT4E program, which are listed below.
• The ICT in Education Masterplan which aimed
to craft the National Framework Plan for ICTs in Basic
Education (2005) that will focus on faculty development in
ICT.
• The Open Content in Education Initiative
(OCEI) which converted DepEd’s instructional materials
into interactive multimedia content, and promote the
development of web-related content in education.
• The PhEdNet which acted as a digital collection
of learning contents and application approved by the
DepEd which can be accessed by the Filipino learners
and teachers.
• The eSkwela established Community eLearning
Centers for out-of-school youth that gave them ICT-
enhanced alternative education opportunities.
• The eQuality Program is designed for tertiary
education that the state universities and colleges (SUCs)
used to improve the quality of IT education in the country.
• The Digital Media Arts Program used Open
Source technologies to build digital media skills to
beneficiary agencies, including the SUCs.
• The ICT Skills Strategic Plan allowed inter-
agency approach in designing strategic, policy and
program recommendations to address gaps of ICT skills.
Another important concern highlighted by the Strategic
Roadmap is the development of business to enhance
competitiveness in the global ICT market. Education plays
a crucial role in this aspect by conducting Workforce
Mobilization Program, especially in the tertiary education
and vocational levels. In this program, there three key
areas of interest which were attended to.
• The English competency is strengthened to
keep a competitive advantage in the global BPO market.
• The industry certification programs were
done along with the industry associations to identify the
necessary competence of human resources needed by
the industries, and will then be taught by the educational
institutions like TESDA.
• The career advocacy programs aimed in
educating the parents, teachers, administrators and ICT
jobseekers in successfully obtaining fulfillment in ICT
careers.
This photo shows some of the community e-centers built to allow
access in the technological world, including the learners for their
education.
 Training for teachers and other school staff on
enhancing their ICT skills.

Application:
The list below presents some of the accomplishments of
the government in the improving the application of ICT in
education, as reflected in the ICT4E Program of the
DepEd.

 Distribution of ICT tools in the schools for the learners to

use in the class
This photo shows the discussion of ULEAD Central Learning
Community CEO Dacanay on the Use of Technology for
Education during the DepEd ICT Summit in Baguio City.

This photo shows the turnover of the computer sets by the

provincial government of Cavite to the public schools of Indang,
Cavite.

This photo shows workshop conducted by the UNESCO

Bangkok at the SEAMEO INNOTECH Center, Philippines on
supporting competencybased teacher-training reforms to
facilitate ICT pedagogy integration.

 Partnership of the government to the public agencies

and non-governmental organizations

This photo shows the “Smarter Schools in Digital Dumaguete

Initiative (SSIDDI)” by the grant-in-aid (GIA) project of the DOST
in partnership with the DepEd.

 Infrastructures build around the schools to improve the

Internet connection

This photo shows the partnership between the DepEd and the
foreign agencies, World Vision and ProFuturo Foundation, in a
certain school at Malabon City to launch the nationwide Digital
Education project.

This photo shows a Philippine telecommunication company

orients the children on how to use the Internet upon installing its
connection in a certain school.

This photo shows the a computer set donated by the Marubeni

Scholarship Foundation together with the San Roque Power
Corporation at the Bobon Elementary School at San Nicolas,
Pangasinan.

 Building an online storage of instructional materials by
the DepEd
This photo shows the DepEd Commons that stored all the
instructional materials needed by the teachers of the DepEd in
teaching their specialized field.
Lesson 2 - Safety Issues in ICT
Maximizing the use of ICT accomplishing
academic tasks may also lead to its excessive use, which
most users are not aware of. Learners may sometimes
divert their attention into an unhealthy social interaction.
Teachers, like you, used to spend time in finishing
academic tasks for that make cause eye strain and other
physical pain. These situations may likely make ICT a
disadvantage, rather than a benefit, to both you and your
learners.
ICT tools may have provided people with convenience and
benefits that they can’t imagine working and studying
without its existence, but these tools may also cause harm
and negative effects if it won’t be used appropriately.
Below are some of the safety issues that will help you
prevent accidents as you use your ICT tools for teaching
and your learners from learning.
• Trailing Cables: Mostly, computers are
connected using lots of cables. If these cables are laid
down on the floor, people may trip over them.
• Spilt Drinks or Food: Damage to the tool or
electric shock to the user may be obtained if liquids are
spilled to a computer or any electrical equipment.
• Overloaded Power Sockets: Plugging too many
power cables in a socket may lead to overheating and fire.
• Heavy Falling Objects: Computers do have
equipment which are heavy like monitors, system unit,
printers, etc. If they fall on people, it may cause injury to
the user.
Aside from securing the physical safety of the users of ICT,
you and your learners should also remember the
detrimental effects of ICT tools in the users’ health
knowing that you often spend your time in your computers
and laptops. Some of these health-related effects are
listed below.
• Eye-Strain: Excessive use of computers may
cause tiredness of the eyes, or eye strain. Usually, users
experiencing this looks at the monitoring from constant
distance away. With that, your eyes cannot focus and gets
tired and painful.
• Back and Neck Ache: Bad sitting posture
caused by working at a computer for a long
time may result to a back and neck pain.
• Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) in Wrists and
Hands: Movements done over and over again results to
repetitive strain injury. Typing and using a mouse for long
periods may cause RSI in the wrist.
To fully ensure the users with their right of using the ICT,
an enabling legal policy is institutionalized by the
government. Part of these legalities is securing the
personal and social safety of you and your learners in
using ICT.
• Data Privacy Act 2012 (Republic Act 10173)
This law is established by the National Privacy
Commission to protect the basic right to privacy of the
citizens while ensuring a smooth flow of information to
promote innovation and growth, which all the citizens, and
offices and agencies should abide. It aims to give
protection to all forms of information – private, personal or
sensitive.
Because of the increasing importance of ICT in all
fields of work, the protection of personal data collected
should be strengthened. A trustworthy legal environment
that ensures data privacy will likely result in higher trust
and confidence for the Philippine ICT environment.
• Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act 10175)
This law is signed by President Aquino on
September 12, 2012 which sought to protect and
safeguard the value of computer, computer systems,
networks, and database, with the confidentiality and
availability of information and stored from all forms of
misuse, abuse and illegality. A Cybercrime and
Cyberfraud Prevention law helped provide the legal basis
for enforcing security measures and protecting the general
public interest.
• Freedom of Information Law (Executive Order No. 2, s.
2016)
This law is passed by President Duterte to allow
the Filipino citizenship to information that concerns the
public. It is the right that gives access to official records,
documents and papers about the official acts, transactions
or decision. This law also gives clear guidelines on public
access to government data, sharing of information among
government agencies, and the utilization of information
obtain under such law by the recipient government agency
or private sector.
Application:
Observing the following safety issues in education
helps your and your learners’ interaction with the ICT tools.
This will likely increase the benefit you obtained from
these tools. So, here are some of the ways on how you
can lessen, if not eradicate, the safety issues listed in the
previous section of this lesson.
In order to prevent accidents as you conduct classes or
prepare your lessons, these are good suggestions that
you can follow.
• Trailing Cables: To lessen this instance in
learning and teaching, these cables should be placed
inside a series of cable ducts or just tapes, or under the
carpet.
 • Spilt Drinks or Food: It is better if you and your
learners should place the foods and drinks away from
computers.
• Overloaded Power Sockets: This often happens
in the classroom when you and your learners are
something bulks of work to beat the deadline. Better use
different sockets and make sure that there is a fire
extinguisher nearby if unexpected events may happen.
• Heavy Falling Objects: Digital projectors and
speakers, for example, should be placed on strong tables
and shelves whenever used in the class as you are
teaching the lesson.
For the health-related issues, you can also follow the
suggestions as you accomplish your academic tasks.
• Eye-Strain: To lessen this, looking away from
time to time to be able to exercise the
muscles of the eye and taking regular break are helpful
ways to avoid this problem.
• Back and Neck Ache: There are different ways
to avoid this problem. Using adjustable and ergonomic
chair and taking regular breaks will help. Lastly, adjusting
the keyboard and monitor at the correct height of the user
lessen your chance of experiencing back and neck pain.
• Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) in Wrists and
Hands: To solve this problem, using a wrist-rest is a good
support while typing ang using a mouse. Taking regular
breaks may also help.
The legal basis of people’s interaction in ICT is
advantageous to those who observe the proper usage of it.
So, it is good if you use the laws mentioned above to your
benefit.
• Data Privacy Act 2012 (Republic Act 10173):
With this law, you are guided not to reveal information
from your learners, like their parents’ names, location and
learner reference number (LRN). Moreover, scores they
obtained from your class should also be taken with
confidentiality.
• Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic
Act 10175): In this law, you and the learners are guided to
treat everyone and every information online with respect
and appropriately. Interactions, such as exchange of ideas
and online conversation, must ensure the security of rights
of those involved. You should maintain professionalism in
all aspect, as much as possible.
• Freedom of Information Law (Executive Order
No. 2, s. 2016): This law informs you and your learners to
always keep yourselves informed. As the saying goes,
“ignorance of the law excuses no one”. Rules, policies and
laws should be understood before interacting to a certain
situation, such as involving in cyberbullying and other
unacceptable online practices.
Lesson 3 - Application of ICT Policies in the Teaching and
Learning Environment
As a teacher, you have to make sure that you
hone learners’ 21st century skills; and one of these is
teaching them how to utilize the ICT tools for their
economic and technical advantage. You have to make
sure that you utilize ICT in widening their understand of
your subject matter, and will help them use ICT in
deepening their knowledge. Learning some of the best
ways on how ICT tools were utilized in previous classroom
experiences is one of the stepping stone in planning how
you will make an efficient ICT-enhanced classroom.
The key to a successful implementation of ICT in
education is careful planning and teachers’ empowerment
towards ICT use. With that, the DepEd has an ICT4E
Program that will cater these opportunities for
development. The plans and programs listed in the
Strategic Roadmap were slowly realized through adopting
various strategies that implement ICT in the teaching-
learning process and the education in general. The
UNESCO’s International Institute for Educational Planning
listed considerations and application of how ICT is
integrated in education, and will be discussed based on
how it can be manifested in the Philippine schools.
• Digital culture and digital literacy: Digital literacy
is a skill of searching for and producing information
through the use of media for the society. This resulted to a
digital culture that impacts the construction and
distribution of information and power around the world.
With that, the Philippine schools utilize the ICT to foster
digital literacy among learners in order to prepare them for
their future work.
- One laptop per child: Although less expensive
laptops are advised to be used to attain the 1:1 basis,
developing countries, like the Philippines, still finds it hard
provide one laptop per child. Instead, the country just built
a computer laboratory to cater the needs of the learners
for computer access in the schools.
- Tablets: Tablets are small computers that the
learners can use by themselves anytime at any place. It
allows learners to explore application that they can use for
learning. However, it is still far from reality for the
Philippine public schools. Only some prestigious private
schools of the country require this from their learners, like
the De Salle schools.
- Interactive White Boards or Smart Boards:
Interactive white boards allow you and the learners to
display, manipulate, drag, click or copy images.
Handwriting, changes of projected images and ideas, and
interactive activities are easily facilitated using these
boards. However, only a few public schools utilize this
board for class discussion.
- E-readers: E-readers are electronic devices that
contains numerous books and other files in digital form,
which allows easy use, access and sharing of references.
Although there are no e-readers freely given to the
learners, other storage devices, such as flash drives, are
utilized by the learners in the class.
- Flipped Classrooms: In this model, classroom is
transformed by allowing you to discuss and practice
concepts at home for the learners to continue enhancing
the idea in the school. This interaction is facilitated by
computer-guided instructions and interactive learning
activities. In the Philippine setting, this is facilitated using
social media sites in which you introduce the lesson
through giving your learners a series of online resources
to explore and be enhanced in the classroom afterwards.
However, it is not used as a medium of instruction since
not all learners can access the Internet.
• ICT and Teacher Professional Development: As
mentioned in the first sentence of this section, the success
of integrating ICT in the learning assessments and in
facilitating instructions, resources and learners’ interaction
depends on the ability of the teacher, like you, to
incorporate ICT along the process. Fortunately, the DepEd
has been conducting trainings, seminars and workshops
about using ICT in your field of specialization. Moreover,
trainings for supervisors, educators and decision makers
are constantly done in order to help their schools foster an
ICT-enhanced environment.
• Ensuring Benefits of ICT investments: To ensure
the investments in ICT benefit the learners, infrastructure
in ICT, stable and affordable Internet connectivity and
security measures must be provided to the schools. With
your advancement in ICT aspects, such as your ICT
literacy skills, pedagogical settings and the uses of ICT in
your discipline, you can effectively implement the
curriculum and reflect local culture that supports learning
for your learners. This is what the DepEd has been doing
especially in building Internet sites in the barrios and
contextualizing the content of the lessons.
• Resource Constrained Contexts: As a
developing country, the Philippine public schools find it
difficult to require learners to bring their own laptop,
smartphones or tablets to be used in the teaching-learning
process. With that, the department has conducted several
updates to improve the technical support for ICT
infrastructures. Monitoring the software of each computer,
building additional infrastructures to cater slow Internet
speed, and solving electrical connections were some of
the problems that addressed by the DepEd to maximize
the use of ICT.
Application:
By improving these aspects of ICT in education,
the increase of performance among learners and teachers
are likely manifested. A report of the Southeast Asian
Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) in 2010
entitled Report: Status of ICT Integration in Education in
Southeast Asian Countries highlighted one best feature of
technology-enhanced lesson in the Philippines. This was a
study conducted to determine the effect of using Intel
Classmate PC in teaching Mathematics at Alabang
Elementary School found a significant difference in the
assessment of pupils and on the teachers’ self-
assessment. The exposure of pupils to this kind of
technology allows development of their comprehension of
concepts, higher-order thinking skills, and ability to
articulate views. With these improvements, an increase of
learners’ achievement, attention and interest in class, and
collaboration were manifested. Moreover, teacher’s
efficiency and effectiveness were observed after the
conduct of the study.
Through the partnership of the Intel Teach
Programme of the Intel Philippines and the Department of
Education, learning is enhanced using technological
media apart from the information presented in the
textbooks and other printed materials. The report of
SEAMEO even highlighted a few examples of how a class
PC tools and application enhanced lessons today.
• Instead of copying and writing data from the
references, lessons were focused more on analyzing and
thinking critically.
• Activities are enhanced using a fast Internet
research and communication.
• Creativity is encouraged from the learners as
they are asked to make multimedia presentations, rather
than written documents.
• Difficult lessons, like Math problems, can be
presented using a game-like software.
• Assessment tasks will be administered efficiently
using computers.
• Monitoring, communicating and collaborating
with the learners, grouped or individually, makes
classroom management easier and fast as you strive to
keep them focused and engaged.
Only if the learners can have the accessibility of
the different PC tools and the fast Internet connection, the
effects of ICT in education would have been its maximum.
Hopefully, the transformation of education to an ICT-
enhanced environment for learning will soon be realized.
MODULE SUMMARY
• The act of the governments of Southeast Asian countries
(SEAMEO Member Countries) bringing the ICT into
schools gives opportunities for learners analyze
information, solve problems, communicate collaboratively
and compete in the 21st century market.
• The SEAMEO in 2010 reported that the Philippines is
categorized under the Group 2 countries based on the
progress of ICT in education, which means that it is in the
infusing stage where most of the country’s ICT plans and
policies in education are in the process of being integrated
in the existing teaching, learning and administrative
practices and policies.
• To foster the use of ICT in education even more, the
Philippines developed the Strategic Roadmap by the
Commission for Information and Communications
Technology (CICT) to lay down strategies and programs
that will strengthen the country’s ICT sector for the years
2006-2010.
• To improve the ICT integration in education, the
Strategic Roadmap focused on the three aspects -
ensuring the accessibility of the ICT as support for
learners’ education, development of human capital in
education for sustaining human development through the
ICT for Educarion (ICT4E) Program, and the development
of business to enhance competitiveness in the global ICT
market.
• In the field of education, the focus of ICT in the human
capital is manifested through the ICT for Education
(ICT4E) program of the Department of Education that
looks into the following aspects – development of the
school personnel, and strengthen school governance and
management; enhancement of the competency standards
for educations, administrators, school officials and non-
teaching personnel; and the emphasis on the vital role of
the community in strengthening the performance of the
schools around them.
• To prevent unwanted situations to happen while using
ICT tools, the following should be looked into – trailing
cables, spilt drinks or foods, overloaded power sockets,
and heavy falling objects.
• Excessive use of ICT tools may cause eye-strain, back
and neck pain, and repetitive strain injury (RSI) in wrists
and hands.
• To fully ensure the users with their right of using the ICT,
an enabling legal policy is institutionalized by the
government.
• In the field of education, the safety precautions, health-
related risks and ICT laws do have implications in the
teaching-learning process.
• The UNESCO’s International Institute for Educational
Planning listed considerations and application of how ICT
is integrated in education as follows – digital culture and
digital literacy, ICT and teacher professional development,
ensuring benefits of ICT investments, and resource
constrained contexts.
• Only if the learners can have the accessibility of the
different PC tools and the fast Internet connection, the
effects of ICT in education would have been its maximum.
MODULE 3 - THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES IN THE USE
AND DESIGN OF TECHNOLOGY
In the recent times, the multimedia and
telecommunication technologies have advanced
considerably and had penetrated how man performs
practically in all things. Moreover, these developments in
information and communication technology have also
affected how man thinks, learns, and responds in his
environment. In these recent times, technology seems to
shape the future to be coming productive global
community.
Despite the major advancements technology has
offered, the education sector is slow in transforming
educational experiences that cater modern learners.
Teachers and educators are still struggling in facilitating
an effective classroom interaction using advanced
teaching pedagogies. Technology has advanced
tremendously leaving education behind the line.
To bridge the gap between technology and
education, this module presents theories will be discussed
that will effectively use technology in the instructional
process. In this way, teachers, like you, may offer
technological opportunities for learners to engage in
critical and creative learning processes.
Lesson 1 - Technology Integration
It’s very nice to know that majority of the populace,
of any age brackets, now know how to manipulate
technology in their daily interaction. Parents are amazed
upon knowing that their child can already turn the
television on using the remote. Consumers are offered
hassle-free transactions since different internet application
paved the way for online buying.Clients are efficiently
facilitated wherever establishment they go as customer
service is supported by many technological applications.
Learners, as your clients, should also feel the comfort of
education with the aid of technology.
Although technology integration appears as if technology
is just used in the field of education, ideas and practices
on its conduct varies tremendously.The list below are the
various vies and perceptions of educators and scholars
about technology integration.
- Integrating technology in the classroom goes
beyond just teaching basic computer skills and different
software applications. To make it effective, technology
integration is achieved when routine and transparency is
achieved and that it supports curricular goals.
- Technology integration explain how teachers
utilize technology in the classroom by introducing,
reinforcing, extending, enhancing, assessing, and
remediating learners’ mastery of curricular targets.
- Technology integration is infusing technology as
a tool to enrich learning of a specific content for a
multidisciplinary setting.
- Technology integration allows learners’ use of
computer in an effective and efficient manner to give them
opportunities in applying these skills in meaningful ways.
- Technology integration is making the curriculum
drive technology usage, not making technology drive the
curriculum. It involves making curriculum and technology
work in ways that it creates a coordinated and harmonious
whole.
By analyzing the different ideas on technology
integration present above, commonalities maybe observed.
For instance, one may see that it focuses on the nature
and ways of how technology is integrated. Other may
discuss its importance for curricular support. Also, people
can also see it as the use of technology to enhance the
delivery of content.
As discussed, technology integration aims supporting
curricular activities. These are some of the ways of how
the integration of technology in the curriculum offers
extended learning opportunities in formidable ways.
• access to up-to-date, primary source materials
• efficient methods of data collection and
recording
• collaboration of learners, teachers and experts
around the world
• opportunity for expression and clarifying
understanding through multimedia resources and outlets
• relevance of learning and authenticity of
assessment
• training for publishing and presenting new
knowledge
Based on the benefits listed when technology is
integrated in the class, learners will really develop as they
undergo through the process. As a teacher, you have to
make sure how to address this. One thing that will help
you realize this is by learning the levels of technology
integration.
According to Baker (2014) in his work on
Technology Integration Matrix as presented on the next p
age, there are 5 levels of technology integration in the
curriculum: entry, adoption, adaption, infusion, and
transformation.In the left portion, the matrix emphasized
the characteristics of the learning environment: active,
collaborative, constructive, authentic, and goal-directed.
Each level of integration process proceeds from the
meaningful level (from the left) to the most relevant level
(to the right). For example, in an active learning
environment, the entry level shows a passive reception of
technology. As it progress until it reaches the
transformative level, the use of technology has become
extensive and unconventional, which is really the most
difficult to achieve among the five levels.
 SAMR model of technology integration is developed by
Dr.Ruben Puentedura as shown in the figure on the next
page. In this model, technology integration is categorized
into four different degrees–substitution, augmentation,
modification, and redefinition. The first two degrees belong
to the enhancement stage. In this stage, technology’s role
is mainly to enrich and develop learners’ outputs even
more with the use of technology. In the last two stages,
learners’ outputs are being developed in a way that it
presents a different perspective, but still delivers the main
concept of the output.

Application: Although teachers like you are encouraged to help

For example, a topic in a TLE class about dress- learners move beyond the enhancement stage, it should
making places learners in a constructive environment in
also be remembered that the SAMR model is a spectrum,
with they should design address as their outcome in the
rather than a ladder. This does not mean that the
class. In the entry level, technology will serve as a tool
redefinition level is the best choice for a particular lesson.
that will show sample of a creative and nice dress for little
At some point, there are lessons that just need
girls. In the adoption level, materials and steps in making replacement of traditional tools to technological tools, and
address are slowly shown to orient learners how dresses there are some lessons as well that need technology in
are made. In the adaption level, learners get to choose
order to experience learning which is not possible without
what materials work best for their chosen concept. In the
its use. So as teacher, you need to be skillful enough to
infusion level, technological advancements will help
discern what degree should be focused and how design it
learners design their own dress using their chosen
for the instructional process.
materials and identified steps of making it. When they
reach the transformation level, the learners are now Application:
expected to extensively use technology in a way to share
There are some academic situations that can be
their own unique craft and are willing to help new ones to
applied using the SAMR model of technology integration.
design their own as well.
Degree Sample Academic Scenarios
This technology integration matrix emphasizes five main
Substitution • When teaching a government lesson in
purposes of technology integration that your learners
the Constitution ,you may use electronic
should develop, which we have already discussed on what
or web-based version of the documents
your learning environment should be. To make your
instead of a hard copy, that is impractical
learners active, collaborative, constructive, authentic, and
due to the large number of pages.
goal-directed, you have to make sure that you integrate
• You may ask your learners to prepare a
technology in a transformative way so make technology a
PowerPoint or Prezi presentation of their
relevant tool in constructing learning.
reports.

Augmentation • To supplement the ideas on the topic

Lesson 2 - SAMR Model
about the Amendments of the
As technology’s role becomes significant, its role
Constitution, you may choose to insert a
in educational so becomes more relevant. From being just
video clip of how equal protection under
a simple storage that facilitates efficiency in accessibility
the law was enforced during the
of resources to being a major tool in designing educational
amendment process.
outputs, technology offers various benefits that educators
• You may ask the learners to visit
and learners cannot refuse. As a matter of fact, most of
interactive links to relevant supreme
the educational tasks take much time if technology will not
court decisions.
be used in the process. Being in the teaching industry, it is
necessary to know how, when and how to use technology
at varying levels of technology integration. Modification • To summarize the contents of the
 amendments, you create a graphic
organizer using the different multimedia
resources that presents ideas and
synthesize contents of the existing
materials.
• You may ask learners to use cloud-
based workspace like the Google
Classroom to allow them to propose a
modern idea on how amendment is done
and solicit responses from their
classmates.
Redefinition • After the completion of the class’ group
works and soliciting feedback from their
classmates, learners may use technology
to connect with several places away to
discuss how constitutional amendments
impact their lives.
• You may ask the learners to interact
real-time with the citizens of different
places to examine the difference in their
constitutional philosophy.
Lesson 3 - TPACK Model
Teachers like you are expected to be reliable
enough in providing the necessary contents of their
subject matter. Moreover, you are also expected to design
instructional activities that will enhance the delivery of your
lesson in order for your learners to grasp the content
clearly. These are hard tasks that you have to master at
the end of your 4-year learning experience in your college
life. However, these tasks may be efficiently facilitated
with the use of technology, since most of the learners now
are very engrossed in the different technological media.
The Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (TPACK) by Mishra and Koehler has be come
a widely-recognized model of technology integration lately.
In this model shown in the previous page, a direction is set
in the use of technology for learning. It attempts to
contextualize important qualities of your knowledge with
your adept teaching skills, as you address the complex
and multifaceted nature of this knowledge. It describes the
relationships between the three forms of knowledge:
Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Content Knowledge (CK),
and Technological Knowledge(TK).
In this model, the intersection formed by three or two
circles provided description on what idea of using
technology for teaching is addressed. The following
describes what each acronym of the model means.
• Content Knowledge (CK) concerns on your
knowledge about the subject matter as given by the
curriculum. It is based on how deep your learning in your
discipline, as well as the higher order thinking and high-
level communication in the curriculum.
• Pedagogical Knowledge (PK) concerns on your
knowledge about teaching practices, strategies, learning
environments, and other teaching-learning situations. It
also gives emphasis on how you apply theories and
values towards your classroom management, lesson
planning, and assessments.
• Technological Knowledge (TK) concerns on your
knowledge about the skills in manipulating and using
technological media in teaching. It encompasses how you
utilize the different educational technologies to support
learning.
• Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
concerns on your knowledge about what teaching
methods and strategies should be used in order to
enhance the delivery of the learning content.
• Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)
concerns on your knowledge about how you utilize
technological advancements as you incorporate it to your
teaching practices in order to improve the development of
your lesson even more.
• Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)
concerns on your knowledge about the impact of
technological perspectives in understanding and gathering
learning content for your subject area.
TPACK is the way of describing the different
combinations and interest based on the three areas of
content, pedagogy, and technology in order design an
effective teaching lesson and content using the
educational technology.
Application:
TPACK Areas Sample Instructional Situations
Content Because you are convinced on the
Knowledge (CK) content offered by your references,
you used to go in the library of your
school to enhance the content of
your lesson.
Pedagogical To learn from the experiences of your
Knowledge (PK) colleagues from their seminar, you
took notes on the various teaching
strategies that will work well in
teaching learners how to read.
Technological Whenever you have spare time, you
Knowledge (TK) visit the Computer Laboratory in
order to learn how to create
presentation using the Prezi software
application.
Pedagogical After learning that not all strategies
Content will work in every subject matter, just
Knowledge (PCK) like how conducting experiments is
very useful in sciences but not in
language-related subjects, you seek
to broaden your teaching repertoire
through relating the different teaching
strategies to the learning
competencies of your subject matter.
Technological Upon hearing the different online
Pedagogical sites that provides useful information,
Knowledge (TPK) you designed learning interactions
among your learning (pedagogy) by
utilizing an online platform and be
presented using an online software.
Technological Since computational methods of
Content advanced statistical tools are ime-
Knowledge (TCK) consuming, you let your learners
utilize the different statistical
software, just the SPSS, in order for
them to perform a specific statistical
tool and generate an interpretation
from it.
Since the TPACK model provided you a holistic concept of
utilizing content, pedagogy, and technology towards an
effective way of integrating technology in education, you
have to remember certain ideas on its implementation.
• Learning concepts can be represented using technology.
• Pedagogy allows you to communicate content in various
ways using technology.
• As different learning contents have different skills levels,
technology is a good tool to realize this matter.
• When technology is integrated, it is important to
understand the different background of your learners,
including their education experience and exposure to
technology.
• Technology can work well with learners’ prior knowledge,
and may be used to hone new ones.
Lesson 4 - Dale’s Cone of Experience
Using instructional materials in a specific subject
matter depends on the objectives of your topic. Not all
topics in Mathematics use calculators. Not all lessons in
Science utilizes educational videos. Not all contents in
English use flashcards. As teachers, you have to know
what instructional media is appropriate to be used in order
to realize the quality of the deliver of the lesson. In these
times, these materials will be even more enhanced with
the use of technology-supported media in teaching.
The Cone of Experience of Edgar Dale, as presented in
the next page, is visual model that presents the band of
experience for the learners that is arranged according to
the degree of abstraction. As the learner proceeds to the
top of the pyramid, the more abstract the experience
becomes. However, this does not mean that the degree of
difficulty increases as well. Dale pointed out important
ideas that should be remembered in using this model.
• Each band of experience stands for the experiences that
are fluid, extensive, and continually interact. This means
that various kinds of experiences often overlap and blend
in to one another. Learners may choose to just watch
demonstrations, or experience the tasks by themselves
afterwards.
• Learning must not necessarily use the bands of
experience systematically from base to the top of the cone.
Teaching may not always begin in the direct experiences,
but rather to the most appropriate experience that cater
the needs and abilities of the learners in a learning
situation. Our daily interaction helps learn by doing and
these are concrete levels of learning that is natural in our
lives, regardless of our age level.
• Using one kind of sensory experience is not necessarily
more educationally useful. Sensory experiences are mixed
and interrelated. In a lecture, learners do not just listen,
but also read the content and the lecturer’s facial
expressions.
• Overemphasizing the direct experience in learning a
concept is risky. When learners are so reliant to concrete
experiences, meaningful generalization maybe obstructed.
To continue learning throughout life, a balance between
concrete and symbolic experiences should be observed.
Based on the model, the cone is categorized into
three sub-groups–direct experiences (where learners are
actively involved in doing learning tasks), iconic
experiences (where learners observe as learning is
constructed), and symbolic experiences (where learners
critically think and analyze the symbols presented for
learning). In these subgroups, there are different bands of
experience that you can use in your future learning
activities.
Direct Experiences
• Direct purposeful experiences – As the very bottom
and foundation of learning, the five senses are utilized in
order for the learners to be involved in learning
themselves.
• Contrived experiences – Since some learning are not
accessible to learners, conventional and digital
instructional materials, which will be discussed in the first
lesson the fifth module, will be designed to process real-
life experiences accessible to learners’ perception and
understanding.
• Dramatized experiences – Since some learning
experiences have undergone in the pastor are not
accessible for learning, experiences may be reconstructed
to create a similar scenario using the same elements of
the situation.
Iconic Experiences
• Demonstrations – These are visualized explanation of
significant fact, idea or process using photographs,
drawings, displays, or guided motion through showing how
these things are done.
• Study trips – These are visits to places in which
learning is made closer to the learners as important ideas
are not within the context of the classroom.
• Exhibits – These are displays to be seen by the learners
which showcase the best work to represent the entire
concept. The pictures, models, charts, and posters may
just to the eyes of the learners only, though there are
some exhibits that allow them a sensory experience.
• Television and motion pictures – These are audio-
visual display of a certain situation or event in order to
bring these experiences closer to the learners. With the
creativity of the films used, learners get to explore the
different perspective of portraying the message and
events of what has been watched.
• Still pictures, radio and recordings – These are visual
and auditory devices used to express an idea of the
concept. Still pictures may be pictures and photographs,
while radio and recordings are audio records to broadcast
events and discussions.
Symbolic Experiences
• Visual symbols – The images portrayed may not be
seen in the environment around you, since these are
highly abstraction representations of reality.
• Verbal symbols These are not objects nor images that
usually express idea, but are written symbols incorporated
in an abstract way for learning. Written words belong in
this category.
Application:
The Cone of Experience has provided guide on
how instructional tasks are designed in the classroom.
The examples below present how the bands of experience
are utilized in the teaching-learning process in any
discipline. The first set of examples below shows direct-
experience scenarios.
Direct purposeful experiences
By letting learners how to manipulate a
microscope, they can be able to operate and see every
part themselves, rather than just showing the image to be
followed by a discussion on how each part functions.
Contrived experiences
It’s very hard to find a cadaver just to discuss how
the organs of the digestive system are arranged, so a
mock-up will be used for learners to explore how parts are
placed. Moreover, learning how to read the clock means
using a tool that will allow learners to play with its fingers,
instead of really using a clock.
Dramatized experiences
To be able to offer the learners a reminiscing time
of the Passion of Jesus Christ, a MAPEH teacher may ask
the learners to depict what had happened by performing
the “Senakulo”. Also, learners may also simulate what
maybe the scenario when an earthquake hits a specific
place, rather than just discussing circumstances.
Based on the examples of direct experiences above, the
learners are engaged directly in a way that they can
perform and reflect what they have done. In this, learning
takes place actively. This time, scenarios will be given
about iconic experiences.
Demonstrations
Sometimes, there sources in the classroom are
just limited that the learners cannot operate and use those
individually. So, a TLE teacher may just show to the class
how to make a pancake or Mathematics teacher may just
present statistical tools solved using a statistical software
in front of the class.
Study trips
Usually, Science teachers organize field trip so
that learners can visit a planetarium, plant farms, and zoo.
In this way, the learners will be exposed more of what
really is the physical environment that allows diversity to
prosper.
Exhibits
Throughout the quarter, the teacher asked the
learners in their art class to compile all the paintings,
collages, and mosaics they have made. Then, the teacher
asked them to select their best work that depicts the work
of the famous artists. In this presentation, learners of
different classes visited the exhibit and was oriented with
significance of their work.
Television and motion pictures
Literature teachers may use educational films to
demonstrate legends and myths. The Odyssey may be
taught well with the aid of the videos so that the learners
can really visualize the characters and its settings, and will
eventually understand the story clearly.
Still pictures, radio and recordings
In their topic about speaking, an English teacher
may utilize audio recordings so that every after the class,
the learners still have records to access whenever they
can. In this way, the class may utilize the audio to improve
their speaking skills.
Based on the examples of the iconic experiences above,
the learners get to observe learning as they watch and
listen from the objects and situations given to them.
Through this observation, the learners can perform a
mental process for the information to make sense.
Visual symbols
Geography teachers always ask the learners to
read maps and identify the significant places. Moreover,
Science teachers may design infographics to illustrate
relationship of objects and scientific process that the
learners have to understand.
Verbal symbols
Mathematics teacher always give, or sometimes
create a formula, so that the learners can efficiently
perform mathematics processes in solving problems.
These examples above on the symbolic experiences
utilize materials which do not exist around us, but are
structures made by people in order to facilitate critical
understanding. Learning is done in a complex way and
requires greater mental load in order to fully grasp what it
means.
Technology can still be applied in the Cone of
Experience, especially in realizing iconic and symbolic
experiences. As you can see, digital technology is very
useful in order to present educational films, images, audio
and other technological resources. As a matter of fact, the
absence of technological tools may not realize the bands
of experience in the complex level of the cone. Even if
traditional tools are inevitable, digital media has made
significant contribution in realizing the usability of the
learning materials under each band of experience.
• The Cone of Experience is categorized into three sub-
groups – direct experiences (where learners are actively
involved in doing learning tasks), iconic experiences
(where learners observe as learning is constructed), and
symbolic experiences (where learners critically think and
analyze the symbols presented for learning).
• The bands of experience under the cone starts with the
most concrete experience up to the most complex one –
direct purposeful experiences, contrived experiences,
dramatized experiences, demonstration, study trip,
exhibits, educational television and motion pictures, still
pictures and recordings, visual symbols, and verbal
symbols.
• Technology play significant role in the Cone of
Experience especially in realizing iconic and symbolic
experiences.

MODULE SUMMARY
• Technology integration may be viewed based on
different ideas – one may focus on the nature and ways of
how technology is integrated, other sees its importance for
curricular support, and some emphasizes the use of
technology to enhance the delivery of content.
• Technology integration offers learning opportunities and
facilitate an effective and efficient teaching-learning
process.
• Baker’s Technology Integration Matrix emphasizes 5
levels of technology integration in the curriculum: entry,
adoption, adaption, infusion, and transformation; and
emphasized 5 characteristics of the learning environment:
active, collaborative, constructive, authentic, and goal-
directed.
• The SAMR model of technology integration emphasized
how technology should move from just a mere tool to an
instrument in crafting high-quality outputs.
• The four levels of SAMR model are substitution,
augmentation, modification, and redefinition.
• The first two levels of SAMR model enrich and develop
learners’ output seven more with the use of technology;
and the last two levels allows learners’ outputs to develop
in a way that it presents a different perspective, but still
delivers the main concept of the output.
• The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPACK) attempts to contextualize important qualities of
your knowledge with your adept teaching skills, as you
address the complex and multifaceted nature of this
knowledge.
• The TPACK model describes the different combinations
and interest based on the three areas of content,
pedagogy, and technology in order design an effective
teaching lesson and content using the educational
technology.
• The Cone of Experience of Edgar Dale is visual model
that presents the band of experience for the learners that
is arranged according to the degree of abstraction.
MODULE 4 - THE PEDAGOGY IN TECHNOLOGY
The advancement in ICT has captured scholars’
attention in education and in general. As school have
accepted the importance of technology in improving the
teaching-learning process, skeptics are doubting on its
implementation especially on the teachers’ readiness and
pedagogical orientation in responding to this great work.
Many researches discussed that teachers lack the skills
for technical operation and positive orientation towards
ICT’s impact in education.
As a response to the growing role of technology in
the educational field, educational institutions organized
series of training and workshops on the effectiveness of
using technology in the classroom. These trainings,
however, frustrated some teachers, especially those who
are just learning it in their late age since discussion where
very technical and focused on understanding computer as
a machine that involves meticulous processes to operate.
On the other hand, new teachers are fortunate enough to
work with technology since their educational years, but
these skills are only limited in its technical aspects. This
has been the general perception of teacher users in
technology.
Integrating technology in the pedagogical
processes allows its meaningful role for teachers as
catalyst in this undertaking n achieving learners’
educational success. It is important that as teachers, a
balance between pedagogy and technology is observed.
Lesson 1 - The Pedagogy in Learning
Of all the organs in our body, the brain is the most
mysterious. This organ has had many studies on how it
functions and misconceptions on how it shapes us to learn,
but what’s certain is it is the center of all human’s activities.
Right now, many fields of science can accurately explain
what happens when brains engage in thinking.
As future teachers, your very concern is your
learners’ learning. Understanding how metacognition
works establishes a good start in learning how the thinking
process works. Through learning metacognition, you will
be able to learn different ways how your learners learn
and process ideas. With this, you may design effective
learning activities that will address their metacognitive
skills; and eventually achieve learning
Thinking is an active process in the brain. When
one’s brain is damaged, thinking is greatly affected. Also,
a person being called “brainy” has good intellectual
attributes. This is because the brain holds an ecosystem
of neurons, circuits, networks, and brain areas that
produce pulses through a multi-layered feedback loops in
a synchronized oscillating firing pattern. Sustained firing
brings information to the “working” (short-term) memory.
When attended to, this information will be stored longer
For the psychologists, however, thinking is expressed
based in the following thoughts:
• Thinking is human reason as a process of strengthening
the relationship of stimulus and response.
• Thinking is understood based how one remembers, and
how related are the intended ideas.
• Thinking is a mental and cognitive process which
rearranges information perceived in the environment and
stored based on their memory from the past.
• Thinking is a systematic flow of ideas in a careful and
precise way which is triggered by a problem.
Since thinking is a very intrinsic process that is
hard to observe, understanding the thinking process
paves way for teachers, like you, to account its connection
to learning. As part of humans’ everyday process, learning
helps them improve by showing observable changes in
their behavior, skills, attitudes, and perceptions. With the
growing importance of observing learning, scholars have
been debated on its definition. Here are some of the ideas
they believed is the definition of learning.
• Learning is a change of one’s behavior as a
result of their experience.
• Learning is a cognitive process of conceptual
information that is taken in and how that process occurs.
• Learning is a realm of educational psychology
that undergoes step-by-step process of taking
experiences and knowledge permanently, and obtaining
behaviors and ways of the processing world.
Understanding learning may be simple, but
ensuring learning is a complicated task that you should
master, since there are many ways how your learners
learn. Of your 40 learners, each of them has learning
preference which may not be the same to any of the class
or yours. So, it is considerable to say that learners should
not be treated in the classroom as having the same
learning style and the same learning rate.
Pavlov, one of the most famous theorists that made
impact in the field of education, highlighted that learning
takes place through conditioning. This can be done using
either of the two processes:
• Classical conditioning – In this, learning is based on the
how the learners will respond to the particular object
presented for them. In Pavlov’s study on the dog, the bell,
and the food, the ringing of the bell followed by the food
makes the dog salivate whenever a bell is rung. With this,
learning is a reaction to an environmental cue that will tell
you what happen next to your learners.
• Operant conditioning – In this, learning is strengthened
using rewards and punishment. In Skinner’s study, a rat
placed in a cage knows that whenever it presses a button,
a food comes out and when it steps of to something, it will
be electrocuted. So as a teacher, you will know that a
good behavior of the learners should be rewarded and
bad behavior will be given a punishment.
Understanding the learning styles of your learners
is also something that you should remember. Learning
style is a learners’ preference on how they learn best.
Until now, studies are still on-going as what really are the
learning styles of a learner. The latest findings, however,
included seven styles of learning presented in the next
page. But as you look into it, you can see that these are
just anchored based on Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences.
 and independent.
Fun of working
alone, they do
well in self-paced
instructions and
can deepen their
reflection as they
learn concepts.

The learning styles described above shows how

learners vary considerably. As future teachers, you need
to understand that your learners may manifest two or
three learning styles, and you have to be creative enough
in addressing their learning styles as their learning
strengths. With the aid of technology, your teaching
pedagogy will be widened enough as you design
instructional plans in making your learners learn effectively.

Application: Lesson 2 - Instructional Design Models

A fun and effective school should engage their Part of your academic freedom is deciding how
learners in an active thinking and learning processes. In your class will go based on how you understand your
respond to this, differentiated instructions have been learners, your previous experiences in learning, and the
integrated in some academic institutions. To be able to content of your lesson as provided by your curriculum. To
know how to diversify your classes in order to cater how effectively plan what to do in your class, you have to be
your learners learn, identifying their learning styles is a equipped with the different ways on selecting what you
very helpful stepping stone. In the appendix, you get to think is best for your learners. Because when you are not
know your own learning style, and details on your task skilled enough in planning your instructions, there may be
well be presented. For now, these are the instructional a tendency that you may observe a very healthy and
implementations of each learning style of your learners. interactive class, but learners cannot deepen their
knowledge and may result to learners’ poor assessment
Aural Visual Verbal performances. It is important to remember that to
These learners These learners These learners instructional plans are varied, you still need to ensure that
worked well when are good in can memorize learning will be the bottom of everything.
they listen to working with facts and trivia
music and colors and easily, and are Planning a lesson is never an easy task. It
rhythms. When pictures, and good in narrating stretches from the moment you know what to teach to
learning, listening using the "mind's tales. Since your learners to the time you evaluate how much your
to and working eye". Using they're good at learners have learned. As teachers, you really have to
with musical computer games playing with equip yourself on the different ways how to design your
pieces enhaces and interactive words, they can instruction. With the many definitions and ideas about
their productivity visuals will likely perform well by instructional design, it can be summed up into this one.
in learning. enhance their writing and Instructional design is systematic approach of teaching. It
learning. talking. includes taking consideration on how learners learn and
understand based on the different theories of education.
Physical Logical Social Moreover, this also includes developing instructional
These learners These learners These learners materials and activities in consideration to the learners’
love to move and are straight are socially good styles of learning that will also support the achievement of
walk. Playing forward. As they as they work the learning outcomes.
sports and are logical collaboratively.
exploring outside thinkers, They can be Although a complicated concept, instructional design is
will likely improve exposing them to peacemakers are supported by some models. Although there are various
their learning, so an inquisitive they share, instructional design models in education, learning the
they can perform environment that facilitate and basic and simple models will be a good starting point for
well in an will allow them to organize people's you. In this lesson, you will learn three of those.
exploratory organize patterns ideas in the
environment. likely helps them. group. ADDIE Model
The ADDIE Model, as presented below, is a five-
Solitary step approach developed by the U.S. Air Force. This
These learners model is applicable in fields when it comes to planning,
are strong
willed including in the field of education. Below are the things
you need to consider in every stage as you utilize the
ADDIE Model as your instructional design.
instructional practice. In this phase also, you are to decide
whether revisions will be made in the instruction. What
makes this model different from the first two models is that
evaluation is continuously done throughout the process.
This is a very useful tool for technology-driven instruction
since instructional methods and resources get to be
evaluated in every phase of the process.

This design is also applicable in teaching using

technology as your mode of delivery. Using this model,
educational implementers, like you, are guided how to
plan their instructions in consideration to their learners’
resources, how to organize the content that their learners
can grasp despite minimal interaction, and how to assess
their learners holistically.

ASSURE Model
Unlike the ADDIE Model, the ASSURE Model is Application:
an instructional design model that is exclusively made for As mentioned, the ADDIE Model and ASSURE
educational application. The ASSURE Model, as shown in Model are somewhat similar when we consider on its
the next page, was developed by Hainrich and Molenda in application. The table below illustrates an instructional
1999. This model was first made to make an effective process of integrating technology in the class anchored to
teaching-learning process. And now, it serves as guide for the two models.
you to plan and conduct your instruction using the different
technological aids in learning. Parts of a Sample Instructional Activities
Lesson Levels of ADDIE Model Levels of ASSURE Model
Planning Analysis Analyze Learners
In this stage, the learning In this stage, the learning
styles of your learners styles of your learners are
are identified and their identified and their prior
prior knowledge was knowledge was
considered. considered.

Design State Objectives

In this stage, the learning In this stage, the learning
objectives were crafted in objectives were crafted in
consideration with the consideration with the
three domains of three domains of learning.
learning. Moreover, the
appropriate instructional
activities and
technological aids were
identified.

Development Select, Modify, or Design

In this stage, the learning
environment is set
according to what was
planned, and the
Hannafin and Peck Model instructional materials
were placed as they
The Hannafin and Peck Design Model of should be. Pilot testing of
Instruction is different in a way, compared to the two these materials are done
previously discussed models. As shown in the next page, if needed.
it has three phases. The needs assessment phase
Conduct of Implementation
requires you to craft learning expectations for your the Lesson In this stage, the learning
learners. The design phase focuses on creating ways to process is conducted.
realize your learning expectations. The development and The learning objectives
implementation phase is putting all that’s planned in your are delivered to the class,
In this stage, the learning
materials to be used in the
lesson are identified. You
may choose to select from
the existing, modify the
existing, or design a new
material for the lesson.
Utilize Materials
In this stage, the teaching-
learning activities are
implemented as planned
based on the set learning
 along with the use of
instructional materials
and other technological
media. As a teacher, you
also have to realize your
activities.
objectives. Also, the is achieved. This idea stretches more than what the
instructional media were traditional concept of classroom, but also includes outside-
utilized in the process.
of-school locations. Also, school culture is also given
importance in this definition that includes the learners’
interaction and your instructional plans to facilitate
learning.
Require Learner
Response
In this stage, learners’
participation is ensured.
Through the activities
designed by you, the
learners were able to
engage and participate
actively.

Assessment Evaluation Evaluation

and In this stage, an In this stage, an
Evaluation assessment is conducted assessment is conducted
to test the extent to which to test the extent to which
the learners have learned the learners have learned
and the objectives have and the objectives have
been attained. Moreover, been attained. Moreover,
this is the stage where this is the stage where the
the instructional plan is instructional plan is
evaluated. evaluated.

Based on the instructional situations presented on

the table, the activities can be chunked to fit on the levels
of Hannafin and Peck Design Models. The needs
assessment part is the analysis part of both models will fit
on these levels. The design part covers the rest of the
planning stage. The development and implementation part
concerns on the conduct of the lesson including the
assessment. Although it is a 3-level model of instructional
design, the evaluation and revision is done immediately. If
you noticed that your learners are not engaging, you can
immediately change what you have been planned and not
wait for their low test scores to implement these changes.
In this way, evaluation and revision has been part of the
product, not just a product.
Designing a conducive learning environment is
challenging to every teacher’s creativity. As shown in the
image above, it is a teacher’s perspective of learning
environment that comprises many factors under
consideration. Although learners’ characteristics and
resources are factors in which you have minimal control,
many factors still lie on your decision as teachers. Factors
such as content, learning activities, feedback, technology
use, and assessment strategies are still in your discretion
which needs appropriate decision prior to its
implementation in the class. So, what is really the concern
of designing an effective learning environment?

Lesson 3 - Technology in the Constructivist Learning
Environment
Since your childhood days, you were exposed that
learning takes place in the corners of your teachers’
classroom. Though a very true thought, you also have
learned that these are not the only places that learning
takes place. The traditional idea of education where
teachers and learners are interacting in the classroom
setting has gradually phased out. Aside from the school
and the classroom, are there any places that you expect
your learners to learn in a meaningful manner? And with
the classic views towards classrooms, how can you
design your classroom in order to offer varied learning
opportunities to explore, discover, and make a meaningful
learning?
Effectively engaging your learners in your learning
environment may be likely attained in a “constructivist
learning environment”. As discussed in Bruner’s
constructivist theory, learners construct new knowledge
based on their existing knowledge and experience. As
leaning is constructed and not transmitted, learners should
be actively engaged in problem solving and exploration of
a more difficult situation through healthy and supported
social interaction.
To be able to understand what lies in a constructivist
learning environment, you have
to understand the constructivist learning principles.
Presented in the next page are these
principles by Hein.

Since learning is the main goal of education, an Learning is an People learn to Construction of
environment should also be conducive in making learning active process. learn as they learn. meaning is
Learners should be Learning involves cognitive. Learning
possible for learning. So what is really a learning
engaged actively to making meaning. activities and
environment? construct their own When learners hands-on
knowledge. learn, they make experience should
Learning environment refers to the various physical meaning to other be supplement with
settings, cultures, and contexts in which learners’ learning
 related ideas within cognitive activities As learning in the constructivist classroom is open,
the pattern. to make reflections. the use of technology is very likely. As users of technology,
you can really see that these technologies have the
Learning involves Learning is a social Learning is features and capabilities in supporting learning. There are
language. Learning activity. Healthy contextual.
applications that will require learners’ critical thinking and
is supported by and informative Learning should be
appropriate connection with beyond theories
meaning making skills in the process of building new
language in the learners' and concepts, but knowledge and skills. They can also explore more of what
classroom. Talking classmates and on the relationship they have learned and discover the world and its
to someone or teachers helps of ideas to the relationship through updated information.
oneself may promote learning. things the learners'
improve learning knowledge, belief, Moreover, social media supports social interaction
and lives. by you and your learners online. Each of the tools in these
technologies help learners to work in collaboration with
Knowledge is Learning is not Motivation is a key their classmates in order to exchange relevant ideas,
needed in order to instantaneous. component. As
guide other’s queries, and solve difficult problems.
learn. Prior Learning involves motivation drives
knowledge of the engagement and learners to
learners should be reflection. In order succeed, it should Upon learning how these technologies work in the class,
actively facilitated. to ponder what was be understood that you have to make sure that as a teacher, you also have
What is taught experiences, learners may be the constructivist perspective towards teaching and
should be considerable motivated once learning. The roles of a teacher in a constructivist
connected what time should be they know they classroom listed below will likely help you:
they have learned. given. their new • Teachers can be an expert learner who can guide
knowledge is learning in learning cognitive strategies such as asking
useful.
probing questions, articulating understanding, and
self
reflection.
• Teachers can be an organizer of information of learners’
These principles help you understand that constructivist big ideas through assisting them in making new insights
learning places the learners in the center of the spectrum. and connecting them to their previous learning.
In designing your learning environment, it is an utmost • Teachers can be designer of learner-centered learning
consideration that the structure and ambiance of the activities that will engage them in asking own questions,
classroom should be learner-centered. carrying out experiments, and making conclusions.
• Teachers can be a mentor and coach in helping them
Application: sustain their motivation towards learning.
To clearly visualize and apply constructivist
perspective in a learning environment, the table below
shows a comparison between traditional and constructivist MODULE SUMMARY
classroom. • Since thinking is a very intrinsic process that is hard to
observe, understanding the thinking process paves way
Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom for teachers, like you, to account its connection to learning.
The curriculum starts with the The curriculum looks into the
• Learning is a realm of educational psychology that
parts of a whole by whole first, and then proceed
emphasizing the basic skills. to understanding its parts. undergoes step-by-step process of taking experiences
Adherence to the curriculum is Learners’ questions and and knowledge permanently, and obtaining behaviors and
strictly observed. interests are pursued. ways of the processing world.
Textbooks and workbooks are Primary sources and • Pavlov, one of the most famous theorists that made
main materials. manipulative materials are impact in the field of education, highlighted that learning
used. takes place through conditioning – classical and operant.
Learners learn through Learners interact as they build • Learning style is a learners’ preference on how they
repetitions. ideas based on what they learn best.
know. • Learners may vary based on their learning style – aural,
Teachers give information for Teachers converse with their verbal, visual, physical, logical, social and solitary.
the learners to receive. learners for them to construct
• With the aid of technology, your teaching pedagogy will
knowledge.
Teacher directs the class. Teacher’s role is negotiated
be widened enough as you design instructional plans in
and interactive making your learners learn effectively.
Assessment is testing with Assessment includes process • Instructional design is systematic approach of teaching.
correct answers based on learners’ works, It includes taking consideration on how learners learn and
observations, and points of understand based on the different theories of education.
view. • The ADDIE instructional design model provides
Knowledge is viewed to be Knowledge is viewed as educational implementers a guide how to plan their
inert. dynamic and changing. instructions in consideration to their learners’ resources,
Learners work alone. Learners work collaboratively. how to organize the content that their learners can grasp
despite minimal interaction, and how to assess their
learners holistically.
• Although the same as the ADDIE model, the ASSURE
instructional design model is an instructional design model
that is exclusively made for educational application which
was first made to make an effective teaching-learning
process.
• The Hannafin and Peck Design Model of Instruction
emphasizes that the evaluation process should be
continuously done throughout the process of instruction.
• Learning environment refers to the various physical
settings, cultures, and contexts in which learners’ learning
is achieved.
• Effectively engaging your learners in your learning
environment may be likely attained in a “constructivist
learning environment”.
• As leaning is constructed and not transmitted, learners
should be actively engaged in problem solving and
exploration of a more difficult situation through healthy and
supported social interaction.
• The principles of constructivism help teachers to
understand that constructivist learning places the learners
in the center of the spectrum.
• As learning in the constructivist classroom is open, the
use of technology is very likely.
• The teacher’s roles in the constructivist learning
environment are expert learner, organizer of information,
designer of learner-centered activities, and a mentor and
coach.
• Learners should work collaboratively with computers for
them to construct knowledge.
MODULE 5 - TECHNOLOGY IN LEARNING LESSONS
A classroom is a worthwhile place in which a
teacher, like you, and the learners get to learn from each
other. Years ago, this classroom can be described as a
place where a teacher establishes authority and shares
knowledge while the learners are trained to be disciplined,
intellectual, and skillful. These learning are purely based
on the teachers’ knowledge obtain from the references
and experiences throughout their life in the educational
field. However, now’s a big difference. Learning does not
depend on the teacher anymore. Instead, your job, as a
teacher, exposes these learners to a wide array of
learning opportunities, which were made reachable
through the use of effective materials and instructional
planning.
Lesson 1 - ICT and Conventional Learning Materials to
Enhance Teaching and Learning
Learning is not solely a talking process where
learners just understand what the teacher discusses.
Learning is a combination of a teachers’ appropriate
pedagogies, accurate and contextualized content, and
relevant and engaging learning materials. Although it is
not given much emphasis on some teachers, it can’t be
denied that the latter has definitely supported experiences
that learners cannot access on their own. Moreover, the
latter provides opportunities for learners to bridge between
teaching and learning. So as a teacher, being exposed
with the various instructional materials you can use for
your future process allows you to offer diverse
opportunities for learners to explore.
As teaching and learning becomes very diverse
throughout the times, the use of teaching and learning
materials promote and improve learning even. These
materials may be resources to present and transmit the
prescribed educational materials to facilitate the creation
and organization of information among the learners. In
utilizing these materials in your class, you have to
remember the common goals in order to consider your
learners.
• Learners’ motivation
• Development of creativity
• Retrieval of prior knowledge
• Support learners in understanding, decoding,
organizing, and synthesizing educational knowledge,
logical thinking and reasoning, communication, and
interaction.
• Contribution to the development of various skills
and the acquisition of values of the learners, as well as
adherence towards learners’ desirable knowledge, skills,
and attitudes
The teaching and learning materials are grouped
into two – the ICT and conventional materials. ICT
materials utilize technological media in delivering
knowledge and engaging learners throughout the teaching
and learning process; while conventional materials are
used by the teachers and the learners for many times
already, even before the advent of technological media.
The list below presents the types of ICT teaching and
learning materials:
Educational Networking
• This platform allows learners to connect to the other
learners or teachers through social networking
technologies.
• Facebook and Instagram are very common samples.
Web-Based Learning
• This service or application is facilitated online allowing
learniners to work together through searching, recieving,
generating, and organizing contents.
• Wiki sites, blogs, and Podcasts
Mobile Learning
• This includes mobile tools or technologies that allows
learners to use for the educational purposes like
instructional support or class activities.
• Smartphones, personal digital assistants, and self-made
games are some samples of this.
Classroom Equipment
• This stand-alone device is used to facilitate different
activites in a traditional classroom that helps teachers and
learners in the process.
• Projectors and computers are very common samples of
this.
Moreover, the different conventional materials for teaching
and learning are given on the next page. The presentation
of contents follows the bands of Dale’s Cone of
Experience.
Realia
• Realia is a thing that is associated from the real
environment.
• You may present a gold coin to let the class have a real
experience with gold.
Model
• Model is an imitation of real objectives using synthetic or
alternative materials to substitute that thing.
• You may use globe in order to present an image of Earth.
Mock up
Specimens and Objects
Drawings and Cartoons
• Cartoons have deep messages compared to drawings,
but these two are good tools in expressing symbolism and
abstract thoughts in learning.
• You may utilize a cartoon, through comic strips, to
discuss an issue about abortion.
Diagrams, Charts, Graphs and Maps
• These four tools are used to organize, illustrate, and
summarize textual and numerical contents that facilitates
efficient understanding of ideas.
• You may present the binomial nomenclature of living
things using diagrams.
Aside from the teaching and learning tools, you also need
to integrate classroom activities and experiences for your
learners. In these activities, you may utilize ICT or
conventional tools to support your instructional goals. Still,
the discussion follows the bands of Dale’s Cone of
Experience.
Games – Games are interesting activities that facilitates
engagement and interest from your learners. Learners do
have benefits in this activity, which are given below:
 • Learners will be able to practice and refine
knowledge which they have already acquired.
• Learners can determine the gaps in their
knowledge or skills.
• Learners will be given a summary of contents
based on the coverage of the game.
• Learners will be able to socially interact as they
develop the concepts and principle involved.
Simulations – These are representations of a real event
in which learners can assume the roles of those involved
in the scenario by learning their behavior or applying what
they have learned. Conducting fire and earthquake drills
are some samples of this. The following are some
purposes of conducting simulation activities in the class:
• to work with learners’ changes in attitudes
• to alter specific behaviors
• to help learners ready themselves in taking new
roles in the society
• to guide learners in understanding their role
• to increase learners’ way of applying learning
• to reduce complex problems to manageable
situations
• to sensitize learners’ towards other peoples’
lives
Dramatized experiences range from the following types
listed below.
• Plays exhibits life, character, or culture, or the
combination of both in one presentation. Learners portray
a clear and important aspects about life. On the other
hand, pageants are communities dramas based on
history as presented by local actors.
• Pantomime is a presentation that requires body
movements in conveying a story in which the audience
understands and feel.
• Tableau is a real-time picture-like presentation
of a group of learners about a certain topic that conveys a
message to the audience.
• Puppet Play is a different activity from a stage
play as learners present ideas using only a voice and a
puppet with simplicity but just costumes and props to
express an idea of the whole situation.
• Role Play is a presentation that is unrehearsed
and spontaneous presentation to a “let’s pretend” situation
as participants are engaged in their roles.
Demonstrations are guided way of teaching the learners
by showing how a process is done that the learners can
reflect and follow themselves. In doing this, there are
things you need to prepare as you answer these questions
discussed by Brown.
• What are your objectives?
• How does your class take your objectives? (In
this part, prior knowledge needs to be considered.)
• Is this the best method to achieve your goal?
• Are all the needed materials accessible?
• Are you familiar with the necessary steps of the
demonstration?
• Is the time limit being observed?
In conducting the demonstration in your class, you may
consider observing the important points as given by Dale.
• Set a good tone in communicating with your
learners.
• As much as possible, make your demonstration
simple.
• Focus only to the main ideas.
• Be mindful with your learners’ responses to
check if the demonstration is understood.
• Observe “brakes” in your demonstration by
asking questions.
• Do not drag out the demonstration and take time
in your discussion.
• Provide summary in every important part and
give concluding summary at the end.
• You may consider giving handouts after the
demonstration.
Gallery Walk is an activity where learners can display and
present their work on a specific topic just like how an artist
showcases their artworks in an exhibit. Audience, or the
rest of the class, will get to learn and experience all the
contents of each station through the informative
experience given by the discussant. In this way, learners
can present ideas in a comfortable way and acquire
feedback from those who viewed their output. Moreover,
audience will have an open and easy learning experience
with each other. Exhibit, as mentioned, is also a
presentation but learners’ presence in order to give
explanations are not needed anymore as important points
are already written and attached in their works.
In doing gallery walks and exhibits, you may
consider the following things as listed below.
• Divide the class to a considerable number of
members in a group.
• Assign each group a topic or segment that they
can work as one.
• Make sure that the members do understand
what are expected from them and their group.
• Allow each group to help each other in
facilitating transfer of idea in every station.
• Maximize the space to allow to facilitate an
efficient set-up and movement on the course of the activity.
• Have an orientation to orient the audience where
to go after each station.
• Ask the learners to identify the speaker in each
station and prepare the contents to share.
• Provide a short debriefing after all the groups
have visited each station.
Film and Video Viewing is also a powerful strategy in
communicating inaccessible information or impactful and
historical events that offer learning and reflection to the
learners. In this method, you have a great role in filtering a
content to be presented to your learners in order to
provide credible, fitted, and relevant content that extends
learning and enhances critical thinking skills of the
learners.
In conducting the use of film and video viewing,
the following basic procedures may aid you to a
successful integration.
 • Prepare the class by darken the room but still you have to develop the 21st
allows light especially those learners who may choose to follow? skills?
take notes. Also, learners should not seat too near or too
far from the screen. The materials Understanding Learners'
• Pre-viewing activities like setting goals and should be in good the guide most competence and
expectations, linking the activity with the contents of the condition and are likely maximizes skills may
lesson, giving of rules, and contextualizing the film, may presented well. its purpose. improve with
be observed. effective
• Providing guide questions may be considered to materials.
direct learners on the point of the activity.
• Make sure that unnecessary noises will be Are the materials
avoided and the sights and sounds are clear. worth the time,
• After viewing, allow the class to share their expense, and
learnings and reflections. You may also give your own effort involved?
point.
• Provide a clear summary of the activity. For those that
takes much
demands, make
Lesson 2 - Principles in Selecting Instructional Materials sure that it also
Using technology throughout your subject exhibits optimizes
your adept skill as a teacher when it comes to your learning.
technological advancement in designing of learning
activities for your learners. However, that does not mean
that your learners will also learn the lesson as much as After observing the guidelines in choosing
you exerted effort for your learning activities. Maybe the instructional materials, you may also like to consider how
content requires you to use traditional artifacts or models to use these properly. Hayden Smith and Thomas Nagel
to make the learners feel a real or contrived experience of provided the acronym PPPF ensure effective use of
the concept. Maybe the content also requires an instructional materials in the teaching and learning
involvement of the expert of a certain field which you can process.
provide yourself. Maybe the content just wants a
performance that the technology cannot facilitate. Maybe PREPARE YOURSELF
you have failed to consider something just because you • Know your lesson objectives and what to expect from the
are so engrossed in one learning opportunity that you class.
think works based on how it worked for you when are still • Determine why you will use that specific material.
on your learners’ shoes. • Plan how will you proceed with those materials and what
questions to ask to the learners about those.
An intelligent teacher is a very good step towards • Strategize how you will evaluate learning with those
making your learners learned, but this does not guarantee materials.
of successfully making them learned. One thing you have
to remember is you can be able to design instructional PREPARE YOUR LEARNERS
process in which learners can successfully engage and • Set the class expectations and learning goals.
construct learning. This can be facilitated when you know • You may provide guide questions that they can answer
how to use your instructional materials as support to your during discussion.
teaching and learning activities. • Do not loose their motivation by keeping them on track.

To begin with, it is very helpful to orient yourselves how to PRESENT THE MATERIAL
select instructional materials before you decide to use this • Make sure that the conditions are good for presentation
in your class. The following questions may be a helpful of the material.
guide to you. • If the materials are mechanical in nature, rehearsal may
be done to ensure that it works well.
Do the materials Do the materials Are the materials • Monitor if the learners can operate, see or interact well
provide a realistic give meaningful fitted to the with the materials.
picture of the information of the learners? • Provide explanations from the materials, and don't let the
content? topic? materials replace you.

Always make Ensure that the Think of how the FOLLOW UP

sure that the materials learners receive • Allow learners to process what the material presents.
materials are adhered your and interacting • Assess if the learners have learned from the material.
credible. objectives. with the • Encourage feedback from the learners in order to
materials. improve the material.
Are the materials Do the materials Do the materials
presentable? have guide which help the learners
Lesson 3 - Technology-Enhanced Learning Lesson Plans needed for lesson prior to your instruction with your
The very important skill of a teacher is to be able learners.
to design an interactive and engaging, relevant and
informative, and lively and welcoming class. This skill Fourth, plan for your learning procedure. In this
requires planning on what important elements to consider, process, you have to adopt the lesson planning format
and one of this is the inclusion of instructional materials. that is used by your institution. Usually, the most common
As a teacher, you are expected to exhibit efficiency when lesson planning format is the 4A’s which standards for
it comes to planning your future lessons with consideration ACTIVITY/IES, ANALYSIS, ABSTRACTION, and
to your content, and how to deliver your content through APPLICATION (also known as 5A’s that includes the last
your instructional activities and learning materials. In this part, which is ASSESSMENT) here in the Philippines. The
way, you and the learners will be guided on what to do discussion below provides a guide on how these
throughout the session and what to expect after the components are designed.
learning experience.
• Activity: This is the part of the lesson that
A lesson plan is your road map of what your conditions learners for the instruction. You have two types
learners have to acquire at the end of the session and of activities in this part.
your ways of how you will guide them to effectively learn - Preliminary activities should be done to monitor
what is expected from them. Lesson planning allows you attendance, do class routines, and even motivate learners
to explore pedagogical aspects in teaching the content. By to learn. Motivational activities are activities which are not
this, you can deeply think on how to design the lesson in a related to the class, but may be conducted to break an
way that learners can relate using activities that learners awkward atmosphere. Usually, this will take less than 5
can engage. Finally, this will also give you a reflection on minutes of the time Icebreakers are often done in this.
how you can improve yourself to provide the best - Preparatory activities are done to establish prior
understanding for your learners. The following items below knowledge from the students. These activities are
further discuss the importance of lesson planning. essential for the learners to retrieve important information
that will bridge what they have learned before to what they
Planning Planning allows Planning helps will be learning on that session. These activities may
increases your you to reflect you know your utilize contents discussed on the previous sessions or
chances of your practices learners and those discussed on the previous grade levels, or can be
realizing your and be able to structure their own personal experiences. You may have just one,
lesson improve what according to how two, or more activities in this part as long as it will
successfully as needs you know them. consume a maximum of 20 minutes of your instructional
you can improvement. time.
confidently Note: You won’t use concepts in this part that are
facilitate the yet to be taught.
discussion.
• Analysis: This is the part of the lesson that
Planning allows Planning allows makes sense to the series of activities done. As a teacher,
you to master the you to own the you will ask a series of questions that will allow learners to
content of your learning area and think and highlight those important information that they
teaching and make the most of will be using for the content of the lesson. This is the part
broaden your your learning where your questioning techniques matter in order for the
understanding. spaces. learners to effectively retrieve their prior knowledge and
bridge these to the lesson. If ever your questions will not
be properly understood by the learners or will yield out of-
In making the lesson plan, the first thing to the-box responses, you may simplify it or use probing
remember is your learning competency. You have to questions. This makes your role as a facilitator, or guide,
identify what learning competency to use for that specific for learners to construct their own knowledge. Usually, this
day. Make sure that the competency you will use is part takes 5 minutes of your time.
corresponded to the competency to be taught on that day
as reflected on the competency code. • Abstraction: This is the part of the lesson where
you will present the content of the lesson based on your
Second, you have to make the learning objectives references. But for you to relate these contents, you may
based on the learning competency. It is encouraged to refer more often to your activity and analysis part so that
craft objectives for each domain of learning – cognitive, they can bridge the new knowledge to their existing
psychomotor, and affective. In crafting your objectives, knowledge. Moreover, most, if not all, of the learning
make sure that it can be attained for that specific lesson objectives are achieved in this part. By this time, you will
plan. provide important information about the topic. However,
you may filter some of those if you want learners to
Third, identify the topic based on the competency explore more in the next section. Usually, this will take 5 to
you adopted and the learning materials and references to 10 minutes of your time.
be used. In this way, you can prepare the things you
 • Application: This is the part of the lesson that
broadens learners’ new knowledge. In order for this
knowledge to make sense, you have to make sure that
learners can apply these knowledge in their own field or
can observe in their own setting. You can do this by
exposing them to various examples or designing another
activity that they can apply in on their own reflection or
work with classmates as they do mini-tasks about this
knowledge. Usually, this may take 15-20 minutes of your
instructional time.

Fifth, design assessment tasks in order to know if

your objectives are met. As a teacher, you are guided by
your learning objectives, so knowing if learners have
achieved this is an important testament to tell if you
succeed in your instruction or not. Since only a little time is
left in this part, you may design short assessment tasks
like quizzes, oral recitation, or boardwork just to measure
learners’ achievement of the objectives.

Sixth, you may consider giving an assignment or

agreement to your class. Assignment as tasks that will
require extended practice for your learners about what
they have learned in your session, while agreement is
something that learners have to work on for the next
session. Agreement is necessary especially for contents
that need lots of preparation and prior knowledge to
familiarize with.

LESSON PLAN SAMPLE:


Preliminary Components
Based on the content of the plan, the teacher
crafted learning objectives based on the competency and
has identified the topic, learning materials, and references
to use in planning the instruction and delivering the
content. An ICT learning material was used to supplement
the understanding and delivery of instruction.
Activities
In this lesson, two essential activities are done.
The preliminary activity required learners to review their
previous topic about finding the center and radius of the
circle given its equation. Since the lesson is about
Graphing Circles, learning to identify the center and radius
of a circle is important since those will be the very basic of
its graph. Establishing learners’ knowledge on that part
will likely facilitate efficiency in graphing circles.
The activity in the lesson proper, on the other
hand, already presented the graph of a circle, but had not
provided concepts or procedures of how it was done. In
this way, learners will think activity based on how they
observed from the given situation. Their observations are
important stepping stones of processing information for
the next part.
Analysis
Questions are asked in order to know how the
learners think. Since the thinking process is purely
personal, your guidance a teacher is important. So at the
end of these questions, you have to lead them the very
point of everything that they have done. In this way, they
will be directed.
Abstraction
The teacher presented the content of the lesson.
In this way, the learners will get an accurate information of
what is expected from them. Also, they will start to
connect everything from the activities that asked them get
the center and radius of a circle and making important
connections of how these concepts work together in order
to create a graph of a circle.
Application
After being equipped with the important
knowledge of graphing a circle, the teacher utilized the
same items for the same pair to graph their own circle. In
this way, learners will get to practice the knowledge they
established from the previous parts of the lesson plan.
Assessment and Assignment
These parts have deepened learners’ knowledge
further. Moreover, the teacher was able to identify if his
learners have achieved the learning objectives as well.
Now, have you ever encountered this type of
lesson plan format throughout our class?
Of course. The lessons in our modules are
structured based on this format. You may refer to all of our
modules for more example of a lesson plan designed in a
4A’s format.
MODULE SUMMARY
• As teaching and learning becomes very diverse
throughout the times, the use of teaching and learning
materials promote and improve learning even.
• In utilizing these materials in your class, you have to
consider your learners first and foremost.
• The teaching and learning materials are grouped into two
– the ICT and conventional materials.
• ICT materials utilize technological media in delivering
knowledge and engaging learners throughout the teaching
and learning process; while conventional materials are
used by the teachers and the learners for many times
already, even before the advent of technological media.
• ICT teaching and learning materials may come as
educational networking, web-based learning, mobile
learning, and classroom equipment.
• The different conventional materials for teaching and
learning includes realia, model, mock-up, specimens and
objects, drawings and cartoon, and diagrams, charts,
graphs, and maps.
• Aside from the teaching and learning tools, you also
need to integrate classroom activities and experiences for
your learners which includes games, simulations,
dramatized experiences, demonstrations, gallery walks
and exhibits, and film or video viewing.
• It is very helpful to orient yourselves how to select
instructional materials before you decide to use this in
your class.
• Hayden Smith and Thomas Nagel provided the acronym
PPPF ensure effective use of instructional materials in the
teaching and learning process, which stands for prepare
yourself, prepare your learners, present the material, and
follow up.
• A lesson plan is your road map of what your learners
have to acquire at the end of the session and your ways of
how you will guide them to effectively learn what is
expected from them.
• Lesson planning allows you to explore pedagogical
aspects in teaching the content.
• Lesson planning gives you a reflection on how you can
improve yourself to provide the best understanding for
your learners.
• Lesson planning has important procedures to follow
which range from identifying the learning competency to
be used until providing assessment and assignment tasks
for the learners.
• The most common lesson planning format is the 4A’s
which standards for ACTIVITY/IES, ANALYSIS,
ABSTRACTION, and APPLICATION (also known as 5A’s
that includes the last part, which is ASSESSMENT) here
in the Philippines.
MODULE 6 - TECHNOLOGY IN ALTERNATIVE
DELIVERY SYSTEMS
The education system of the Philippines has gone
a very significant transition since the K to 12 Program has
been implemented. The Department of Education has
made efforts to cater all the things needed to realize this
implementation to the best that they can for their millions
of learners. However, scarcity of physical facilitates to
accommodate the senior high school learners, the
shortage of competent teachers, and the mode of delivery
still bothers the DepEd until now. In order to cater these
problems, the DepEd decided to strengthen the
Alternative Learning Delivery System to allow blended
learning in the deliver of the K to 12 Program.
Coincidentally, the use of this was further urged by the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Lesson 1 - The Internet and the World Wide Web
The internet has been a very spontaneous, fluid,
and forcible tools that influences learning, changes
perspectives, and alters someone’s way of living. Recently,
the internet has brought dramatic changes in many fields
of lie, including education. During the COVID-19 pandemic,
the role of the internet and the World Wide Web has been
strengthened in order to still facilitate and organize
transactions that won’t really done from person to person.
But with these advancements, as future teachers, how
much do know about the internet and the World Wide Web?
How can you optimize its use in your teaching? Learning
these concepts will likely help you, and won’t take you an
IT thinking as it offers rich set of features you can enjoy.
The word “internet” has been used many times in
many occasions, but it has never been seen or reached.
This is because internet is binds to even millions of other
networks. It is a global system of interconnected computer
networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link millions
of devices worldwide. An interrelated term that is often
interchanged from the term Internet is the Web, short of
World Wide Web or WWW. The Web is a system of
Internet servers that support specially formatted
documents in a mark-up language called HTML
(HyperText Markup Language) that supports links to other
documents and other files like audio and video files. The
Web may also be defined as an information system that
connects documents to documents through hyperlinks that
make it possible to move from one document to the other.
Basically, one may say that internet is like a megamall
with stores
inside it which are the websites.
Learning the history of Internet and the Web is also as
important as learning its definitions and differences. Below
presents a brief development of these useful media.
1969 - The Internet was born and a message was
sent from two computers at different locations.
1971 - The first email was sent and Mosaic
became the first we browser.
1989 - The World Wide Web was invented by Tim
Berners-Lee.
As a principal tool for interaction of the billions of people in
this Information Age, the World Wide Web paved a way to
a speedy access as facilitated by the rise of the social
media. The development of social media was grouped into
three eras – the primitive, the medieval, and the golden
era. The following points highlight important developments
of these eras.
• The Primitive era (1970’s to 1985) enables the
development of news portals and exchange of messages
through chats.
• The Medieval era (1985-2000) paved the way to
a more advanced and interactive development of social
media as file sharing, multi-user messaging, multiplayer
games, emoticons, and even the abbreviations “LOL” and
“BRB” was popularized. Moreover, the Live Journal, the
first blog- and forum-like site, and the Six Degrees, which
resembles that of today’s Facebook, was first introduced.
• The Golden era (2000-present) facilitates a fast-
paced and modernized advancement of the social media.
The following are some important development in this time.
2001 – Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia, was
launched.
2002 – Friendster operated to allow meeting of
new people and increase the network.
2003 – MySpace was used to allow private
messaging and public comments to user’s profile.
2004 – Flickr enables sharing of photos, and
Facebook was used for Harvard University students only.
2005 – YouTube allowed sharing of videos and
video streaming, and Reddit was used as an entertaining
and social networking platform.
2006 – Facebook was used online with 1.45 billion
users till date, and Twitter was started to use.
2007 – Tumblr realizes livestreaming and
microblogging.
2009 – WhatsApp was used for personal group
chats.
2010 – Instagram was first used to post photos.
2012 – Snapchat and Tinder widens the social
networking platform of users.
Until now, there are still many inventions humans
have made that facilitates an accessible, strong, and
spontaneous exchange of messages from people to
people around the world. These were even used to
facilitate information and relevant knowledge in the field of
education. The most essential thing for you to utilize this
platform as a learner, is knowing the basic internet-related
terms and concepts that will aid you in operating the
complexity of the internet and the web.
Bandwidth ISP URL
It refers to how A short for A short for
many information Internet Service Uniform
your connection Provider, it is the Resource
to the Internet company that Locator, it is the
can cater, that is gives you internet global address of
measured in bps accessibility. documents and
(bits per second). other resources
on the Web.
Domain Name Fold Browser
It is determines It draws line past It is a software
the computer/s which one will used to view web ensure that what you get really serves you an authentic,
on the internet see more content pages, such as precise, and validated information. Abdullah suggested
that appears as of the page Opera, Mozilla checklists in evaluating websites, as shown below.
part of the URL. through scrolling. Firefox, and • Technical considerations – It includes features and
For examples, "Above the fold" Google Chrome. capabilities of the website, like relevant graphics and
the domain name is what shows up animations to the subject matter and the stability and
of www.bkmedia. after a page first consistency of the pages.
is bkmedia. loads, further • Authorship and sponsorship – It important to give
down is called relevant information about the site, just like the
"below the fold". group/author who created the site, the author of
HTML Hyperlink Navigation information, and the references used.
A short for It electronically It is the process • Purpose – It is the objective of using the website. It
HyperText connects one which users should be clearly stated in a way that the purpose is
Markup page to the other access highlighted, and advertising should not outshine the
Language, it is a pages on the information on presentation of content.
cross-platform same website the internet. This • Functionality – It includes the right use of language in
language used to (internal linking), term is used the content and directions. The navigation buttons and
create and format or pages on when talking shapes, and fonts, color, and background must be
web pages. another website about links, consistently observed.
(external linking). icons, and • Content – It should be clearly understood, updated, and
buttons on your organized that the audience can follow. Copyright
site. information should also be reflected and links for more
PDF Search Engine reading are given.
A short for It is a program • Design – It embodies effective use of elements and
Portable that allows features in the site, like animations, sound files, graphics,
Document searching color contrasts, and transitional pages. Links to enlarge
Format, it is first documents for images must be given.
develop by specified
Adobe that keywords and Upon knowing the overall elements that you observe in
creates file flashes a list selecting a website to be used, it is also important to know
format afterwards. how to find web resources from the website you have
independent on chosen. After all, the main purpose of using these
applications or websites is for you to find correct, updated, and relevant
software and information. Alexander and Tale cited five criteria to
hardware for evaluate web resources, along with the guide questions to
proper viewing. help you attain each criterion.
Accuracy
Learning the basic of the internet and the World Wide Is the information accurate and reliable?
Web is a necessity of modern living; so as in education. Is there a validation of content by the editors?
The instructional value of these media has tremendously Authority
improved as innovative approaches started to develop. As What are the author’s qualifications in writing the
a matter of fact, Wikipedia’s legitimacy as an online content?
learning resource for academic events is immeasurably Is the publisher reputable enough?
attributed to the internet and the World Wide Web. The Objectivity
following are some instructional values and benefits of the Is there a minimum bias in the information?
internet and the Web. To what extent were you swayed by the opinion of the
• Accessibility to knowledge and information web visitor?
• Accessibility to instructional resources Currency
• Opportunity for extended learning opportunities Is the content up to date?
• Support for life-long learning Is the publication date clearly indicated?
• Support for computer-based instruction If there are, is the date of the revision stated?
• Delivery for distance learning programs Coverage
• Efficiency of academic functions, like enrolment What topics were included in the work?
• Utilization of social media application in the Were the topics deep enough?
teaching-learning process
With all the guidelines of choosing appropriate websites
The internet and the Web really had provided advantages and resources you need; it is understandable if you will
for the people involved in the academe. Researches and encounter challenges along the way. With that, it is
homeworks are efficiently facilitated using information important to at least know how to cope up from these
gathered from countless websites. However, some, if not challenges. Refer to the list below.
most, of these websites likely provides inaccurate or Use of Hypertext Links. Some hyperlinks may
outdated information. Thus, as a learner, you have to bring you to poor-quality web pages, so make sure to
evaluate these web pages independently from the original
web pages you’ve searched.
Utilization of Frames. As each frame display
separate web pages, evaluate each frame separately as
well.
Out-of-context Pages. Always go back to the
“home page” of your search engine to know the source of
information.
Marketing-oriented Web Pages. In the web page,
contents may include advertising which you may go
unnoticed, so make sure that the advertising and
informational content won’t be misunderstood and are
supplied by the same person or organization.
Blending of Entertainment, Information, and
Advertising. Orient yourself with the pages and your time With the promising benefits of WBI in education, it’s not
allotment since the Web has infomercial you can’t control. surprising that web-based instruction has been used in
Limitation of Access through Software many ways. With that, this section provides you categories
Requirements. Since full access of the web resources of web-based instruction, which are usually done in many
require additional software and may change the educational practices.
appearance of the web pages, be aware of its limitations. Augmented Learning
Instability of Web Pages. Document your source From the word “augment” which means improve,
to the fullest extent possible since some page may expand, or amplify, WBI is used to extend physical
disappear without notice. classroom activities to supplement face-to-face
Susceptibility of Web Pages to Alteration. discussions.
Verifying information and the credibility of the website will Blended Learning
help you. In this category, WBI worked together with face-
to-face class
room instruction in delivering instructional
contents of the lesson. More of this will be discussed in
Lesson 2 - Introduction to Web-based Instruction the third lesson.
Indeed, learning from someone’s experiences and Online Learning
from the tons of books in the library is very valuable and Also called as distance learning, it caters either
significant. Information, strategies, and even principles of synchronous or asynchronous communication offering
life gathered from these media helped people to be flexibility of place and time in instructional method.
educated, wise, and progressive. Since life is an evolution
of all things around us, these media also have evolved in The last part made a huge impact recently as the COVID-
new ways that makes it more accessible, updated, and 19 pandemic turned education in the new level. Most of
wide-ranging. With the use of the internet and the World the classroom interactions, and even resources, are
Wide Web, the problem of distance and time in making channeled through WBI. With that, teachers, like you, are
ourselves learned has been addressed. Thus, it’s being prepared on how to implement this method for
important to utilize this advantage in one’s teaching ways. future instances. Zvacek provided necessary components
of distance learning.
The use of web resources increased a lot after the
advent of World Wide Web. With that, the WBI or the web-
based instruction was started to be used in the academe.
The web
based instruction is defined as a hypermedia-
based instructional program that utilizes the resources and
features of the World Wide Web to maximize learning by
fostering a learning environment that promotes accurate,
authentic, and updated learning. Lebow and Perkins
added this definition by emphasizing the application of the
collection of instructional strategies to promote
constructive knowledge and collaboration, still using the Application:
features of the Web. As discussed, WBI stretched in any fields of
practices. There are some websites which are utilized in
Many instances have urged the use of web-based training and industry-based organizations. E-banking, for
instruction. As a matter of fact, the COVID-19 pandemic example, has been widely accepted until now. These are
even maximized the use of WBI in education. This had some web-based applications programs used in business
been one good thing offered by WBI to the people. Here industries.
are some benefits of web-based instruction.

Prodmode is used for apparel and

fashion industry with modern, full-featured, and cloud-
based ERP system. It aids in the production processes,
inventory management, merchandising, and sales
campaigns by strengthening the mobile accessibility and
streamlined data. With the use of this, productivity is
maximized and errors are minimized.
Elastic solution pulls the marketing
assets of the business industries and banking making
models under the rotation model.
transactions feel like a business-to-client site. Its features
include a Digital/Custom Catalog Builder, Online Order
Entry with live ATS and ERP integration, OrdeVisual
Assortment Planning and White Boarding tools.
Lesson 3 - The Practice of Blended Learning
Learning in a face-to-face mode, although viewed
as a traditional way of teaching, is still one of the best
ways of honing learning that allows teachers to
understand their learners in a holistic perspective. But
right now, web-based and online education started to be
used with the aim of bridging the limitations caused by
distance and time. In this way, learners will get to be
informed with novel information and be able to understand
other perspective of life as well. So when you have a
thorough reflection of these matters, both ways do really
have something to offer in the field of education. With
these advantages, many practices infused these two
methods in one learning experience.
As discussed in the previous lesson, blended
learning is one of the categories of web
based instruction. teacher-guided, face-to-face activities. Contents are
A simple notion mention about blended learning is that it is
a combination of web-based instruction to the face-to-face
classroom instruction. However, there is more than this
idea. Educational technologists and practitioners
emphasized that blended learning allows the utilization of
pedagogical strategies and approaches in the teaching
and learning process with the aid of web-driven
instructional resources. The simple combination of
information given by you, the teacher, and the use of web-
based resources is not enough to holistically discuss
blended learning, because pedagogical foundation as a
vital element can’t be neglected.
As a novel and complex idea, blended learning is
understood using the 4 models, according to Horn and
Staker. These four are illustrated on the figure below
along with the very point of blended learning. These four
models are thoroughly discussed on the further parts.
Rotation Model
In this model, learners were asked to rotate on a
fixed schedule based on your discretion as a teacher. This
rotation should be done between various learning
modalities, and at least one is online learning. Activities for
each station may be small-group of whole-class works,
group projects, individual tutoring, and traditional tasks
and assignments. Learning takes mostly in a brick-and-
mortar campus, except for bring-home tasks. There are
four sub
• Station Rotation
In this rotation model, learners rotate within a
classroom, or in a group of classrooms. Learners will
rotate in all station, not only those assigned to them. It
adheres in blending approach as learners can actually
experience this method within the class, despite being in a
traditional classroom setting. In doing this, learners are
grouped in Collaborative Learning Stations (CLS). After
assigning specific tasks in each CLS, clear and written
instruction will be given on how the activity will go and the
direction of the rotation. The assigned teacher will end the
rotation with an open discussion.
• Lab Rotation Model
In this rotation model, learners rotate in a
computer laboratory or in a multimedia room especially for
online learning stations. Learners who are responsible
enough may do this model with longer schedules as
rotation may take longer time.
• Flipped Classroom
In this rotation model, learners work for their
online learning in a off-site place for their bring-home
tasks, and will attend brick-and-mortar campus for a
mainly delivered online, which differs from some model
that only utilizes online medium for bring-home tasks.
• Individual Rotation
In this rotation model, learners are given freedom
on what rotation to take based on their availability, so
individualized schedules for each learner is expected to
design their own schedule, or be given by the assigned
teacher.
Flex Model
In this model, online tasks serve as a mainstream
source of learning though learners are asked to perform
offline activities. Flexibility of schedules among learning
modalities will be provided as learning may individualize
and customize mobility. The assigned teacher will be on
the site as learners mostly work on a brick-and-mortar
campus, except for bring-home tasks. As they are in the
campus, learners are supported with flexible and adaptive
activities like group works, small-group discussion, and
individual tutoring. Moreover, the role of the teacher
supplements online learning on a regular basis.
A La Carte Model
In this model, learners take an entirely online
class along with other experiences that the learner is
having at a brick-and-mortar campus. The assigned
teacher worked online while learners may choose
between working on the brick-and-mortar campus or off-
site. It is different from a full-time online learning because
it is not a whole-school experience as learners take some • Learners will be given a particular web-based
courses online and others take it from a brick-and-mortar instructional materials and activities such as tutorial tasks,
campus. to work with.
• Learners are allowed to access Open Educational
Enriched-Virtual Model Resources (OER) for a conversational learner-to-content
In this model, learners take part of the course interaction.
face-to-face with the assigned teacher and are free to
work remotely for the remaining of the coursework. When In a learner-to-learner interaction, the following are
working remotely, learners may work online with the observed:
minimal guidance of the assigned teacher. It is not the • Learners are to communicate each other to work their
same with a flipped classroom since learners seldom meet learning.
face-to-face with their assigned teacher, and is different • Online collaborative activities like problem-solving tasks
from a fully online course because a face-to-face learning and cased-based instructions are utilize to facilitate and
is given as some part of the course. sustain learner-to-learner interaction.
• Considerations on the location, internet connection, and
Since learners’ pacing is given much attention in the resources are observed in designing learners’ interaction.
blended learning method, the online communication may • Social media and other online platforms may be used,
come in two ways, depending on what the learners can but teachers are expected to guide learners on the
attended to the class. This may be classified as possible consequences of its misuse.
synchronous or asynchronous. The table below
provides a brief discussion on the difference of the two. The essentiality of these forms of interaction is unarguable
Points of for a blended-learning approach to teaching. However,
Difference Synchronous Asynchronous there are still other interactions that should be observed in
Pacing Constant, bit rate Depends of the this way of learning. Friesen and Kuskis listed three of
for several minutes learner. these interactions.
or hours Learner-to-Interface Interaction
Time of Conduct Real-time Offline, as long as it This includes how learners utilizes their abilities in
will reach the interacting and engaging with the prescribed technology.
deadline
This may not be entirely separate with the interactions
Internet Stable and fast Won’t require a fast
Connection connection listed by more, but it just reminds you that learners need
Type of Chat rooms and Discussion forum knowledge on communication and technical skills in
Communication Online conferences tools and Learning distance education. As a teacher, you have to make sure
Management that these learners know how to interact with your medium.
Systems (LMS)
Vicarious Interaction
Aside from the differences of online This encompasses active processing of learners’
communication, blended learning also differs based on the observation from the learner-to
learner and teacher-to-
interactions of the learners in distance communication. learner interaction. Realistically, not all learners interact
According to Moore, the three types of interaction are with their own classmates or teachers, but that does mean
teacher-to-learner interaction, learner-to-content that they won’t know how to manage learning by
interaction, and learner-to-learner interaction. themselves. Although these learners won’t learn, they still
wait for an opportunity to interact with their learners and
In a teacher-to-learner interaction, the following are you, online. As a teacher, you have to be sensitive on how
observed: knowledge is conveyed and how learners felt your need.
• The assigned teacher works online using chat room,
social media, and other tools for online conferences, Teacher-to-Content Interaction
where interaction takes place. This includes your knowledge, as a teacher, on
• It requires a synchronous communication that allows the pedagogical repertoire that will gage you in the course
guidance and coaching for the learners, and not the of the distance learning process. This encompasses how
delivery of prescriptive lectures. you design your course, how you select appropriate
• Casual conversation will be done by the teachers and instructional materials, and how you use effective online
their learners in the chat room. learning strategies. As a teacher, you have to make sure
• Planning is important so that the concerns of the learners that you have stable capabilities in creating and designing
will be catered and be able to adjust in an online platform. learning plans through web-based program as platforms
for your classes.
In a learner-to-content interaction, the following are
observed:
• Learners will allot time to read and understand the Lesson 4 - Teaching in an Online Learning Environment
content given or assigned to them by their teacher, which The instantaneous access of information in the
may be through a website, electronic books, or articles. internet and the World Wide Web paved way for the
development of instructional practice using online
platforms. As a matter of fact, the DepEd noticed a
significant increase on the number of educational
institutions that cater online courses. Even the DepEd
opened the possibilities of utilizing this method in their
schools. And as a future teacher in these schools, you
have to be oriented how teaching is facilitated online.
Teaching in a traditional classroom and teaching online,
though sound the same, are different considering the
teaching online requires more flexible and varied
pedagogical knowledge.
To successfully implement online teaching, it is
necessary that you understand important things about the
learning environment. In the case of online learning, this
environment is virtual and you have to make adjustments
on some of your instructional considerations, such as
physical and geographical setting and unstable internet
connectivity. Aside from these, the internet’s flexibility in
supporting human and machine interaction for
synchronous and asynchronous modalities, and the
technical support for online content in various format like
text and multimedia, may also affect the quality of an
online learning experience.
To have a comprehensive understanding of the
teaching and learning process in an online environment,
Garrison, Anderson, and Archer develop the Community
of Inquiry Model. In this model, a holistic and genuine
online experience may be attained by having sufficient
levels of “presences”: cognitive presence, social presence,
and teaching presence. These presences are independent
elements which overlaps to attain a meaningful online
educational experience. Basically, this model emphasized
the collaborative engagement of a group of individuals,
along with the experiences it brings, for a critical discourse
and reflection in order to create meaningful and mutual
understand. The figure below illustrates the model, and
further down provides a short discussion of each presence.
Social presence – It is based on how the learners and
you, the teacher, on how to communicate purposefully and
develop trusting relationships within the online
environment that identifies each role in the community.
Moreover, establishing supportive environment where
learners can express themselves and share viewpoints
and disagreement is important.
Cognitive presence – It is based on the extent in which
learners have created a meaning from the given
information through reflection and effective discourse.
Also, it emphasizes the role of thinking, reasoning, and
other mental activity in the learning process.
Teaching presence – It is based on your ability as a
teacher to facilitate and guide cognitive and social
presences in constructing an educationally worthwhile
learning expectation. Planning is important as you design
and organize learning experience that allows you a
smooth facilitation in the process. In establishing your
presence as a teacher, you have to remember three
important roles:
- Design and organize learning experiences
- Devise and implement activities that will
encourage any forms of interaction, and learners’
reflection
- Engage and involve learners in the delivery of
your content in any mode of instruction you prefer
Application:
During this pandemic, the education, especially in
the colleges and universities, experienced an online
learning environment. Most of these school utilized a
Learning Management System (LMS) to realize the
instructional experiences of the teachers and the learners.
LMS is a course management software that allows the
delivery and facilitation of programs online. This software
enables you to organize your course from the making your
resources accessible to the conduct of your examinations.
A lot of LMS are usable online. Some of these include the
Moodle and Sakai which you can use for free. Moreover,
school may also choose to subscribe to some LMS for
their classes, and some of these are Web City,
Blackboard, Wizlearn, and IVLE. Regardless of these
types, a typical LMS has many features and tools that you
can explore as a teacher.
• Workspace – This feature allows you to keep
documents, create new sites, facilitate a schedule, store
resources, and other instructional tasks. Some type may
call this by a different name.
• Announcement Tool – This feature helps you
and your learners to be reminded on some important
dates by posting in on the account. Learners will see
these announcements and are asked to regularly check
their accounts.
• Resources – This feature acts as a storehouse
of some resources that you posted which the class can
use like journal articles, PowerPoint lectures, multimedia
materials, and electronic books. Some type may call this
Workbin, but serves the same purpose.
• Syllabus – This feature allows you to post your
course syllabus, or simply asks you to type in the required
information for the learners to know like the course code,
course title and description, course schedule, and course
outcomes.
• Chat Room – This feature connects you with
your learners by allowing you to communicate with each
other real-time. Conversations are retrievable in cases
that some may ask for clarification.
• Discussion Forum – This feature is useful for
asynchronous communication since learners can
communicate with other, and you can also reach out with
your learners regarding the content. Some type may call it
Discussion Board.
• Assessment Tool – This feature enables you to
post your prepared quizzes and examinations, or also
allow you to organize and type your own questions there.
• Whisper Button – This feature acknowledges
privacy since you can communicate to a specific learner
especially if there are concerns which needs to attention,
and should be discussed privately.
As technology progresses, these features are also
evolving. Training and workshops are constantly done in
order for teachers, ike you, to be updated with the recent
trends especially for situations where you need to utilize
these media, just like what happened during the COVID-
19 pandemic.
Learning some online educational softwares, like the LMS,
is just one step of preparing yourself for online teaching
environment. Classroom management is another
consideration of pulling through a successful conduct of
this type of modality. Although you are equipped with a lot
of strategies and principles on how to deal with your
learners in a classroom setting, an online setting is much
different than what is usually done in the classroom.
Especially in a synchronous session where learners are
communicating with you simultaneously, teaching
experience may be chaotic and stressful. With that, it is
important to acquire some guidelines on how synchronous
sessions are done in a chat room. You may refer to the list
below.
1. You are expected to greet your learners in the Chat
Room.
2. In checking attendance, you may consider asking
them their last name, location, and stability of internet
connection.
3. Consider the majority, so don’t start unless half of
them are not yet present.
4. While waiting, you may have friendly conversion by
asking light and friendly questions.
5. Tell the learners to post only their answers when
asked.
6. Whenever a question is raised, ask the class to
reflect on their own while waiting for their turn to
respond.
7. Encourage your learners to follow up or sustain the
discussion with their own ideas.
8. Do not reprimand learners in a Chat Room, but use
the Whisper Button, to avoid belittling learners
publicly.
9. Schedule a meeting before conducting your class. If
you have the luxury of time, you may divide the
schedule with 10-12 learnerss per schedule.
10. Humanize interaction by using emoticons and friendly
words.
11. Make a word whenever you are to leave or return in
the Chat Room to make sure that everyone is aware
of your absence or presence.
12. Prepare higher-order questions to allow learners to
think, and not scan with their notes secretly.
13. Balance your time that it won’t overlap with other
schedules.
14. As a general rule, observe pointers on netiquette.
15. Learners should be oriented to be responsible and
value-laden in their interactions.
MODULE SUMMARY
• Internet is a global system of interconnected computer
networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link millions
of devices worldwide.
• The World Wide Web is a system of Internet servers that
support specially formatted documents in a mark-up
language called HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that
supports links to other documents and other files like
audio and video files.
• The development of social media was grouped into three
eras – the primitive, the medieval, and the golden era.
• Some instructional values and benefits of the internet
and the Web include accessibility to knowledge and
information, accessibility to instructional resources,
opportunity for extended learning opportunities, support
for life-long learning, support for computer-based
instruction, delivery for distance learning programs,
efficiency of academic functions, like enrolment, and
utilization of social media application in the teaching-
learning process.
• Alexander and Tale cited five criteria to evaluate web
resources, and these are accuracy, authority, objectivity,
currency, and coverage.
• The web-based instruction is defined as a hypermedia-
based instructional program that utilizes the resources and
features of the World Wide Web to maximize learning by
fostering a learning environment that promotes accurate,
authentic, and updated learning.
• The benefits of web-based instruction include minimized
cost and other resources, improved learning outcomes,
offered engaging, open and flexible learning experiences,
facilitated an easily redistributed, quick-accessed, and
fast-linked knowledge, supported management of large
classes, used resource sharing features for faculty-student
interactions, offered self-paced learning environment, and
provided incomparable access of instructional resources.
• Web-based instruction may be categorized as
augmented, blended, and online.
• Blended learning allows the utilization of pedagogical
strategies and approaches in the teaching and learning
process with the aid of web-driven instructional resources.
• The blended learning models include Rotation Model,
Flex Model, A La Carte Model, and Enriched-Virtual Model.
• Online communication may be synchronous or
asynchronous.
• Interaction may be teacher-to-learner, learner-to-content,
and learner-to-learner. Other forms of interaction may be
learner-to-interface, vicarious, and teacher-to-content.
• The Community of Inquiry Model provides a holistic and
genuine online experience may be attained by having
sufficient levels of “presences”: cognitive presence, social
presence, and teaching presence which are independent
elements that overlaps to attain a meaningful online
educational experience.
• Learning Management System is a course management
software that allows the delivery and facilitation of
programs online.
 TECHNOLOGY
FOR TEACHING
AND LEARNING 2
TTL2S – TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND
LEARNING 2
MODULE 1
Lesson 1- K to 12 Curriculum Framework
Curriculum Framework is the bastion of
education and using educational technology plays a
significant role in attaining access to quality education.
As a teacher, it is essential to know and interpret the
intended learning competencies on how to devise the
skills of 21st-century learners utilizing Information and
Communication Technology (ICT).
Technology for Teaching and
Learning 2 focuses on the application, design,
production, utilization, and evaluation of Information
and Communications Technology (ICT) materials for
teaching and learning in basic education. The major
requirement for this course is an ICT-integrated and
Project-based Learning Plan aligned to the K to 12
curriculums. All the learning activities and course
requirements will revolve around the student-teacher
developed Learning Plan (CMO No. 75, s. 2017).
Pandemic COVID-19 brings tremendous havoc
to humanity. Due to this global crisis, educational
technology plays a significant role for both teachers and
learners to attain accessibility and quality education.
A lot of learning management system and
educational platforms that provide ease of teaching and
learning. Slow connectivity and zero internet connection
are among the significant issues for teachers and
learners who reside in the far-flung areas. However,
there are many ways to connect teaching and learning
to students using the flexible learning approach.
Flexible learning is one of the teaching
strategies to adapt the ability of the learners through
pace, place and mode of education. With pace, for
example, students may take augmented lessons or
engage in a designed learning activity to meet the
required time which is adjacent to their learning. In
place, learning can be learned anywhere provided that
the Internet and communication is delivered as part of a
work-study program. Mode refers to the way that
content is delivered by technology, typically through
blended learning, fully online courses, or technology-
enhanced experiences (Top Hat, n.d.).
Off-line technology – This type of learning
technology involves teachers and students having
limited access or no internet connection. The following
educational technologies that can be used are printed
modules, audiotapes, videotapes, VCDs, storage
devices (SD, flash drive, external HDD/SSD) drives,
and learning packets. Television and radio broadcasting
networks can be also used for general knowledge and
dissemination of information. Portable Learning
Management System or cloud storage program is also
part of off-line learning. Telephone and fax machines
are also used for communication and sending printed
outputs. Snail mail and dropping points are other
avenues for sending and receiving educational
requirements.
Blended technology - Another learning
technology that teachers and students are having digital
accessibility but unstable connection. Desktop
computers, laptops, tablets, smartphones, and
applications are primarily technologies for this teaching
and learning development. Learning Management
System (LMS) can be employed if a virtual or
collaborative way of learning.
On-line technology – This type of learning
technology is controlled by or connected to a network.
Classnet or virtual class is the most effective way to
deliver the instruction. Available resources like e-
modules, videos, audios, podcasts, Open Educational
Resources (OERs), webcasts, and the others. LMS
plays a significant role which allows users to create,
organize, and assign educational courses.
EDUCATIONAL PLATFORM is any computer
software that exists online and serves an educational
purpose. Blackboard, Canvas, Schoology, and
Brightspace are few examples of this learning platform
with proprietary or required premium of payment.
Google Classroom, Moodle, Sakai, LearnDash, and
Edmodo are some of the educational platforms that are
free and open-source to use.
The Pedagogy Wheel ENG V5.0 Android is
developed by Carrington (2020). This wheel designs to
help educators think systematically, coherently, and
how they can use mobile apps in their teaching for long
term outcomes of education. This Pedagogy Wheel is
all about an outlook about digital-age education that
interconnects the features of mobile applications,
learning objectives and processes, motivations, and
cognitive development, Figure 1 presents the Pedagogy
Wheel which apps are interactive
http://bit.ly/PWENGV5.
The Pedagogy Wheel ENG V5.0 Android
 Use this Wheel to run these prompts or
interconnected gears to check your teaching from
planning to implementation. The Attributes Gear: The
core of learning design that involve ethics,
responsibility, and citizenship. Ask yourself the question
of what will a graduate from this learning experience
‘look like’ i.e. what is it that makes others see them as
successful? Ask ‘how does everything I do support
these attributes and capabilities?’ The Motivation
Gear: This is how you build and teach autonomy,
mastery, and purpose to the learners. The Blooms
Gear: This gear helps you craft learning objectives to
attain the domains with HOTS or Higher Order Thinking
Skills. Just select one learning objective from each
category prior to apply with technology enhancement.
The Technology Gear: This serves as your
technological strategies where you may use the
appropriate app or a combination of more applications
to attain the learning flexibility. The SAMR Model Gear:
This gear guides you on how to substitute, augment,
modify, and redefine to its context of learning
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPCK).
APP SELECTION CRITERIA
1. Remembering Criteria: Apps that fit into the
"remembering" stage improve the user's ability
to define terms, identify facts, and recall and
locate information. Educational apps fall into
the remembering guide for the students to
select, find matches, and sequence the content
out from the line of applications.
2. Understanding Criteria: These mobile apps
give opportunities for students to explain ideas
or concepts. Understanding apps pace the
missing from the selection of a correct answer
and introduce a more open-ended format for
students to summarize the content and
translate meaning.
3. Applying Criteria: This app of “applying”
provides opportunities for students to
demonstrate their ability to implement learned
procedures and methods. They also highlight
the ability to execute ideas in an unfamiliar
context of situations.
4. Analyzing Criteria: Analyzing apps improve
the students’ ability to differentiate between the
relevant and irrelevant, determine
relationships, and recognize the organization of
content.
5. Evaluating Criteria: Apps belong to the
“evaluating” phase increase the students’ ability
to critic facts and procedures based on the
criteria they have set or outside sources. They
help students on how to weigh decisions, check
the content quality through validity and
reliability, as well as the accuracy and
effectiveness of claims.
6. Creating Criteria: This app provides
opportunities for students to generate new
ideas, design plans, and innovate and produce
products.
Lesson 2 – 21st Century Skills
As learners, you are the center of the educative
process. The 21st Century Skills of the K to 12 learners
are vital and crucial to know in order to strategically
develop the needed target areas of sustainable quality
education.
Understanding the 21st Century Skills: World Economic
Forum, New Vision for Education (2015)
The World Economic Forum (2016) established
16 crucial proficiencies for education in the 21st century.
These skills include six “foundational literacies” and 10
skills labeled either “competencies” or “character
qualities”
Foundational literacies are the core skills
applied by learners to everyday tasks such as literacy,
numeracy, scientific literacy, ICT literacy, financial
literacy, and cultural and civic literacy.
With ICT integration, foundational skills are
required for traditional academic learning. The basic
knowledge where common learning tasks and specific
alignment of skills are simply put into efficiency and
cost-effectively. With the emerging technologies that go
beyond the traditional way of learning, core skills must
be the prerequisite of learning.
BASIC SKILLS THAT ARE CONTEXTUALLY
DEFINED TO UNLOCK THE POTENTIAL USING OF
TECHNOLOGY:
Literacy – is the ability to read, understand and use
written language.
Numeracy – ability to use numbers and other symbols
to understand and express quantitative relationships
Scientific Literacy – is the ability to use scientific
knowledge and principles to understand one's
environment and test hypotheses
ICT Literacy – is the ability to use and create
technology-based content, including finding and sharing
information, answering questions, interacting with other
people and computer programming
Financial Literacy – is the ability to understand and
apply conceptual and numerical aspects of finance in
practice; and
Cultural and civic literacy – is the ability to
understand, appreciate, analyze, and apply knowledge
of the humanities (https://tinyurl.com/y4rrsesg).
Competencies are a binary set of skills on how learner
approaches complex challenges. These are critical
thinking/problem-solving, creativity, communication,
and collaboration.
4Cs of 21st Century Skills:
- Critical thinking/problem-solving is ability to
identify, analyze and evaluate situations, ideas, and
information to formulate responses and solutions.
- Creativity is the ability to imagine and devise new,
innovative ways of addressing problems, answering
questions or expressing meaning through the
application, synthesis or repurposing of knowledge.
- Communication is the ability to listen to, understand,
convey and contextualize information through verbal,
nonverbal, visual and written means.
- Collaboration is the ability to work in a team towards
a common goal, including the ability to prevent and
manage conflict (https://tinyurl.com/y4rrsesg).
Character Qualities are another set of social and
emotional learning skills in which learners approach
their changing environment.
SKILLS:
Curiosity. Ability and desire to ask
questions and to demonstrate open-mindedness
and inquisitiveness
Initiative. Ability and desire to proactively
undertake a new task or goal
Persistence/Grit. Ability to sustain
interest and effort and to persevere to accomplish
a task or goal
Adaptability. Ability to change plans,
methods, opinions or goals considering new
information
Leadership. Ability to effectively direct,
guide and inspire others to accomplish a common
goal
Social and cultural awareness. Ability to
interact with other people in a socially, culturally, and
ethically appropriate way (https://tinyurl.com/y4rrsesg).
Top 10 Skills
Hereunder are the Top 10 skills you need to thrive
in the Industrial Revolution 4.0:
2020:
- Complex Problem Solving
- Critical Thinking
- Creativity
- People Management
- Coordinating with Others
- Emotional Intelligence
- Judgment and Decision Making
- Service Orientation
- Negotiation
- Cognitive Flexibility
2015:
- Complex Problem Solving
- Coordinating with others
- People Management
- Critical Thinking
- Negotiation
- Quality Control
- Service Orientation
- Judgment and Decision Making
- Active Listening
- Creativity
Lesson 3 – Learning Activities to Develop 21st Century
Skills
4Cs of 21st Century Learning and Technology
The key competencies of 21st Century Learning are
identified and recognized by many reputable
organizations and scholars not only in the educational
setting but in the whole world of real work and life.
Kivunja (2015) viewed 4Cs as ‘super skills’ for the
21st century: Creativity, Communication, Critical
Thinking, and Collaboration. He presented that 4Cs is
the New Learning Paradigm since teaching to the
students who will become well-equipped with 21st-
century skills.
This new learning paradigm is articulated by the
Partnership for the 21st Century Skills (P21, 2019)
known as Rainbow or Framework for 21st Century
Learning in which illustrated below:
The 4Cs also known as learning and innovation skills
are placed at the apex of the Rainbow or Framework for
21st Century Learning in order to provide learners the
skills and attributes they each need to meet their own
goals. These skills are what learners learn about mental
processes required to adapt and improve upon the
increasingly complex life and modern work
environments. These include critical thinking and
problem solving (solving problems), communication
(understanding and communicating ideas),
collaboration (working with others), and creativity
(producing high-quality work).
On the right portion of the rainbow is how the
Information, Media, and Technology (IMT) skills play
in the context of nowadays trends and phenomena. In
this contemporary world, digital tools and resources
printed rapid growth and change the development of
humanity. The ability of the learners to collaborate,
contribute, and think critically to an unprecedented
scale of educational technology are accentuated in a
form of IMT literacy skills. Stauffer (2020) discussed
that IMT skills are concerned with a different element in
each digital comprehension such as Information
Literacy (Understanding facts, figures, statistics, and
data), Media Literacy (Understanding the methods and
outlets in which information is published), and
Technology Literacy (Understanding the machines that
make the Information Age possible).
Life and career skills are positioned at
the left portion to develop thinking skills, content
knowledge, and social and emotional competencies. As
such, learners must learn the intangible elements of life
to exist and survive based on the recent competitive
phenomenon and necessary requirement to achieve the
desired job. The essential skills include are flexibility
and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and
cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, and
leadership and responsibility.
At the heart of the rainbow is the key subjects or
core skills in which the learners are grounded with the
basic knowledge and mainly concentrate the efforts on
the three “Rs” – reading, writing, and arithmetic.
The four pillars of contemporary learning are
Standards and Assessments, Curriculum and
Instruction, Professional Development, and Learning
Environments.
Lesson 4 – Promoting Digital Citizenship
Digital Citizenship
In this digital world, learners today are currently
surrounded by numerous devices and different
technologies to interact with social connection,
education, employment, and other forms. Several
inventions and innovations to address accessibility and
quality of life are developed and continue to grow to find
the novel and state-of-the-art technology solution. This
lesson will unlock the meaning of digital citizenship,
digital citizen, netizen, and its elements with respect to
21st-century learning.
Why digital citizenship matter? There was 34
percent of students reported that they have experienced
cyberbullying. There were 24 percent of teens do not
know what to do if harassed online. There were 39
percent of teens also who do not enable their privacy
settings on social media. Cyberbullying and other forms
of digital dangers deeply affect the youth. Therefore,
digital citizenship matters. Digital citizenship goes
beyond technology fluency or expert use of technology.
It focuses on a person’s digital actions and interactions
with other people. Digital citizenship aims to empower
everyone especially the youth (https://youtu.be/h-
VP58ncwJU).
Digital citizenship is the norms of appropriate and
responsible use of technology. In a school setting,
digital citizenship covers concepts and skills that
teachers, technology leaders, school administrators,
and parents should teach and develop in students or
technology users for them to use technology tools
appropriately (Tuscano, 2017). Meanwhile, a digital
citizen is one who knows what is right and wrong,
exhibits intelligent technology behavior, and makes
good choices when using technology (Costelo, 2020).
Merriam-Webster (n.d.). defines netizen as an active
member of the digital world. It is also known as
cybercitizen, cybernaut, or cybersurfer.
The nine elements of digital citizenship, as defined
by Ribble (2015) written on his book of Digital
Citizenship in Schools, provide a basis for educators,
parents, and students to understand and implement
strategies for safe and responsible consumers and
creators in the digital world. It serves as a foundation
and education for digital citizenship.
This framework identifies the current
components of digital citizenship with nine elements
such as etiquette, access, law, literacy, communication,
commerce, rights and responsibilities, security, and
health and wellness. These elements have been
grouped into three all-encompassing known as REP
principles: Respect, Educate, and Protect.
9 ELEMENTS OF DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP
“R” stands for respecting yourself and others. The
elements categorized under the theme of respect are:
Digital Access: advocating for equal digital
rights and access is where digital citizenship
starts
Digital Etiquette: rules and policies aren’t
enough; we need to teach everyone about
appropriate conduct online
Digital Law: users understand it’s a crime to
steal or damage another’s digital work, identity or
property
“E” stands for educating yourself and others, which
includes learning in the classroom, at home, and within
the community. The elements categorized under the
theme of educating are:
Digital Communication: with so many
communication options available, users need to
learn how to make appropriate decisions
Digital Literacy: need to teach students how to
learn in a digital society
Digital Commerce: as more purchases are
made online, students must understand how to
be effective consumers in a digital economy
“P” stands for protecting yourself and others, which
includes protecting identity, information, and ideas. The
elements categorized under the theme of protecting are:
Digital Rights and Responsibilities: inform
students of their basic digital rights to privacy,
freedom of speech, etc.
Digital Safety and Security: know how to
protect your information from outside forces that
might cause harm; students must guard their
tools and data
Digital Health and Wellness: from physical
issues, such as repetitive stress syndrome, to
psychological issues, such as technology
addiction, students should understand the health
 risks of technology; about achieving a balance
between the online world and the real world.
These REPs simply known as repetitions, mark the
current model and facilitates to develop and strengthen
digital citizenship skills in proper time and place of
context. As educators to this contemporary world, these
elements must be reviewed and proposed necessary
captions to really capture the existing phenomena.
Educators can enable learning opportunities for
students to apply this model and may inject new digital
discourse appropriate to avoid harm and provide a
peaceful way of digital living.
The modeling and facilitation of digital citizenship
skills must learn within the classroom, school, and
community. The teaching and propagating this
framework are the responsibility not only for educators,
but to all educational leaders, parents, community
members, and the students themselves who will form
part to embrace the digital world.
Lesson 5 – Revisiting of Learning Plans: Integration of
21st Century Skills and ICTs
Learning Plan is a complete,
convertible, short-term plan for instruction and
assessment. Teachers today need to apply
differentiated instruction articulately and vertically
aligned to learning outcomes. The learning plan does
that by building students’ reading, listening, speaking,
and writing skills (Wicht, 2015). In the Philippine setting,
the lesson plan is widely used by the Department of
Education, a basic education system from K to 12
curriculums.
What to Consider When Writing a Lesson Plan
(https://tinyurl.com/yyfmnlak)
Three steps to consider when writing a good
Lesson Plan: students, content, and learning materials
that are readily available. Please take note that the
infusion of technology is vital and crucial in attaining the
learners’ needs of 21st-century learning.
Step One: Know your students
 Backgrounds
 Ability and interest levels
 Attention spans
 Ability to work together in groups
 Prior knowledge and learning experiences
 Special needs or accommodations
 learning preferences
Step Two: Know the content
 Subject matter. Research the content that you
will be teaching.
 Curriculum Standards. Determine the standards
where your subject area is anchored.
 Curriculum Guides. Check and use national
curriculum guides as your main control to teach
the content or subject matter.
Step Three: Know the learning materials
 Technology
 Software
 Grading Rubrics
 Audio/visuals
 Teacher mentors
 Community and guest resources
 Equipment, manipulatives and activity packets
 Library resources
 Any materials that can assist you in teaching.
A Good Lesson Plan
A lesson plan is usually prepared by the teacher
who conducts a lesson for students to make sure a
lesson meets its objectives and learning takes place
effectively (https://tinyurl.com/y2vqp5tq). It is the
blueprint of the teaching and learning process where a
class is scientifically and artfully given. A sound lesson
plan requires a holistic way of understanding depending
on the types and models where the teacher does the
lesson and environment of instruction.
A good teacher must have a better foundation
and understanding of how to construct the learning plan
anchored to various learning models. Hereunder are 3
Lesson Plan Models:
1. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction. Gagne’s
Nine Events of Instruction model help
educators and instructional designers craft their
learning plans. This model provides a
framework as a systematic teaching and
learning process. Each step addresses a form
of communication and when the learning
information or skills are acquired, learners are
more essentially engage in the learning process
and retain the learned topics (The Peak
Performance Center, 2020).

https://tinyurl.com/y3zg6zyz
2. The Madeline Hunter Model of Mastery
Learning. Hunter found out that no matter what
the teacher’s style, grade level, subject matter,
or economic background of the students a
properly taught lesson contained eight
elements: Anticipatory Set; Objective and
Purpose; Input; Modeling; Checking for
Understanding; Guided Practice; Independent
Practice; and, Closure that enhanced and
maximized learning
(https://tinyurl.com/y5z8zxla ).
3. 5Es Model. This model was developed by the
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (1987)
that promotes collaborative and active learning
in which students work together to solve
problems and investigate new concepts by
asking questions, observing, analyzing, and
drawing conclusions. The five phases of the
5Es Model are to Engage, Explore, Explain,
Elaborate, and Evaluate (Lesley University,
2020).
Types of Lesson Plan
1. Detailed Lesson Plan (DLP) is a teacher’s
“roadmap” for a lesson. It contains a detailed
description of the steps a teacher will take to
teach a topic (Llego, 2015).
2. Semi-detailed Lesson Plan is less intricate
than the detailed lesson plan. It is having a
general game plan of what you wanted to cover
for that subject on that day (Piñera, 2013).
3. Brief. This lesson plan covers only the outline
of the subject.
4. Understanding by Design (UbD™
framework) offers a planning process and
structure to guide curriculum, assessment, and
instruction. Its two key ideas are contained in
the title: 1) focus on teaching and assessing for
understanding and learning transfer, and 2)
design curriculum “backward” from those ends
(McTighe & Wiggins 2012).
A typical DLP contains the following parts:
Objectives, Contents, Procedures, Evaluation, and
Assignment. Remarks and Reflection are newly added
as part of today’s DLP.
 Objectives have three learning domains as
Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. In
creating these domain objectives, a teacher
must consider employing the SMARTEST
(Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Reliable,
Time-bounded, Evaluative, Reflective,
Transformative) indicators in order to determine
your target lesson.
 Contents or the subject matters include the
topic/lesson, references like textbooks from
library and internet websites, and learning
materials such as technology, equipment,
manipulatives, and other instructional aids.
 The Procedure is the body of the lesson plan
in which the method and learning activities are
inscribed. In DLP, this includes the preliminary
activities (prayer, checking attendance, review
from the previous lesson), motivation or
learning developmental activities, presentation,
discussion, application, and generalization of
the topic. Conversations of the teacher and
learners are written in a manner of questions
and answers activities while in a semi-detailed
lesson plan has only contained the procedures
and steps to be used in the lesson proper.
 Evaluation. This provides you the formative
test like taking a 10-item quiz, group
presentations with rubrics, practical activities,
and many others. The evaluation may vary from
lesson to different lessons.
 The Assignment is also known as homework.
This part of the lesson plan is given as
reinforcement learning activity at home due to
the shortchange of attaining the learning
objectives. If the lesson objectives are met, the
Agreement is given in a form of research and
advance activity for the next lesson. Take note
that giving assignment is optional in all grade
levels and follows strictly the DepEd
Memorandum No. 329, series of 2010, hence,
it is expected that the delivery of the lesson is
appropriately covered.
 Remarks is a newly added part of the DLP in
which teachers shall document specific
instances that result in a continuation of lessons
to the following day in case of reteaching,
insufficient time, and transfer of lessons to the
following day due to class suspension and other
force majeure activities (Bakakeng National
High School, 2017).
Reflection is another newly added part of the
DLP in which teachers are encouraged to write briefly
the parts that are weak and share the strengths which
are successfully implemented. This part also covers
the learners who excel and those who need help
(Bakakeng National High School, 2017).
MODULE 2 are organized around a question which is both authentic
Lesson 1 – Nature of Problem-based and Project-based and meaningful. (Blumenfeld et al. 1991).
Approaches
While Project-Based Learning and Problem-
Learning from Experience Based Learning are usually interchanged, they are two
Some teachers find it difficult to understand Problem- different approaches to learning. In Project-Based
based and Project-based learning because they didn’t
Learning, students have control of the work or project
realize that they should first explore Experiential
which may or may not address a specific problem. In
Learning. Experiential learning is commonly misused
and misunderstood by some. Here are some MYTHS Problem-Based Learning, a selected problem is
about experiential learning: specified by the teacher. Students work individually or
in teams overtime to develop solutions to this problem.
1) “Experiential learning gives faculty a break”.
Basically, the students are teaching themselves” – the Problem-based and Project-Based approaches
teacher carefully plan and facilitate learning by can be used in various learning opportunities. It is vital
preparing learner-centered and integrative activities that as teachers we should know when to use it. Below
which can allow the learner to seek out skills in working are some examples of cases where Problem-based and
with problems independently. Project-based learning are used.
2) “Experiential learning involves only Examples of Problem-based Learning Activities:
experiences”. – Experience without critical reflection
1) Show a video clip where an athlete gets injured
does not integrate knowledge or facilitate new
understanding. Students must be allowed to determine and ask questions related to the force, direction, what
what they could apply to new situations from their ligaments would be involved.
experience.
2) Use simple objects to create levers; present
3) “Experiential learning must happen outside the various problem using common objects; give students
classroom”. - Role-playing, games, and simulations a scenario where a huge equipment shall be
are some examples of opportunities for students to transferred from one room to another with only one
integrate knowledge, develop new skills, and learn more friend to help…how can you do this?
about themselves which can happen inside the
classroom. Examples of Project-based Learning Activities:
1) Shrinking potato chip bags in the microwave.
Experiential learning is a blend of both actual
Hands-on activities are used to learn about polymers
experiences and directed learning to allow the student
by using a number of their simple objects, like shoes
to attain new concepts and values.
and sporting equipment. As an activity, they can put a
Characteristics of Experiential Learning wrapper from their favorite chips or candy bar into the
These are the characteristics of experiential microwave to learn how heat return to their natural
learning from Wurdinger and Carlson (2010) state.
 hands-on learning
2) Design app. Ask students to create their own App
 problem-solving process
to address a given phenomenon like global warming,
 real-world problems
depletion of natural resources, transportation and etc.
 learners’ interaction with each other and the
subject matter Project-Based Learning VS Problem Based
 concrete experiences Learning
Project-based Problem-
It’s NOT experiential if: vs based
 students don’t solve problems. Often Open-ended Normally Single
 student learning outcomes are not clearly Multidisciplinary Authentic Subject
defined Often Long Build 4’C’s
Projects Independent Often short term
 there is no interaction with other students. Inquiry projects
 there is no concrete experience. Includes the "Product" might
 there is no guided reflection built-in. creation only be a
of Product or proposed
Performance solution or
Problem – based and Project-based Learning
Normally based presentation of
Both problem-based learning and project-based on real-world findings
learning are forms of experiential learning. Problem- tasks and
Based Learning (PBL) use real-world problems to settings often uses case
promote student learning of concepts and principles studies,
scenarios,
instead of direct presentation of facts and concepts
“messy”
(Duch et al, 2001). On the other hand, Project-Based problems
Learning is a comprehensive instructional approach to
engage students in investigation. The learning activities
Lesson 2 – Theories on Problem-based/Problem-based
Learning
Review on some Learning Theories
A Learning theory aims to describe how an individual
absorbs, retains, and process information during
learning. First, let's try to recall some learning theories
in the context of Problem-based and Project-based
learning. There are multiple theories of learning that
guides educators in planning, implementing, and
assessing learning, but in this lesson, we will only
include the basic types of learning theories.
1. Behaviorism – in this learning theory, learning
is viewed as a response to external stimuli.
Imagine doing a task for your most unlike
subject, you were not thrilled to hear the
instructions of your teacher. It all changes when
your teacher announces the possible rewards
and consequences you may get for the task. In
behaviorism positive and negative
reinforcement act as tools of learning and
behavior modification, it also includes the use
of punishment and reward system.
2. Constructivism – in this learning theory, the
learners are seen as the one responsible for
their learning. They use what they previously
learned from their past experiences and use
them to construct their meaning. For example,
you want your learners to create a video
presentation about current political issues in our
country. You need first to provide opportunities
for them to utilize their knowledge about politics
through discussion and by asking questions.
3. Cognitivism - in this learning theory there are
an emphasis on facts and recall of knowledge.
If you are going to ask your students to create
a project or to solve a problem, you need to give
time and allow them to gather knowledge and
facts that they need. Imagine being asked to
cook a meal without knowing its ingredients.
Discussions and explanations are still needed
in using problem-based and project-based
approaches.
The following are only a few of the multiple
theories of learning that guide educators in the teaching
and learning process. There is no such single learning
theory that could explain how learning takes place. Now
let's try to understand better Problem-based and
Project-based learning by digging deeper into learning
theories that support experiential learning.
Experiential Learning Theory
David Kolb is an American psychologist and
educational theorist who earned his Ph.D. in Social
Psychology from Harvard University. He is best known
for his contributions to Experiential learning theory,
Kolb's Learning Styles, and learning style inventory.
His work on experiential learning tries to explain
learning as a process where knowledge becomes a
product of various combinations of grasping and
transforming experiences.
Experiential Learning theory emphasizes that
concrete experience provides information that serves
as a basis for reflection. From these reflections, we
assimilate knowledge and form abstract concepts.
Kolb identifies two different ways of grasping
experience:
1) Concrete Experience;
2) Abstract Conceptualization.
He also identified two ways of transforming experience:
1) Reflective Observation;
2) Active Experimentation.
The Experiential Learning Cycle
Kolb's experiential learning style theory is like a
baseball field where the learner 'touches all the bases'.
In this theory, learning occurs if there is a mutually
supportive process that integrates all the stages. The
learner could enter the cycle at any stage and then
follow its sequence logically. It is assumed that
learning only takes place when the learner
successfully executes all stages.
For example, let's imagine that you ask your students
to learn how to use a microscope.
 Some students might choose to start learning
by observing the teacher or a classmate as they
use the microscope and then reflect from it.
 Another student might prefer to read and
analyze a book or manual on how to use a
microscope.
 Yet another student might decide to just try and
explore how to use the microscope directly.
Diversity in the classroom plays a vital role, the
preferences of our students is important. Some may
prefer to be "watchers" who benefit from reflective
observation while others may want to be "doers" and
are more probably be involved in active
experimentations and as a teacher, we must recognize
the needs of our learners.
Going Beyond
Read about the topics below according to your area of
specialization.
 Language Education (English and Filipino)
- Problem/Project-based learning in Language
Acquisition
- Teaching English/Filipino with
Problems/Project Based Approach
 Mathematics and Science
- Using Technology to enhance inquiry
- Project-based Multimedia Learning
 Social Studies
- Using Technology to enhance social science
inquiry
- Project-based Multimedia Learning
 Values Education
- Nature of Problem –based approaches in
Values Education
- Project-based Multimedia Learning
 Elementary
- Using Technology to enhance inquiry
- Project-based Multimedia Learning
 Early Childhood
- Using Technology to enhance early childhood
education
- Project-based Multimedia Learning
 SPED
- Nature of Problem –based approaches in
SPED
- Project-based Multimedia Learning
Lesson 3 – Technology-based Tools that can be used
for Problem-based/Project-based Learning
Technology Tools for Problem-based and Project-
based Learning
For Problem-based and Project-based learning to be
successful, there should be a focus on the use of
technology together with appropriate methods and
strategies to reach maximum learning. To allow the
attainment of lesson objectives, your technology
tools/platform should be properly implemented. It is a
known fact that both teachers and students struggle in
utilizing technology tools for Problem-based and
Project-based Learning. Here, we will explore some
tools that may help us in implementing Problem-based
and Project-based learning in the future.
Considerations and applications for technology in
PBL
Technology plays a significant role in supporting
learning in PBL. Below are some characteristics of
Problem-based and Project-based learning in the 21st
Century teaching, learning and learning environment,
and how technology can be best utilized.
1. Learner-centered – the abilities and processes
of the learner are the utmost priority of PBL.
Educators must put in mind that the knowledge,
skills, and attitude of the learners should always
be considered. Strategies must also revolve on
students' prior knowledge, motivation, interests,
and skill-level in a PBL environment. Teachers
could use tools like online surveys, polls, and
collaborative online workspaces to assist them
in checking student progress and to better
understand the learners.
2. Collaborative – a well-selected technology tool
should promote a community of learners that
encourages productivity. Collaboration helps in
engaging learners and develops positive well-
being. Technology tools should help in
producing new knowledge by exploring real-
world problems or cases. Access to external
resources and resource persons is now easier
with the emergence and re-conceptualization of
online systems that support collaboration
between teachers and learners.
3. Real-life applications - “Learning is stronger
when it matters” (Brown et al., 2014, p.11).
Authentic learning environments are created
when students are capable of making
connections between new material and the
real-world. With communication tools like
Facebook messenger are used to connect via
video chat across the world and other tools
such as virtual reality, online forums, blogs, and
discussions learners should apply new skills
and build a sense of community.
4. Engages critical thinking – Students are
encouraged to explore a subject beyond limits
of a given material in Virtual Environments and
with these students become self-reliant. There
is an influx of information available thus
questions that allow students to investigate
rather than completing a simple search are
required. Specific technological tools could be
used to close gaps in the problem-solving
process.
Choosing appropriate Tool in your area of
Specialization
Even with the range of technological tools
available, it is still challenging for educators to identify
exactly which tools best promote PBL. Here are some
questions that we can use in selecting the appropriate
tool for PBL:
1. Does the tool encourage a learner-centered
environment?
2. Will the tool allow for collaboration among
students?
3. Does the tool promote real-world
applications?
4. Can the tool be used to facilitate
investigation, problem-solving and inquire
Lesson 4 – Model of Constructive Alignment in Writing
a Problem-based and Project-based Learning Plan
What is Constructive Alignment?
As a teacher, it is our role to ensure to we
achieve the desired learning outcomes by creating a
learning environment that supports the learning
activities. Constructive Alignment is the coherence
between assessment, teaching strategies, and intended
learning outcomes in an educational program.
(McMahon & Thakore 2006). We want our learners' to
construct their learning through relevant learning
activities. We do our best to make sure that that there is
proper alignment in all components in the teaching
system, which includes the curriculum and its intended
outcomes, the teaching methods used, and the
assessment tasks.
Bigg’s Model of Constructive Alignment
John Biggs is an Australian educational
psychologist and novelist who obtained his Ph.D. from
the University of London. He held Chairs and has been
employed in various positions across different
countries. He developed the model of constructive
alignment for designing teaching and assessment.
Model of an Aligned Curriculum
Biggs suggests that it is important that activities
should be designed to enable students to learn how to
demonstrate achievement at the highest level as
described by the outcomes; therefore, learning activities
are designed before the assessment. He also
emphasized that “students tend to learn what they think
they will be tested on”, then it is important that the
assessment regime needs to be presented before the
teaching and learning activities, and teachers should be
focusing on the verbs within the outcomes that express
"the very best understanding that could reasonably be
expected".
Differential Levels of achievement (2010)
He added that surface learning is a result of a
poorly aligned system where the test does not reflect
the objectives. Students will always predict the
assessment task and then learn what they thought will
meet those requirements and there is no problem as
long as those assessment requirements reflect the
curriculum.
Constructive alignment is like criterion-
referenced assessment which aligns assessment to the
objectives, but there is more to that, CA is (a) not taking
so much about the matching of the objectives to
assessment but in expressing the objectives in terms of
intended learning outcomes (ILOs), that will later define
the assessment task; and (b) it aligns the teaching
methods, to the intended outcomes as well as the
assessment tasks.
Constructive Alignment in PBL
In the previous lessons, we learned that both
Problem-based and Project-based learning are
creating opportunities for students to construct
knowledge through effective interactions and
collaborative inquiry and not only infusing problems
into the class. In ensuring that there’s constructive
alignment in Problem/Project-based learning, the
Cooperative Problem-Based Learning (CPBL) Model
proposed three (3) phases as follows:
Phase 1: Problem Restatement and Identification
This phase aims to prevent students from
jumping into conclusions by training them to think and
focus when faced with a problem. With this, the
students are guided in understanding and analyzing
the problem, defining the existing knowledge as well
as the gap. This is usually done by asking students to
restate and identify the problem to check their
understanding before coming to class. This will allow
instructors to define a problem, as required in
constructive alignment as well as assess students’
ability to understand.
Phase 2: Peer Teaching, Synthesis, and Solution
Formulation
Phase 2 elaborates on the essence of self-
directed learning where students search and acquire
new knowledge driven by the need to use or apply the
knowledge. This aims to train students to fill in the gap
in their knowledge that they have identified in Phase 1
before trying to find a solution to the problem. After this
phase, the learners are expected to develop self-
directed learning skills to fill their knowledge gaps,
synthesize, and apply them to formulate the solution.
Phase 3: Generalization, Closure, and
Internalization
Finally, at this phase, the learners are expected
to critically determine the best solution for the problem
and use metacognitive skills to internalize and
generalize the concepts and skills learned. This will
allow learners to invoke critical evaluation of solutions,
develop metacognitive abilities in reflecting and
improving themselves and summarize as well as
connection concepts.
Constructive Alignment in Problem/Project-
based learning plans is vital in ensuring that the
learners are getting the appropriate learning
experiences before they are being assessed, and to
ensure that assessments are done reflect the
curriculum.
Lesson 5 – Writing a Problem-based/Project-based
Learning Plan
The Problem-Centered Design
Problem-based and Project-based learning (PBL) is
both an approach and a teaching method to the
curriculum. It draws on the needs, interests, abilities,
and social problems of learners and cut across subject
boundaries. It challenges students by carefully
designing problems that allow them to use problem-
solving techniques, self-directed learning strategies,
team participation skills, and disciplinary knowledge.
There are two major problem-centered curriculum
designs.
1. Life-Situations Design - in these designs,
students are allowed to see directly the
relevance of what they are studying. The
content is organized around persistent life
situations to encourage students to become
directly involved in the improvement of the
community.
2. Core Problem Design - The problems are
based on common human activities and it
typically centers on general education. The
Core design includes common needs,
problems, concerns, of the learners as its focus.
Steps in Designing, Implementing and Assessing
PBL
Twenty-first-century skills require the use of
instructional approaches that let students to apply
content, own their learning, utilize technology efficiently,
and work with others. Here are the steps in
Problem/Project-Based Learning:
Step 1: Identify Outcomes/Assessments. First, you need to
determine if your course has learning outcomes that suit
with PBL, then develop formative and summative
assessments to measure student learning. PBL fits best
with process-oriented course outcomes such as
research and problem solving which requires
collaboration.
Step 2: Design the Scenario. Next, think of a real,
complex issue related to your course content you
design, a scenario with an embedded problem that will
emerge through student brainstorming. It’s usually easy
to identify lots of problems in our fields; the secret is
writing a scenario for our students that will encourage
different types of thinking, discussion, research, and
learning. Remember that scenarios should be
motivating, interesting, and generate good discussion
and should take place to meet the learning outcomes.
Step 3: Introduce PBL. Some students are new to
PBL; you could always start with easier scenarios like
the long line in the canteen. With this, students could
familiarize themselves with the process. You can also
allow groups to have their way of dealing with problems
and share them with the class.
Step 4: Research. PBL research begins with small-
group discussions where students define the problem
and determine their background knowledge, what topics
to research, and where they need to look to find data.
The problem should be written as a statement or
research question. Students should assign roles and
responsibilities and develop an initial hypothesis to
“test” as they research a solution. Remember: research
questions and hypotheses can change.
Step 5: Product Performance. The students create
products and presentations which will synthesize their
research, solutions, and learning. The format of the
summative assessment is completely up to you.
Students find resources to develop background
knowledge that informs their understanding and then
they collaboratively present their findings.
Step 6: Assessment. The groups’ products and
performances are evaluated in this step. The use of
rubrics and reflections to determine whether students
have met the outcomes and to decide whether all group
members participated meaningfully is advised.
Although we presented PBL as a step, it
functions cyclically. This type of process-oriented, self-
directed, and collaborative pedagogical strategy can
help students succeed.
MODULE 2 SUMMARY
 Problem-Based Learning uses real-world
problems to promote student learning of
concepts and principles instead of direct
presentation of concepts, and a selected
problem is specified by the teacher.
 Project-Based Learning is a comprehensive
instructional approach to engage students in
investigation and students to have control of the
work or project which may or may not address
a specific problem.
 A Learning theory aims to describe how an
individual absorbs, retains, and process
information during learning.
 Behaviorism is a learning theory where
learning is viewed as a response to external
stimuli.
 Constructivism is a learning theory where the
learners are seen as the one responsible for
their learning.
 Cognitivism is a learning theory with an
emphasis on facts and recall of knowledge.
 David Kolb is an American psychologist and
educational theorist who is best known for his
contributions to Experiential learning theory,
Kolb's Learning Styles, and learning style
inventory.
 Experiential Learning theory emphasizes
that concrete experience provides information
that serves as a basis for reflection.
 Constructive Alignment is the coherence
between assessment, teaching strategies, and
intended learning outcomes in an educational
program.
 John Biggs is an Australian educational
psychologist and novelist who developed the
model of constructive alignment for designing
teaching and assessment.
 Life-Situations Design allows students to see
directly the relevance of what they are studying.
 Core Problem Design is based on common
human activities and it typically centers on
general education.
MODULE 3
Lesson 1 – Maximizing the Use of Microsoft Office in
Developing Instructional Materials
Microsoft Office tools are no new to most of the
students. As curriculum constantly changes in response
to societal needs, so has the technological exposure of
the students. Moreover, Microsoft office tools are the
more readily available productivity software there is in
the industry and it is for this reason that in this lesson,
we will be focusing more on the features of Microsoft
office tools and on how they can best be maximized in
developing Instructional Materials.
MICROSOFT WORD
Microsoft Office Word is a Word-processing
Application developed by the Microsoft Corporation.
HOME TAB
- CLIPBOARD allows you to cut, copy, paste and copy
formatting from one place to another.
- FONT section of the ribbon provides a section to
handle the basic text formatting. Items such as bold,
underline, strikethrough, highlight and font type can be
changed here
- PARAGRAPH section provides icons for bullets, lists,
justify, line spacing, indents and borders.
- STYLES section allows you to quickly change the
formatting of a section of text by choosing one of the
predefined styles. You can also create a new style
based on the formatting of your selected text for use
later in other sections of your document.
- EDITING section of the toolbar allows you to find,
replace and select items. The select option gives you
the ability to select all, select objects or select text with
similar formatting. This last option gives you the ability
to quickly change everything in your document with one
style to another style without having to manually find all
of that text and change each area separately.
INSERT TAB
- PAGES section is where you can go to insert a cover
page, blank page or page break. The cover page drops
down offers a selection of predefined cover pages for
your document that have sections for title, date and
author. You can also select text in your document and
choose to save the selected text to the cover page
gallery for use in future documents.
- TABLE section only has a drop down menu which
offers a grid to create a new table, insert table, draw
table, convert text to table for selected text, Excel
spreadsheet, and some predefined “Quick Tables” that
have formatting already setup for you. When working
on a table you will have two additional tabs along the
top of the ribbon, the design and layout tabs.
- ILLUSTRATIONS section allows you to insert pictures,
clipart, shapes, SmartArt and charts.
- LINKS section provides options for inserting
hyperlinks, bookmarks and cross-references. Cross-
references can link to figures, tables, equations,
endnotes, footnotes, headers and numbered items.
- HEADER AND FOOTER section allows you to edit the
header, footer and page numbering for your document.
Once you select this option it will change the toolbar
along the top to include a larger number of options for
the header and footer.
PAGE LAYOUT
- THEMES section provides a quick way to format your
document. By choosing a theme you will have a set
color scheme, font combinations, and effects. You can
choose one of the provided themes, modify a provided
them or create your own.
- PAGE SETUP provides you with the tools to change
margins, size, orientation, columns, breaks, line
numbers and hyphenation in the document.
- PAGE BACKGROUND section allows you to change
the background color of the document, watermark and
draft or confidential document or add borders to your
document.
- PARAGRAPH section in the page layout tab allows
changes to a paragraphs spacing and indentation.
- ARRANGE section is also found in the image toolbar
when an image is selected. Here you can change an
images position, how text moves around the image, the
alignment, grouping and rotation of the image.
MICROSOFT POWERPOINT
Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation
software developed by Microsoft. It is a standard
component of the company's Microsoft Office suite
software, and is bundled together with Word, Excel and
other Office productivity tools. The program uses slides
to convey information rich in multimedia. The term
"slide" refers to the slide projector, which this software
effectively replaces.
MICROSOFT POWERPOINT INTERFACE
- SLIDES AND OUTLINE PANE contain all the text from
the slide if text has been added correctly.
- STAGE Include images, text, charts, graphs, audios
and videos.
- NOTES PANE is used to provide long description for
complex graphics or audio added to the presentation
 Use the notes pane to describe complex
images, flowcharts, tables and audio.
 Convert hyperlink to the name of the site.
 Use at least 30pt font size or above
 Contain less than seven points per slide
- TEXT TO DISPLAY descriptive text is input here. If you
want the Full URL visible on screen, you can add it here.
- ADDRESS the URL is to be pasted here or you may
choose the file you want to link to and select OK.
- SIZE AND POSITION DIALOG BOX you can modify
the size, style and position of your image here.
- ALT TEXT you can input in here an alternative
caption for your image
- HIGHLIGHT TWO OR MORE PICTURES AT ONCE
before you group two or more pictures as one, you
have to hold CTRL key and click all the image you
want to group together
- GROUP DIALOG BOX an alternative way to group
multiple pictures together.
INSERTING HYPERLINK
Hyperlinks are elements within electronic
documents that link to another section in the document,
to another document or more commonly, to an internet
resource. When inserting a hyperlink, provide a title for
the URL or document. Screen reading software is able
to pull all the hyperlinks into an index table. It will
enhance readability if the list of the hyperlinks in this
table is informative rather than a list of long URLs or
non-descriptive words such as “click here”.
ALTERNATE TEXT FOR IMAGES
Graphics (Photographs, clip art, figures, charts,
etc.) convey information and provide an attractive
appearance to documents. Screen reading software will
detect the image or object in a PowerPoint document
and will read the alternative text description if it has
been provided. The text description should convey the
same information to the user that the graphic provides.
Describe the graphic concisely while conveying
equivalent information. If your graphic is complex, you
will need to add a longer description using the notes
pane.
GROUPING IMAGES
By grouping similar images together, you can
apply alternate text or any changes to all those images
at one time.
FORMATTING TABLES AND CHARTS
Tables and charts are useful for displaying large
amounts of data in an organized manner. Relationships
and changes between data can easily be shown in a
table or chart format.
Tables and charts created within PowerPoint
using Insert Table or Insert Chart can be read more
easily by screen readers than with those imported from
EXCEL or WORD. To make a table or chart more
accessible, provide a description of content and context
in the Notes Pane which is located below the slide.
- INSERT Tab where all the commands for insertions
are found.
- INSERT TABLE DIALOG BOX is where you can
define your table.
MICROSOFT PUBLISHER
Microsoft publisher is a desktop publishing
application from Microsoft. At first glance, it looks similar
to Microsoft Word but there are important differences.
Microsoft Word works best for documents where every
page follows a standard pattern while Microsoft
Publisher is more effective for documents that require a
lot of variety from page to page.
Lesson 2 – Exploring Online-based Platforms and tools
for Virtual Learning
It is to no one’s anticipation that such a
pandemic as COVID-19 would take place. Such a
disaster totally shifted the paradigm with no societal
sector as an exemption, even the Educational sector.
As teachers, it is important that we will not be
crippled by these shifts thus, a need for us to continually
explore alternative means in delivering Instruction as
well as be adaptive to the changes. It is important that
we are acquainted with the existing alternative means
for Online delivery of Instructions.
VIDEO COMMUNICATIONS APPLICATIONS
There are various Video Conferencing
applications existing nowadays such as Messenger,
WhatsApp, Line, Zoom and Google Meet. However, in
this module we will only be focusing on the presently
most efficient Video Communication applications for
teaching such as Zoom and Google meet.
ZOOM
Cloud-based video communications app that allows you
to set up virtual video and audio conferencing,
webinars, live chats, screen-sharing, and other
collaborative capabilities.
GOOGLE MEET
Also known as Google Hangout Meets, it is an
application designed for virtual meetings.
LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Learning Management System or LMS is software
application serving as an online repository of students’
information. It also aids in the administration,
documentation, tracking and delivery of educational
courses, training programs or learning and
development program.
SCHOOLOGY
A social networking service and virtual learning
environment for K-12 school and higher education
institutions that allows users to create, manage, and
share academic content.
EDMODO
An educational technology website offering a
communication, collaboration, and coaching platform to
K-12 schools and teachers. The Edmodo network
enables teachers to share content, distribute quizzes,
assignments, and manage communication with
students, colleagues, and parents.
PODCASTS
A digital audio file made available on the Internet for
downloading to a computer or mobile device, typically
available as a series, new installments of which can be
received by subscribers automatically.
Educational Podcasts Source:
- TED Talks Daily
- Lab Podcast
- Brains On!
- The NCETM Math’s Podcast
- Luke’s English Podcast

WEBSITES FOR LEARNING

- Khan Academy offers practice exercises,
instructional videos, and a personalized learning
dashboard that empower learners to study at their own
pace in and outside of the classroom.
- Edheads an online educational resource that provides
science and math games and activities that promote
critical thinking.
- Duolingo an American platform that includes a
language-learning website and mobile app, as well as a
digital language-proficiency assessment exam. The
company uses the freemium model; the app and the
website are accessible without charge, although
Duolingo also offers a premium service for a fee.
- Coursera is a world-wide online learning platform that
offers massive open online courses, specializations,
degrees, professional and master track courses.

MODULE 3 SUMMARY
 The Microsoft Office apps are among the
different productivity software that can be used
for teaching and learning.
 Microsoft Office Word, Publisher, PowerPoint
and others are important tools to maximize in
developing instructional materials.
 Online-based platforms and tools can also be
explored in delivering virtual learning.
 To make our presence felt in an online-based
instruction, video conferencing applications
such as, Messenger, WhatsApp, Line, Zoom,
Google Meet and the like can be utilized in a
flexible modality.
 To facilitate further online-based learning, most
educational institution now installs Learning
Management System or LMS. It is a software
application serving as an online repository of
students’ information and it aids in the
administration, documentation, tracking and
delivery of educational courses, training
programs or learning and development
program.
 Among the popular LMS that teachers and
students can engage themselves in include
schoology, edmodo, podcasts, and others.

To strengthen further one’s learning through

online-based apps, educational websites such as the
Khan Academy, Edheads, duolingo, courser are just
among the many educational support available online
to make teaching and learning a wonderful experience.
MODULE 4
Lesson 1 – Human and Non-Human Learning
Resources/ Instructional Materials
Instructional Materials, also referred to
as Teaching/Learning Materials (TLM), are any
collection of materials including animate and inanimate
objects and human and non-human resources that an
educator may use in teaching and learning situations to
assist achieve desired learning objectives. Instructional
materials may aid a student in concretizing a learning
experience to form learning more exciting, interesting
and interactive. they're tools utilized in instructional
activities, which include active learning and
assessment. The term encompasses all the materials
and physical means a teacher might use to implement
instruction and facilitate student’s achievement of
instructional objectives.
Instructional materials are often classified by
type, including print, visual, and audiovisual, among
others:
Print Textbooks, pamphlets, handouts,
study guides, manuals
Audio Cassettes, microphone, podcast
Visual Charts, real objects, photographs,
transparencies
Audiovisual Slides, tapes, films, filmstrips,
television, video, multimedia
Electronic Computers, graphing calculators,
Interactive tablets
Human Learning Resources (Ofoegbu, 2009)
 These contain individuals who provide various
services within the teaching and learning
process. They include professionals and non-
professionals.
 Human resources are those resources that
human possess with them.
Non-Human Learning Resources
 They include physical facilities and instructional
materials, which function tools and devices
through which stimuli are often passed or
obtained.
 These are resources that are outside citizenry.
These are resources that are tangible things or
objects that exist externally of individuals. they
will be seen, experienced and employed by
people.
Types of Instructional Materials
A. Non- Projected Displays. These are visual
displays which will be shown to a category,
small group or individual student without the
utilization of an optical or electronic projector of
any sort.
Examples: Chalkboards, Marker boards, Flip
Charts, Wall charts, Posters, Mobiles, Realia,
Model, Photographic prints
B. Printed and Duplicated Material. they're
textual and handout materials to be employed
by students or trainees which may be escape in
large numbers by printing machines,
photocopiers and duplicators.
Examples: Handouts, Assignment sheets,
Textbooks, Books
C. Projected Displays. These are samples of
motion pictures, slides of varied sizes,
transparencies for overhead projection, and
specialized equipment like rear screen
projection or an opaque projector.
Examples: Still Projected Displays, Filmstrips,
Overhead, Slides Projector Transparencies
D. Audio Materials. All the varied systems
whereby simple audio material is often played
to a category, group or individual.
Examples: radio broadcasts, audio discs,
audiotapes
E. Linked Audio and Still-Visual Materials.
These are combination of audio and visual
materials to make an excellence instructional
system and includes several medial that are
particularly suitable to be used in individualized
instruction.
Examples: tape-text, tape-slide programs, tape
photograph programs, filmstrips with sound,
radio-vision programs, tape-model and tape
realia
F. Film and Video Materials. These are media
materials that can able to audio signals to be
combined with moving visual sequences, thus
enabling an extra dimension to be added to
integrated audio-visual presentations.
Examples: television, broadcasts, tape-film
programs, videotape, recordings and videodisc
recordings.
G. Computer-Mediated Materials. These
comprise all the varied materials that need a
computer of some sort to enable them to be
displayed, studied or used.
Examples: database systems, calculation and
data-processing packages, substitute tutor-
packages, and substitute laboratory packages.
Lesson 2 – Technology Tools for Teaching in Science
Subjects
Where technology has changed significantly
over late decades. The expanding assortment and
availability of technology has extended the carpenter's
kit and therefore the opportunities of educators got to  Learning that's relevant and
utilize technology. Computer devices are more amazing assessment that's authentic
and are available in various structures, from people who  Workshop for publishing and presenting their
sit on our work areas to people who sit within the palm new knowledge
of our hands. the web connects those gadgets and
connects students to at least one another within the
classroom, through the varsity and round the world.
Types of Technology Integration
Technology Integration is a complicated to
The following technology resources such as
explain on how technology can impact learning it is
computers, tablets, mobile devices, digital cameras and
because it has a wide cover of a many varied tools and
any social media platforms, software application are
practices; there are some ways on how the technology
from Technology of Integration. In regular classroom
to become an integral part of the workshop process.
practices, and within the management of a faculty,
successful technology integration is achieved Listed below are the ways but new technology tools and
when the utilization of technology is: concepts emerge daily.
1. Online Learning and Blended Classrooms.
 Routine and transparent
While K-12 online learning gains traction
 Accessible and readily available for the task at
around the world, many teachers are also
hand
exploring blended learning -- a combination of
 Supporting the curricular goals, and helping the
both online and face-to-face education.
students to reach and achieve their goals
2. Project-Based Activities Incorporating
Technology. Many of the foremost rigorous
When technology integration is at its best, a
projects are infused with technology from start
student or an educator doesn't stop to think that he or
to end.
she is employing a technology tool -- it's habit. And
3. Game-Based Learning and Assessment.
students are often more actively engaged in projects
There has been a ton of buzz about the
when technology tools are a seamless a part of the
advantages of incorporating simulations and
training process.
game-based learning activities into classroom
instruction.
Defining Technology Integration
4. Learning with Mobile/ and Handheld
Before we will discuss our pedagogy or the role
Devices. Once it is already dismissed as
of the teacher during a classroom that's integrating
distractions, devices like mobile devices, mp3
technology, let us define what "technology integration"
players, and computers are now being used as
means. Seamless integration is when students aren't
learning tools in forward-thinking schools.
only using technology in their daily lives but have
5. Instructional Tools like Interactive
access to a spread of tools that match the task at hand
Whiteboards and Student Response
and supply them the chance to create a deeper
Systems. In many schools, the times of green
understanding of content. But how we define technology
chalkboards are over.
integration also can depend upon the sorts of
6. Web-Based Projects, Explorations, and
technology available, what proportion access one has
Research. One of the primary, and simplest,
got to technology, and who is using the technology. as
ways in which teachers encouraged kids to use
an example, during a classroom with only an interactive
technology was with online research, virtual
whiteboard and one computer, learning is probably
field trips, and web quests.
going to stay teacher-centric, and integration will
7. Student-Created Media like Podcasts,
revolve around teacher needs, not necessarily student
Videos, or Slideshows. One of the main ideas
needs. Still, there are ways to implement even an
of a media literacy or digital literacy is that
interactive whiteboard to form it a tool for your students.
students will become creators and critics, not
Willingness to embrace change is additionally a
just consumers of media.
serious requirement for successful technology
8. Collaborative Online Tools like Wikis or
integration. Technology is continuously, and rapidly,
Google Docs. Connecting with others online
evolving. it's an ongoing process and demands
are often a strong experience, both for teachers
continual learning.
and for students.
9. Using Social Media to Interact Students.
For effectively integrated into the curriculum,
Though social media tools are still blocked in
technology tools can be learned in powerful ways.
many schools, students around the world spend
These tools can provide students and teachers
with: vast amounts of your time on social networks
outside of school.
 Access to up-to-date, primary source material
 Methods of collecting/recording data
 Ways to collaborate with students, teachers,
Framework for Technology Integration
and experts round the world
One of the commonly used models for technology
 Opportunities for expressing understanding via
integration is the SAMR.
multimedia
What is SAMR?
The SAMR model, created by Dr. Ruben
Puentudura, which also known as (Substitution,
Augmentation, Modification, Redefinition) that guides
the method of reflecting on how we are integrating
technology inside our classrooms. The goal of
technology integration is to completely redefine how we
teach and learn and explore new things that we never
could before the technology was in our hands.
Over the years the technology industry has already
progressed and has been helping the teachers to reach their
students by giving additional tools. Greater accessibility has
made technology a viable option for teachers to incorporate in
their education plans. In fact, a survey conducted by PBS
Learning Media found that 74 percent of teachers across the
US wanted tech in their classrooms.
Educators have said the advantages that accompany
having and using technology in schools includes expanding
on and reinforcing lesson content and motivating students to
find out. It also gives teachers the choice to succeed in
students with different learning styles.
Teachers grapple with having to hide an array of
subjects in several methods in order that students are ready
to grasp and understand the content. There are some modern-
day technology tools that make our job easier.
This is where technology can make an enormous
difference. With a spread of innovative ways to show and
learn, modern technology does indeed offer methods for
various students, including gaming for visual learners
(https://urlshort.host/aCue6/).
11 Technology Tools that a Teacher Should Have
1. Classcraft. Class craft uses these same gaming
principles to interact students within
the educational process and make a more
harmonized learning environment. The platform
encourages students to figure together as they
build academic and social skills. Class craft is free
and features a paid version, which offers teachers a
set of additional features.
Children learn best through play, and designers
know this, which is why they need designed
education games and activities to stimulate the
young brain and impart knowledge. By engaging
children and immersing them within
the material during a fun way, teachers can help
their students develop a love of learning.
2. Adobe Spark Video. One of the foremost exciting
ways for students to interact in content is to practice
teaching it themselves. Spark Video is an app that
children can use to make their own instructional
videos.
Adobe’s Spark platform includes the ready-
made templates, images, and sounds that can be
used by students to develop their own subject-
related narrated videos which may help them to be
trained throughout the year.
3. Seesaw. A creative learning portfolio system
develops the communication between the teachers,
parents, and administrator. It has a varied activity to
inspire students in all ages to do their best.
Teachers can create activities to share with their
students.
Once students have completed the task, they
will add their work to their personal portfolio, which
may be shared with the parents. One of the best
features of this app is the lack of paperwork for
teachers.
4. Google Classroom. Google’s answer to learning
management in class, the Google Classroom app
enables teachers to arrange various tasks from a
one digital location. Instructors can give
assignments, surveys, and quizzes, grade students’
work, and more.
By offering its product for free of charge,
Google Classroom aims to form it possible for all
school districts to streamline their learning
experience.
5. YouTube. Many people likely remember that
feeling of pleasure when the school television was
rolled into their classroom. Lately, it couldn’t be
easier to urge video within the classroom to form it
easier for students to learn.
YouTube is filled with creative videos which will
help your visual learners grasp concepts including
math, coding, and science. Managing an account is
simple and may be linked to your Google account.
With this online tool, teachers can create their own
personal instruction videos for his or her
classrooms or compile collected clips into subject-
matter playlists.
6. Nearpod VR. Virtual reality (VR) is an exciting
development within the tech world and helps bring
concepts to life through its immersive approach.
Teachers can use Nearpod VR to reinforce lessons
on history, life sciences, or simple about any subject
matter through a VR experience.
Nearpod VR contains over 450 virtual tours and
can help students explore the globe, grasp the
realities of life in ancient China, the concept of
survival within the animal world, or anything in
between.
7. Venngage. Through the Venngage app, they can
create an infographic to present information, data or
knowledge. It had been developed in easiest form.
Venngage can assist students within the
learning process by bringing statistics to life.
Instead of creating the presentation from scratch,
Venngage comes equipped with templates to guide
the method and help students create a visually
appealing addition to their work.
8. Kidblog. Even within the digital world, writing skills
are still key to success for any student. However,
not everyone loves the written word. So Kidblog
made it fun by allowing kids to make their own
journal-like entries in a very safe space.
Nothing that goes abreast of the location is
formed public unless the teacher approves it.
Students also can also add photos, videos, or audio
content to their post either by uploading their own
clip or using one among the licensed pieces.
9. Science360 Video. Access the foremost up-to-date
discoveries and inventions within the STEM arena
with Science360 videos. The clips on the website
are free to embed on the other sites, blogs, or social
network platforms, making them a perfect addition
to projects.
Science360 focuses on the most important
news stories in science, technology, engineering,
math, and more in order that students can see how
discoveries are made and what it means for his or
her world.
10. Canva. For the creative-minded within the
classroom, Canva offers tools for teachers and
students to use to reinforce the learning process.
Kids can create modern-looking posters,
presentations, and documents with the
convenience of the click-and-drop method.
Canva has over a million images, icons, and
templates which will inspire students to be creative
with their graphic designs.
Lesson 3 – Characteristics of Good/Appropriate
Instructional Materials and Technology Tools
To effectively facilitate the teaching and
learning process, teachers need instructional materials.
The need to motivate students and focus on the topics
is very challenging and good instructional materials will
indeed be of great help. However, selecting appropriate
instructional materials and technology tools would be fit
into the topic to enhance student learning is very
challenging.
The SECTIONS model developed by Tony Bates
(2015), is a pedagogical framework for determining
what and how technology will be appropriate for
instructional approaches.
Five critical questions for teaching and learning for
technology and media section by Bates (2015).
1. Who are the learners?
2. What are the desired learning outcomes from
the teaching?
3. What instructional strategies will be employed
to facilitate the learning outcomes?
4. What are the unique educational
characteristics of each medium/technology,
and how well do these match the learning and
teaching requirements?
5. What resources are available?
Checklist: Selecting Technology for Learning
based from the SECTIONS model:
STUDENTS
 Review accessibility mandate or policy of your
institution, department or program.
 Determine demographics of the students and
appropriateness of technology.
 Consider student access to technologies, both
off campus and on campus.
 Determine digital skills and digital readiness of
your students with learning expectations.
 Justify students purchases of a new technology
component (if needed) for learning.
 Assess prior learning approaches & how
technology can support student learning.
EASE OF USE
 Select the technology for ease of use by
instructor and students.
 Identify technology that is reliable for teaching
and learning.
 Verify the technology set up, maintenance and
upgrade are simple.
 Confirm the technology provider/company is
stable to support hardware or software use.
 Outline strategies to secure any digital teaching
materials you create should the organization
providing the software or service cease to exist.
 Locate technical & professional support, both in
terms of the technology and with respect to the
design of materials.
 Determine technologies to best support edits
and updates of learning materials.
 Outline how the new technology will change
teaching with to get better results
 Assess risks and potential challenges for using
this technology for teaching and learning.
COST & YOUR TIME
 Consider media selection by the length of time
and ease of use during course development.
 Factor the time it takes to prepare lectures and
determine if development of digital learning
materials will save time and encourage
interaction with students (online and/or face-to-
face).
 Investigate if there is extra funding for
innovative teaching or technology applications;
if so, determine how to best use that funding for
learning technologies.
  Assess the local support from your institution
from instructional designers and media
professionals for media design and
development.
 Identify open educational resources for the
course, e.g. an open textbook, online videos,
library page of articles, or other potential open
educational resources.
TEACHING & LEARNING FACTORS
 Determine the desired learning outcomes from
the teaching in terms of content and skills.
 Design instructional strategies to facilitate the
learning outcomes.
 Outline unique pedagogical characteristics
appropriate for this course, in terms of content
presentation and skill development, specifically
for:
 Textbook, readings, or other online text
materials;
 Audio, such as podcasts, streaming
audio from news, etc.;
 Video, such as slide presentations,
lectures, tutorials, and screencasts; and
 Social media, such as blogs, wikis,
microblogs, photo sharing, curation, etc.
 Plan learning aspects that must be face-to-face
(in-person or online).
INTERACTION
 Identify the skills for development and
interactions that are most to determine the best
type of media or technology to facilitate this
learning.
 Determine the kinds of kinds of interaction to
produce a good balance between student
comprehension and student skills
development.
 Estimate the amount of time the instructor will
be interacting personally or online with
students, and the type of medium for this
interaction.
ORGANIZATIONAL ISSUES
1. Determine institutional support in choosing and
using media or technology for teaching.
2. Identify if the institutional support is easily
accessible, helpful, and will meet the needs for
the learning technologies for the course.
3. Determine if there is funding available to “buy
me out” for a semester and/or to fund a
teaching assistance/support to concentrate on
designing a new course or revising an existing
course.
4. Locate institutional funding or resources for any
learning technology or media production.
5. Review the standard technologies, practices
and procedures for teaching and learning, to
verify requirements for utilizing institutional
technology resources, i.e. the learning
management system, lecture capture system,
etc.
6. Determine if the institution will support trying a
new technological approach to learning, and
will support innovative media or digital design.
NETWORKING & NOVELTY
 Outline the importance for learners to network
beyond a course, i.e. with subject specialists,
professionals in the field, and relevant people in
the community.
 Identify how the course or student learning can
benefit from networking and learning from
external connections.
 Determine the appropriate network and/or
social media space to integrate for your
learners to network with each other and
connect with external community members.
 Integrate these networking mediums with
standard course technology.
 Delegate responsibility for its design and/or
administration to students or learners.
SECURITY AND PRIVACY
 Determine the student information you are
obliged to keep private and secure.
 Identify the institutional policies for security and
privacy for teaching & learning.
 Outline potential risks and challenges of using
a particular technology where institutional
policies concerning privacy could easily be
breached.
 Identify who at your institution could best advise
you on security and privacy concerns, with
regards to learning and teaching technologies.
 Itemize the areas of teaching and learning, if
any, available only to students registered in the
course.
 Identify the types of technologies to best restrict
or limit access to course materials (if any) for
my registered students.
Lesson 4 – Principles of Universal Design for Learning
Guidelines
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) may be
a way of considering teaching and learning that helps
give all students a civil right to succeed. This approach
offers flexibility within the ways students access
material, engage with it, and show what they know.
Here are just some samples of how UDL can add a
classroom.
Posted lesson goals
Having goals helps students know what they’re
working to attain. That’s why goals are always made
apparent during a UDL classroom. One example of this
is often posting goals for specific lessons within
the classroom. Students may additionally write down or
insert lesson goals in their notebooks. The lesson goals
during the lesson itself, can be the reference of the
teacher.
Assignment options
In a traditional classroom, there is also just
one way for a student to finish an assignment.
This could be an essay or a worksheet. With UDL, there
are multiple options. as an example, students could
also be ready to create a podcast or a video to point
out what they know. they'll even be allowed to draw a
comic book strip. There are plenty of possibilities for
completing assignments, if students meet the lesson
goals.
Flexible workspaces
UDL promotes flexibility in the learning
environment. That’s why in a UDL classroom, there are
flexible workspaces for students. This includes spaces
for quiet individual work, small and large group work,
and group instruction. If students need to tune out noise,
they can choose to wear earbuds or headphones during
independent work.
Regular feedback
With UDL, students get feedback — often a
day — on how they’re doing. At the top of a lesson,
teachers may talk with individual students about lesson
goals. Students are encouraged to reflect on the
alternatives they made in school and whether or not
they met the goals. If they didn’t meet the goals, they’re
encouraged to believe what may need helped them do
so.
Digital and audio text
UDL notice that if students cannot access
information, they cannot learn on it. that’s why during a
UDL classroom, materials should be accessible for all
kinds of learning. They have a lot of options for reading,
including the digital, prints, text-speech and
audiobooks. For digital text, there are some options for
text enlargement, alongside the choices for screen color
and contrast.
Three Principles of UDL
There are three principles that guide the UDL
framework that are supported on neuroscience
research. These are the multiple means of
representation, provide multiple means of expression,
and provide multiple means of engagement (National
Center for UDL, 2011).
UDL could be a framework for a way to develop
lesson plans and assessments that’s supported on
three main principles:
1. Representation: UDL recommends offering
information in additional than one format. For
instance, textbooks are primarily visual. But
providing text, audio, video and hands-on
learning gives all kids an opportunity to access
the material in whichever way is best suited to
their learning strengths.
Examples: Online video as an alternative for
text and images, subtitling and translation of
online videos for easy access, interactive
timelines as a mean for representing historical
facts, processes and biographies
2. Action and expression: UDL suggest giving
student over a technique to interact with the
material and to point out what they’ve learned.
For instance, students might get to settle
between taking a pencil-and-paper test, giving
a public speaking or doing a group project.
Examples: Let students visually outline
thoughts, notes, structures and concepts,
encourage online collaboration as a mean to
work together
3. Engagement: UDL encourages teachers to
seem for multiple ways to motivate students.
Letting kids make choices and giving them
assignments that feel relevant to their lives are
some samples of how teachers can sustain
students’ interest. Other common strategies
include making skill building desire to a game
and creating opportunities for students to get up
and move around the
classroom.(https://www.understood.org/en/lear
ning-thinking-differences/treatments-
approaches/educational-strategies/universal-
design-for-learning-what-it-is-and-how-it-
works)
Examples: Engage your students with live polls
and voting, create and play trivia games using
YouTube videos, host online brainstorming
sessions.
In a curriculum that is rooted in the UDL principles
Students have:
1. Options for how they learn
2. Choices which will engage their interest
3. Choices for how they demonstrate their
learning
Teachers provide:
1. Flexible ways of presenting lesson content
2. Flexible options for student engagement
3. Flexible methods of expression and
assessment
Pros and Cons of Universal Design
Pros
4. Helps all students be successful learners and
plays to students' strengths
5. Instead of making changes to tests after they
have been produced in order to provide an
accommodation for a given student, test is
designed to meet a wide range of needs.
6. Modify the ways students express what they
know.
7. Encourage interest and motivation for learning.
8. Makes costly, time-consuming, and after-the-
fact changes to curriculum unnecessary.
9. Allows to maintain high expectations but
expands the ways in which objectives can be
reached (e.g. using different tools, different
media, or different approaches).
10. Providing multiple ways to attain high
standards, rather than lowering them, is
 consistent with both standards-based reform II. Provide Multiple Means of Action and
and UDL. Expression:
11. When full range of customizations and 4. Provide options for physical action
adaptations are provided as a part of 4.1 Vary the methods for response and navigation
assessments, teachers more accurately 4.2 Optimize access to tools and assistive technologies
evaluate both student performance and
processes that underlie that performance 5. Provide options for expression and
12. Supports greater accountability by guiding communication
development of assessments that 5.1 Use multiple media for communication
provide accurate, timely, and frequent means 5.2 Use multiple tools for construction and composition
to measure progress and inform instruction for 5.3 Build flencies with graduated levels for support for
all students practice and performance
13. Support greater use of evidence-based
6. Provide options for executive functions
practices by guiding the design of high-quality
6.1 Guide appropriate goal-setting
curriculum that include research-based
6.2 Support planning and strategy development
techniques for all students, including those with
6.3 Facilitate managing information and resources
disabilities
6.4 Enhance capacity for monitoring progress
Cons
1. There is still pressure to prepare students for
→ Strategic, goal-directed learners
success on standardized tests
2. Standardized tests are not differentiated.
III. Provide Multiple Means of Engagement:
3. Students and teachers are evaluated based on
7. Provide options for recruiting interest
how well students can read random passages,
7.1 Optimize individual choice and autonomy
make sense of them, and write their responses
7.2 Optimize relevance, value, and authenticity
all within a given time limit. The content itself is
7.3 Minimize threats and distractions
often not engaging, the format is even less
engaging, and the stakes are high, which create
8. Provide options for sustaining effort and
stress for all.
persistence
4. States and districts are having trouble in
8.1 Heighten salience of goals and objectives
attempting to retrofit existing tests to be more
8.2 Vary demands and resources to optimize challenge
inclusive. However, this difficulty will be
8.3 Foster collaboration and community
eliminated or reduced if tests are developed
8.4 Increase mastery-oriented feedback
from the beginning to be inclusive of all
students.
9. Provide options for self-regulation
9.1 Promote expectations and beliefs that optimize
UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING GUIDELINES
motivation
9.2 cailotate personal coping skills and strategies
I. Provide Multiple Means of Representation:
9.3 Develop self-assessment and reflection
1. Provide options for perception
1.1 Offer ways to customizing the display of information
→ Purposeful, motivated learners
1.2 Offer alternatives for auditory information
1.3 Offer alternatives for visual information
Lesson 5 – A software review and selection process
2. Provide options for language, mathematical
expressions, and symbols
What you need to know about educational software
2.1 Clarify vocabulary and symbols
As a computer software, educational software is
2.2 Clarify syntax and structures
primarily aimed at teaching and self-learning (Nagata,
2.3 Support decoding of text, mathematical notation,
2017. With the online instructions becoming the frontier
and symbols
of educational institutions, more and more, educational
2.4 Promote understanding across languages
software have become ever-present in every learning
2.5 Illustrate through multiple media
institution – even facilitate access to parents for the
progress of their children in the classroom, or even in
3. Provide options for comprehensions
their home-schooling.
3.1 Activate or supply background knowledge
3.2 Highlight patterns, critical features, big ideas, and
Relevance and benefits of educational software
relationships
Under the new normal to which instructional
3.3 Guide information processing, visualization, and
delivery is fitted into different modalities, various
manipulation
educational software come our way, both online and
3.4 Maximize transfer and generalization
offline, - more personalized and interactive for teachers
and students. Beneficially, education software is a cost-
→ Resourceful, knowlegebale learners
efficient solution for educational organizations that want
to manage information and data regarding their
students in an organized way. Multimedia contents –
graphics, pictures, and sounds are integrated in
educational software and provide users with high level
of interactivity. Such helps students engage in their
lessons promoting a productive learning environment.
11 Types of Educational Software
The following are types of educational software that a
school should implement as promoted by
Antibullyingsoftware.com:
1. Authoring System. This facilitates teachers to
develop their own instructional software and
build their own multimedia content – lessons,
reviews and tutorials, that eventually, could be
used as a website.
2. Graphic Software. This aids in building online
presentations - capturing, creating, and
changing images that are available on the web,
or on the program itself.
3. Reference Software. This could be included in
research projects for this software permits
students access to thesaurus, encyclopedia,
atlases, and dictionaries.
4. Desktop Publishing. This is a must-have-to-
learn software for new graduates for it is used
for creating and designing newsletters,
handouts, and flyers.
5. Tutorial Software. Through this software,
students could be given lessons and platforms
so they could learn at their own pace. This
software provides learners new information,
time to practice and assess their performance.
6. Educational Games Software. This is a
software that combines gaming and education
motivating young children and even adults to
learn.
7. Simulations Software. This makes the
teacher engage the learners through virtual
experience.
8. Drill and Practice Software. This is quite
beneficial to prepare the students for tests and
exams to strengthen the current skill set of
students.
9. Math Problem Solving Software. This is good
for Math and Science teachers to strengthen
the mathematical and scientific skills of their
students.
10. Utility Software. This is an easy to learn and
use software to help teachers create a test bank
and a grading book.
11. Special Needs Software. The system is
combined with assistive software that provide
students with special needs an effective
learning platform – including speech
synthesizers, computers that read text aloud,
and multimedia software that targets certain
learning disabilities.
Using educational software has become vital for
schools at present. If academic institutions want to keep
pace with this challenging time, they could not risk just
by staying simple and traditional. Creativity is the name
of the game under the new normal of delivering flexible
modality of instruction.
Eight qualities/criteria to look for in educational
software
With the proliferation of educational software,
producers work hard to entice both teachers and
parents. But with the vastness of options, others may
encounter difficulty or confusions as to what qualities
they should consider for an educational software.
Along this line, eSchoolNews.com outlined eight
qualities to look for in educational software, to wit:
1. Plain and simple interface. Why complicate
things when it is easier to learn in simple ways
– simple features are designed in a way student
can easily proceed from one activity to another.
2. Meaningful, but not fancy, graphics.
Graphics should be supportive of the learning
intent, otherwise, they’re a distraction.
3. Easy exits. The easier the learn can exit a
specific task or the entire program itself, the
better. If not, frustration may set in, thus,
affecting the students’ motivation to learn.
4. Intelligent interactivity. Anything that requires
a student to do something can enhance
interaction, retention, and more motivation to go
on learning.
5. Speed. Ensure fast-paced video games and
television shows so students may retain their
enthusiasm. So keep track of superfast internet
connections.
6. Feedback loops. A good and easy-to-
understand format of feedback like bar graphs,
pie graphs, percentages, etc., is a way for
students to keep informed on the topic with
which they have a problem with.
7. Personalization. A good software could do
some pre-screening of a student’s level of
achievement so that every time a student may
log in and retrieve his/her score, the
subsequent result may already be at an
appropriate level of the student.
8. Information vs. instruction. The prime goal
here is to facilitate instruction. So, be sure any
information being used here is purposely
planned to achieve a specific goal. Creatively,
teachers could facilitate interactivity to draw out
the best use of these resources.
MODULE 4 SUMMARY
 Instructional Materials, also called as
Teaching/Learning Materials (TLM), are any
collection of materials including animate and
inanimate objects and human and non-human
resources that an educator may use in teaching
and learning situations to assist achieve
desired learning objectives
 Instructional materials may include print, visual,
and audiovisual.
 Human Learning Resources are containing
individuals who provide various services within
the teaching and learning process.
 Non-Human Learning Resources include
physical facilities and instructional materials,
which function tools and devices through which
stimuli are often passed or obtained.
 Technology resources are computers, tablets,
mobile devices, digital cameras and any social
media platforms, software application that can
be used of integrating technologies.
 Technology integration is a technology tools in
general content areas in education in order to
help students to apply computer and
technology skills to learning and problem-
solving.
 SAMR (Substitution, Augmentation,
Modification, Redefination)– created by Dr.
Ruben Puentudura.
 Universal Design for Learning (UDL) may be a
way of brooding about teaching and learning
that helps give all students a human right to
succeed
 Three principles of UDL are Representation,
Action and Expression and Engagement that
can help you to develop the lesson plans.
 Teachers should always be flexible in many
different ways as they teach different students.
 Educational software is computer software with
the primary purpose of teaching or self-
learning.
 There are 11 types of educational software that
a school should implement as promoted by
Antibullyingsoftware.com: 1) Authoring
software; 2) Graphic software; 3) Reference
software; 4) Desktop publishing; 5) Tutoring
software; 6) Educational games; 7) simulations;
8) Drill and practice software; 9) Math problem
solving software; 10) Utility software; and 11)
Special needs software.
 There are eight qualities to look for in
educational software according to
eSchoolNews.com: 1) Plain and simple
interface; 2) Meaningful, but not fancy,
graphics; 3) Easy exit; 4) Intelligent interactivity;
5) Speed; 6) Feedback loops; 7)
Personalization; and 8) Information vs.
instruction.
 To facilitate the dilemma in selecting
educational technologies and media, the
SECTIONS Model was put in place by experts.
SECTIONS stands for Student, Easy of use,
Costs, Teaching and learning, Interactivity,
Organizational issues, Networking and novelty
and Security and privacy.
MODULE 5
Lesson 1 – Characteristics of ICT Resources in
Teaching
1. The Cone of Learning
Facilitating learning may be tough for neophyte
teachers in this humble call. A lot of considerations shall
always be of prime importance when it comes to
curriculum delivery. These are desired learning
outcomes/lesson objectives, the nature of the subject
matter, the nature of the learners, appropriateness of
the instructional materials to the cognitive abilities of the
target learners and even designing assessment tasks.
In this aspect, you may recall the importance of Edgar
Dale’s Cone of Experience in Curriculum Delivery.
Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience in Curriculum
Delivery
8 M’s of Teaching
1. Milieu: The Learning Environment
2. Matter: The Content of Learning
3. Method: The teaching-learning Strategy
4. Material: The Resources of Learning
5. Media: Communication in Teaching and Learning
6. Motivation: Arousing and Sustaining Interest in
Learning
7. Mastery: The Be-all and End-all of Learning
8. Measurement: Getting Evidence of Learning
“Smart technology” is the familiar terminology that is
widely being used in every being’s life. Smartphones,
tablets, gadgets, smart televisions, etc., are the
products of smart technology that have made human life
smarter, easier and accessible. Smart technology has
not only enhanced the way of living but also became an
integrated part of everyone’s life. The Information and
Communication technology to be precise has become a
driving force behind economic growth and a
developmental tool as well.
ICT is an extended term for Information
technology which is a technological source to make
information available at the right time, right place in the
right form to the right user. Earlier, one had to wait for
the newspapers to get the information across the world.
Now with the smarter technology, information can be
accessed from anywhere using smartphones and
gadgets. All this is made possible with the help of
Information and Communication Technology.
Information technology has been influencing our lives in
the recent years in the fields of education, healthcare,
and business. Going an extra mile, Information and
communication technology in schools has had a major
impact.
Information and communication technology
in schools can be used as a school communication tool
to improve student learning and better teaching
techniques. With the advancement of technology in
education, schools adopt school communication
software to transmit, store, share or exchange
information. In this technological era, ICT in education
has compelled many schools to get accustomed to
smart technology. This school communication software
uses computers, the internet, and multimedia as the
medium of communication.
Computer-based learning: Computer-based learning
is one of the modules of school communication tool that
helps students to enhance their learning skills through
computer aided education. It imparts computer
knowledge in students and enables them to obtain large
amounts of information from various websites. After two
decades of introducing computers to schools, education
has been revolutionized ever since then. It reduces time
spent on mechanical tasks such as rewriting, producing
graphs and increases the scope of searching. It not only
helps in finding information but also in organizing
information making it easier to share with others.
Internet: Internet tools like Email, social networks,
newsgroups and video transmission have connected
the world like never before. Students can now
communicate using emails and social networking
groups that provide knowledge-based information.
Distance learning, online learning is also enabled
through the internet. Students can learn online and also
talk to experts online. Notes, readings, tutorials,
assignments can be received by students from
anywhere. The Internet provides major information in
texts, audios, videos and graphics which can be
accessed by the individual. Online learning allows
students to interact with each other and faculty to
interact with students.
Classroom Learning: With the introduction of ICT in
education, classroom learning is one attribute that
makes learning experiential and experimental to
students. Students can listen to the instructor or
teacher, receive visual cues through PowerPoint
images, handouts or whiteboard lists and participate
actively. This helps in immediate interaction and
students have opportunities to ask questions and
participate in live discussions. This school
communication software module further benefits in
building and maintaining personal and professional
relationships as classrooms offer greater personal
contact with other students and teachers.
Video conferencing: This is yet another medium of
communication wherein students can communicate
with other students or instructors online. It enables
students to become active participants in their own
learning. Video Conferencing is a powerful
communication tool that has the potential to change the
way we deliver information to students. It is just one of
the today’s integrative technologies that empower
students to prepare for a better future.
Here are few characteristics that make ICT in
education a prominent school communication tool.
 It offers the wide variety of services.
 It is reliable and provides interactive learning
experiences.
 It is flexible and provides comfortable learning.
 It motivates students to learn.
 It facilitates communication and promotes
creativity.
 It also provides access to the digital library
where information can be retrieved and stored
beyond textbooks.
The use of ICT in education adds value to
teaching and learning, by enhancing the effectiveness
of learning. It added a dimension to learning that was
not previously available. After the inception of ICT in
schools, students found learning in a technology-
enhanced environment more stimulating and engaging
than in a traditional classroom environment.
that even the elderly uses these tools for
learning for life.
A. For Teachers and Teaching
1. Technology provides enormous support to the
teacher as the facilitator of learning.
2. Technology has modernized the teaching-
learning environment.
3. Technology improves teaching-learning
process and ways of teaching.
4. Technology opens new fields in educational
research.
5. Technology ass to the competence of teachers
and inculcates scientific outlook.
6. Technology supports teacher professional
development.
B. For Learners and Learning
1. Support learners to learn how to learn on their
own.
2. Technology enhances learners’ communication
skills through social interactions.
3. Technology upgrades learners’ higher-order-
thinking skills: critical thinking, problem solving
and creativity.

MyClassboard is yet another school

communication tool that bridges the gap between Lesson 2 – Assessment Tools for Selecting Relevant
teachers, parents, and students by using its school and Appropriate Digital and Non-Digital Resources
messenger module. Parents and teachers can interact
with each other using this module emphasizing on
Identification and presentation of the product
transparency between the duo. Become a partner with
us and build the communication between your ↓
teachers and parents with effectiveness and ease. Academic Pedagogical Didactic Technical
Selections

quality quality quality quality

Roles of Technology for Teaching
According to Stosic (2015), educational technology
has three domains: - Pedagogical
- Information - Learning - Design
1. Technology as a tutor. Together with the reliability formulation
Criteria

activities - Browsing
teacher, technology can support the teacher to - Information - Pedagogical
- Learning - Technological
relevance construction
teach another person or technology when - Pedagogical
content integrity
programmed by the teacher can be a tutor on strategies
its own. The teacher will simply switch on or - Assessment
switch off radio programs, television programs method
Questions

or play DVDs, or CDs that contain educational

programs. There are on-line tutorial educational
↓
Questions
programs, too.
2. Technology as a teaching tool. Like a tutor,
technology is a teaching tool, but can never
replace a teacher. This is like the handyman,
Description of the different sections and criteria
which is just there to be reached. Like any other
Product identification
tool, it is being used to facilitate and lighten the
work of the teacher. It will be good if the teacher This section identifies and presents a digital
can also create or develop technology tools that educational resource. In this part, we provide general
are needed in the classroom. information about the product. We indicate the name
3. Technology as a learning tool. While the or title of the product and we identify the name of the
teacher utilizes technology as the tool for authors or those responsible for the production. This
teaching, likewise it is an effective tool for section also identifies the target audience and
learning. As a learning tool, it makes learning specifies whether the objectives or targeted skills are
easy and effective. It can produce learning shown.
outcomes that call for technology-assisted
teaching. As a learning tool, it is very interesting
1. Academic quality aspect. The objective of this
section is to evaluate the quality of information
presented in the digital learning resource. Indeed,
the quality of information presented is an essential
component of the experience the learners will be
living by checking the product. There are two
essential criteria to define the concept of quality
applied to information:
1.1 Information reliability. Information reliability
lies in credibility and accuracy. To evaluate this
criterion, we start questioning whether the
information is reliable, accurate and error-free.
Is this accuracy sustainable over time? Is
information security guaranteed? Is there any
correspondence between the perceived
reliability and the actual reliability of
information?
1.2 Information relevance. This criterion is related
to the effectiveness of information. We wonder
if the information transmitted will trigger
desirable behaviors for the learner Is the
information workable and usable?
These two elements (reliability and relevance) of
academic quality are highly interdependent: the
mechanisms implemented to ensure information
reliability will obviously affect its relevance if the
perceived reliability is good.
2. Pedagogical quality aspect. The evaluation of
pedagogical quality is of paramount importance. To
enhance learning and enable the learner to
construct his/her knowledge, a digital learning
resource must refer to a differentiated pedagogy,
active and learner-centered which promotes the
development of skills.
The evaluation of the instructional design of
the resource involves an examination of its goals,
objectives, teaching strategies, and assessment
provisions. This section examines therefore the
various facets of the educational dimension
brought by the digital learning resource.
The main criteria that will face each product during the
evaluation are:
Pedagogical formulation
Pedagogical formulation represents a concern
of comprehension by learners who use digital
educational resources for learning. This formulation is
characterized by the quality of simplification of content,
explanation of acronyms, glossary provided, the
presence of summaries or abstracts as well as the use
of diagrams, figures and illustrations.
Pedagogical construction
Pedagogical construction evaluates whether
the structure of the digital learning resource promotes
its use in a pedagogical context through the presence
of appropriate interactivity, logic of organization, ease
of orientation (e.g. summary, site plan), ease of
browsing (back-forward, back to home page, scroll
box) and readability of pages (internal summary, back
buttons).
Pedagogical strategies
This criterion evaluates the teaching strategies
adopted. Developing an appropriate instructional
strategy lies in designing and organizing learning
activities based on techniques, methods, approaches
and diverse educational models to handle different
learning styles.
Teaching strategies should be based on active
teaching approaches (constructivism, socio-
constructivism) to build meaningful and motivating
situations for learners and engage them actively in
learning.
The main sub criteria that will face each product
during the evaluation of pedagogical strategies are:
Instructional goals and learner objectives are
clearly stated:
Is the overall purpose of the resource concisely
stated, if appropriate, with specific objectives stated for
specific components? Based on their experience,
evaluators must judge whether the resource would fulfill
its intended purpose and meet the learning objectives.
The resource is suitable for a wide range of
learning/teaching styles:
The resource uses a variety of approaches
(behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, socio-
constructivism) and is flexible in its application (e.g.,
encourages teacher intervention, student contributions,
cooperative learning, discovery learning, collaborative
teaching). Materials and suggested activities
encourage the use of a variety of learning styles and
strategies (e.g., concrete, abstract, oral, written, multi-
sensory, opportunities for extension, inclusion of
explicit aids for retention).
The resource promotes student engagement:
Focusing techniques and cueing devices, such
as variations in typeface, boxes, underlining, and
spacing are included. The resource incorporates aids to
accessibility (advance organizers, summaries).
Questions should encourage reflection. Questions and
activities within the resource should attract attention
and increase understanding.
The methodology promotes active learning:
The methodology promotes critical thinking,
research skills, problem solving, group decision making,
etc. Students assume increased responsibility for
learning. For the decision-making actions, the number
of decision options should vary according to student
needs.
The resource encourages group interaction:
The resource uses group-based learning
methods such as crossability groups and co-operative
learning.
The resource encourages student creativity:
Use of the resource encourages students to
develop unique interpretations or solutions.
Pedagogy is innovative:
The resource demonstrates a fresh approach.
Imagery, layout, presentation, pace, topics, suggested
activities, and instructional design all serve to promote
student interest in the content.
Assessment methods
The assessment methods are tools implemented
for evaluation, teaching monitoring and learners
support, such as exercises and tests. This criterion aims
to evaluate the assessment practices used. It also helps
to ensure whether the assessment is promoted or
opposes the emergence of learning.
3. Didactic quality aspect. Didactics focuses on the
central role of learning activities, disciplinary
content and epistemology (the nature of knowledge
to be taught).
This section examines the didactic quality of
pedagogical digital resources in education. We can
define two key criteria to evaluate the quality of this
digital resource:
Veracity of learning activities. To enable the learner
to manipulate the presented digital learning resource,
the activities proposed in the product must be
appropriate. These activities must refer to real
problems that could possibly face the learner outside
the classroom.
Content of the educational tool. The single most
salient aspect of quality in many discussions of
educational materials is quality of content. Sanger M.J.
and Greenbowe T.J. (1999) demonstrated that biases
and errors can easily slip into educational materials
and cause problems for students. The content quality
criteria ask reviewers to consider the veracity and
accuracy of learning resource, in addition to assessing
whether the product provides a balanced presentation
of ideas and contains an appropriate level of detail.
Further, to achieve the learning objectives, the content
of digital learning resource must be in line with the
objectives and target audience. Knowledge conveyed
must undergo changes without minimizing, deviating or
affecting the concept.
4. Technical quality aspect. The technical quality of
a digital learning resource is paramount. In fact, it is
not acceptable that the learner will not be able to
achieve an educational activity because of usage
problems.
As was the case with the educational criteria, we
must also evaluate the relevance of the technical
requirements and recommendations in regard to usage
area and distinctiveness. All the requirements must be
evaluated in light of the resource used, as not all
requirements and recommendations are relevant for all
resources.
The technical quality measures the resource
elaboration from the perspective:
Design
The content and organization of the visual
product should promote appropriate use of colors,
interactivity, graphic quality and pleasing aesthetic for
the selected images and illustrations.
The visual appearance and sounds presented
by digital learning resources, particularly as they relate
to information design, affect the resource’s aesthetic
and pedagogical impact. Decisions about presentation
design should be informed by instructional and
cognitive psychology, especially the theories and
principles of cognitive load, multimedia learning and
information visualization.
Browsing
The product design must facilitate browsing.
While manipulating the resource, the learner should be
able to find a plan, an index or a detailed table of
contents. The suggested choices should be clear and
the groupings within the menus should be consistent.
Technological ingenuity
Multimedia techniques aim to combine and
exploit the capacities of new technologies in education
to enhance knowledge transfer and assimilation of
knowledge by learners.
During product development, the designer
should use multimedia techniques in favor of
information and education such as animations, flashing
text, animated images and multiple windows.
Lesson 3 – Revisiting of PB Learning Plan: Integration
of the Use of Digital and Non-Digital Resources and
Assessment Tools in the LP Procedure
Problem-based Learning/Project-Based Learning
 Problem-based learning is a pedagogical
method in which students working as a team to
solve complicated, ill-structured problems
rooted in the real world.
 The role of the teacher is that of a manager and
a facilitator (this approach is student-centered).
 The teacher must consider the student’s ability
to work collaboratively, be self-directed, and to
think critically (and be prepared to teach these
skills during the learning experience).
 Proponents of Problem-based learning point to
research that shows it promotes critical thinking
skills, communication skills, and cooperation.
Things the Teacher Should Consider
 What resources are available to students (e.g.
subject experts, technology, books)?
 What will the student produce at the end? How
will they represent their learning?
 What skills will students need to have in order
to successfully work in groups?
 How will students be assessed?
 What roles will students have when they are
working in groups?
 What common questions will students ask?
Roles
 When students use technology as a tool to
communicate with others, they take on an
 active role vs. a passive role of transmitting the
information by a teacher, a book, or broadcast.
The student is constantly making choices on
how to obtain, display, or manipulate
information.
 Technology makes it possible for students to
think actively about the choices they make and
execute. Every student has the opportunity to
get involved either individually or as a group.
 Instructor role in Project Based Learning is that
of a facilitator. They do not relinquish control of
the collaborative classroom or student learning
but rather develop an atmosphere of shared
responsibility.
 The Instructor must structure the proposed
question/issue so as to direct the student’s
learning toward content-based materials. The
instructor must regulate student success with
intermittent, transitional goals to ensure student
projects remain focused and students have a
deep understanding of the concepts being
investigated.
 The students are held accountable to these
goals through ongoing feedback
and assessments. The ongoing assessment
and feedback are essential to ensure the
student stays within the scope of the driving
question and the core standards the project is
trying to unpack.
 According to Andrew Miller of the Buck Institute
of Education, formative assessments are
used “in order to be transparent to parents and
students, you need to be able to track and
monitor ongoing formative assessments, that
show work toward that standard.”
 The instructor uses these assessments to guide
the inquiry-based learning process and ensure
the students have learned the required content.
Once the project is finished, the instructor
evaluates the finished product and learning that
it demonstrates.
Outcomes
 Students learn to work in a community, thereby
taking on social responsibilities. Some of the
most significant contributions of problem-based
learning have been in schools languishing in
poverty-stricken areas; when students take
responsibility, or ownership, for their learning,
their self-esteem soars. It also helps to create
better work habits and attitudes toward
learning. Although students do work in groups,
they also become more independent because
they are receiving little instruction from the
teacher. With Problem-based learning students
also learn skills that are essential in higher
education. The students learn more than just
finding answers,
 Problem-based learning allows them to expand
their minds and think beyond what they
normally would. Students have to find answers
to questions and combine them using critically
thinking skills to come up with answers.
 Opponents of Project Based Learning warn
against negative outcomes primarily in projects
that become unfocused and tangential arguing
that underdeveloped lessons can result in the
wasting of precious class time. No one teaching
method has been proven more effective than
another.
 Opponents suggest that narratives and
presentation of anecdotal evidence included in
lecture-style instruction can convey the same
knowledge in less class time. Given that
disadvantaged students generally have fewer
opportunities to learn academic content outside
of school, wasted class time due to an
unfocused lesson presents a particular
problem. Instructors can be deluded into
thinking that as long as a student is engaged
and doing, they are learning.
 Ultimately, it is cognitive activity that determines
the success of a lesson. If the project does not
remain on task and content driven the student
will not be successful in learning the material.
The lesson will be ineffective. A source of
difficulty for teachers includes, “Keeping these
complex projects on track while attending to
students’ individual learning needs requires
artful teaching, as well as industrial-strength
project management.” Like any approach,
Project Based Learning is only beneficial when
applied successfully.
MODULE 5 SUMMARY
 The roles of technology for teaching include: 1)
Technology as a tutor; 2) Technology as a teaching
tool; and 3) Technology as a learning tool.
 The following are the advantages of technology for
teachers and teaching:
 Technology provides enormous support to the
teacher as the facilitator of learning.
 Technology has modernized the teaching-
learning environment.
 Technology improves teaching-learning
process and ways of teaching.
 Technology opens new fields in educational
research.
 Technology ass to the competence of
teachers and inculcates scientific outlook.
 Technology supports teacher professional
development.
 The following are the advantages of technology for
learners and learning:
 Support learners to learn how to learn on their
own.
 Technology enhances learners’
communication skills through social
interactions.
  Technology upgrades learners’ higher-order-
thinking skills: critical thinking, problem solving
and creativity.
 The assessment criteria for selecting ICT resources
include: 1) Academic quality aspect; 2) Pedagogical
quality aspect; 3) Didactic quality aspect; and 4)
Technical quality aspect.
MODULE 6
Lesson 1 – Features and Uses of ICT Tools for
Collaboration and Sharing Resources
With the advent of technological advancement,
it reinvents the landscape of so-called collaborative
learning. Collaborative learning does not limit anymore
to physical interaction. Members of the same learning
community can collaborate and share learning
experiences and resources with the help of ICT tools.
One of the essential dimensions to be developed by
learners is their social skills. In a physical setting, the
teacher often fosters socialization in learning through
group activities. Group collaboration gives students
facilitated opportunity to share and learn from their
peers. Collaborative learning is crucial and complicated,
but it is fun and productive when well-planned and well-
designed. Collaboration does not only confine to face-
to-face interaction, but it is also possible in a virtual
classroom, with the use of collaborating and sharing ICT
tools. Learners can share learning resources,
brainstorm, and actively participate in a discussion
without needing to be in the same place at the same
time. There are plenty of ICT tools available to use to
build a collaborating and sharing learning community.
These tools are available synchronously, where
everyone in the team can connect and collaborate in
real-time, or either be asynchronous, pre-recording
information, or working on documents anytime at the
convenience of the user.
Collaborating tools mimic face-to-face interaction
where it provides arrays of features that enable team
members to communicate, co-develop ideas, and build
a team. However, it requires careful planning,
designing, and operation that these tools work as what
they intend to attain. The following criteria must be
looked into in deciding a useful collaboration tool:
1. User-friendly Interface. The tool should easy
to set-up and administrate. It saves time and
effort to get used to it. The user can intuitively
create and navigate its interface without
requiring intensive training.
2. Multiple Features. It offers numerous features
that may save the team from downloading other
apps for instant messaging, posting classwork,
video-conferencing call, collaborating on
documents, scheduling of events and
meetings, etc.
3. Integration and Compatibility. A tool that can
integrate other apps and software for other
internet tasks like browsing, video sharing,
recording, referencing, and other related
activities for job or project development. The
tool can save, read, share, or convert files to
any formats that the team is using.
4. Privacy Options. The tool offers the
administrator or members with options to
whom, particularly among their team members,
can see a particular file or project the one is
sharing.
5. Cloud-based Technology. Saving and
accessing working files are among of tedious
activities of collaboration, not to mention the
worries for loss files or malfunction of the
gadget where the pieces of work are saved.
With a cloud storing app, it offers convenience
in storing and retrieving records for updating,
editing, and file syncing. Besides, the team can
access saved files anytime and anywhere at
their convenience.
Moreover, Chai and Tan (2010) mentioned that
ideal ICT tools could support collaborative learning in
three main ways: (1) As an interpersonal
communication tool to support collaborative learning
strategies in the same manner as in face-to-face
settings; (2) computer-supported collaborative work
where the learners work on a joint document; and (3)
computer-supported collaborative learning where the
focus is to support negotiation of meaning among a
group of learners.
Lesson 2 – Effective Teaching and Learning in the
Electronic Classroom
The quality of instruction lies in how effective
the teaching and learning processes are, and classroom
climate is an integral part of attaining a productive
learning experience. Teaching in a virtual classroom is
of no difference in in-school experiences.
The electronic classroom is another form of teaching
and learning environment facilitated by computer-based
communication technology systems. Electronic
classroom aims to allow teachers and students to
participate in remote learning communities using a
personal computer, a tablet, or a smartphone at home,
and to improve the quality and effectiveness of
education by using the computer to support a
collaborative e learning process (Turoff, 1995; ezTalks,
2020). Teachers and students can actively engage in a
discussion in live (synchronous) or collaboratively
working offline with pre-designed and recorded learning
materials.
Unlike residential (classroom-housed)
collaborative learning that students find themselves to
areas assigned to them or any spaces they can work,
the online class is different. It is challenging to shift
collaborative learning from traditional face-to-face
interaction to a computer-mediated teaching-learning
process where both the teachers and students are of
different places. The quality of communication is of
utmost consideration that everyone has a common
understanding of the topic, given equal opportunities to
participate in the discussion actively, collaborating, and
cooperating with mutual regularization (Chai & Tan,
2010). The pedagogical skills of the teacher and the
elements of the design of learning go hand in hand to
achieve quality teaching-learning experiences in a
virtual classroom. Students respond differently to their
learning atmosphere, and the teaching-learning 20 COLLABORATIVE LEARNING TIPS AND
process has to be flexible in terms of time, space, place, STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS
1. 2. Keep 3. 4. Build trust 5. For
content, learning materials, delivery of instruction, Establish groups Establish and promote larger
feedback, and monitoring (Majundar, 2006; Brown & group midsized flexible open tasks,
goals group communication create
Voltz, 2005). On the other hand, the class has to norms group roles
establish policies and regulations that create a culture
6. Create 7. Consider 8. 9. Allow groups 10.
of social integration. a pre-test assessment Consider to reduce Establish
and post- using anxiety group
test different interactions
strategies,
Lesson 3 – Promoting Collaborative and Transformative like the
Jigsaw
Learning in Cyberspace technique
11. Use 12. Help 13. 14. Gender 15. Use
Incorporating Teamwork in Online Teaching and real-world students use Consider matters scaffolding
problems inquiry diversity
Learning
A technology-mediated classroom does not 16. 17. 18.Keep 19. Avoid ‘bad 20. Value
Include Technology in mind group work’ intellectual
limit learning engagement in a wall of wired-hardware different makes the critics divergence
paraphernalia, software, and other learning types of collaborative
learning easier
courseware. It is as fun as the conventional face-to-face scenarios
interaction where both the teachers and students can
maximize teaching-learning experiences. It offers a rich
Collaborative activities start with design and
learning environment that the students can explore to
planning. Students, as collaborators, need to
acquire knowledge, enhance communication skills,
understand the work plan clearly as to what the
engage in practical and problem-solving activities, deliverables are, the target date to accomplish, and
develop critical thinking, improve socialization skills, means for assessment. To make the collaboration
and be a self-reliant learner. Despite the positive gain of learning works, the teacher and learners have to draw
utilizing virtual classrooms, studies show that there are their respective roles and accountability. Educause
reluctant teachers to transform learning space into (n.d.) suggested model accountability by making the
cyberspace, not because they are Luddite but lacking roles of collaborators (teacher and student) clear and a
pedagogical skills as the core for virtual class checkpoint to visit when a problem on performance
transformation and collaboration learning. arises.
Steps for Teacher in Incorporating Teamwork in
Teachers have apprehension as to more time
spent on the preparation of instructional materials, loss
of control of the class, unequal participation of students
in the process, or the difficulties found in evaluating the
learning process and the results obtained for each
student in an online course (Valcarcel et al., 2014).
Microsoft (n.d) suggested teachers be innovative as
collaboration is the sought 21st-century skill and pointed
out the role of the teacher to scaffold the collaborative
process; ask open and reflective questions; to challenge
the learners’ explanations to support their reflection and
review. Clifford (2020) also presented 20 collaborative
learning tips and strategies for teachers as follows:

Online Class (Kelly,n.d)

1. Define Teamwork & Prepare Learners for
Team Roles Early
2. Establish Criteria for Forming The Teams
3. Guide Learners Through Team
Communication
4. Improve Participation Through Peer Evaluation
& Varied Membership
5. Seek Feedback

Indicators for Collaborative Learning

To determine that collaborative learning takes place in
an online class, Chai and Tan (2010) cited the
following indicators:
 For Teachers’ indicators Search
 Create multiple and appropriate
opportunities to generate and promote
collaboration among students
 Design learning experiences that require
positive interdependence among students
 Develop students’ communication skills
and interpersonal skills
 Provide conflict management strategies on
resolving diverse or conflicting views
 Use various assessment methods to
assess both individuals and group learning
and performance
 Provides feedback on individual learning There is a multitude of information available on
and group learning and performance
the internet, which may you find irrelevant unless the
subject interests you. If you have a specific idea of the
For Students’ indicators
 Able to negotiate and set common goals topic you are searching for, type the keyword/s or
 Contribute own ideas clearly and consider phrases to the search engine, the web index, saves you
other points of view objectively time to narrow your search to a particular topic and
 Ask questions to clarify and offer brings you to web pages with relevant information.
constructive feedback However, when you are not sure of what you are looking
 Take on different roles and tasks within the for, the internet provides you with directories, a menu-
group to achieve the group goal like board containing different categories to arrange
 Work towards completing individual’s information by topics with subcategories to direct you to
assigned tasks as well as help group the item you are searching for (Google, 2001).
members achieve group goals
 Reflect on the group and individual learning Sort
processes
Search engines post only pages containing the
Assessment for Collaborative Activity keywords you typed in. Read the relevant result, and if
Monitoring and assessment of the collaborative the information you are looking not on the list, input
project is not a one-shot deal. The timely evaluation more keywords to filter results and eliminate
and assessment ensure the efficient process in unnecessary details.
implementing the work plan, and every member shares
a fair contribution in the building of knowledge, a
perspective shared and learned from the team,
accountability for building a culture of collaboration,
among others. Moreover, though working as a team,
assessment to project out may be individual or
collective as a team (Educause, n.d).

Evaluation Tool to Analyze Web Sources

In evaluating the relevance of the information, take
consideration of the following criteria (Florida Center for
Instructional Technology, 2009):
 Accuracy
Are sources listed for the facts?
Can information be verified through another
source?
Lesson 4 – Becoming Information Users – SSCC
Has the site been edited for grammar,
(Search, Sort, Create, Communicate)
spelling, etc.?
With the Industry 4.0 Revolution,
education revolutionizes its pedagogy to articulate the
 Authority
teaching-learning process with technology as crucial for
Is the publisher reputable?
the transformation of adaptive learning.
Is the sponsorship clear?
 Is a phone number or postal address
available?
Is there a link to the sponsoring organization?
Is the author qualified to write on this topic?
 Objectivity
Does the sponsor have commercial
interests?
Is advertising included on the page?
Are there apparent biases?
 Currency
Is a publication date indicated?
Is there a date for the last update?
Is the topic one that does not change
frequently?
 Coverage
Are the topics covered in depth?
Does the content appear to be complete?
Create
With internet connections, there are plenty of ICT tools,
websites, or portals to serve users according to their
needs and purpose. Apps to allow users to create
online documents, work on documents in real-
time with other people, and store (cloud-based
technology) online for free or avail by propriety.
Communicate
With the presence of ICT tools/apps, communication
becomes a lot better, instant, and fast, reliable than
sending a physical letter and cater to a large sector of
the audience (Prajapati, 2020). The best apps or ICT
tools are those that serve the needs of the individual or
the teams. One has fully understood the capabilities of
the collaboration tools to maximize its service and
improve communication with them. Some tips to include
deciding which tool to use is that the user can launch
track changes, use display modes, and make
comments count. Moreover, there are some
communication protocols that computers share
(https://bit.ly/337ZlEO accessed July 2020).
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
(HTTPS)
These are the primary protocols that allow for
Internet data transfer. HTTPS comes SSL
(Secure Sockets Layer) on top of standard
HTTP, both facilitate security in network
communication. These protocols enable
scripting languages, including HTML and CSS,
to travel from a server to a browser.
 Internet Protocol (IP)
It uses Internet addresses to communicate,
which is why all computers on standard TCP/IP
networks must contain a numeric address.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
It can be used for file transfer from one
computer or operating system to another over a
TCP/IP network and to upload files to a website.
 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
and Post Office Protocol (POP3)
These protocols help with accessing email on
remote servers, like email retrieval. Both work
with email messages stored on email servers
but do not work together. Users must choose
one or the other to help manage their email
program and access them via their email
application of choice or a web browser.
However, IMAP’s forte is allowing users to
quickly and easily retrieve their messages right
on their systems.
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
The network computers use to obtain IP
addresses and other settings from the DHCP
server.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
A fast, lightweight protocol that common
network apps like online games use to send
short messages called datagram.
MODULE 6 SUMMARY
This module is enabling you with knowledge-
building, understanding of the concept, and practical
experiences to appreciate the contribution of ICT tools
in promoting collaboration in learning in a technology-
mediated classroom. With profound knowledge with the
features of collaboration ICT tools, you could decide
with ease to which of them are more useful to make
virtual teaching-learning environments relevant and
productive. By understanding and examining the
dynamics of the relationship and role of the teacher and
students to make collaboration learning work well for all,
and becoming an information user provides you with the
opportunity to connect, engage, and explore emerging
tools that offer excellent ways to transform education.
FACILITATING
LEARNER-
CENTERED
TEACHING
EDUC222A – FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED
TEACHING
MODULE 1 – FACILITATING LEARNER CENTERED
TEACHING
Lesson 1.1 – Introduction to Learner Centered
Teaching
Learner Centered Teaching (LCT) has become
a popular phrase among educators nowadays. It has
been named in several ways such as student-centred
approach or learner-centered pedagogy in many
textbooks and journal articles. Looking at the research
literature surrounding learner-centred teaching in the
past 20 years, a book published in 2002 by Maryllen
Weimer stands as one of the earlier attempts to
comprehensively discuss and define what is LCT about.
In Weimer’s book titled, ‘Learner-Centered
Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice’, five key
changes were significantly taking place in schools.
FIVE KEY CHANGES IN LEARNER CENTERED
TEACHING PRACTICES:
BALANCE OF POWER
In a traditional classroom, the power to
decide what lessons to discuss, what learning activities
students must engage in, and what assessment tasks
to give mainly belongs to the teacher with little input
from students. On the other hand, in a student-centered
classroom, a teacher shares that power by consulting
learners prior to making final decisions.
The traditional exercise of power in the
classroom often benefits the teacher more than it
promotes student learning. The uniform instructional
approach or ‘one-size-fits-all’ concept certainly is more
convenient on the part of the teacher who has worked
hard in planning, implementing, and assessing
outcomes of learning. However, this uniform approach
has been criticized by scholars by being unresponsive
to the diversity of needs, interests, and readiness
among students.
In order to balance power in the classroom,
learners are frequently consulted and given immediate
and ongoing feedback by the teacher. The teacher
empowers students by giving them the opportunity to
choose and make decisions like selecting among lesson
topics, choose learning activities, determine pace of
learning, and select an assessment task to demonstrate
one’s mastery of targeted learning competencies.
FUNCTION OF CONTENT
Current research evidence from educational
psychology calls for a change in the function of
curriculum content which should be less on covering it
and more on using content to develop a learner’s
individual way of understanding or sense-making.
Teachers need to allow learners to raise their own
questions, generate their own answers or solutions.
From a constructivist perspective, knowledge
cannot simply be given to students: Students must
construct their own meanings” (Stage, Muller, Kinzie,
and Simmons, 1998, p. 35). In other words, learners are
capable of constructing and reconstructing their
knowledge through active personal effort. This view
debunks the current belief about students’ learning from
passively receiving information transmitted from
teachers via lectures.
In order to facilitate learning that changes
how students think and understand, teachers must
begin by finding out students’ prior knowledge or
conceptions and then design learning activities that will
change these pre-instructional concepts.
Learner-centered teaching also regards
content as more of competency-based learning in which
students master targeted skills and content before
progressing to another lesson. The more important
practice here is to accommodate students’ differing
pace of learning. For instance, some students may be
able to demonstrate they know how to use a microscope
in 1 hour while others need 2 hours of practice to
demonstrate proficiency in manipulating it.
With patient guidance and ongoing support
from teachers, competency-based learning would
ensure that students advance to new material when
they are ready, at their own pace, whether they can
move quickly or whether they need more time.
ROLE OF THE TEACHER
Constructivism theory brings the role of the
teacher as that of a facilitator of learning, not as the
fountain of learning. He/she instead encourages
students to explore multiple knowledge sources, make
sense of it, and personally organize the information
taken from different sources.
As generally observed, less knowledgeable
and experienced learners will interact with content in
less intellectually robust ways, but the goal is to involve
students in the process of acquiring and retaining
information.
This shifting view on the role of the teacher
deemphasizes the focus on teaching techniques and
methods if they are considered separate from the
subject matter and learning structures of the discipline.
Teachers no longer function as exclusive
content expert or authoritarian classroom managers
and no long work to improve teaching by developing
sophisticated presentation skills.
Greater involvement with students by the
teacher is central to student motivation. Diekelmann et
al (2004) show how a nursing teacher increasingly
included students in ‘cocreating compelling courses’
and was surprised ‘by the insights students shared
regarding how to create compelling courses and their
willingness to collaborate with …[her] to improve
teaching and learning experiences’ (Diekelmann et al,
2004, p.247).
Maclellan finds that ‘the teacher is involved in
clarifying the subject matter, offering examples, or
suggesting arguments for or against a point of view may
minimize the students’ need to think’ while, equally,
‘little engagement by the tutor, leaving students to
determine both what and how to learn without any
criteria to judge their process, is unsatisfactory,
inefficient and makes a nonsense of formal, higher
education as a planned and designed system
(Maclellan, 2008, p.418).
Teachers must become comfortable with
changing their leadership style from directive to
consultative-- from "Do as I say" to "Based on your
needs, let's co-develop and implement a plan of action.
RESPONSIBILITY FOR LEARNING
In recent years, work on self-regulated
learning has advanced, and the goal of 21st century
education ought to be the creation of independent,
autonomous learners who assume responsibility for
their own learning.
Adults are known to be capable of self-
directed learning and that continuous learning occurs
across their career span and lifetime.
Each student may require different ways of
learning, researching and analyzing the information
available.
It establishes that students can and should
be made responsible for their own learning.
Learning skills of autonomous self-regulating
learners can be learned and must be taught even at an
early age. This is even more important when entering
higher education.
The learning skills acquired in basic
education and higher education will be used throughout
the course of their professional and personal lives.
Learning is cooperative, collaborative, and
community-oriented.
Students are encouraged to direct their own
learning and to work with other students on research
projects and assignments that are both culturally and
socially relevant to them.
Class often starts with a mini-lesson, which
then flows into students making choices about what
they need to do next to meet specific learning targets
aligned to the standards.
EVALUATION PURPOSE AND PROCESS
The literature on self-directed learning also
underscores the importance of assessment, only in this
case it is the ability of students to self-assess
accurately. Sophisticated learners know when they do
or do not understand something.
They can review a performance and identify
what needs improvement.
They have mechanisms for its collections and
methods for evaluating it and acting on it.
FOUR PRINCIPLES OF STUDENT-CENTERED
APPROACH
A more recent research on the student-
centered approach was reported by Kaput in 2018 that
was funded by the Nellie Mae Education Foundation
and UMass Donahue Institute. This study surveyed 12
public high schools in New England in terms of how they
apply learner-centered teaching in their classroom
practices. The said survey summarized their
findings in to 4 tenets which are:
Learning is Students engage in different ways
Personalized and in different places
Learning is Students move ahead when they
competency- have demonstrated mastery of
based content, not when they’ve reached a
certain birthday or endured the
required hours in a classroom.
Learning Learning takes place beyond the
happens traditional school day, and even the
anytime, school year. Learning is also not
anywhere restricted to the classroom.
Students Students are engaged in their own
take success, as well as incorporate their
ownership of interests and skills into the learning
their learning process.
Kaput’s study reported that the majority of the
participating schools were effective in personalizing the
learning of their students and creating an environment
where students took ownership of their learning.
However, the study also found that the participating
schools struggled with implementing and practicing
“anytime, anywhere learning” due to a series of
challenges that both teachers and administrators faced.
Teachers from the participating schools largely
responded that student-centered learning promoted
higher student engagement and facilitated learning that
was more relevant to students. Further, a large
percentage of the teachers contended that students in
student-centered environments explored the curriculum
with more depth and retained knowledge more
effectively than in traditional settings.
Top 20 Principles for Pre K–12 Teaching and
Learning
The American Psychological Association (APA)
published in 2015 its top 20 principles for teaching and
learning for basic education teachers. These principles
were based on decades of research on human learning
and can well serve as lampposts for today’s teachers on
how to facilitate learner-centered teaching. A brief
statement of APA on the implications of the top 20
principles to current teaching practices is quoted below:
“Psychological science has much to contribute
to enhancing teaching and learning in the classroom.
Teaching and learning are intricately linked to social and
behavioral factors of human development, including
cognition, motivation, social interaction, and
communication” (APA, 2015, p.8)
As a future educator, the top 20 principles
revolve around the following key concepts to keep in
mind whenever we design our instructional plans and
implement them with our students.
- Prior Knowledge
- Learner’s Belief on Intelligence flexible pace
of learning
- Creativity
- Teacher Expectations Role of Knowledge Facilitator of Designer of Collaborator/
Teacher Expert learning differentiated co-creator of
- Long Term Knowledge Authoritaria tasks done learning knowledge
- Contextual Learning n classroom in tasks to
manager collaborativ accommodat
- Student Support e peer- e readiness,
group profile and
- Self-Regulation settings interest of
- Mastery Goals students
Respon- Students Learning is Learning co- Students
- Interpersonal Relationships sibility are co-created created with design
- Social Interaction for expected to by students students in individualize
Learning fully in group group d learning
- Emotional Well-being understand settings settings plans to
- Positive Relationships knowledge achieve
passed on mastery of
- Practice by their targeted
- Formative Assessment teachers learning
outcomes
- Summative Assessment
- Measuring with Standards
- Fair Interpretation
- Feedback Cooperative Learning Approach (CLA)
- Student Support The Cooperative Learning Approach (CLA)
started becoming popular in the 1990’s in an attempt to
Lesson 1.2 – Learner-Centered Teaching Approaches move away from traditional pedagogical approach that
relied heavily on uniform instruction for a large-sized
According to this image of teaching and classroom. The CLA used the social interdependence
learning, the ideal classroom for the 21st century theory, which proposes that the behavioral outcomes of
learners will no longer be one in which 30-50 students a person are affected by their own and others' actions.
are always listening to the teacher or silently working on Said theory became the framework for designing
their own. Although contemporary teaching practices teaching-learning activities in peer group settings.
still involve lecture, drill, and practice;
Johnson and Johnson (1994) described five
students need to be trained to work in alternative factors that influence the effectiveness of cooperation in
arrangements such as: classrooms:
talking to each other in small and large 1. Positive Interdependence
groups Students commit to personal success as well
making public their personal knowledge and as the success of every member of the group. If
beliefs students are having difficulties, their group mates are
constructing and testing their knowledge with there to support them.
peers and teachers. Positive interdependence can also promote
motivation to learn, because students are learning not
Among the popular instructional approaches that have just for themselves but also for the benefit of their
been extensively researched for more than two decades groups.
are the Cooperative Learning Approach, Differentiated Working in groups involved sharing
Instruction Approach, and the Personalized Learning information helping each other in doing the group task
Approach. A comparison of these 3 pedagogical so that they progress together.
approaches along with the traditional approach is
shown in the table below using the 5 essential elements 2. Individual & Group Accountability
of Learner-Centered Pedagogy by Weimer. The group is accountable for achieving its
goals, and each member must be accountable for
contributing a fair share of the work toward the group
A COMPARISON OF TEACHING APPROACHES goal
Element Traditional Cooperative Differentiated Personalized
s Instructiona Learning Instructional Learning
l Approach Approach Approach Approach
3. Interpersonal Skills
Group members learn how to how to apply
Balance Dominant Dominant More choices Mostly
of Power teachers teachers given to reliant on teamwork skills that has collaborative leadership,
students student making fair decisions,
Minor role Empowered based on motivation,
learners students their ability engagement, Students also develop friendship by building
teams for levels and interest trust, communicating freely, and resolving conflict.
learning interest

Function Imposed a Same Differentiated Flexible 4. Promotive Interaction

of highly content content in curriculum
Content structured processed terms of content Students promote each other's success by
curriculum by students difficulty according sharing resources or information that will help every
content in a in groups, levels, more personalized
fixed pace fixed flexible pace learning member.
and timeline timeline of of learning paths, highly
of learning learning
 Peers take time to encourage, and praise
each other's efforts to learn.
5. Group Processing
Group members need to feel free to
communicate openly with each other to express
concerns as well as to celebrate accomplishments.
Learners take time to monitor and discuss
how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining
effective working relationships.
Students frequently reflect and discuss on
how well they are achieving their goals and work to
maintain effective working relationships.
Differentiated Instructional Approach (DIA)
The pedagogical concept of differentiation as
opposed to uniform instruction was first popularized by
Carol Ann Tomlinson with her book How to Differentiate
Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, published in
1995. In Tomlinson’s 2nd edition in 2014, she described
teachers in differentiated classes as using time flexibly,
applying a range of instructional strategies, and
becoming partners with their students so that both what
is learned and the learning environment are shaped to
authentically support the learning process of the
student.
In DI approach, teachers usually differentiate
their teaching by modifying three aspects in his/her
classroom practice. Each aspect of practice is
presented below with examples on how each is applied
in actual teaching practice.
DIFFERENTIATING 3 ASPECTS OF PEDAGOGY
1. Content – lessons that students learn
2. Process – teaching-learning activities that help
students to learn
3. Product – performance of students
Differentiating Content
The most important part is to diagnose the
learners’ prior knowledge so as to determine his/her
readiness to learn new content. In fact, diagnostic
assessments form the foundation for designing
differentiated teaching-learning activities to better
construct or build upon students’ prior knowledge.
Via differentiation, teachers respond
proactively to differences in students' knowledge, skills,
learning styles, interests, and cognitive needs in order
to create multiple access points to content.
Teachers may differentiate several learning
tasks or pathways within the same lesson that match
the needs of specific students or student groups.
Teachers should hold all students to the
same expectations and goals related to mastery of
essential content but may utilize different techniques
and modified activities to help each student meet
outlined objectives (Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho, 2019).
Differentiating Process
Teachers utilize whole-class, small-group,
and individual explorations. Students are allowed to
work with peers who show similar academic needs at a
given time.
Students of mixed readiness are also allowed
to work together so that they may draw upon the
strengths of others.
Students may also choose to work with
classmates who have similar interests or learning styles
or even collaborate with those who have different
interests or learning style profile.
Students themselves sometimes decide on
their work groups and arrangements, and sometimes
teachers also decide.
Teachers may also use technology to create
blended learning classrooms that allow for multiple
leveled activities and centers.
Differentiating Product
Flexibility in the work products and
performances that students complete to demonstrate
newly acquired knowledge or skills supports accurate
evaluation of students' capabilities while also allowing
students to leverage their strengths to achieve the same
standards as their peers.
Assessments can be implemented before,
during, and after instruction to monitor student progress
relative to differentiated instruction.
Create and implement assessments that
accurately measure competencies, analyze
assessment results to identify students who are below
mastery level
Students are provided with alternative ways
to act skillfully and demonstrate what they know
Personalized Learning Approach (PLA)
In personalized Learning systems, instead of
counting the number of hours’ students are in their
6seats, students move through coursework and
graduate based on their ability to show they have
mastered the material.
The United States National Education
Technology Plan 2017 defines personalized learning as
follows:
Personalized learning refers to instruction in
which the pace of learning and the instructional
approach are optimized for the needs of each learner.
Learning objectives, instructional approaches, and
instructional content (and its sequencing) may all vary
based on learner needs.
Personalized learning is a progressively
student–driven model where students deeply engage in
meaningful, authentic, and rigorous challenges to
demonstrate desired outcomes (Zmuda, Curtis &
Ullman, 2015). Four design elements have been
associated to the personalization movement (Olofson
et. al, 2018).
 DESIGN ELEMENTS OF PERSONALIZED • Student Tournaments • Graphic • Discussion
Report (TGT) Organizers Threads
LEARNING APPROACH • Role Play • Student- • Web-Quests • Chat Groups
• Games Teams • Learning • Polling
1. FLEXIBLE LEARNING PATHWAYS Achievement Logs • Project e-
Division • Learning Portfolio
Learning activities must be meaningful and (STAD) Contracts
relevant to learners, driven by their interests, and often •Numbered • Gallery Walk
are self-initiated. Heads
•Inside-
Students are provided the opportunity to Outside circle
choose in-school and out-of-school learning modalities
that are attuned to their socioeconomic capability,
interests and needs. In summary, as you progress from a beginning
career stage educator into a distinguished career stage
2. PERSONALIZED LEARNING PLANS teacher, you will definitely grow in your teaching
Learning plans are co-crafted by students competencies in using a Learner-Centered Pedagogical
with their parents and teachers which best suit their Approach which now favors heavily on the Personalized
needs, interests, and abilities. This plan creates a Learning Approach. This is primarily due to the
customized approach that uniquely responds to the availability of education technology tools that can be
ability and interest profile of the learner. accessed by both students and teachers alike.
Students are encouraged to identify their own
interests, passions, and strengths and integrate these,
in partnership with educators, into meaningful learning Lesson 1.3 – Learning Theories
experiences with clear goals.
People learn through repetition. Learner is a
3. COMPETENCY-BASED GRADUATION passive blank slate shaped by environmental stimuli,
REQUIREMENTS both positive and negative reinforcement. This topic
Competency standards are made clear to helps you understand behaviorism and its connection to
students at the beginning of the course as well as and learning reinforcement.
how these are to be assessed at the end.
Teachers must continuously assess student BEHAVIORISM
learning against clearly defined standards and goals This particular learning theory assumes that the
and students’ input into the assessment process is learner is essentially passive, simply responding to their
essential. environmental stimuli. Behavioral theorists therefore
Students must also have access to real-time believe that a learner basically begins as a clean slate,
feedback and performance data for self-monitoring. and their behavior is shaped by positive/negative
reinforcement.
4. STUDENT OWNERSHIP AND AGENCY The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study
Teacher refrains from imposing or fully of observable and measurable behavior. It emphasizes
controlling the pathways of learning. Instead, student that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and
and teacher collaborates in designing learning activities reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not
that will help them meet the competency based- give much attention to the mind, and the possibility of
graduation requirements. thought processes occurring in the mind. Contributions
Students will work with the teacher to develop in the development of the behaviorist theory largely
a challenge, problem, or idea clarify learning goals, came from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
envision the assessment, and create a personal Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiological is well
learning plan. known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus
Ownership within the context of personalized substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment
learning also requires students to set, monitor, and involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was
reflect on their personal progress towards their set measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study
learning goals. This is a way to empower them with digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical
ownership over their own work and progress. conditioning.

List of commonly applied teaching strategies under Pavlov’s Experiment.

CLA, DIA and PLA. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral
stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing
Teaching Strategies According to Approach dog food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog
Traditional Cooperative Differentiated Personalized initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During
Instructional Learning Instructional Learning
Approach Approach Approach Approach
conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the
dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the
• Lecture • Thin-Pair- • Tiered • Team Wikis ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produce
• Teacher- Share Lessons • Group Blogs
salivation (conditioned response). This is classical
demo • Jigsaw II • Choice • Personal
• Drills • Team- Boards Vlogs conditioning.
• Recitation Game-
Stage 1 – Before Conditioning
Bell (neutral stimulus) → No response
Stage 2 – During Conditioning
Bell (Neutral stimulus)
↕ Paired with
Meat (unconditioned stimulus)
↓ responses. Such associations or “habits” become
Salivation (unconditioned stimulus)
Stage 3 – After Conditioning
Bell (conditioned stimulus)
↓ principle of connectionism (like all behavioral theory)
Salivation (unconditioned stimulus)
PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:
Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned
to salivate at the sound of the bell, it well salivates at
the other similar sounds
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food,
salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can
be “recovered” after an elapsed time, but will soon
extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate
between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell
would result in the presentation of food and which
would not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been
conditioned to associate the bell with food, another
unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed
at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the
dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the
sound of the bell.
CONNECTIONISM
Connectionism is a learning theory developed
by George Siemens and Steven Downs. It stresses the
connections and combinatorial creativity. All the
knowledge is out there – it’s a matter of making the
connections. Siemens (2004) states, “A community is
the clustering of similar areas of interest that allows for
interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together.”
For example, if a learner is trying to learn how
Donald Trump has risen to power, they may start on a
Facebook post that a friend made, which could then
take them to an article, but the text is dense and
confusing, so instead the student the student scroll
down to the comments sections and finds another link
to blog, and from the blog there is an embedded
YouTube video that they watch to more fully understand
the issue. The student has used various forms of
gathering information using the internet, and has
gleaned the most salient information by using many
different modes to more fully understand the issue.
Edward Lee Thorndike 1904-1990
Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory
gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a
text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the
first one to use this term. He explained that learning is
the result of associations forming between stimuli and
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency
of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory was trial
and error learning in which certain responses came to
be repeated than others because of rewards. The main
was that learning could be adequately explained without
considering any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that
learning has taken place when a strong connection or
bond between stimulus and response is formed. He
came up with three primary laws.
Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in
psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to
the development of operant conditioning within
Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends
on developing associations between events, operant
conditioning involves learning from the consequences
of our behavior.
Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study
learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of
operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward
Thorndike.
He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was
encouraged to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed
outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time
how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with
different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the
fish.
Eventually they would stumble upon the lever
which opened the cage. When it had escaped it was
put in again, and once more the time it took to escape
was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn that
pressing the lever would have favorable consequences
and they would adopt this behavior, becoming
increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect”
which stated that any behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any
behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely
to be stopped.
THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM
Stated that learning has taken place when a
strong connection or bond between stimulus and
response is formed. He came up with three primary
laws:
Law of Effect. The Law of Effect stated that a
connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive
(reward) and the connection between the stimulus and
the response is weakened when the consequence is
negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he
found that negative reward, seemingly pleasurable
consequences do not necessarily motivate
performance.
Law of Exercise. Tell us that the more an S-R
(stimulus response) bond in practice the stronger it will
become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be
associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the
law of exercise also had to revise when Thorndike found
that practice without feedback does not necessarily
enhance performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that, the more
readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person
is ready to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it
becomes annoying to the person. Example, if the
teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie
(stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the
power goes off, the students will feel frustrated because
they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were
prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not
at all ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to
respond, that becomes annoying. For instance, the
teacher asks the question and expects the students to
respond right away when he is still not ready. This will
be annoying to the student. This is why teacher should
remember to say the question first, and wait for a few
seconds before calling on anyone to answer.
Principles Derived from Thorndike’s
Connectionism:
1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of
effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together
if they belong to the same action (law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously
encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections
learned.
Behaviorism: Tolman & Bandura
Generalization: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Usually, people who worked on a maze activity,
which you just did, would say they found the second
maze easier. This is because they say that the two
mazes were identical, except that the entrance and exit
points had been reversed. Their experience in Maze A
was much easier for them to answer Maze B. People
are building mind maps of events that they perceived.
These mental maps help them to respond to other
things or tasks later, particularly if they see the
similarity. You may start responding with trial and error
(behavioral), but later on your response becomes more
internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what
neo-behaviorism is all about. It has behavioral aspects,
but it also has a cognitive perspective.
There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting
theories that stand out. Edward Tolman's purposive
behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social
learning. Both theories are influenced by behaviorism
(focused on internal elements and learning).
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as
sign learning theory and is often seen as a link between
behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman 's theory was
based on the psychological views of the Gestalt
Psychologist and the behaviorist John Watson.
Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive
process. Learning involves building belief in the
acquisition of knowledge about the environment and
then the discovery of knowledge through purposeful and
objective behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an
organism learns by pursuing signs for a goal, i.e.
learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He
stressed that the organized aspect of learning is
acquired through meaningful behavior. He emphasized
that the organized aspect of learning is that the stimuli
allowed in are not connected by simple one-to-one
switches to the outgoing reactions. Rather, the incoming
impulses are usually worked out and elaborated in the
central control room into a tentative cognitive
environment map. And it is this tentative map, indicating
routes and pathways, and environmental relations that
finally determines what kind of response the animal will
finally make.
Tolman's form of behaviorism underscored the
relationship between stimuli rather than stimulus-
response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (sign) would
be associated with already meaningful stimuli
(significant ones) through a series of pairings; there was
no need for reinforcement to establish learning. In your
labyrinth activity, the new stimulus or "sign" (maze B)
has become associated with the already meaningful
stimulus, the signicate (maze A). So you may have
connected the two stimuli, Labyrinth A and Labyrinth B,
and used your knowledge and experience in Labyrinth
A to learn how to respond to Labyrinth A.
Tolman’s Key Concepts
This is a learning theory that was in response
to behaviorism. Psychologist who promoted this idea
claimed that behaviorism failed to explain cognition. In
this theory, mind is an information processor. It
emphasizes understanding the concept as a whole
instead of just the piece.
This is the learning theory that was taught in
developing online education using Blooms Taxonomy.
Examples of cognitivist strategies for learning higher-
level thinking are starting a lesson with a hook to create
interest, a review quiz to promote prior learning, using
learning outcomes, chunking content into organized
bite-sized pieces, using graphic organizers, and the
student takes on an active role on learning. The teacher
gives lots of encouragement and positive feedback.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: Albert Bandura
The social learning theory of Bandura
emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling
the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be
exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if
people had to rely solely on the effects of their own
actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally through
modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of
how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action. Social learning theory explains human behavior
in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influence.
The component processes underlying
observational learning are:
1. Attention - includes modeled events
(distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,
prevalence, functional value) and observer
characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level,
perceptual set, past reinforcement).
2. Retention - includes symbolic coding, cognitive
organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal)
3. Motor Reproduction - includes physical
capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy
of feedback.
4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-
reinforcement.
General Principles of Social Learning Theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior
of the others and the outcomes of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in
behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning can be considered a bridge or
a transition between behaviorist learning theories and
cognitive learning theories.
How Environment and Punishes modeling
People are often to reinforced for modeling the
behavior of others. Bandura suggested that the
environment also reinforces modeling. This is several
possible ways;
1. The observer is reinforced by the model
2. The observer reinforce by a third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to
reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect
the observer’s behavior vicariously.
Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of
Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both
reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on
learning.
2. Reinforcement ad punishment influence the extent to
which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been
learned
3. The expectation of reinforcement process that
promote learning.
Cognitive Factors in Social Learning
1. Learning without performance. (through observation
and actual imitation)
2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and
environment)
5. Modeling (live models, and symbolic models)
Four Elements of Observational Learning
1. Attention – mental focus or concentration,
willingness of the child to observe and mimic the
behavior of a model.
2. Retention – To encode the behavior in the memory,
ability to store information.
3. Motor Production – To actually perform the behavior
observe
4. Motivation/Reinforcement – Force that drives one
to act.
COGNITIVISM
Cognitivism revived the psychological study of
thinking, developing scientifically rigorous ways of
studying unobservable mental activity. In this module
you will encounter different questions on how
cognitivism brings on the development of learning, and
you will find answers or solution to these questions.
What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning
which emphasizes human cognition or intelligence as a
special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses
and develop intellectually" (Cognitivism) and is also
known as cognitive development. The underlying
concepts of cognitivism involve how we think and gain
knowledge. Cognitivism involves examining learning,
memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence.
Cognitive theorists may want to understand how
problem solving changes throughout childhood, how
cultural differences affect the way we view our own
academic achievements, language development, and
much more. (Feldman, Cognitivism)
How Does Learning Occur?
Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of
knowledge and internal mental structures and, as such,
are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology
continuum (Bower & Hilgard, 1981). Learning is
equated with discrete changes between states of
knowledge rather than with changes in the probability of
response. Cognitive theories focus on the
conceptualization of students’ learning processes and
address the issues of how information is received,
organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning
is concerned not so much with what learners do but with
what they know and how they come to acquire it
(Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described
as a mental activity that entails internal coding and
structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a
very active participant in the learning process.
Which factors Influence Learning?
Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the
role that environmental conditions play in facilitating
learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations,
illustrative examples and matched non-examples are all
considered to be instrumental in guiding student
learning. Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of
practice with corrective feedback. Up to this point, little
difference can be detected between these two theories.
However, the “active” nature of the learner is perceived
quite differently.
The cognitive approach focuses on the mental
activities of the learner that lead up to a response and
acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-
setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986).
Cognitive theories contend that environmental “cues”
and instructional components alone cannot account for
all the learning that results from an instructional
situation. Additional key elements include the way that
learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and
retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts, beliefs,
attitudes, and values are also considered to be
influential in the learning process (Winne, 1985). The
real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the
learner by encouraging him/her to use appropriate
learning strategies.
How Does Transfer Occur?
According to cognitive theories, transfer is a
function of how information is stored in memory
(Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to
apply knowledge in different contexts, then transfer has
occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed of
a knowledge base in the form of rules, concepts, and
discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Prior
knowledge is used to establish boundary constraints for
identifying the similarities and differences of novel
information. Not only must the knowledge itself be
stored in memory but the uses of that knowledge as
well. Specific instructional or real-world events will
trigger particular responses, but the learner must
believe that the knowledge is useful in a given situation
before he will activate it.
Classroom Implications
In a classroom environment, there are many
variables that influence and contribute to learning.
When creating and implementing a learning
environment, it is imperative that the teachers not only
create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the
time to understand each child. Classrooms are widely
diverse and complex. Students learn differently and are
at various developmental levels. Teachers who properly
manage their classrooms and establish expectations
will be able to incorporate diverse teaching philosophies
and create an excellent learning environment for each
student. It is important that teachers create a learning
environment that encourages students to do their best
and makes learning interesting. This creates a
motivational climate within the classroom.
There are two factors that are critical to
motivate students, value and effort. (Classroom
Management) Students must understand that the work
they are performing is worthwhile. Value measures the
importance of a student's work to himself and others.
Effort is the amount of time and energy students put into
their work. Understanding the value of academic tasks
and the effort needed to complete those tasks can
motivate students to perform better in the classroom
environment (Classroom Management).
Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom
(“Piaget’s Theory”):
Teachers should carefully assess the current
stage of a child's cognitive development and only assign
tasks for which the child is prepared. The child can then
be given tasks that are tailored to their developmental
level and are motivating.
Teachers must provide children with learning
opportunities that enable them to advance through each
developmental stage. This is achieved by creating
disequilibrium. Teachers should maintain a proper
balance between actively guiding the child and allowing
opportunities for them to explore things on their own to
learn through discovery.
Teachers should be concerned with the
process of learning rather than the end product. For
example, the teacher should observe the way a child
manipulates play dough instead of concentrating on a
finished shape.
Children should be encouraged to learn from
each other. Hearing others' views can help breakdown
egocentrism. It is important for teachers to provide
multiple opportunities for small group activities.
Piaget believed that teachers should act as
guides to children's learning processes and that the
curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and
developmental levels.
Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom
Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate
various regions of the brain. These games are used to
improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical
thinking, and help people learn different patterns of
association. Cognitive games are helpful when used to
learn a foreign language and memorize new material.
Various learning techniques are used in the classroom
because there are various learning styles. There are
many games that promote and influence cognitive
learning.
Examples of cognitive games include:
Educational Websites and Computer Games
Most educational websites computer games
focus on stimulating a young child's senses while
engaging them in various cognitive tasks. Below are
three of the many learning websites that are available
to enhance cognitive development in young children.
Example, PBS kids Educational Games, Spelling City,
Cognitive Fun Games etc.
Sorting Games
Sorting games require individuals to utilize
recognition and reasoning. Teachers can engage
children in games in which the children sort items by
various criteria, such as color, size, texture, and other
physical attributes of the items. A more advanced
approach to sorting is discussing how the items are
similar. This process promotes critical thinking.
Flash Cards
Flash cards can be used various tasks. This
involves notecards or an even scrap of paper in which
two parts of information is written on either side of the
notecard. These can be as simple as having cards with
a red dot on one side and the word red on the other.
Flash cards are typically used in a classroom for drills
or in private study. These cards are used to aid
memorization. Pre-made flash cards are available for
many subjects. Teachers and students may also make
homemade flash cards, depending on how and what
they are studying. Flash cards may also be
personalized and printed from certain websites.
(Flashcards) Flash cards can be utilized into various
games as well.
Board Games
Teachers may include board games in their
classrooms to promote cognitive development. Unlike
computer and video games, board games are tangible.
Children can manipulate different pieces in the game.
Board games can be implemented to enhance
mathematical and linguistic skills and enhance a child's
ability to understand and follow directions. Example,
monopoly and bingo
Puzzles
Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem
solving ability. Children who actively solve puzzles that
they are able to touch and piece together are more likely
to understand certain concepts and develop their own
theories about those concepts.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
In this unit you will be introduce to many of the
issues understanding and applying constructivism and
constructivist principles for instructional design
purposes.
Students learn new things through experience.
They build knowledge through experiences and
interactions. In cognitive learning, the students are
taught to do something in constructivism. The students
are encouraged to discover something on their own; this
is known as self-directed learning. The major difference
is that cognitive learning is about building on prior
knowledge, and constructivism is about building new
ideas and concepts based on your own discoveries.
What are the principles of constructivism?
1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or
passively absorbed
Constructivism's central idea is that human
learning is constructed, that learners build new
knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
This prior knowledge influences what new or modified
knowledge an individual will construct from new learning
experiences (Phillips, 1995).
2. Learning is an active process.
The second notion is that learning is an active
rather than a passive process. The passive view of
teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be
filled with knowledge, where constructivism states that
learners construct meaning only through active
engagement with the world (such as experiments or
real-world problem solving). Information may be
passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it
must come from making meaningful connections
between prior knowledge, new knowledge, and the
processes involved in learning.
3. All Knowledge is socially constructed
Learning is a social activity - it is something we
do together, in interaction with each other, rather than
an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938). For example,
Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a
central role in the process of "making meaning." For
Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up
will influence how they think and what they think about.
Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing
and negotiating socially constituted knowledge. For
example, Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive
development stems from social interactions from guided
learning within the zone of proximal development as
children and their partner's co-construct knowledge.
4. All knowledge is Personal
Each individual learner has a distinctive point of
view, based on existing knowledge and values.This
means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result
in different learning by each pupil, as their subjective
interpretations differ.This principle appears to contradict
the view the knowledge is socially constructed. Fox
(2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although individuals have
their own personal history of learning, nevertheless they
can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although
education is a social process, powerfully influenced by
cultural factors, nevertheless cultures are made up of
sub- cultures, even to the point of being composed of
sub-cultures of one. Cultures and their knowledge-base
are constantly in a process of change and the
knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of
some socially constructed template. In learning a
culture, each child changes that culture.
5. Learning exists in the mind
The constructivist theory posits that knowledge
can only exist within the human mind, and that it does
not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000).
Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own
individual mental model of the real world from their
perceptions of that world. As they perceive each new
experience, learners will continually update their own
mental models to reflect the new information, and will,
therefore, construct their own interpretation of reality.
What are the three main types of constructivism?
Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad
categories:
Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean
Piaget, social constructivism based on the work of Lev
Vygotsky, and radical constructivism. According to the
GSI Teaching and Resource Center (2015, p.5):
Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something
that is actively constructed by learners based on their
existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is
relative to their stage of cognitive development.
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist
students in assimilating new information to existing
knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate
modifications to their existing intellectual framework to
accommodate that information. According to social
constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and
knowledge develops from individuals' interactions with
their culture and society.
Social constructivism was developed by Lev
Vygotsky (1978) who suggested that, every function in
the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on
the social level and, later on, on the individual level; first,
between people (interpsychologica) and then inside the
child (intrapsychological).
Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von
Glasersfeld (1974) and states that all knowledge is
constructed rather than perceived through senses.
Learners construct new knowledge on the foundations
of their existing knowledge. However, radical
constructivism states that the knowledge individuals
create tells us nothing about reality, and only helps us
to function in your environment. Thus, knowledge is
invented not discovered. The humanly constructed
reality is all the time being modified and interacting to fit
ontological reality, although it can never give a ‘true
picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994)
What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist
classroom?
The primary responsibility of the teacher is to
create a collaborative problem-solving environment
where students become active participants in their own
learning. From this perspective, a teacher acts as a
facilitator of learning rather than an instructor. The
teacher makes sure he/she understands the students'
preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to
address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).
Scaffolding is a key feature of effective
teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the level of
his or her help in response to the learner's level of
performance. In the classroom, scaffolding can include
modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting
material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).
Features of a Constructivist Classroom
Tam (2000) lists the following four basic
characteristics of constructivist learning environments,
which must be considered when implementing
constructivist teaching strategies:
1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers
and students.
2) Teachers and students will share authority.
3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or
guide.
4) Learning groups will consist of small
numbers of heterogeneous students.
What is more important to remember is that, for
the novice learner, behaviorism will be applied to novice
learner where they study fact based on information,
cognitivism will be applied to established learner where
they make connections using fact based information,
while constructivism will be applied to sophisticated-
learners where they use fact based information and
knowledge of connections to create greater
understanding of a content area.
The typical classroom has myriads of learners
who have different experiences, needs and learning
styles. Teaching and learning methodologies have to be
constantly revised, changed and modified. Therefore,
different learning theories should be utilized to
accommodate a variety of learner, in order to create an
environment that will be beneficial to both the teacher
the learners.
Lesson 1.4 – Outcomes of Teacher Education
Put in mind that through quality teachers, the
Philippines can develop holistic learners who are
steeped in values, equipped with 21st century skills, and
able to propel the country to development and progress.
Once you graduate and become a licensed professional
teacher, you will now be an official member of the
community of educators in the country. Under the
Department of Education’s VISION of producing:
“Filipinos who passionately love their country and
whose values and competencies enable them to realize
their full potential and contribute meaningfully to
building the nation” (DepED Order No. 36, s. 2013).
Keep in mind, dear future teacher, that so much
research evidences unequivocally show that good
teachers are vital to raising student achievement, i.e.,
quality learning of your students is will be dependent
upon learner-centered teaching. Hence, enhancing
yourself in terms of in the 7 domains of teaching practice
reflected in the Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers should become of utmost importance to you.
Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers
The Philippine Government has consistently
pursued teacher quality reforms through a number of
initiatives. As a framework of teacher quality, the
National Competency-Based Teacher Standards
(NCBTS) was institutionalized through CHED
Memorandum Order No. 52, s. 2007 and DepED Order
No. 32, s. 2009. It emerged as part of the
implementation of the Basic Education Sector Reform
Agenda (BESRA), and was facilitated by drawing on the
learning considerations of programs, such as the Basic
Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM), the
Strengthening Implementation of Visayas Education
(STRIVE) project and the Third Elementary Education
Project (TEEP).
 The K to 12 Reform (R.A. 10533) in 2013 has
changed the landscape of teacher quality requirements
in the Philippines. The reform process warrants an
equivalent supportive focus on teacher quality – high
quality teachers who are properly equipped and
prepared to assume the roles and functions of a K to 12
teachers.
The Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers, which is built on NCBTS, complements the
reform initiatives on teacher quality from pre-service
education to in-service training. It articulates what
constitutes teacher quality in the K to 12 Reform through
well-defined domains, strands, and indicators that
provide measures of professional learning, competent
practice, and effective engagement. This set of
standards makes explicit what teachers should know,
be able to do and value to achieve competence,
improved student learning outcomes, and eventually
quality education. It is founded on teaching philosophies
of learner-centeredness, lifelong learning, and
inclusivity/inclusiveness, among others. The
professional standards, therefore, become a public
statement of professional accountability that can help
teachers reflect on and assess their own practices as
they aspire for personal growth and professional
development.
Teacher Quality in the Philippines
The Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers defines teacher quality in the Philippines. The
standards describe the expectations of teachers’
increasing levels of knowledge, practice and
professional engagement. At the same time, the
standards allow for teachers’ growing understanding,
applied with increasing sophistication across a broader
and more complex range of teaching/learning
situations.
The following describes the breadth of 7
Domains that are required by teachers to be
effective in the 21st Century in the Philippines.
Quality teachers in the Philippines need to possess
the following characteristics:
Recognize the importance of mastery of
content knowledge and its interconnectedness within
and across curriculum areas, coupled with a sound and
critical understanding of the application of theories and
principles of teaching and learning. They apply
developmentally appropriate and meaningful pedagogy
grounded on content knowledge and current research.
They display proficiency in Mother Tongue, Filipino and
English to facilitate the teaching and learning process,
as well as exhibit the needed skills in the use of
communication strategies, teaching strategies and
technologies to promote high-quality learning
outcomes.
Provide learning environments that are safe,
secure, fair and supportive in order to promote learner
responsibility and achievement. They create an
environment that is learning-focused and they efficiently
manage learner behavior in a physical and virtual
space. They utilize a range of resources and provide
intellectually challenging and stimulating activities to
encourage constructive classroom interactions geared
towards the attainment of high standards of learning.
Establish learning environments that are
responsive to learner diversity. They respect learners’
diverse characteristics and experiences as inputs to the
planning and design of learning opportunities. They
encourage the celebration of diversity in the classroom
and the need for teaching practices that are
differentiated to encourage all learners to be successful
citizens in a changing local and global environment.
Interact with the national and local curriculum
requirements. They translate curriculum content into
learning activities that are relevant to learners and
based on the principles of effective teaching and
learning. They apply their professional knowledge to
plan and design, individually or in collaboration with
colleagues, well-structured and sequenced lessons that
are contextually relevant, responsive to learners’ needs
and incorporate a range of teaching and learning
resources. They communicate learning goals to support
learner participation, understanding and achievement.
Apply a variety of assessment tools and
strategies in monitoring, evaluating, documenting and
reporting learners’ needs, progress and achievement.
They use assessment data in a variety of ways to inform
and enhance the teaching and learning process and
programs. They provide learners with the necessary
feedback about learning outcomes that informs the
reporting cycle and enables teachers to select, organize
and use sound assessment processes.
Establish school-community partnerships
aimed at enriching the learning environment, as well as
the community’s engagement in the educative process.
They identify and respond to opportunities that link
teaching and learning in the classroom to the
experiences, interests and aspirations of the wider
school community and other key stakeholders. They
understand and fulfill their obligations in upholding
professional ethics, accountability and transparency to
promote professional and harmonious relationships
with learners, parents, schools and the wider
community.
Value personal growth and professional
development and exhibit high personal regard for the
profession by maintaining qualities that uphold the
dignity of teaching such as caring attitude, respect and
integrity. They value personal and professional
reflection and learning to improve their practice. They
assume responsibility for personal growth and
professional development for lifelong learning.
PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR
TEACHERS
The 7 Domains of teacher practice comprise of 37
strands that refer to more specific dimensions of teacher
practice:
Domain 1 – Content Knowledge & Pedagogy (7
strands)
1. Content knowledge and its application within and
across curriculum areas
2. Research-based knowledge and principles of
teaching and learning
3. Positive use of ICT
4. Strategies for promoting literacy and numeracy
5. Strategies for developing critical and creative
thinking, as well as other higher-order thinking skills
6. Mother Tongue, Filipino and English in teaching and
learning
7. Classroom communication strategies
Domain 2 – Environment (6 stands)
1. Learner safety and security
2. Fair learning environment
3. Management of classroom structure and activities
4. Support for learner participation
5. Promotion of purposive learning
6. Management of learner behavior
Domain 3 – Diversity of Learners (5 strands)
1. Learners’ gender, needs, strengths, interests and
experiences
2. Learners’ linguistic, cultural, socioeconomic &
religious backgrounds
3. Learners with disabilities, giftedness and talents
4. Learners in difficult circumstances
5. Learners from indigenous groups
Domain 4 – Curriculum and Planning (5 strands)
1. Planning and management of teaching and learning
process
2. Learning outcomes aligned with learning
competencies
3. Relevance and responsiveness of learning programs
4. Professional collaboration to enrich teaching practice
5. Teaching and learning resources including ICT
Domain 5 – Assessment and Reporting (5 strands)
1. Design, selection, organization and utilization of
assessment strategies
2. Monitoring and evaluation of learner progress and
achievement
3. Feedback to improve learning
4. Communication of learner needs, progress and
achievement to key stakeholders
5. Use of assessment data to enhance teaching and
learning practices and programs
Domain 6 – Community Linkages and Professional
Engagement (4 strands)
1. Establishment of learning environments that is
responsive to community contexts Philippine
Professional Standards for Teachers 7
2. Engagement of parents and the wider school
community in the educative process
3. Professional ethics
4. School policies and procedures
Domain 7 – Personal Growth and Professional
Development (5 strands)
1. Philosophy of teaching
2. Dignity of teaching as a profession
3. Professional links with colleagues
4. Professional reflection and learning to improve
practice
5. Professional development goals
Career Stages of Filipino Professional Teachers
Teacher professional development happens in
a continuum from beginning to exemplary practice.
Anchored on the principle of lifelong learning, the set of
professional standards for teachers recognizes the
significance of a standards framework that articulates
developmental progression as teachers develop, refine
their practice and respond to the complexities of
educational reforms.
The following statements, which define the
work of teachers at different career stages, make
explicit the elements of high-quality teaching for the 21st
century. They comprise descriptors that have been
informed by teachers’ understandings of what is
required at each of the four Career Stages. The
descriptors represent a continuum of development
within the profession by providing a basis for attracting,
preparing, developing and supporting teachers.
Career Stage 1 or Beginning Teachers
have gained the qualifications recognized for
entry into the teaching profession.
have a strong understanding of the
subjects/areas in which they are trained in terms of
content knowledge and pedagogy.
possess the requisite knowledge, skills and
values that support the teaching and learning process.
manage learning programs and have
strategies that promote learning based on the learning
needs of their students.
seek advice from experienced colleagues to
consolidate their teaching practice.
Career Stage 2 or Proficient Teachers
professionally independent in the application
of skills vital to the teaching and learning process.
provide focused teaching programs that meet
curriculum and assessment requirements.
display skills in planning, implementing, and
managing learning
actively engage in collaborative learning with
the professional community and other stakeholders for
mutual growth and advancement.
reflective practitioners who continually
consolidate the knowledge, skills and practices of
Career Stage 1 teachers.
Career Stage 3 or Highly Proficient Teachers
consistently display a high level of
performance in their teaching practice.
manifest an in-depth and sophisticated
understanding of the teaching and learning process.
have high education-focused situation
cognition, are more adept in problem solving and
optimize opportunities gained from experience.
 work collaboratively with colleagues and
provide them support and mentoring to enhance their
learning and practice.
continually seek to develop their professional
knowledge and practice by reflecting on their own
needs, and those of their colleagues and students.

Career Stage 4 or Distinguished Teachers

embody the highest standard for teaching
grounded in global best practices.
exhibit exceptional capacity to improve their
own teaching practice and that of others.
recognized as leaders in education,
contributors to the profession and initiators of
collaborations and partnerships.
create lifelong impact in the lives of
colleagues, students and others.
consistently seek professional advancement
and relevance in pursuit of teaching quality and
excellence.
exhibit commitment to inspire the education
community and stakeholders for the improvement of
education provision in the Philippine.

MODULE 1 SUMMARY
Learner centered teaching has brought
significant changes from the traditional teacher-
centered approach. These changes involve balance of
power between teacher and student, evaluation of
purpose & process, role of teacher, responsibility of
learner and function of content.
Four principles are also notable in a student
centered teaching approach which are: learning is
personalized; learning is competency-based; learning
happens anytime, anywhere; and students take owner
ship of their learning.
The American Psychological Association
also published the top 20 principles of teaching and
learning in Prek-12 education for teachers. The
principles are distilled from decades of research on how
cognition, emotion and motivation are enable students
to really learn.
Three pedagogical approaches that promote
learner centeredness are cooperative learning
approach, differentiated instruction approach, and
personalized learning approach.
Learning theories that inform the teaching
practices of contemporary teachers are drawn from
behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism.
The Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers clarifies the 7 domains of teaching practice
which emphasizes the competence of teachers to help
student with diverse abilities and background in a
learner centered learning environment.
MODULE 2 – COGNITION LEARNERS The result supports that a separate LTM and
Lesson 2.1 – Multi-Store Memory STM exists because of the observed primacy and
recency effect where words presented early on in the
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed the multi- list have been put into the long-term memory (primacy
store memory model also known as modal model which effect) due to the span of time to rehearse the word
is basically a structural model. Together they while those words at the end part proceeded to the short
proposed the notion that memory consists of three term memory (recency effect).
stores: Moreover, there have been different types of
a sensory register long term memory identified such as episodic
short-term memory (STM) (memories of events), procedural (knowledge of how to
long-term memory (LTM). do things) and semantic (general knowledge).

To this, they held that information goes through

the process in a linear way which has been described Lesson 2.2 – Dual Coding Theory
as the information processing model so much like how
a computer works with an input, process and output. In 1971, a Canadian researcher Allan Paivio
proposed ‘that the human mind operates with two
As such, information is said to be detected by distinct classes of mental representation (or “codes”),
the sense organs which then proceeds to the sensory verbal representations and mental images, and that
memory. This, if attended to can enter the short term human memory thus comprises two functionally
memory. When the information from the short-term independent (although interacting) systems or stores,
memory is rehearsed (repeated), it gets transferred to verbal memory and image memory.’ (Thomas, 2014).
the long-term memory. However, without maintenance
rehearsal (repetition) information may be forgotten and The two codes or channels in our memory deal
gets lost from short-term memory by the process of with visual and verbal stimuli and though they store
displacement or decay. those stimuli separately, they are linked to each other
and hence makes retrieval easier. Both, words or
The Memory Stores images stimulate the retrieval of the other.
Each store is a unitary structure and has its own ‘While being independent of each other, they
characteristics in terms of encoding, capacity and are also able to create what Paivio called “associative
duration: connections” between them. So, they are both apart
Encoding is the way information is changed so that it from one another but can cooperate in forming linked
can be stored in the memory. There are three main pairs of words and images. By forming such a link, the
ways in which information can be encoded (changed): encoding process is enriched. It leaves a double
1. visual (picture), memory trace and, in the words of Professor Paul
2. acoustic (sound), Kirschner, results in “double-barrelled learning”
3. semantic (meaning). because of the resultant double opportunity of being
Capacity concerns how much information can be retrieved by either verbal or visual means.’ (Caviglioli,
stored. 2019)
Duration refers to the period of time information can No wonder teachers who employ a Dual Coding
last in the memory stores. mindset in preparing instructional materials have
learning improved because the students’ working
Store Duration Capacity Encoding memory is increased and cognitive load is reduced.
Sensory ¼ to ½ All sensory Sense Further, Paivio as cited by Caviglio (2019)
Memory seconds experience specific (e.g. defined visual information as being synchronous or
(v. larger different simultaneous in structure and that these synonymous
capacity) stores for terms explain that diagrams can be viewed at one time
each sense)
bearing most, if not all elements presented.
Short Term 0-18 7 +/ -2 items Mainly
Memory seconds auditory Meanwhile, verbal information is sequential by
Long Term Unlimited Unlimited Mainly nature wherein each word is addressed one at a time.
Memory semantic There is a need to relate each word to other words to
(but can be make sense of it. There is a distance that require
visual and
auditory cognitive effort so as to come up with the necessary
inferences and finally make sense of the whole text.
Mcleod (2017) pointed out the study conducted It is, therefore, worth to note that “Visuals
by Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) which sshowed that when ignored, don’t teach”. (Clark and Lyons, 2004 cited by
learners were presented a list of words only the first few Caviglioli, 2019) Diagrams should be presented to give
and last few of those have the tendency to be information requiring less effort to understand it and for
remembered while the words in the middle list are likely students to think about or else not much learning can
to be forgotten. take place. They should be thought of as platforms that
enable learners to better analyze texts.
Lesson 2.3 – Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Model
As sure as the sunrise, human beings tend to
forget things learned in the past. This lesson will help us
understand how fast we forget.
The ‘forgetting curve’ which refers to the loss of
learned information has been a product of a series of
experiments conducted on memory by German
psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909).
‘The theory is that humans start losing the
memory of learned knowledge over time, in a matter of
days or weeks, unless the learned knowledge is
consciously reviewed time and again. A related concept
to the forgetting curve is strength of memory, which
states that the time period up to which a person can
recall any memory is based on the strength of the
particular memory.’ (Shrestha, 2017).
In an article by Wadsworth (2019), he
mentioned in particular its implications to college
students who after a day or two of attending classes, will
have forgotten 75% of what was learned and that
forgetting occurs within the first hour. Interestingly,
although this is said to be a natural process, it is
possible to disrupt the process.
As mentioned earlier, forgetting can be slowed
down or disrupted. It can be observed in the second
graph that forgetting can be overcome by spaced
learning. What does spaced learning tell us?
‘While an initial review of material will help you
remember in the short term, reviewing material multiple
times and at different intervals will help you retain it for
much longer.’ The graph ‘shows how review affects
memory. You can see that every time you review
material you both retain much more information, and
your forgetting curve steadies out at a much higher
level. Each time you review material you take much
more away. Research indicates that the minimum
amount of review is three.’ (Whitman, yyyy)
The dramatic increase proves how much review
can do to students in retaining learned information over
a period of time. ‘Unfortunately, it also shows that
without additional intervention one day after material is
learned content is lost, and one week after, recall is
almost as if the review never happened at all.’
(Whitman, yyyy)
Lesson 2.4 – Spaced Retrieval
As a memory technique, Spaced Retrieval (SR)
is evidence-based and makes use of ‘procedural
memory to help people recall information over
progressively longer intervals of time.’ (Desai, 2020)
According to Desai (2020) ‘A memory is simply
a pattern of information in the brain that is stored and
retrieved.’ She added that oftentimes long-term memory
is described as either declarative or non-declarative.
Declarative memory consists of those which can be
consciously recalled like facts (semantic memory) as
well as personal events (episodic memory) while Non-
declarative memory (also called procedural memory)
refers to implicit memory responsible for helping us
carry out common tasks even without the conscious
thinking of it. (e.g. riding a bike, washing dishes, etc.)
Moreover, Rawson et. al, (2013) stressed three
principles that promote effective long term learning
which include meaningful connections, retrieval practice
and spaced practice.
As such teachers need to establish meaningful
connections by explaining new concepts in relation to
concepts previously learned. Also, they need to keep
the information accessible for retrieval practice and
promote spaced practice that is to distribute practice
repetitions over time.
Example:
What? – meaningful Connections
How? – retrieval Practice
When? – spaced (over time)
In 2013 Rawson et. al, studied how much
Spaced Retrieval practice have helped students utilize
memorization for an upcoming examination.
The participants were observed using the
Spaced Retrieval Practice and Restudy strategies. For
SR Practice learning a concept progressed in three
steps (retrieval, monitoring and feedback). While, in
Restudy strategy a concept is presented at least five
times more after initial presentation.
Course Exam
85
80
75
70
65
Spaced ReStudy
Retrieval
Its findings revealed that during the exams,
concepts learned with the use of Spaced Retrieval were
better remembered as compared to the Restudy
strategy and other strategies. Interestingly, SR practice
‘did not just yield better results on the exam but
prevented the post-exam rapid forgetting.’ In short,
concepts learned remain in the minds of the students
long after the exam was taken.
The above-mentioned study is proof how SR
can be employed in the classroom to ensure better
learning for students.
Lesson 2.5 – Lateralization of Brain Function Summary of Differences in Cognitive Functions
between the Left and Right Hemisphere
Brain Lateralization (Lucas, 2007)
Lateralization pertains to specific functions Left-Brain Right-brain
which are located on one side of the brain. Brain Hemisphere Hemisphere
Lateralization is a complex process in which regions of
Characteristics Follows a Follows
the brain are responsible for behaviors and cognitive sequential, linear random, intuitive
skills. and analytical and spontaneous
Lateralization of the brain hemispheres refers to process process
a functional dominance of one hemisphere over the Uses verbal Uses non-verbal
other, in which one is more responsible or entirely language often language often
With internal With external
responsible for control of a function in comparison to the focus, reasoning, focus
other. judgment Experiential and
Uses symbolic holistic
Right-Brain Functions: processing Deals with
- Art awareness Does one thing similarities
at a time Integrates
- Creativity Reality-based multiple inputs
- Imagination Fiction-based
- Intuition
- Insight Functions Controls the Controls the
- Holistic thought muscles on the muscles on left-
right side of the side of the body
- Music awareness body Regulates
- 3-D forms Regulates negative emotions
- Left-hand control positive emotions Responds to
Controls simple commands
Left-Brain Functions: muscles used in Memorizes
speech music and shapes
- Analytic thought
Controls the Interprets visual
- Logic sequence of images
- Language movements Understands
- Reasoning Memorizes relationships in
- Science and Math words and space
numbers Recognizes
- written Regulates faces
- Numbers skills speaking and
- Right-hand control writing
Understands
Right hemisphere functions include the spoken and
written forms
following; judging the position of objects in space,
understanding of body position, comprehending and
remembering things you do and see, putting pieces of Whole- Brained People are those individuals
information together to make an entire picture, and that enjoy best of both worlds. They have the skill to shift
motor control of the left side of the body. task to the hemisphere of the brain that suits with the
situation. These people are both logical and creative
Left hemisphere functions include the following: thinkers. They enjoy logical task like sequencing,
Use of language (listening, reading, speaking and solving puzzles and quizzes. They also love arts, crafts
writing), memory for spoken and written language, and music. The whole brained learners can see both the
analysis of information in detail, and motor control of the forest and tree. But they may lack the organization
right side of the body. strength of the left-brained and the creative brilliance of
a right-brained learners.
These skills develop over time in children and
deficits in related areas of functioning suggest problems
with this process. Lesson 2.6 – Theories of Intelligence

Lateralization is the differing functions of the left
and right hemispheres of the brain. Research over the
years has shown that damage to one hemisphere or the
other can produce different problems and knowing this
can help predict behavior.
Intelligence has many definitions and people
have different perceptions of what it really is. In the field
of education, identifying intelligence and assessing its
value is one of the most important aspect for it will help
you in the delivery of instruction and conduct of
assessment. But the biggest problem comes with
identifying the real definition of intelligence. Different
theories are created to explain what intelligence is and
these theories will help future teachers to understand
their learners better.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner in his book Frames of Mind
(1983) explained that intelligence does not come in one
type but in 9 different types. He explained that
intelligence comes in different forms and understanding
these different types of intelligence can help people
especially teachers in understanding the learners
better.
The 9 types of Intelligence:
1. Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – This
intelligence focuses its ability to think in three
dimensions. Some of its strength includes spatial
reasoning, artistic skill, active imagination and image
manipulation. People with spatial intelligence enjoys
jigsaw, puzzles, mazes and drawing.
2. Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart) – The
strength of this intelligence is to organize and
discriminate living things as well as being sensitive to
the features of the natural world.
3. Musical Intelligence (Music Smart) – People under
this intelligence has the ability to recognize rhythm,
timbre, pitch, and tone. This intelligence helps learners
in creating and reflecting music. Instrumentalist,
composers and singers possesses this intelligence.
4. Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart) –
Recognizing personal strengths, thoughts and feelings
and using it to plan and direct your life is the major
characteristic of people possessing this intelligence.
This intelligence does not only focus on self but it also
has the ability to understand the nature of human
condition.
5. Bodily- Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart) –
This intelligence is portrayed through manipulation of
objects and use of different physical strength. Strong
hand-eye coordination, timing, and skill perfection
through strong mind- body coordination are the main
strengths of this intelligence.
6. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart) – The
strength of a word smart is the ability to use words and
language in expressing ideas. This intelligence allows
people to understand the order of words, its meaning
and apply meta- linguistic skill in using language.
7. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Math Smart) –
Math Smart has the ability to quantify, calculate,
consider proposition and hypotheses, and carry out
complete mathematical operations. This intelligence
helps the learner to perceive relationships and
connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought;
sequential reasoning skills, inductive and deductive
thinking.
8. Existential Intelligence (Spirit Smart) – This
intelligence is sensitive and has the ability to
answer/ask questions about human existence like the
true meaning of life, is there life after death and why to
de exists.
9. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart) – The
people under this intelligence has the ability to
understand and communicate with others in a very
effective way. The skills that involves in people smart
includes sensitivity to moods and temperaments of
others, strong verbal and non-verbal communication
skills and the ability to identify the differences of others.
Spearman’s Two – Factor Theory of Intelligence
English Psychologist Charles Spearman
developed the two-factor theory in 1904. In this theory
he proposed that intellectual abilities were comprised to
two factor: the first ability is called the as the “G” factor
which is the general ability or the common ability; the
second is called as the “S” factor which is a group of
specific abilities.
The two-factor theory of intelligence
The “G” factor involves the ability of an
individual to do difficult mental task such as problem
solving, analyzing and critical thinking. The greater the
“G” in an individual the greater its chance to live a
successful life.
The “S” factor is acquired from the environment.
This varies from an individual to and individual and from
activity to activity in the same individual. Therefore, the
S-factor can be modified by learning and habitual
training.
Thurstone’s Theory: Primary Mental/ Group Factor
Theory
Louis Thurstone said that intelligent activities
are not an expression of many highly specific factors,
as what Thorndike believes. He also believes that there
are no general factors that controls all mental tasks.
Thurstone proposed the concept that intelligence is a
cluster of abilities. Then all the mental operations
constitute a group. A second group of mental operations
has its own unifying primary factor; a third group has a
third primary factor a so on.
Thurstone’s theory states that there are many
groups of mental abilities, each of this group has its own
primary factor, and this factor give a sense of wholeness
to the group. The theory also emphasize that these
primary factors is said to be relatively independent of
the others.
Thurstone has given the following nine primary
factors:
1. Numerical Factor (N) – This ability involves fast and
accurate mathematical calculations.
2. Verbal Comprehensive Factor – This ability
involves accurate understanding verbal materials,
vocabulary and reading comprehension.
3. Verbal Fluency Factor – The ability to produce
words, sentences and other verbal material.
4. Perceptual Speed Factor – This ability involves
proofreading and rapid recognition of numbers and
letters.
5. Inductive Reasoning Factor – The ability to create
generalization- reasoning from specific to general
thinking.
6. Spatial Visualization Factor – The ability to
manipulates imaginary object in space.
7. Memory Factor – The ability to memorize quickly.
8. Deductive Reasoning – Ability to use general result
correctly.
9. Problem Solving Ability Factor – This ability
focuses on the skill to solve problem independently.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
American psychologist Robert Sternberg
(1985) has created three-pronged or the triarchic theory
of intelligence.
The three are:
1. Analytic Intelligence – generally define as the
academic ability. This intelligence helps us to solve
problems and acquire new information. Problem solving
involves encoding information, combining and
comparing evidences and finally generation of solution.
2. Creative Intelligence – the ability to adapt within a
situation and to learn from experiences. This
intelligence helps the learners to related current
situation to the past experiences whether it is similar or
different. The result of such experience helps an
individual to solve problems rapidly.
3. Practical Intelligence – also known as the street
smart, help learners to adapt to the demand of their
environment. This intelligence involves dealing with
common personal o practical problems. This
intelligence also involves dealing with unusual problem
in our daily life.
Lesson 2.7 – Metacognition
Metacognition means “thinking about thinking”
coined by John Flavell, the founding father of the
concept of metacognition. Flavell said that
metacognition is an individual’s knowledge about how
he/she thinks. Flavell (1979) explicitly said, “It is your
ability to control your thinking processes through
various strategies, such as organizing, monitoring, and
adapting. Additionally, it is your ability to reflect upon
tasks or process you undertake and to select and utilize
the appropriate strategies necessary in your
intercultural interactions.”
Elements of Metacognition
Specialists recognize metacognitive
information and metacognitive guideline (Flavell, 1979,
1987; Schraw and Dennison, 1994). Metacognitive
information alludes to what people think about
themselves as psychological processors, about various
methodologies that can be utilized for learning and
critical thinking, for a specific learning task.
Metacognitive guideline alludes to alterations people
make to their procedures to help control their learning,
for example, arranging, data the systems, appreciation
checking, de-irritating methodologies, and assessment
of progress and objectives.
Flavell (1979) further partitions metacognitive
information into three classifications:
Person variables: What one recognizes about his
or her strengths and weaknesses in learning and
processing information.
Task variables: What one knows or can figure out
about the nature of a task and the processing demands
required to complete the task—for example, knowledge
that it will take more time to read, comprehend, and
remember a technical article than it will a similar-length
passage from a novel.
Strategy variables: The strategies a person has “at
the ready” to apply in a flexible way to successfully
accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to activate
prior knowledge before reading a technical article, using
a glossary to look up unfamiliar words, or recognizing
that sometimes one has to reread a paragraph several
times before it makes sense.
Metacognitive Strategies
As an active learner, you are capable of
monitoring your progress related to your learning and
the tasks at hand. There are metacognitive strategies
that can be learned which will serve as your mechanism
for controlling your thinking activities and to ensure you
are meeting your goals.
As an example, metacognitive strategies for
learning a new language can include the following:
monitoring whether you understand the language
lessons;
 recognizing when you fail to comprehend information Metacognitive theory describes thinking as
communicated to you in the new language; an active regulation and monitoring of ones’ cognitive
identifying strategies that help you to improve your processes.
comprehension;
adjusting your pace for learning the information (for
example, studying for 2 hours, rather than 1 hour, every
day);
maintaining the attitude necessary to ensure you
complete the lessons in a timely manner;
creating a check-in system at the end of each week
to make certain you understand what you have learned.

Metacognition has been emphasized in the field

of education for it makes learning active. It takes away
the concept of just absorbing information form the
surrounding without processing it. The main goal of
metacognition it to help learners to be a better thinker.
In a way that it present task that will develop the thinking
capabilities of the child that in the near future they can
use it in their future works or jobs.

MODULE 2 SUMMARY
Multistore Memory Model proposes that
human memory system is composed of a sensory
register, short term memory, and long term memory.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve Model
describes the forgetting as a normal brain activity which
deletes or decays information within 31 days if there are
no attempts to mentally retrieve information stored in
the long term memory.
Dual Code Theory describes the two codes
or channels in a learner’s memory that deal with visual
and verbal stimuli and though they store those stimuli
separately, they are linked to each other and hence
makes retrieval of stored memory easier.
Studies on Spaced Retrieval of stored remory
revealed that during exams, concepts learned with the
use of spaced Retrieval were better remembered as
compared to the Restudy strategy and other strategies.
Lateralization pertains to specific functions
which are located on one side of the brain. Right
hemisphere functions include the following; judging the
position of objects in space, understanding of body
position, comprehending and remembering things. Left
hemisphere functions includes use of language memory
for spoken and written language, analysis of information
in detail, and motor control of the right side of the body.
Howard Gardner has formulated 9 multiple
intelligences namely; spatial, musical, bodily
kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist,
existentialist, linguistic, logical-mathematical.
Spearman’s two-factor of intelligence are the
“G” factor, which means general intelligence and the “S”
factor, which means specific intelligence.
Thurstone’s theory believes primary factors
of intelligence are: numerical, verbal comprehensive,
verbal fluency, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning,
spatial visualization, memory, deductive reasoning and
problem solving ability.
Sternberg’s triarchic intelligence explain
intellect into three different groups namely; analytic,
creative and practical.
MODULE 3 – MOTIVATION OF LEARNERS
Lesson 3.1 – Motivation: Definition and Types
Motivation is “a process whereby a goaldirected
activity is instigated and sustained.” (Schunk, Pintrinch
& Meece, 2008)
Meaning of Motivation
Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to
do something and persevere at something. It energizes
you to do something. It is the strength of the drive
toward an action. While ability refers to what children
can do, motivation refers to what these children will do.
Motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and
persistence of behavior. When we get motivated to do
something, it is not enough that we start working at that
thing but that we get attracted to it. Our attraction
towards it becomes so intense that we persist working
on it through thick and thin until its completion. Learner’s
motivation is the primary factor influencing both
performance and success in school.
Indicators of a High Level of Motivation
Your student’s level of motivation is shown in
his/her choice of action, intensity and persistence of
effort. If you have a highly motivated student, you have
a student who is excited about learning and
accomplishing things. S/he takes the initiative to
undertake learning tasks, assignments and projects
without being pushed by his/her teachers and parents.
S/he has goals to accomplish and dreams to realize.
S/he is convinced that accomplishing the things s/he is
asked to accomplish in class helps her/him realize the
goals s/he has set for herself/himself and his/her dream
in life. S/he is willing to give up the satisfaction of
immediate goals for the sake of more important remote
goals. An example is her willingness to give up joining
his/her barkada to watch a movie in order to prepare
thoroughly for final examinations.
A student who is highly motivated to learn
enjoys learning and learns much more than the one who
is not as motivated. S/he persists and perseveres in
her/his studies even when things turn out to be difficult.
S/he does not give up easily. As a result, his/her
performance is satisfactory. In contrast, a student who
is not motivated to learn does not enjoy learning, does
not study unless “pushed”. When s/he feels the difficulty
of study, s/he readily gives up. S/he lacks
perseverance.
Types of Motivation
Motivation is classified as either intrinsic or
extrinsic. It is intrinsic when the source of motivation is
from within the person himself/herself or the activity
itself. It is motivation to engage in an activity for its own
sake (Schunk et al, 2008). An example is when a
student reads pocketbooks because s/he
herself/himself wants to read them or because reading
them is in itself worthwhile and enjoyable. Motivation is
extrinsic when that which motivates a person is
someone or something outside him/her. When a student
studies because s/he was told by her/his teacher or
because s/he is afraid to fail and his/her parents will
make her/him stop schooling or because it will lead to a
good grade, we can say that s/he is extrinsically
motivated. Extrinsic motivation is motivation to engage
in an activity as a means to an end. In our examples,
the student studies to please her/his teacher, parents or
to get a good grade. He does not study for the joy of
studying.
Obviously, intrinsic motivation is more
beneficial than extrinsic motivation because intrinsic
motivation comes from within the person
himself/herself. If that which motivates a person is
something or someone outside, the moment that person
or that something is gone, the person’s motivation is
also gone. Intrinsic motivation is evident when people
engage in an activity for its own sake, without some
obvious external incentive present. Reading for no
reason other than the joy of reading illustrates intrinsic
motivation.
Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is
preferable because of its focus on learning and
understanding.
The Role of Extrinsic Motivation
Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to
develop the love for learning among poorly motivated
students. If good grades, rewards, praises or words of
encouragement or fear of failing grade can motivate
unmotivated students to study, why not? For as long as
students are hardly motivated, external motivation in the
form of rewards, incentives or punishment play a
significant role in the development of motivated
students.
It is expected, however, that these extrinsic
motivational factors be gradually replaced by internal
motivation. In the concrete, this means that after
motivating the students to study by way of reward,
praise, encouragement, punishment, hopefully the
students develop the genuine love for learning and
becomes intrinsically motivated in the process. In short,
we may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start
but this should fade away as the students get
intrinsically motivated themselves.
Lesson 3.2 – Academic Motivation
What Is Academic Motivation?
Academic motivation is defined as a student’s
desire regarding academic subjects. Usher et al (2012).
Motivation is seen to students through their approach,
persistence, and level of interest when the student’s
competence is judged against a standard of
performance or excellence.
Academic motivation is a broad term
incorporating many concepts studied by scholars which
include self-efficacy, determination and resilience. All of
these terms are incorporated characteristics that are
related to motivation (Steinmayr et al, 2019).
Academic motivational components that
significantly impact students learning:
1. Beliefs/perception which subdivided into three
key concepts:
a. Self-efficacy is when an individual’s
personal beliefs in his or her ability to perform and
accomplish tasks. Students are competent when they
think they can meet the challenge of their school- work.
Students with high efficacy expectations take on
challenging tasks, put forth efforts, persist when faced
with difficulties, and believe that they will succeed in the
future.
b. Autonomy is a term that signifies personal
beliefs that individuals have control over their own
learning and decision making
c. Attributional beliefs are personal theories
regarding why things happen in individuals’ lives and
how they explain other people’s success or failure.
Understanding how students attribute their success and
failure in school, that is, how students explain an
outcome or their under- standing of why certain
achievement outcomes happen, sheds light on the
source of their subsequent actions.
2. Goals setting involves establishing a target to
serve as the purpose of an individual’s actions. It
provides a framework within which a person responds
to events and results in a unique pattern of cognition,
behavior, and affect.
Goals can be short term (proximal goals) or
long term (distal goals) with a few sub-goals that can be
used to assess progress toward a final goal. Goal
setting involves establishing a target to serve as the
purpose of an individual’s actions
2 types of goal orientation:
a. Mastery goal-oriented students are those
academically oriented to learn and master materials and
to demonstrate their competence by per- forming well.
b. Students with performance goal orientation,
on the other hand, demonstrate their competence
relative to others.
3. Values
When students perceive learning activities and
materials with an attitude of “It’s not worth it,” they will
likely not consume efforts to learn. The amount of time
and effort spent on an activity depends on how much
students value the work, as well as “I can do it” self-
efficacy beliefs.
Valuing learning tasks implies students’
reasons for engaging in learning activities. Students
perceive task value from different viewpoints, including
whether materials or activities are interesting (intrinsic
value), important (attainment value), and useful.
4. Intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
a. Students with intrinsic motivation engage in
activities, in the absence of external incentives, for the
inherent challenge and curiosity, and prefer tasks that
are inherently interesting.
b. Students with extrinsic motivation engage in
activities to obtain some outcomes, such as achieving
rewards or avoiding punishments, separable from the
activity itself.
Lesson 3.3 – ARCS Model of Motivation
As a teacher, we always say that motivation
plays an important role for an individual to keep going.
Indeed, it is an important foundation in the academic
path of every student. In fact, even an infant is
interested to learn the world around them. Without
motivation, students lead not only to underachievement
but as well skipping to learn. This is due to the negative
experiences of most students and begin to stop trying
hard since they think that their effort will not make any
difference. This where the model of John Keller’s ARCS
instructional model is anchored upon.
ARCS is a model that highlights on motivation.
It emphasizes that learners have to be motivated to
ensure them to continually learn and achieve expected
outcomes especially in the new normal instruction
LEARNER MOTIVATION:
A- Attention
R- Relevance
C- Confidence
S- Satisfaction
ARCS design I subdivided in to four, namely:
1. ATTENTION- it refers to the learners’ interest that is
critical to get and hold their interests and attention.
Two ways to gain attention:
a. Perceptual arousal – uses surprise or uncertainly to
gain interest. Uses novel, surprising, incongruous, and
uncertain events
b. Inquiry arousal – stimulates curiosity by posing
challenging questions or problems to be solved.
Methods for grabbing attention:
a. Active participation -Adopt strategies such as
games, role-play or other hands-on methods to get
learners involved with the material or subject matter.
b. Variability – To better reinforce materials and
account for individual differences in learning styles, use
a variety of methods in presenting material (e.g. use of
videos, short lectures, mini-discussion groups).
c. Humor -Maintain interest by use a small amount of
humor (but not too much to be distracting)
d. Incongruity and Conflict – A devil’s advocate
approach in which statements are posed that go against
a learner’s past experiences.
e. Specific examples – Use a visual stimulus, story, or
biography.
f. Inquiry – Pose questions or problems for the learners
to solve, e.g. brainstorming activities.
2. RELEVANCE can assist increase a learner’s
motivation. Using concrete language and examples with
which the learners are familiar. The learning process
should show the usefulness of the content so that
learners can bridge the gap between content and the
real world.
This includes:
a. Experience – Tell the learners how the new learning
will use their existing skills.
b. Present Worth – What will the subject matter do for
me today?
c. Future Usefulness – What will the subject matter do
for me tomorrow?
d. Needs Matching – Take advantage of the dynamics
of achievement, risk taking, power, and affiliation.
e. Modeling – First of all, “be what you want them to
do!”
f. Choice – Allow the learners to use different methods
to pursue their work or allowing s choice in how they
organize it.
3. CONFIDENCE helps students understand their
likelihood for success. If they feel they cannot meet the
objectives or that the cost (time or effort) is too high,
their motivation will decrease. This component focuses
on developing success expectation among learners,
and success expectation allow learners to control their
learning processes.
Components:
a. Grow the Learners – Allow for small steps of growth
during the learning process.
b. Feedback – Provide feedback and support internal
attributions for success.
c. Learner Control – Learners should feel some degree
of control over their learning and assessment. They
should believe that their success is a direct result of the
amount of effort they have put forth.
4. SATISFACTION – learning must be rewarding or
satisfying in some way, whether it is from a sense of
achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere
entertainment.
There is direct relation between motivation and
satisfaction. Learners should be satisfied of what they
achieved during the learning process.
Three forms:
a. Intrinsic reinforcement (“I feel good about what I
have learned”
b. Extrinsic reinforcement (awards like money,
medals or tokens)
c. Equity (positive feedbacks)
MODULE 3 SUMMARY
Motivation refers to the initiation, direction,
intensity and persistence of behavior. When we get
motivated to do something, it is not enough that we start
working at that thing but that we get attracted to it.
Intrinsic motivation refers to the self as the
source of motivation to do something. It is motivation to
engage in an activity for its own sake (Schunk et al,
2008).
Motivation is extrinsic when what motivates a
person to do something comes from someone or
something outside him/her.
The ARCS model explains the importance to
build student motivation to learn and participate in any
classroom activity. It further explains that the higher the
motivation the higher the productivity of students.
Each component in the ARCS model has
specific strategy in motivating the learning of the
students.
To motivate student learning ARCS model is
helpful in the instructional context. Attention is the way
of using humor and inquiry like visual or auditory stimuli;
allowing the students to build prior skills and knowledge
relevant; confidence is built when achieving small but
achievable goals for students; and letting the students
understand that learning should rewarding.
Intrinsic motivation is shown in the enjoyment
of the activity itself and the inner conviction of the
learner that such things are the right things to do in order
to realize a personal goal or a life dream. Intrinsic
motivation yields more advantages than extrinsic
motivation.
Extrinsic motivation plays an indispensable
function when a learner is not yet intrinsically motivated
to learn. For optimum learning, this extrinsic motivation,
however, must gradually take the back seat as intrinsic
motivation comes to the fore.
Motivated students have the following
characteristic traits: have positive attitudes toward
school and describe school as satisfying; persist on
difficult tasks and cause few management problems;
process information in depth and excel in classroom
learning expertise (Stipek, 1996, 2002 cited by Woolfok,
2013).
MODULE 4 – EMOTIONS OF LEARNERS
Lesson 4.1 Emotional Responses of Learners
Definition of Emotions
There are many different types of emotions that
have an influence on how we live and interact with
others. At times, it may seem like we are ruled by these
emotions. The choices we make, the actions we take,
and the perceptions we have are all influenced by the
emotions we are experiencing at any given moment.
Emotions are all those feelings that so change
men as to affect their judgement, and that are also
attended by pain or pleasure, wrote Aristotle (384-322
BCE).
Some emotions are very specific, in so far as
they concern a particular person, object, or situation.
Others, such as distress, joy, or depression are very
general. Some emotions are very brief and barely
conscious, such as a sudden flush of embarrassment or
a burst of anger. Others, such as long-lasting love or
simmering resentment, are protracted, lasting hours,
months, or even years (in which case they can become
a durable feature of an individual’s personality).
An emotion may have pronounced physical
accompaniments, such as facial expression, or it may
be invisible to observers. An emotion may involve
conscious experience and reflection, as when one
“wallows” in it, or it may pass virtually unnoticed and
unacknowledged by the subject. An emotion may be
profound, in the sense that it is essential to one’s
physical survival or mental health, or it may be trivial or
dysfunctional. An emotion may be socially appropriate
or inappropriate.
Types of Emotional Responses
a. Subjective Experience
While experts believe that there are a number
of basic universal emotions that are experienced by
people all over the world regardless of background or
culture, researchers also believe that experiencing
emotion can be highly subjective.4 Consider anger, for
example. Is all anger the same? Your own experience
might range from mild annoyance to blinding rage.
While we have broad labels for emotions such
as "angry," "sad," or "happy," your own experience of
these emotions may be much more multi-dimensional,
hence subjective.
We also don't always experience pure forms of
each emotion. Mixed emotions over different events or
situations in our lives are common. When faced with
starting a new job, you might feel both excited and
nervous. Getting married or having a child might be
marked by a wide variety of emotions ranging from joy
to anxiety. These emotions might occur simultaneously,
or you might feel them one after another.
b. Physiological Response
If you've ever felt your stomach lurch from
anxiety or your heart palpate with fear, then you realize
that emotions also cause strong physiological reactions.
Many of the physiological responses you
experience during an emotion, such as sweaty palms or
a racing heartbeat, are regulated by the sympathetic
nervous system, a branch of the autonomic nervous
system.
The autonomic nervous system controls
involuntary body responses, such as blood flow and
digestion. The sympathetic nervous system is charged
with controlling the body's fight or flight reactions. When
facing a threat, these responses automatically prepare
your body to flee from danger or face the threat head-
on.
While early studies of the physiology of emotion
tended to focus on these autonomic responses, more
recent research has targeted the brain's role in
emotions. Brain scans have shown that the amygdala,
part of the limbic system, plays an important role in
emotion and fear in particular.
The amygdala itself is a tiny, almond-shaped
structure that has been linked to motivational states
such as hunger and thirst as well as memory and
emotion. Researchers have used brain imaging to show
that when people are shown threatening images, the
amygdala becomes activated. Damage to the amygdala
has also been shown to impair the fear response.
c. Behavioral Response
The final component is perhaps one that you are most
familiar with—the actual expression of emotion. We
spend a significant amount of time interpreting the
emotional expressions of the people around us. Our
ability to accurately understand these expressions is
tied to what psychologists call emotional intelligence,
and these expressions play a major part in our overall
body language.
Research suggests that many expressions are
universal, such as a smile to indicate happiness or a
frown to indicate sadness. Sociocultural norms also play
a role in how we express and interpret emotions.
In Japan, for example, people tend to mask
displays of fear or disgust when an authority figure is
present. Similarly, Western cultures like the United
States are more likely to express negative emotions
both alone and in the presence of others, while eastern
cultures like Japan are more likely to do so while alone.
Academic Emotions
As future educators, we need to fully recognize
the role of emotions in learning. We need to view our
students’ emotional state as a subjective experience,
physiological response and behavioral response within
the learning environment that is being created and
managed by the teacher. Rentiers and Rivers (2014) in
fact described emotions as playing a critical role in the
learning and teaching process because they impact on
learners’ motivation, self-regulation and academic
achievement.
According to Pekrun’s UNESCO book series on
Emotions in Learning published in 2014, there are four
groups of academic emotions that are especially
relevant for students’ learning:
ACADEMIC EMOTIONS
- Achievement
- Epistemic
- Topic
- Social
Achievement Emotions relate to achievement
activities and to success and failure resulting from these
activities. Achievement emotions are pervasive in
academic settings, especially so when the importance
of success and failure is made clear to students.
Examples are enjoyment of learning;
hope and pride related to success;
Academic
and anxiety and shame related to failure.
Epistemic Emotions are emotions triggered
by cognitive problems. Epistemic emotions are
especially important in learning with new, non-routine
tasks.
Examples are;
curiosity or surprise about a new learning task
confusion and frustration about obstacles
delight when the problem is solved
Topic Emotions pertain to the topics
presented in lessons. Both positive and negative topic
emotions can trigger students’ interest in learning
material.
Examples are
empathy with the fate of one of the characters
portrayed in a novel
anxiety and disgust when dealing with a health
pandemic issues
enjoyment of a painting discussed in an art course
Social Emotions relate to teachers and peers
in the classroom. These emotions are especially
important in teacher/student interaction and in group
learning.
Example are
love for peers and teacher
sympathy and compassion for classmates
admiration for teachers and groupmates
contempt or anger for negligence of peers in group
tasks or projects
social anxiety over peer acceptance
Given these different triggers of emotions in the
classroom, it is no wonder that a teacher must be
equipped and ready to manage and respond proactively
to the emotional state of the learners.
Being ignorant or blind to the emotional
undercurrents in the learning environment can be very
counterproductive to a learner-centered approach to
teaching. You must learn to become sensitive to the
academic-related emotions of learners as a subjective
experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral
response in your class.
Lesson 4.2 – Emotional Intelligence
As a teacher, we always say that emotional
intelligence plays an important role for an individual to
keep going. Indeed, it is an important foundation in the
academic path of every student. In fact, even a child is
interested to learn what is happening around him/her.
With emotional intelligence, students are not
only lead to achievement but success in learning as
well. This is due to the positive experiences of students.
Emotional Intelligence includes the ability to
engage in sophisticated information processing about
one's own and others' emotions and the ability to use
this information as a guide to thinking and behaviour.
Components:
Mayer & Salovey (2000) suggest that there are
four different levels of emotional intelligence including
emotional perception, the ability to reason using
emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and the
ability to manage emotions.
1. Perceiving emotions
The first step in understanding emotions is to
perceive them accurately. In many cases, this might
involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body
language and facial expressions.
2. Reasoning with emotions
The next step involves using emotions to
promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help
prioritize what we pay attention and react to. We
respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.
3. Understanding emotions
The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide
variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry
emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of the
person's anger and what it could mean. For example, if
your teacher is acting angry, it might mean that they are
dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they
got caught in a check point on their way to work that
morning or that they have been fighting with their A large part of emotional intelligence is being
partner. able to think about and empathize with how other
4. Managing emotions people are feeling. This often involves considering how
The ability to manage emotions effectively is a you would respond if you were in the same situation.
crucial part of emotional intelligence and the highest
level. Regulating emotions and responding People who have strong emotional intelligence
appropriately as well as responding to the emotions of are able to consider the perspectives, experiences, and
others are all important aspects of emotional emotions of other people and use this information to
management. explain why people behave the way that they do.

The four branches of this model are arranged by Effective Ways to Use EI
complexity with the more basic processes at the lower Emotional intelligence can be used in many
levels and the more advanced processes at the higher different ways in one's daily life. Some different ways to
levels. For example, the lowest levels involve perceiving practice emotional intelligence include:
and expressing emotion, while higher levels require
greater conscious involvement and involve regulating
emotions. The chart below can best explain the levels
of EI.

(The picture depicts the many different ways in one’s life

how we use emotional intelligence)

Being able to accept criticism and responsibility

Being able to move on after making a mistake
Being able to say no when you need to
Being able to share your feelings with others
Being able to solve problems in ways that work for
everyone
Having empathy for other people
Having great listening skills
Knowing why you do the things you do
Not being judgmental of others

Impact of Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is essential for good

interpersonal communication. Some experts believe
Interest in teaching and learning social and
emotional intelligence has grown in recent years. Social that this ability is more important in determining life
success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that
and emotional learning (SEL) programs have become a
you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional
standard part of the curriculum for many schools.
intelligence. Understanding emotions can be the key to
better relationships, improved well-being, and stronger
The goal of these initiatives is not only to
communication skills.
improve health and wellbeing but also to help students
succeed academically and prevent bullying.
Lesson 4.3 – Positive Teacher-Student Relations
There are many examples of how emotional
intelligence can play a role in daily life. Emotionally
Teacher–student relationships are accepted
intelligent people know that emotions can be powerful,
as influential but the dynamics of the said relationships
but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional
are not well understood, especially with difficult
event happens, such as becoming angry with a co-
students.
worker, the emotionally intelligent response would be to
take some time before responding. This allows
Positive relationships with students, in which
everyone to calm their emotions and think more
high levels of affiliation prevail are one of the primary
rationally about all the factors surrounding the
reasons for teachers to stay in the profession (
argument.
O'Connor, 2008; Veldman, van Tartwijk, Brekelmans, &
Wubbels, 2013).
Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at
thinking about how other people might feel but they are
Moreover, it is one of the most important
also adept at understanding their own feelings. Self-
sources of enjoyment of, and motivation for, teaching
awareness allows people to consider the many different
(Hargreaves, 2000). On the other hand, problematic
factors that contribute to their emotions.
teacher–student relationships which are characterized
by conflict and low levels of affiliation are mentioned by
teachers to be sources of stress and negative emotions
(Yoon, 2002). Overall, there is consensus that the most
common sources of teacher work stress stem from
relationships with individual students (Friedman, 2006).
Positive relationships:
Context in positive relationships
In most accounts of positive relationships,
teachers describe teacher or student interpersonal
behavior taking place out of class. Most behavior
described in positive relationships took place outside
the class context. Although mainly situated before or
after the lesson in the classroom or in the hallway,
teachers recognize fieldtrips as important opportunities
to build and maintain relationships and contact with
students outside school life, such as on occasions when
meeting up to go to a movie or a concert or coincidental
meetings that occur due to living in the same areas.
Topic of talk in positive relationships
In class, the topic of talk mainly revolves around
the subject taught and coursework or classroom
management, although informal talk like joking around
with the student is also possible.
In the out-of-class context, the topics of
conversation can be more diverse. Talk again involves
the subject taught or classroom management. It can
also involve student need, disturbing student behavior
and, mostly, informal talk. When a student's need
becomes the topic of the conversation, this mainly
concern problems a student experienced at home,
problems at school in general like bullying or problems
with the student's future career like what subjects to
choose.
Informal talk mainly concerns mutual interests such
as hobbies or interest in one another's private life, joking
around or greeting each other when passing. Although
in some accounts of positive relationships the topics
could be highly varied, there are others where teacher
and student talk mainly involved one topic. This
especially applies to informal talk, student's needs, and
subject as main topics for conversation.
Interpersonal teacher and student behavior in
positive relationships
Teachers' talk shows that teachers experience
students with whom they have a positive relationship to
be mostly supporting and collaborating in class.
Teachers describe students as being highly engaged
during the lesson. They share their thoughts on a
subject and volunteer on questions. Sometimes these
students even take control of their own learning.
Interactions in positive relationships
Sequences of behavior between teacher and
student are so called interactions. Complementarity in
interactions describe the most probable reaction an
action invites. On the communion dimension, a
complementary reaction consists of a similar response
in terms of friendliness or hostility; on the agency
dimension, a complementary reaction consists of an
opposite response, thus dominant behavior evokes
submissive reactions and vice versa.
Complementarity on the communion dimension
is a friendly interaction such as a teacher showing
supportive behavior and a student reacting in a
collaborating manner while a hostile interaction such as
the teacher showing confronting behavior and a student
reacting in an equally confronting manner.
Complementarity, teacher shows behavior high on
agency such as directing, supporting, confronting and
imposing followed by submissive student behavior.
Teacher behavior low on agency such as
understanding, acquiescing, hesitating and objecting
followed by student behavior high on agency.
Thus, teacher–student relationships require
effort from the teacher, especially when there is a lack
of connection on a personal level with a student.
Teachers need to investigate the effectiveness of
conscious strategies in which non complementary
teacher behavior is used to improve relationships with
students within classrooms. It has been found out that
the positive effects of teacher programs focused on
teacher–student relationships are very important (e.g.,
Alvarez, 2007; Roorda, Koomen, Thijs, & Oort, 2013).
Reflecting on their positive and problematic relationship
may increase teachers' awareness of their idiosyncratic
presuppositions and biases in the emerging of teacher–
student relationships. This awareness may help
teachers to maintain a professional stance; not to react
to student behavior based on biases, and making an
effort to connect with all students.
Finally, positive relationships with individual
students is an important source of enjoyment and
motivation of teachers and problematic ones as causing
stress and negative emotions (Friedman, 2006;
Hargreaves, 2000; Yoon, 2002).
Lesson 4.4 – Positive Peer Relations
The interactions among peers in the classroom
are a normal and essential part of the learning process
that influence the lifelong learning habits of students.
The potential effects of peer relationships are
reciprocal: some students are more receptive than
others. On one extreme, for example, is the student who
values and seeks peer input on every decision. On the
other side is the social isolate who avoids interaction in
and out of the classroom. This entry can influence
learners, including developmental differences,
motivational and learning considerations, and the
function of the classroom contexts.
Most people would agree that few things
impacted their school lives as much as their
relationships with their peers—friends, acquaintances,
or otherwise. Peer relationships play an important role
in children’s school lives, and relationships with peers
become even more influential as children enter
adolescence.
Positive peer relationships often distinguish
between friendship and peer acceptance. High-quality
friendships involve not only companionship, but also
caring, validation, and support. In addition to playing
together, good friends feel comfortable opening up to
each other and are motivated to resolve conflicts that
arise.
Peer acceptance, sometimes referred to as
popularity, focuses on how much students like or like to
play with their classmates which has been found to
affect students’ sense of belonging in school and their
academic achievement.
Learning Motivation and Relationships
The age of the student is one consideration in
weighing the importance and application of motivation
to learn. Human relationships have varying degrees of
importance in motivational and learning theories. Most
approaches tend to agree, however, that students who
surround themselves with peers and influences who
value learning and the educational process will also
value their own learning and strive to enhance their
education.
Abraham H. Maslow viewed the need for love
and belongingness as a step toward achievement in his
hierarchy of motivation model, which he described in
1954. In this view, the deprivation of more basic needs
hinders progress along the path to achievement. In
Maslow's model, people must have love and
belongingness issues satisfied in order to address
needs of achievement. For example, a student with
deprived relationship concerns will be less able to
participate in classroom learning opportunities. The
ability to learn is built on a foundation of comfortable
relationships with others, including peers and family,
and classroom learning is all about learning with and in
the presence of others.
"Expectancy by value" theories define
motivation as the product of the amount of success on
a task that an individual expects to earn times the
amount of value the individual places on the task. Thus,
a task that the individual values and expects to be
successful at will be motivating compared to a task with
lower expected success or value. Whereas past
experience can predict the expectancy aspect of this
model such as the student has done well on prior essay
exams wherein the value placed on the task is more
mediated by outside factors, such as peers and family
giving respect to the student's opinions. Related
motivational theories include the incentive or rewarding
aspects of motivation, which may also stem from
relationships with others.
Behaviorism provides one way to explain the
association between motivation to learn and peer
interactions. In basic behaviorist theories, relationships
between people affect learning only as much as people
reinforce each other (or not) in the academic arena. For
example, if the peer group encourages education and
learning, then the individual student within that group
will value learning, because the individual is reinforced,
or rewarded, for behaviour that indicates that learning is
valued. Students in peer groups that do not value
education lack the stimulation and reinforcement
needed to encourage personal learning. These peer
groups presumably stimulate and reinforce other
values.
Albert Bandura's social learning theory speaks
precisely to the human interactions involved in learning.
Observational, or "vicarious" learning is based upon
learning by watching then "modeling" or acting similarly
to others. If the student views and works with people
who appreciate learning by engaging in learning
activities, then the student too will engage in learning
and might work harder at learning. Peers with positive
attitudes and behaviors toward education will allow and
teach each other to set goals that include opportunities
to learn and achieve. If peer models do not convey
positive attitudes toward learning, then the students
observing these models will not prioritize learning in
their own lives. They will learn to prioritize other goals.
In 1978 Lev Vygotsky also presented ideas on
the facilitation of learning through experiences
mediated by other people. In his explanations, the
learner cannot reach full potential without the aid of
others. The processes of guiding the learner to higher
stages of cognitive functioning rely on interactive human
relationships. Mentors–for example, teachers or more
capable peers–can raise the student's competence
through the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD
is defined as the gap between what a student can do
alone and what the student can achieve with
assistance. In this view assistance is transitional, a
"scaffold" that is removed when it is no longer needed
and the student has internalized another's support.
In sum, varied theories agree that the values
and attitudes of the peer group are essential elements
in motivation and learning. Students who surround
themselves with academically focused, goal-oriented
peers will be more likely to appreciate, internalize, and
exhibit these features themselves.
Classroom Dynamics
The educational process can be structured to
boost the learning of individuals for younger students by
providing a whole class environment that enriches
learning opportunities with teachers who model positive
learning values which will set the new learner on a path
toward academic achievement. Encouraging students
to interact with peers, adults, and family members who
have strong learning desires can support the students'
development as learners.
 Although peer influences may not yet be as
powerful as they will become in student achievement
motivation, the effects of young students' interactions
cannot be disregarded. As the learner matures, the
importance of how peers view the learner's actions and
decisions may well supersede the opinions of others,
possibly even the views of the learners themselves.
The academic environment needs to be
structured in a fashion that allows for student interaction
but sets boundaries that afford pro-social behavior.
Students who are concentrating on unresolved issues
in their social life, whether these issues result from
social isolation or from social or home crisis, will be less
able to profit from classroom opportunities. Recognition
of the strategic effort required to maintain classroom
social and academic order can help both the learner and
the teacher decide how to approach problems.
Within the classroom, time and organization
can be established to focus students on their learning.
Pairing and grouping students by their devotion to
academics for example, may benefit all involved. Those
who value learning can share their enthusiasm and act
as mentors for those who have other priorities. Students
who motivate themselves in nonacademic directions
can view and appreciate the choices of peer learners.
These dynamics must include consideration of
the types of classroom curricula. The well-known and
intended analytic curriculum taught to pre service
educators and recorded in the lesson plans and
assignments may easily disregard the underlying
informal curriculum of social and human interaction. As
Mary McCaslin and Tom L. Good noted in 1996,
"Learning is socially situated"; the achievement of the
student is a small part of who the student is and what
she does. The responsibilities of education include
helping students recognize their own place as social
contributors and maximizing the resources available to
them through interpersonal relationships. For example,
cooperative learning and help-seeking behaviors are
essential resources for students in the classroom that
facilitate both student achievement and social
competence.
a function of student age, motivation, learning, and
classroom opportunities.
MODULE 4 SUMMARY
Emotion is important in education—it drives
attention, which in turn drives learning and memory
Students manifest three types of emotional
responses: subjective, physiological, and behavioral.
Activity also shows the different emotions
that our learner might be experiencing and somehow
understand the certain emotions in every situation.
Emotional Intelligence includes the ability to
engage in sophisticated information processing about
one's own and others' emotions and the ability to use
this information as a guide to thinking and behavior.
Teacher–student relationships require effort
from the teacher, especially when there is a lack of
connection on a personal level with a student. Teachers
need to investigate the effectiveness of conscious
strategies in which non complementary teacher
behavior is used to improve relationships with students
within classrooms.
Students are not isolated in the pursuit of
knowledge. They are social beings who need to interact
and establish social contacts. Social learning is as much
a part of any classroom curriculum as the printed
guidelines.
The values and attitudes of the peer group
are essential elements in motivation and learning.
Students who surround themselves with academically
focused, goal-oriented peers will be more likely to
appreciate, internalize, and exhibit these features
themselves.

Some students and educators view help-

seeking as a sign of dependence or weakness, but
research supports the contention that help seeking is a
sign of social competence that increases students'
chances of academic success. Negative attitudes
toward help-seeking may discourage low-achieving
students from approaching peers and teachers and may
further isolate them. This is especially detrimental to
older students.

Students are not isolated in the pursuit of

knowledge. They are social beings who need to interact
and establish social contacts. Social learning is as much
a part of any classroom curriculum as the printed
guidelines. At a minimum, the influence of peers and a
student's relationships with them can be understood as
MODULE 5 – INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Lesson 5.1 – Learning Styles
ACTIVISTS want practical tasks and very little theory.
They learn best from activities where:
New experiences are emphasized;
The focus is on the present and on doing such
activities as games, problem solving, simulations;
There is a lot of action and excitement;
They can lead and be in the limelight;
Ideas are generated without any concern about
practical constraints;
They have to respond to a challenge and take risks;
The central focus is on team problem-solving.
THEORISTS want handouts, something to take away
and study. They learn best from activities where:
The learning forms a part of a conceptual whole, such
as a model for a theory;
There is time to explore the interrelationship among
the elements;
They can explore the theory and methodology
underlying the subject under investigation;
They are intellectually stretched;
There is a clear and obvious purpose to the activities;
There is a reliance on rationality and logic;
They can analyze situations and then generalize their
findings;
They are asked to understand complex situations.
REFLECTORS want lots of breaks to go off and read
and discuss. They learn best from activities. Their
preference lies where:
There are opportunities to observe and consider;
There is a strong element of passive involvement
such as listening to a speaker or watching a video;
There is time to think before having to act or
contribute; There is opportunity for research and
problems can be probed in some depth;
They can review what was happening;
They are asked to produce reports that carefully
analyze a situation or issue;
There is interaction with others without any risks of
strong feelings coming to the fore;
They can finalize a view without being put under
pressure.
PRAGMATISTS want shortcuts and tips. They learn
best from activities where:
There is a clear link back to some job-related
problem;
Material is directed towards techniques that make
their work easier;
They are able to practice what they have learned;
They can relate to a successful role model;
There are many opportunities to implement what has
been learned;
The relevance is obvious and the learning is easily
transferred to their jobs;
What is done is practical such as drawing up action
plans or trialing techniques or procedures.
DIVERGERS (Concrete experience/Reflective
observer) take experiences and think deeply about
them.
They diverge from a single experience to multiple
possibilities.
When they learn they will ask ‘why', and will start from
detail to logically work up to the big picture.
They like working with others but like things to remain
calm – they will be distressed by conflicts in the group.
They like to receive constructive feedback.
CONVERGERS (Abstract conceptualization/Active
experimenter) think about things and then tryout their
ideas to see if they work in practice.
When they learn they will ask 'how', and will want to
learn by understanding how things work in practice.
They like facts and will seek to make things efficient
by making small and careful changes.
They prefer to work alone or independently.
ACCOMMODATORS (Concrete experience/Active
experimenter) have the most hands-on approach, with
a strong preference for doing rather than thinking.
When they learn they will ask ‘what if?' and 'why not?'
to support their action-first approach.
They do not like routine and will take creative risks to
see what happens.
They learn better by themselves than with others.
ASSIMILATORS (Abstract conceptualize/Reflective
observer) have the most cognitive approach, preferring
to think than to act.
When they learn they will ask 'What is there I can
know?' and like organized and structured
understanding.
Lectures are their preference, with demonstrations
where possible, and will respect the knowledge of
experts.
People with this style will have a strong control need.
They learn best with lectures that start from high-level
concepts and work down to the detail.
Inclusive Learning Environment
An inclusive learning environment is a school or
classroom where students of every ability level receive
teaching in the same place. This means that particularly
able students learn alongside those who have special
educational needs, such as dyslexia, dyspraxia and
attention deficit disorder. Related topics on this lesson
area are as follows, to be considered in the Inclusive
Learning Environment.
Learning Styles
Learning styles refer to the preferential way in
which the students absorb process, comprehend and
retain information. For example, when learning to build
a bicycle, some students understand the process by
reading and following the manual of instructions first,
while some students, readily and immediately get hold
of the bicycle parts and proceed to put them together.
Cognitive, emotional, environment and prior experience
factors relate to one’s learning style. (What Teachers
Teach, n.d.)
Five Models of Learning Styles:
1. VARK Model of Learning Style
According to Neil Fleming, there are four
modalities of learning
Visual – for the use of maps, images and graphics
organizers to access and understand new information.
Auditory – for listening and speaking situations, such
as lectures discussions, to understand new information.
Reading /Writing – for reading and writing to learn
new information.
Kinesthetic – for tactile representation of information.
Students learn through hands-on activities or figuring
out
2. Seven Learning Styles according to Ferriman
(2013)
1. Visual – for using pictures, images diagrams, colors,
mind maps to understand material, to organize
information and 1with others.
2. Aural – (Auditory-musical) for using sound, rhythm,
music, recording, clever rhymes to learn new
information.
3. Verbal (Linguistics) – for using words, both in speech
and in writing to assist in their learning.
4. Physical (Kinesthetic) – for using hands, body and
sense of touch, to learn about the world.
5. Logical (Mathematical) – for logic, reasoning and
system to understand concepts.
6. Solitary- to work alone and use self-study and
analysis.
7. Social (Interpersonal) – to learn in groups, and as
much as possible, with other people. Things using the
hands
3. Kolb’s Basic Learning Styles
Kolb’s (1979) proposed four basic learning
styles based on his four stages of learning cycle
through:
a. concrete experience – putting learned
material into practice.
b. reflective observation – analyzes objectively
the outcome.
c. abstract conceptualization and
generalization – reviewing a. conceptual understanding.
d. active experimentation – experimenting to
find solutions to a problem.
The process is cyclic and depends on the person’s
goals. This led to Kolb’s concept of the following
learning styles (creating an enhanced learning,
2001).
a. Converger – the person relies mainly on
abstract conceptualization andactive experimentation
b. Diverger – the person is best at reflective and
concrete experience.
c. Assimilator – the person predominantly uses
abstract conceptualization and reflection.
d. Accommodator – the person uses concrete
experience and active experimentation.
4. Honey and Mumford Learning Styles
Honey and Munford (1986 cited in McGill &
Beaty, 1995) identified four learning styles based on the
Kolb’s works.
They are:
a. Activist – enjoys the experience itself
b. Reflector – spends a great deal of time and
effort reflecting.
c. Theorist – good at making connections and
abstracting ideas from experience.
d. Pragmatist- enjoys the planning stage.
5. Li-Fangand Sernberg (Woolfolk, 2013)
Organized previous work on learning styles into
three traditions or groups.
a. Cognitive- centered styles – assess the way
people process information
b. Personality - centered styles – assess more
stable personality traits as either being extrovert or
introvert.
c. Activity – centered styles – assesses a
combination of cognition and personality traits.
Lesson 5.2 – Learners with Diverse Abilities and
Background
The growth of special education in the
Philippines has been given a relatively good support all
these years both by the government, nongovernment
organizations and stakeholders in response to the
needs and challenges of the times. The level of
awareness of both the government and the private
sector in providing equal opportunities to children with
special needs has considerably increased.
One positive development in special education
is the implementation of Republic Act 7277, otherwise
known as the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons, an Act
providing for the rehabilitation, self-development and
self-reliance of disabled persons and their integration
into the mainstream of society. In support of this
legislation, the Department of Education has directed all
school divisions in the country to establish Special
Education Centers to help provide effective delivery of
special education services nationwide.
Students who are gifted and also have learning
disabilities are those who possess an outstanding gift or
talent and are capable of high performance, but who
also have a learning disability that makes some aspect
of academic achievement difficult. Some of these
students are identified and their needs are met. This
happens only rarely, however, unless a school
specifically decides to identify and then serve these
students. The majority of students who are gifted with
learning disabilities "fall through the cracks" in the
system.
Gifted and Talented Students
There are at least three subgroups of children whose
identity are both Gifted and Learning Disabled.
1. Those with subtle learning disabilities that are
formally identified as gifted.
Children have been formally recognized as
gifted owing to their high levels of achievement and/or
high IQ scores. However, as they grow older and the
work given to them at school becomes more complex
and challenging, discrepancies between their level of
intelligence and their academic performance begin to
become evident.
Example: Children may read or speak brilliantly, while
struggling to spell or hand- writes at an age-appropriate
level. They may perform incredibly well on tests, yet
seem to struggle a great deal when it comes to
organizing large projects or completing homework
assignments properly and on time. Many of these
children are continually being told that they need to “try
harder”, even though they are actually trying to the best
of their ability; inevitably, frustration, resentment, and
apathy often develop as a result.
2. “Average” achievers whose normal level of
achievement hides their learning disabilities.
Children in group two often go unnoticed for
either their giftedness or their learning disabilities: As
their giftedness masks their disabilities and vice versa,
they run a very real risk of never getting neither the help
they need, nor the recognition they deserve.
Example: They are struggling valiantly to remain at
grade level, using their advanced intellect to
compensate for the difficulties in their learning
disabilities. The path to hell is truly paved with good
intentions.
In order to identify these children, educators will
often need to remain vigilant for exceptional talents that
emerge only in specific situations, or when encouraged
by a particularly attentive teacher (usually one who uses
a creative approach to learning.
3. Children who have an identified learning
disability and who are also gifted.
Children who are bright, often struggle
profoundly at school, hence being recognized as
learning disabled.
Example: These children are in very real danger of
missing out on their gifts entirely because all the
attention is being placed on what is “wrong” with them,
rather than trying to uncover their talents. As to the
result. If talents are identified at all, they are often used
merely as a tool to mitigate the child's weakness.
Elements of a Program for a Student who is Gifted
and Talented
Regardless of how services are delivered, there
are some common elements which characterize an
individualized program appropriate for a student who is
gifted and talented:
It is different in pace, scope, and complexity, in
keeping with the nature and extent of the exceptionality.
It provides opportunities for students to interact
socially and academically with both age peers and
peers of similar abilities (intellectual peers).
It incorporates adaptations and/or extensions to
content, process, product, pacing and learning
environment.
It goes beyond the walls of a school and into the
larger community.
Supplemental services for gifted and talented students
could include (but not be limited to) some of the
following elements:
independent guided study
specialist teachers
flexible groupings which provide opportunities for
learning with intellectual peers
mentorships consultative services to assist teachers
in expanding experiences in the regular classroom
accelerating/telescoping/compacting some or all
of1student's program11
opportunities to take enriched courses such as
modified courses with eight designations (such as
World Geography 3282 which indicates World
Geography with outcomes added or extended
upwards), Advanced Placement, International
Baccalaureate, or honors’ courses
It is important to recognize the individual
characteristics of schools and their communities in
designing services for students who are gifted and
talented. For example, students who are gifted and
talented may benefit from the use of information
technology which will increasingly facilitate access to
information sources and program and instructional
opportunities not readily physically available in all
communities.
Students from Indigenous Background
Different cultural norms affect students’
perception of time (e.g., punctuality), group work, and
importance of education, authority, or competition.
Likewise, nonverbal messages expressed through
facial expressions, eye contact, voice tone, touch,
gestures, and personal space can have different
meanings in different cultures. Because we acquire our
culture’s nonverbal and verbal language
simultaneously, it is very difficult to manipulate our own
nonverbal behaviors.
Cultural differences between the uses of
nonverbal signals can easily lead to confusion and
problems over intentions and reactions. If someone
displays what we feel to be inappropriate nonverbal
behavior, we dismiss them as rude or disrespectful.
Instead, we need to understand they might be acting in
accordance with their cultural norms. For example, the
Japanese tend to be straight-faced when happy and
smile to mask unpleasant feelings such as anger or
sadness. Because the left hand is considered unclean
in Islamic cultures, it is offensive to use it to offer
something to someone. Arabians prefer to stand
extremely close to the speaker. Southeast Asians use
two fingers, instead of one, to point.
One of the most important elements of
Indigenous teaching and learning revolves around
"learning how to learn." Learning how to learn is a key
element in every approach to education. Therefore, the
cultivation of the human capacities listening, observing,
experiencing with all one's senses, developing intuitive
understanding, and respecting time-tested traditions of
learning naturally formed the basis for skills used in
every process of Indigenous learning and teaching.
Tribal teachers begin teaching by building on the
commonplace.
Remember that learning is a natural instinct and that
success in learning something new is tied to human
feelings of self-worth.
Indigenous teaching focuses as much on learning
with the heart as on learning with the mind.
Indigenous teaching facilitates learning how to see
how one really is rather than an image manufactured
through one's or other's egos.
Indigenous teaching is always associated with
organic development. Indigenous teaching is planted
like a seed, then nurtured and cultivated through the
relationship of teacher and student until it bears fruit.
The nature and quality of' the relationship and
perseverance through time determine the outcome of a
teaching process. Apprenticeship, and learning through
ritual stages of learning readiness, are predicated on
the metaphor of' planting seeds and nurturing the
growing seedlings through time.
Teaching is a communicative art. Indigenous
teaching is based on the nature and quality of
communicating at all levels of being.
Teaching and learning is a matter of serving and
being served. Service is the basis of the relationship
between student and teacher.
Indigenous teaching involves making students think
comprehensively and facilitating their awareness of the
higher levels of content and its relationship to other
areas of knowledge.
Indigenous practices such as creative dreaming, art,
ritual, and ceremony help the student externalize inner
thoughts and qualities for examination.
Indigenous teaching revolves around some form of
work. Indigenous teachers recognize that work invites
concentration and facilitates a quietness of the mind.
Tribal teachers understand that all teaching is
relative, and each path of knowledge has its own
requirements that need to be addressed.
Learning about the nature of self-deception is a key
aspect of Indigenous preparation for learning.
Tribal teachers realize that striving for real knowledge
requires a cultivated sense of humility. The human
tendencies toward pride, arrogance, and ego-inflation
have to be understood and avoided in the search for
one's true face, heart, and vocation.
Knowledge and action are considered parts of the
same whole.
A concept of "each person's work," akin to the Hindu
concept of "karma," is honored in the processes of
Indigenous education.
Lesson 5.3 – Fair and Safe Learning Environment
What is inclusive education?
Inclusion entails the act of making a general
education classroom all-encompassing to all types of
learners. Unlike the common misconception, inclusion
embraces not only those in special education but also
the general education population, those with diverse
learning needs, at risk for school failure, and those with
a variety of other different learning needs. Specifically,
inclusion:
provides a framework for all students to improve
holistically;
involves practical educational opportunities that can
occur in various environments and in many different
ways; and
creates meaningful opportunities to cater to the needs
of diverse learners concerning their cultural
background, gender, unique learning styles, and
personal differences.
Two practices that effectively support an inclusive
education
Response to Intervention/Multi-Tiered System of
Support (RTI)
RTI is designed to provide an early support and
intervention for all learners.
It is typically grounded on a three-tier framework with
increasing support or interventions for students who are
not making satisfactory academic or behavioral
progress. It begins with universal screening, an
assessment in the core curriculum, or behavioral areas
that identify students who may need additional support.
It is based on effective teacher instruction using
research validated strategies and curriculum in the
general education classroom. Students’ progress is
monitored on specific skills using a curriculum-based
assessment. Thus, the result will be beneficial to the
teachers to guide them in the instruction.
 What is a quality classroom mean?
A quality classroom is characterized by a
supportive, kind, positive, and fair environment. The
teachers’ treatment and relationship with their students
are vital in creating this environment. When students
feel relaxed, they can concentrate on learning with
confidence, and ease about making mistakes.
Conversely, a classroom environment that is permeated
with anxiety, negativity, hostility, lack of control,
rowdiness, and distractions is not conducive to learning.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

UDL was developed by the researchers of the Lesson 5.4 – Learners’ Participation
Center for Applied Special Technology developed UDL.
Its goal focuses on ways to eliminate barriers in learning What does learner’s participation mean?
and meeting the needs of the students. It aims to enable Learners’ participation is an essential aspect of
learners to learn and demonstrate their knowledge the learning process. When learners are engaged in the
through multiple learning preferences (auditory, visual, class, they learn to express their views, opinions, and
kinesthetic, tactile, etc.). ideas that are understandable to others. When learners
ask questions, they learn how to acquire information to
UDL is designed to engage all learners in the enhance their understanding of a lesson. Kuh (2001)
instructional process. It is a brain-based instructional defined student engagement as the participation in
framework based on the concept that every learner educationally effective practices both inside and outside
learns differently. Through UDL, the instructional the classroom, which leads to a range of measurable
process, materials, and assessments are utilized to outcomes.
reinforce learning for all students, including those with
disabilities and exceptionally gifted. Learner voice and participation
Creating a learner-centered that values respect
It has three main principles of multiple Means and diversity involves promoting participation and
of Representation, Multiple Means of Action and gaining learners’ input about their learning process and
Expression, and Multiple Means of Engagement. school life as a whole. Every learner has a right to
express his/her views, needs, and entitlement to
3 Principles of Universal Design in Learning influence the services that affect him/her (Lewis and
Multiple Means Multiple Multiple Porter, 2004). Feedbacks from learners do not only
of Means of Means of change the creation of the school’s developmental plan
Representation Action and Engagement but also allows them to be partnered with the whole
Expression educational experience.
make sure every provide options provide options
child can for physical for recruiting
Four underpinning values of learners’ voice that
perceive it action provide interest offer
enable school for improvement through enhancing
ensure every opportunities options to
child for expression sustaining social justice (Robinson & Taylor, 2007):
understands the and fluency efforts and a conception of communication as dialogue
way it is provide options persistence the requirement for participation and
presented for expression provide options democratic inclusivity
provide options for executive for self- the recognition that power relations are
for functions regulation unequal and problematic
comprehension the possibility of change and transformation

Tetler et al. (2010) posited that for learners to

How UDL works in a teaching-learning process
be engaged in the learning and eventually develop
autonomy, they must be involved in the teaching,
planning, and evaluation processes. Similarly, in
grasping the students’ desire to learn and transforming
it into sustainable practice, the school has to be
creative, persistent, and emphatic. Miller et al. (2005)
stated that learners’ preference is a critical variable to
their academic performance. Disregarding their voices
may result in disappointment, discouragement, and
reluctance to perform. Hence, the school’s services,
resource allocation, and educational advocacy are vital
in education.
Capacitating learner’s ability
If teachers are to attend to the learning
challenges of the students successfully, it is insufficient
to just focus on the teaching practices alone. Teachers
also need to have a broader understanding of how
learning occurs and conjectures that influence the
educational attainment of students. To empower
learners and enhance learning outcomes, teachers
need to monitor their learning and respond to them
accordingly.
Nuthall (2007, p. 84) noted that learners’
experiences are shaped continuously by three worlds
that take place in the classroom:
The public world that the teacher sees and
manages – structured by the learning activities that the
teacher designs
The semiprivate world of on-going student
relationships, where students establish and maintain
their social role and status
The private world of the child’s mind, where
children’s knowledge and beliefs change and grow
Teachers need to consider the power of
learners’ relationships, social conditions, knowledge,
and cultural diversity. According to Swann et al. (2012),
teachers need to understand both external forces (i.e.,
organization and relationship of learning, curriculum,
assessment) and internal forces, such as intellectual,
affective, and social) as they impact the learning drive
of learners. Hence, teachers need to understand these
factors to empower and reinforce learners’ abilities. In
practice, this includes expanding the opportunities to
learn and establishing a creative consensus on
transformative pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and
relationships.
Specific factors that impact the achievements of the
learners according to Hattie (2009):
a. quality and quantity of instruction
b. disposition
c. class environment
d. level of challenge
e. peer tutoring
f. parental involvement
g. cognitive ability
h. home
Personalized learning
Personalized learning is an educational
approach that revolves around the optimization of each
learner’s needs and learning styles. It sets high
expectations for progress, participation, and success for
all learners equally, including those who identified as
having Special Educational Needs (UNESCO, 2009).
In terms of learning and achievement,
researches show that one of the most effective ways of
enhancing attainment is by facilitating learners to
become reflective and independent (Hattie, 2009). The
teachers scaffold appropriate skills, engages students
in inquiry activities and collaborative techniques to
create relevance and excitement to learn.
Differentiation and individualization include the
teachers in providing instruction and accommodating
the learning needs of a group of learners or individual
learners, respectively. In personalization, learners are
actively involved in the planning and designing of their
education as agents of learning. They also connect their
learning to their passions, interests, and explore
different ways to learn in flexible learning spaces.
Gateways to personalizing teaching and learning
Hargreaves (2004):
learning to learn and the new technologies
curriculum and advice/guidance
workforce development and mentoring/coaching
organization and design of the school and leadership
from teachers and leaders of all levels
Lesson 5.5 – Misbehavior Management
Today, the issue of misbehavior in the school
continues to surface as one of the most challenging
problems in education. Misconduct creates tensions for
both the teacher and students as it disrupts the flow of
lessons. It changes the classroom dynamic as the
attention shifts from the academic tasks to the problem
caused by disruptive behavior. Hence, for learning to
happen, classroom management, appropriate discipline
must be implemented. Productive classroom
environments support students’ behavior, engagement,
and achievement.
Kern and Clemens (2007) identified the factors to
effective teaching and positively functioning
classroom:
• Use of direct, simple, transparent policies, rules and
expectations which are consistently and must be firmly
applied
• Establish routines, cues, signals to prompt upcoming
events, including content duration, and consequences
for actions
• Use verbal and non-verbal praise occasionally or when
needed. Commendation should be descriptive and
specific. The teacher should avoid overpraising
students.
• Students’ task should be well-monitored. All students
are required to contribute to the assigned task given,
especially during group activities.
• Practice inclusivity in the classroom. Students are
given equal opportunities to participate in the classroom
task, use available materials, and learn safely and fairly.
Some strategies to reinforce students’
engagement:
Having everyone to respond to the teachers’ queries
rather than just focusing on one correct response from
those who are always active
 Seating arrangements: changing rows periodically
(as necessary) may help to break the monotonous
atmosphere in the classroom
Instructions and guidelines may be preceded by
prompting the pupils’ attention. Subsequently, present
the dos and don’ts in a calm yet firm and compelling
voice. Also, give time for students to comply and absorb
them.
Deliver the instructions in a precise, specific, and
direct and well-paced manner. Follow praises when
necessary upon compliance.
Effective specific classroom-wide interventions
include:
Teacher performance feedback: Performance
feedback enables teachers to reflect, thereby changing
their ways to meet students’ needs.
Class-wide incentives: Interventions and incentives
may work better when given as a whole class rather
than on specific learners only. This will reduce class
competition and promotion the cooperation of the
learners.
Noise management: Reduction of noise levels can
direct students’ focus to the lesson and the classes in
adjacent rooms.
Managing transitions: Establishing clear, specific
rules as a group rather than individually may better
assist in regulating behavior and changes.
• Fudge et al. (2008) claimed the use of a color-
coded system with matching signals to show applicable
rules at the given time could serve as a guide.
Enhancing engagement: Make variations on how
the teachers solicit an answer from the students to
encourage full participation
Relationship building: Patterson (2009) explained
that when a teacher is involved in learners’ small talk
outside of the class may prevent them from
misbehaving in the class, especially those attention
seekers.
Behavioral Problem Solving
Coloroso (1994) suggested a six-step process
for behavioral problem-solving. The goal is to utilize this
process with students until they learn how to implement
the process on their own.
The six steps are as follows:
1. Define the problem
2. Evaluate the possible solutions against a set of
criteria
3. Select an option
4. Plan the implementation
5. Review the problem
Four basic ‘power’ strategies that teachers can use
to enhance student relationships and classroom
control (Alderman and Green, 2011):
• Coercive power - involves the teacher’s prudent use
of authority to attain behavior modification. It comprises
classroom points systems, modes of correction, and
supportive interactions intended to modify behavior.
• Manipulative social power – encompasses the
teacher’s using subtle tactics such as giving options for
task completion, presenting behavior choices, self-
monitoring, introducing engaging activities to motivate,
and increasing the probability of success in academic
activities.
• Expertness social power - includes providing
academic supports that assist students in overcoming
challenges that they cannot find a solution on their own.
The teacher must listen actively and then identify the
potential resources or sources that will best assist the
learners.
• Likeability social power – encompasses the
teacher’s use of their characteristics such as passion,
interest, humor, and friendliness to encourage positive
behavior in pupils.
MODULE 5 SUMMARY
Inclusive education is about ensuring access
to quality education for all students by effectively
meeting their diverse needs in a way that is responsive,
accepting, respectful and supportive.
There are several models to describe the
diverse learning styles of students. Teachers must be
sensitive to and accommodate students’ learning styles.
Teachers need to support a culturally
sensitive learning community by designing and
implementing lessons that address all students’
academic needs and learning styles that are identified.
Most classrooms include students who have
documented intellectual, physical, and/or emotional
exceptionalities. Under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEIA), children with
disabilities must be educated in the least restrictive
environment (LRE), or an educational setting that is as
similar as possible to the one in which children who do
not have a disability are educated.
Mainstreaming has been replaced by
inclusion, as children with special needs are taught full-
time in a general education classroom by a regular
education teacher and specialists.
Students from the Indigenous perspective,
true learning and gaining significant knowledge does
not come without sacrifice and at times leaves a deep
wound.
During classroom interactions and teaching,
teachers must keep the special cultural needs of their
diverse student population in mind.
Inclusive education is carried out in a
common learning environment that is, an educational
setting where students from different backgrounds and
with different abilities learn together in an inclusive
environment.
 Effective common learning environments
enable each student to fully participate and provides a
positive climate, a sense of belonging and ensure
student progress toward appropriate personal, social,
emotional and academic goals.
(Appendix C)
Top 20 Principles for PreK-12 Teaching and
Learning:
(Source: American Psychological Association, 2015)
Principle 1 Students’ beliefs or perceptions about
intelligence and ability affect their cognitive
functioning and learning.
Principle 2 What students already know affects their
learning.
Principle 3 Students’ cognitive development and
learning are not limited by general stages of
development.
taught using proven principles of behavior
and effective classroom instruction.
Principle 17 Effective classroom management is based
on (a) setting and communicating high
expectations, (b) consistently nurturing
positive relationships, and (c) providing a
high level of student support.
Principle 18 Formative and summative assessments are
both important and useful but require
different approaches and interpretations.
Principle 19 Students’’ skills, knowledge, and abilities
are best measured with assessment
processes grounded in psychological
science with well-defined standards for
quality and fairness.
Principle 20 Making sense of assessment data depends
on clear, appropriate, and fair interpretation.

Principle 4 Learning is based on context, so

generalizing learning to new contexts is not
spontaneous but instead needs to be
facilitated.

Principle 5 Acquiring long-term knowledge and skill is

largely dependent on practice.

Principle 6 Clear, explanatory, and timely feedback to

students is important for learning.

Principle 7 Students’ self-regulation assists learning,

and self-regulatory skills can be taught.

Principle 8 Student creativity can be fostered.

Principle 9 Students tend to enjoy learning and perform

better when they are more intrinsically than
extrinsically motivated to achieve.

Principle 10 Students persist in the face of challenging

tasks and process information more deeply
when they adopt mastery goals rather than
performance goals.

Principle 11 Teachers’ expectations about their students

affect students’ opportunities to learn, their
motivation, and their learning outcomes.

Principle 12 Setting goals that are short term (proximal),

specific, and moderately challenging
enhances motivation more than establishing
goals that are long term (distal), general,
and overly challenging.

Principle 13 Learning is situated within multiple social

contexts.

Principle 14 Interpersonal relationships and

communication are critical to both the
teaching– learning process and the social-
emotional development of students.

Principle 15 Emotional well-being influences educational

performance, learning, and development.

Principle 16 Expectations for classroom conduct and

social interaction are learned and can be
 BUILDING AND
ENHANCING NEW
LITERACIES
ACROSS
CURRICULUM
EDUC322 – BUILDING AND ENHANCING NEW a. It is meaningful because it is about life and
LITERACIES ACROSS CURRICULUM the world itself.
b. It uses authentic tasks and activities to
MODULE 1 – 21ST CENTURY EDUCATION make learning more meaningful.

Lesson 1 – Features of the 21st Century Teaching and

Learning Lesson 2 – The 21st Century Skills

Features of the 21st Century Teaching and 21st Learning & Life & Information,
Learning Century Innovation Career Media &
1. It is integrated and interdisciplinary. themes Technology
a. It is not anymore chunked and separated
• Global • Creativity • Adaptability • Information
from other bodies of knowledge. Awareness and Innovation • Flexibility • Media
b. It is learning other disciplines by linking • Civic • Critical • Initiative • Technology
various subject areas together in a planned and • Financial thinking & • Self-
integrated manner. This means that a lesson in history • Health Problem direction
solving • Social skills
may be learned in an English class. • • Productivity
communication •
2. It makes use of technologies and multimedia. & collaboration Accountability
a. It maximizes teaching and learning • Leadership
•
platforms such as Google Classroom, Moodle, and Responsibility
other learning management systems.
b. It takes advantage of an array of information
and communication technologies and tools (laptops, According to the Glossary of Education, “The
desktops, internet, jamboard, padlet, emails, and many term 21st century skills refer to a broad set of
others). knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits that
c. It uses multimedia (audio- and video-based are believed— by educators, school reformers, college
instruction, PPTs) in instruction. professors, employers, and others—to be critically
important to success in today’s world.” Simply put,
3. It adopts the notion of “global classrooms”. these are the skills that individuals should have to be
a. It promotes learning across regions and able to “face the challenges of the 21st century world
countries. that is globally-active, digitally transforming,
b. It encourages understanding of cultures and collaboratively moving forward, creatively progressing,
global citizenship. seeking competent human-resource and quick in
adopting changes”.
4.It requires creating or adapting to personal and
social change, and lifelong learning. The following table contains the details of the
a. It promotes lifelong learning and learning framework in terms of categories, skills, and
that goes beyond the four walls of the classroom. descriptors:
b. It advocates that learning can happen • Learning and Innovation Skills
anytime and anywhere and it does not come with age.

5. It is student-centered.
a. advocates that meaning is constructed by
the learner. It is not transmitted to the students by the
teacher.
b. The teacher creates a learning environment
to promote student engagement and active learning,
and facilitates the teaching-learning process.

6. It promotes 21st century skills.

a. It is not just about learning the basic literacy
and numeracy skills.
b. It is developing the 21st century skills to
cope with life and the world of work.

7. It is project-based and research-driven.

a. It is not just about developing the lower-
order thinking skills (e.g., remembering,
understanding).
b. It is about maximizing the utilization of the
higher-order thinking skills in data-gathering towards
making decisions and actions on issues and problems.

8. It is relevant, rigorous, and real-world.

• Information, Media and Technology Skills
MODULE 2 – MULTICULTURAL LITERACY
Lesson 1 – Globalization Literacy
Anthony Giddens (2007) defines globalization
as "the intensification of worldwide social relations
which link distant localities in such a way that local
happenings are shaped by events occurring many
miles away and vice versa.” This means three things
such as the following (Abuso, 2020: p. 4):
• Globalization involves the intensification of
social relations worldwide. Social relations in the form
of interactions, conversations, expression of emotions,
etc. is now possible
• Globalization links worldwide distant localities
• Globalization enables events many miles
away to shape local happenings, and vice versa.
Objective Domain of Globalization:
• Nation-state
- The idea of a nation started from the people
identifying an “us” form a community where groups of
people share common land, values, beliefs and
practices (Jo Ann Chirico, 2013). Below is the flow
diagram of the creation of a nation-state.
• Communities
- “us” identity
- sharing of farms or harvest
• Empires
- one ruler for all humankind
• Nations
- groups of humankind free to govern
themselves
• Global village
People are living in one big global village with the
advent of mass media such as newspapers, books,
radio, television and movies and social media like
facebook, instagram and twitter, (Abuso, 2020). They
facilitate communications and interactions virtually.
• Globalization of Ideas
Ideas criss-cross from all over the world and across
cultures and races with the use of smartphones,
computers, mp3 players, e-readers and other
technologies (Bretaña, 2020).
• Global Citizenship
Global citizenship pertains to a person’s regional or
national identity, having the special rights and duties
prescribed in a nation’s government enumerated below
(Dupa, 2020: p.12):
a. Respects multiculturalism.
b. Realizes that unity and cooperation are the
basic features of global citizens.
c. Is aware that his/her actions affect the world
around him/her.
d. Behaves respectively and acts in an
emphatic way.
e. Has a teamwork spirit.
f. Helps other people and appropriates
cooperation.
g. Takes the responsibility of global issues
concerned with his/her society.
h. Knows his/her duties and rights very well.
i. Acts as an active member of the society for
the sake of improving it.
j. Understands that parts of the world are
interconnected.
k. Behaves ethically in all situations.
• Global Literacy
Global literacy aims to educate students with issues of
globalization and act proactively on issues of racism,
diversity and social justice.
This helps the students embrace and characterize the
following roles as members of the global citizenship
(Ontario Ministry of Education, 2015, as mentioned in
www.coursehero.com):
a. Respect for humans no matter their race,
gender, religion or political perspectives
b. Respect for diversity and various
perspectives
c. Promoting sustainable patterns of living,
consumption, and production
d. Appreciate the natural world and
demonstrate respectful towards the rights of all living
things.
Lesson 2 – Multicultural Literacy
What is multicultural literacy?
Multicultural literacy is both teaching the word
and the world Freire (2005), its people and their
practices and being able to understand and accept and
coexist with different peoples of the globe to act as
responsible citizens in the global village. It requires the
global citizens to balance unity and diversity, develop
cultural, national, and global identifications, and
eventually acquire multicultural citizenship.
According to Banks (2006: p. 129),
multicultural literacy “is a movement designed to
empower all students to become knowledgeable,
caring, and active citizens in a deeply troubled and
ethnically polarized nation and world.”
Approaches to Multicultural Literacy
Figure 2. Approaches to Multicultural Literacy
(Banks, 2003, as quoted by Vega et al., 2015: p. 66)
Level 1: Contributions
- Heroes, holidays, and food become a special
focus on a particular day.
Level 2: Additive
- Special units and topics about various groups
are added to, but do not fundamentally alter the
curriculum.
Level 3: Transformation
- Curriculum is changed, so that students see
the world from the different perspective of various
groups.
Level 4: Social Action
- Students make decisions about their world
and become directly involved in social actions.
5. Empowering school culture and social structure.
This dimension is created when the culture and
organization of the school are transformed in ways that
enable students from diverse racial, ethnic, and gender
groups to experience equality and equal status.

Five Dimensions of Multicultural Literacy

• Content Integration
• Empowering School Culture and Social Culture
• Equity Pedagogy
• Prejudice Reduction
• Knowledge Construction Process

The following explanations are culled from Vega et

al. (105: p. 69).

1. Content Integration. It deals with the extent to

which teachers use examples and content from a
variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts,
generalizations, and issues within their subject area or
disciplines.
2. Knowledge construction process. It describes
how teachers help students to understand, investigate,
and determine how the biases, frames of reference,
and perspectives within a discipline influence the ways
in which knowledge is constructed within it. Students
learn how to build knowledge themselves in this
dimension.
3. Prejudice reduction. It describes lessons and
activities used by teachers to help students to develop
positive attitudes toward different racial, ethnic, and
cultural groups. Research indicates that children come
to school with many negative attitudes toward and
misconceptions about different racial and ethnic
groups.
Research also indicates that lessons, units,
and teaching materials include content about different
racial and ethnic groups can help students to develop
more positive intergroup attitudes if certain conditions
exist in the teaching situation. These conditions
include positive images of the ethnic groups in the
materials and the use of multiethnic materials in a
consistent and sequential way.
4. Equity pedagogy. It exists when teachers modify
their teaching in ways that will facilitate the academic
achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural,
and social class groups. Research indicates that the
academic achievement is increased when cooperative
teaching activities and strategies, rather than
competitive ones, are used in instruction.
MODULE 3 – SOCIAL LITERACY
Lesson 1 – Social Cognition and Social Skills
SOCIAL LITERACY Ability – is a person’s capability
to integrate in implementing all knowledge, skills,
including attitudes and values that he believes in social
life.
- Social Literacy involves the
process of learning about a range of social skills as
well as the development of social knowledge o
understand the interpret various social problems that
must be faced in life (Arthur & Davison, 2000).
- is a person’s capacity to
connect with people around including social,
intellectual, even emotional intelligence (Lgleysteen,
2018)
- Social Literacy is a capability
that can be used by a person to live in a community
and contribute to society, which involves various skills
such as intellectual skills, social skills, cooperative
skills, and attitudes and values.
Big Five Model – provides a general outline of how
skills should be organized. Social and emotional skills
in this model are arranged hierarchically, with 5
general skill categories that can be split into narrower,
lower-order skills.
THE BROAD CATEGORIS OF THE BIG FIVE ARE:
1. openness to experience (open-mindedness)
- tolerance
- curiosity
- creativity
2. conscientiousness (task performance)
- self-control
- responsibility
- persistence
3. emotional stability (emotional regulation)
- stress resistance
- optimism
- emotional control
4. extraversion (engaging with others)
- sociability
- assertiveness
- energy
5. agreeableness (collaboration)
- empathy
- trust
- cooperation
(6. Additional indicies)
- achievement motivation
- self-efficacy
Lesson 2 – Emotional Intelligence
• In a 2017 report by WHO, the age-standardized
suicide rate in the PH is 5.8 for male, 1.9 for females,
and 3.8 for both sexes. The rate is based on the
number of cases affected per sample size of 100,000
people. According to the WHO fact sheet for 2017,
suicide is the second leading cause of death among 15
to 19 years old, and 78 percent of global suicides
occur in low and middle-income countries. The most
common method of suicide globally is ingestion of
pesticides, hanging, and firearms.
• Success and happiness come in life if we handle our
emotions and others’ emotions, too. The term
“Emotional intelligence” was popularized as a result of
Daniel Goleman’s (1995) work. The understanding of
intelligence is important for success in life.
Emotional Intelligence – key to relating well with
others and achieving goals because the human world
is all about relationships. Thus, we can say that to be
successful, one needs to have effective awareness,
control and management of one’s own emotions, and
awareness and understanding of other people.
- When it is developed, one can
become more productive and successful at what he
does, and help other become more productive and
successful, too. The outcomes of emotional
intelligence development contain many elements
known to reduce stress – for individuals and the
organizations – by moderating conflict, promoting
understanding and relationships, and fostering stability,
continuity, and harmony. It links strongly with concepts
of love and spirituality.
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE is commonly defined
by four attributes:
1. Self-management – being able to control strong
emotions and behaviors, manage emotions in healthy
ways, take initiative, being true to commitments, and
adapt to new circumstances.
2. Self-awareness – knowing own emotions and how
they affect the thoughts and behaviors; knowing one’s
strengths and weaknesses, and self-confidence.
3. Social awareness – having empathy. One can
understand the emotions, needs, and concerns of
other people, pick up on emotional cues, feel
comfortable socially, and recognize the culture in a
group or organization.
4. Relationship management – knowing how to
develop and maintain good relationships,
communicate clearly, inspire and influence others,
work well in team, and manage conflict.
Why is emotional intelligence so important?
It is not the smartest or brightest people who
are most successful or the most fulfilled in life. People
who are academically brilliant and yet are socially inept
mostly are unsuccessful at work or in their personal
relationships.
Intellectual ability or intellectual quotients (IQ)
is not enough on its own to achieve success in life. IQ
can help people get into college, but it is the EQ that
will help manage the stress and emotions when facing
final exams. IQ and EQ exist in tandem and are most
effective when they build up one another.
Emotional Intelligence affects:
• School or work performance – people with high
emotional intelligence can help explore the social
challenges of the work place, lead and motivate others,
and excel in one’s career. Companies are now rating
job candidates’ emotional intelligence through EQ
testing.
• Physical health – people who cannot manage their
emotions ae probably not managing stress either.
Stress raises blood pressure, suppresses the immune
system, increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes,
contributes to infertility, and speeds up the aging
process. The first step to improving emotional,
intelligence is to learn how to manage stress.
• Mental health – uncontrolled emotions and stress can
also impact one’s mental health making people
vulnerable to anxiety and depression. People who
cannot manage their emotions will have a hard time
dealing with relationships. This can leave one feeling
lonely and isolated and further suffer ay mental health
problems.
• Relationships – knowing how to deal with emotions
and how to control them, one can better express how
he feels and understands how others are feeling. This
will eventually allow people to communicate more
effectively and forge stronger relationships, both at
work and in personal life.
• Social Intelligence – being in tune with emotions
serves a social purpose in connecting to other people
and the world around. Social intelligence enables us to
recognize friends from foe, measure another person’s
interest, reduce stress, balance the nervous system
through social communication, and feel loved and
happy.
Lesson 3 – People Skill
• “People skills are the various attributes and
competencies that allow one play well with others,”
explains David Parnell, a legal consultant,
communication coach, and author. People skills may
be summed upby notions such as ‘likeability’ or having
a ‘good’ personality. They are the tools used to
communicate and interact effectively with other.
Individuals with strong people skills can predict
behavior, relate to others, and socialize easily. People
skills also known as soft skills, interpersonal skills,
social skills, emotional intelligence, and interpersonal
intelligence.
Factors that show People Skills
• Relating to others – having a well-rounded
personality and set of experiences, it’s usually possible
to relate to almost anyone. Being able to relate to
others means that you’re willing to agree or disagree
with mutual respect; letting them know you understand
their position.
• Strong communication skills – possessing this skill
will always put your best foot forward. It is the most
fundamental skill since it encompasses the ability to
get along with other colleagues, persuade others to
listen to your ideas, and much more. Being articulate is
highly valued in today’s workplace.
• Patience with others – can keep a level head in
stressful situations, it will definitely be noticed by
management and perceived as an asset. It fosters
harmony instead of trouble in the workplace.
• Trusting others – being trustworthy can accelerate
your career
• Showing empathy – putting oneself in the shoes of
other is a key skill. It allows to create relationships with
others, provides insights into people’s motives and
allows them to predict responses.
• Active listening skills – hearing someone and actively
listening to them are two different things. When one
actively listens, it means to listen without interruption.
• Flexibility – shifting gears when necessary is a skill
that is needed in the current fast-changing world.
Bending your own rules and beliefs will not break you.
• Negotiation skills – rather than creating chaos,
negotiations can better organizations.
• Proactive problem solving – you will take the
pressure off your boss and colleagues
• The ability to be supportive and motivate others –
“people want others to believe in them, regardless of
how successful they might be. By showing support in
the form of encouragement, you can put someone
back on track or keep them headed in the right
direction.”
Lesson 4 – Social Media Skills
• The rise of Online Social Networking resulted in
ethical dilemmas that are growing in number. These
include violation of privacy, misrepresentation, bullying,
and creepiness. Non-regulation of social
communications is becoming more vulnerable to fraud.
This is the reason why ethics is the use of social media
should be observed.
Common Dilemmas in social media:
• Invasion of privacy – include any non-permissive
approach in taking personal or any other pertinent
information about an individual which can harm him.
• Spamming – users are usually bombarded with
information which does no interest them. The user’s
relative information which he may be needing gets
under the pile and may get ignored because of that
useless pile of spamming which is obviously unethical.
• Bashing – expressing oneself in social media has its
limitations when disparaging others’ reputation. It is
unethical because of its broad range of negative
impacts.
• Dishonesty – making dishonest claims about
anything or commenting offensive material is going to
affect yourself or company. It risks your personal
reputation and company’s name.
Before you post or comment, consider the
following:
1. Is it too personal? No one likes self-centered people
who only talk about themselves. In social media
balance boasting with complementing.
2. Am I crossing the line? Don’t be too aggressive in
reaching out to people.
3. Am I spamming them? Not everything or even the
majority of what you post should ask for something.
Don’t make everything self-serving.
4. Am I venting or ranting? Research says that venting
and ranting don’t help, it never presents you in a
positive light. Do not post negative comments or
gossip.
5. Am I being grateful? Respond and tank those who
engage with you. People must not be taken for granted.
6. Is this the right medium for the message? Not all b. Decide whether Locally Stranded
messages must be channeled through social media. Individuals (LSIs) should be accepted by their Local
Some may be given in person or other means of Government Unit (LGU) or not.
commutation.
Teaching Learning Activities that Promote Social
Lesson 5 – Integration of Social Literacy to Teaching Literacy:
and Learning 1. Pair/Group Activities
• think-pair-share
• most classrooms are a one-way communication • Round Robin
wherein the teacher do is keep on talking • Jigsaw Puzzle
• Goodllad (1984) “the data from our observations in • Role Play
more than 1,000classrooms support the popular image • Panel Discussion
of a teacher standing in front of a class imparting
knowledge to a group of students.” 2. Collaborative Activities
• Smith (1998) teachers talk 90% of the time • Research
• Frey, Fisher, and Allen (2009) “students are • Experiment
expected to sit hour after hour, taking notes, and • Debate
answering the occasional question with little interaction • Inner Circle / Outer Circle
with peers” • Blogging
• (Alvermann & Phelps, 2005; Vacca, Vacca, & Mraz,
2011) when students are the readers, writers,
speakers, listeners, and thinkers in the classroom, they
shoulder the responsibility for them to become actively
engaged and in social interaction with others.
• Vacca et al., (2011) socially interactive learners are
engaged learners
• Routman (2005) contends “students learn more when
they are able to talk to one another and be actively
involved
- social interaction is vital to the learning process

How to formulate Intended Learning Outcomes

(ILO) that will promote Social Literacy:
1. Begin with the end in mind. Since you want students
to develop social literacy, make sure o know how they
will end having the said literacy
Example:
a. Compose a song or jingle that will promote
friendship.
b. Determine ways on how to praise students
in the class.

2. Make sure students collaborate so they can

communicate, interact, or even solve problems and
negotiate within the group.
Example:
a. Create a brochure on travel itineracy in
Region XI.
b. Write a position paper about your group’s
stand on the government’s action to the COVID-19
pandemic.

3. Values should be integrated in the lesson.

Example:
a. Write a quotation that depicts positive
attributes of a teacher.
b. Create a blog about the important
contributions of teachers in the society.

4. Higher Oder Thinking Skills (HOTS) must be

expected among students.
Example:
a. Critique the recent SONA of President
Rodrigo Duterte.
MODULE 4 – MEDIA LITERACY
Lesson 1 – Definition and Aspects of Media Literacy
• (Abadiano, 2018) Media Literacy is the ability to
access, analyze, evaluate, and create social media
messages of all kinds.
• (Hobbs, 1998), (Alagata and Ignacio, 2019) Process
of critically analyzing and learning to create one’s
messages in print, audio, video, and multimedia.
• (Pitagan, 2016) It aims to empower citizens by
providing them with the competencies in terms of
knowledge and skills necessary to engage with
traditional media of new technologies.
Abadiano (2018), different basic concepts related
to media:
1. Media constructs our culture.
2. Media messages affect our thoughts, attitudes, and
actions.
3. Media uses “the language of persuasion”.
4. Media constructs fantasy worlds.
5. No one tells the whole story.
6. Media messages contain “texts” and “subtexts”.
7. Media messages reflect the values and viewpoints
of media makers.
8. Individuals construct their meanings from the media.
9. Media messages can be decoded.
10. Media literate youth and adults are active
consumers of media.
Media and Information Literacy
• Media and information are interrelated and
interconnected. Without media, information may not be
delivered in a way we use it to be. Information literacy
is defined as the ability to recognize when information
is needed and to locate, evaluate, and effectively
communicate information in its various formats
(Pitagan et al., 2016).
• Media and information literacy emphasizes to
individuals the essentials of the functions of media and
information systems and the way citizens evaluate the
quality of the content. The competencies from media
and information literacy instill the provision of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights under Article
19:
- "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion
and expression; this right includes freedom to hold
opinions without interference and to seek, receive, and
impart information and ideas through any media and
regardless of frontiers."
Historical Background of Media
• To better understand the importance of media in
society, it is first better to know how it originated and
how it was utilized by men and women before. Cave
paintings and books are some of the earliest forms of
communication. Below is some significant and famous
historical timeline of the evolution of media from
traditional to new media.
PRE-HISTORIC AGE (3,000 BCE to 1500)
• 3,000 BCE
- Writing is one of the first channels ever used by man.
- Since paper is yet to be discovered, stone, bone, and
cave carvings were the means of communication,
storage of information, and art expression. Some of
which are:
- Wooly Mammoth Tooth in Hungary.
- Horse carved out of a pelvic bone.
- Chauvet cave dwellers draw on walls.
- Ishango bone with complex math problems.
- Spain's Altamira caves with red and black
drawings of bison and deer.
- Finger drawings on clay walls in Koonalda
Cave, Australia.
• 2,000 BCE
- Manuscript existed. This is any document written by
hand. These are produced when the time paper is
discovered. This was used basically for educational
purposes.
• 1,500 BCE
- Cuneiform was used as a system of writing done by
Sumerians.
• 200 BCE
- Mailing service was widely used using horses to
channel the message with distant receivers. This is the
time when courier service became a profession.
INDUSTRIAL ERA (1400 to 1800)
• 1400
- Tsai Lun invented paper. This rapidly improved the
experiences in communication. This opens
opportunities in the production of books, letters, and
other tools.
• 1450
- The printing press was developed. This invention
made the production of books, letters, and messages
faster and more efficient.
• 1500
- The typewriter was invented. It is an
electromechanical machine used by writers for art and
literature. This was also used to develop a letter used
for communication.
• 1598
- The magazine was produced and used by people in
society to get connected with other forms of the
community.
• 1600
- The Telegraph was invented. This is a device that
allows the transmission of the information by using
coded signals. One famous code maker telegraph is
the morse code.
1620
- Newspapers were published. This is used to spread
news and information about current issues, politics,
sports, and many more.
ELECTRONIC AGE (1800 to 1970)
• 1849
- The telephone was invented. This is a
telecommunication device that allows conversation of
two or more users very far from each other.
- Films were reproduced. This is still a form of
communication in the way of portraying characters and
stories.
• 1895
- Radio was developed.
• 1902
- Satellites were launched to outer space. This is a
channel for communication and transmits information
from the outer earth.
• 1938
- Computers were invented.
• 1958
- Video Tapes were widely used. This is a storage of
audio - recorded information.
INFORMATION AGE (1971 to 2017)
• 1972
- Mass media were used. These are diversified
collections of media technologies that provide mass
communication in a broader audience.
• 1990
- The Internet was introduced. This is a global system
of interconnected computer networks.
• 1991
- Phones were introduced
1992
- Websites were opened.
• 2000
- Social media were introduced to the public.
• 2003
- A video call was introduced.
▪ 2010
- There was the introduction of new computer products
and services. Of which are:
- Android version 2.1 is released.
- Adobe Photoshop CS5 (12.0) is released.
- Android version 2.2 (Froyo) is released.
- Apple introduces the iPhone 4.
- Android version 2.3 (Gingerbread) is
released.
• 2011
- There was the introduction of new computer products
and services. Of which are:
- Apple introduces the iPhone 4s.
- Android version 4.0 (Ice Cream Sandwich) is
released.
- Samsung first releases the Galaxy Note
smartphone.
• 2012
- Facebook officially crosses the one billion active
mark. - Pinterest is made available to everyone
- This is famous for the "end of the world" prediction;
however, the video Gangnam style hit over 1 billion
views on YouTube.
• 2013
- Sony officially replaced the PS3 gaming console with
PlayStation 4.
- Microsoft discontinued Messenger in favor of Skype.
• 2014
- Reddit reaches 170 million registered users.
- Microsoft announces the next version of Windows,
which will be called Windows 10.
- Apple introduced the new iPhone 6, iPhone 6 Plus,
and Apple Watch. Android version 5.0 (Lollipop) is
released.
• 2015
- Microsoft releases Windows 10.
- Android version 6.0 (Marshmallow) is released.
- YouTube Red is released.
• 2016
- Google released Android version 7.0 (Nougat).
- Apple announces the new iPhone 7 and iPhone 7
Plus.
• 2017
- Apple introduces the iPhone 8, iPhone 8 Plus.
• Present
- New media were introduced and empowered. This is
in the form of:
- Feeds
- Blogs
- Vlogs
- Podcasts
- Webcams
- Community portals (e.g., Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram, etc.)
PHILIPPINE MEDIA HISTORICAL TIMELINE
Like any other media history, the Philippine Media
began from the primitive era in the form of carvings
and historical writings.
• 1811. Newspapers, Books, and Magazines in the
Philippines
- Del Superior Gobierno was the first
newspaper established in 1811.
• 1889. La Solidaridad
- La Solidaridad was the most popular
nationalistic newspaper in 1889.
• 1890. The First Telephone System
- The country's first telephone system started
its operation.
• 1897. Short Films in the Philippines
- Carlo Noquera, a Spanish soldier, brought
short films in Spanish - language.
• 1898. The Manila Times
- The Manila Times was established, and it is
one of the long-running newspapers in the country
today.
 Most notably, the recency of the information is a plus
• 1922. The Radio Station in the Philippines. factor.
- Electrical Supply Company began operating
its product demonstration media with a small radio
station owned by American businessman Henry Abadiano (2018) emphasized the following items
Herman. considered in accessing information to ensure its
reliability. These are:
• 1940. Comics in the Philippines 1. Newspapers and magazines usually have
- The Americans brought the nature of comics an editor who checks the reliability of the information,
in the country and began to be loved by Filipinos. but often not experts.
2. Scholarly journals take months to publish
• 1990. The Manila Bulletin because other experts review articles in the field, and
- The Manila Bulletin was established and one all information is checked.
of the long-running newspapers of today in the country. 3. Books and Reference sources involve large
editorial groups of experts, and large publishers'
• 1994. The Local Online Media reputation is essential to maintain. Beware, there are
- The Philippines officially connects with the also predatory books.
world of the Internet. Mosaic Communications
launched the first commercial internet service provider. • Moreover, citizens easily retrieve information
- Today, Filipinos are highly interactive basically from the Internet or web resources. Apart
with social media platforms and other online media. from that, these media providers are full of information;
Others have urged the benefit of vlogs, blogs, Youtube these also the platform which updates theories and
channels, and Facebook Fan Pages. information rapidly. Now, you show you know the
following domains on the Internet.
TYPES OF MEDIA
• Media are classified as both physical media and Domain Country
mechanical media. Physical Media is described in a .ph Philippines
way that the one who is talking can be heard, and .om Oman
even the body language and postures can be seen. .ca California
This can be in the form of large meetings, department .uk United Kingdom
meetings, and viral communication. On the other hand, .au Australia
mechanical Media is described as a media of .sg Singapore
communication in written or electronic. These can be
in the form of e-mail, weekly letters, personal letters, Domain Names (URL) Implication
billboards, magazines, and social media. .com Commercial (or blogsite)
• Media are categorized as print media, broadcast
.co Commercial
media, and new media.
.org Organization
• Print Media is composed of newspapers, community
.gov Government
newsletters, magazines, and other articles or
information published and made available to the public .edu Education
in print. .ac Academic education
• Broadcast Media is a platform in which audio or .net Network
video content is distributed to the audience using radio
waves. Abadiano (2018) enumerated the different aspects
• New Media means the convergence of the different when one is evaluating information sources for
media platforms. This is in the way of digital reliability.
technology to create synergy. An example of this is
when Facebook converges with YouTube so that FB a. Audience. This refers to the characteristics
could play videos. Artists and celebrities are engaged of the audience. This pertains to age, educational
in YouTube Channels, and others have created their affiliation, sex, etc. Moreover, it is essential to assess
channels as their means of business. Moreover, social whether this information is for a person with in-depth
media platforms now have been an avenue for selling knowledge or a layperson in evaluating sources.
and buying. b. Authority. This refers to someone who
wrote or who published the information. It is essential
SOURCES OF MEDIA AND INFORMATION to note who the author is and rest assured that you
• For students who need academic information for their know his or her credentials or even his or her contact
assignments and reports, Google is the most popular information.
information platform. By making use of keywords, c. Bias. This refers to assessing the
Google will give you millions of related topics. information in terms of its objectivity. Make sure that
• However, searching for reliable information does not the information presented or to be retrieved within the
need only one context. The validity of the data organization's purpose.
depends on the source, and not all sources of d. Currency. This refers to the recency or the
information provide reliable information. This way of trend of information. Before retrieving information, it is
looking into different sources of information is very necessary to assess when the work was published,
significant to students who have research subjects. when it was last updated, how old this work is, how
current it was, or the links of this information work.
 e. Scope. This refers to the content, whether it
is unique from the other sources or not.
Lesson 2 – Legal Foundation of Media Information in
the Philippines
CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS
• Freedom of Expression, Privacy, and Information
Article 19 of the UDHR guarantees and provides the
right to freedom of expression. As quoted:
1. "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of
opinion."
"Everyone shall have the right to freedom of
expression; this right shall include freedom to seek,
receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds,
regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or print,
in the form of art or through any other media of his
choice."
- Freedom of expression is also guaranteed to be
protected under different regional human rights
instruments like:
1. Article 10 of the European Convention on
Human Rights;
2. Article 13 of the American Convention on
Human Rights; and
3. Article 9 of the African Charter on Human
and People's Rights.
- Freedom of expression is also protected under the
Philippine constitution, as stated in Article 3 Section 4
of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, including privacy
(Section 3), and the right to information (Section 7).
Moreover, it was a constitutional mandate on Article VI
Section 11, limiting media ownership to citizens of the
Philippines, or to corporations, cooperatives or
associations wholly owned and managed by such
citizens." Thus, on the same provision, Congress has
given the legislative powers about approval or granting
media franchises, which is following the public interest.
- Freedom of expression has a constitutional
guarantee as well under Article III Section 7, which
highlights that access to information is a right crucial to
an informed and free press. As stated in 1987
Philippine Constitution Article II on the Declaration of
Principles:
- “…The state adopts and implements a policy
of full public disclosure of all its transactions.”
Laws Regulating Print Media
• Republic Act No. 2580 passed in 1916 through the
Philippine Legislature. It provides requirements "for the
publication and recording in the Bureau of Posts of the
names and post office addresses of editors, publishers,
managers, owners, and stockholders of newspapers in
a sworn statement. Failure to comply with this
requirement results in a denial of mail privileges to the
offending publication."
• On the other hand, Republic Act No. 8047
institutionalized the Book Publishing Industry
development and the formulation and implementation
of the National Book Policy and a National Book
Development Plan. It stipulated in the policy the
provision in promoting the development of the book
publishing industry to ensure a supply of affordable
books for both the domestic and the export market.
• Also, Republic Act No. 7079 created the Campus
Journalism Act, which recognized the vital role of
campus press freedom.
Laws Regulating Broadcast Media
• As specified in Executive Order No. 546 issued July
23, 1979, all radio/ broadcasting companies in the
Philippines shall be required to have certificates of
public convenience and necessity from the National
Telecommunications Commission (NTC). Under the
Philippine Constitution Article XII Section 11,
broadcasting
• companies are mandated to apply for a franchise to
the House of Representatives.
• On the other hand, Movie and Television Review and
Classification Board (MTRCB) was institutionalized
under Presidential Decree 1986 on October 5, 1985.
This provides power to MTRCB "to review and
approve all publicity materials for motion pictures and
television programs." Moreover, on the same provision,
the Board is tasked to disapprove/approve or delete
parts of the material for the following reasons:
(1) Objectional for being immoral;
(2) Contrary to the law and good customs;
(3) Detrimental to the prestige of the
Philippines and its people; or
(4) We are encouraging the commission of an
act of violence, a crime, or of any wrong.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY CODE OF THE
PHILIPPINES (RA 8293)
• Republic Act No. 8293 institutionalized the
intellectual property code of the Philippines and
established the intellectual property office. As stated in
Section 2,
"The State recognizes that an effective
intellectual and industrial property system is vital to the
development of the domestic and creative activity,
facilitates the transfer of technology, attracts foreign
investments, and ensures market access for our
products. It shall protect and secure the exclusive
rights of scientists, inventors, artists, and other gifted
citizens to the intellectual property and creations,
particularly when beneficial to the people..."
- As discussed in the same document, intellectual
property rights consist of copyrights and related rights,
trademarks and service marks, geographic indications,
industrial designs, patents, layout designs of integrated
circuits, and protection of undisclosed information.
DATA PRIVACY ACT OF 2012 (RA 10173)
• On August 15, 2012, President Benigno S. Aquino III
signed for approval the institutionalization of RA 10173
or known as the Data Privacy Act of 2012. As stated
in Section 2,
"It is the State's policy to protect the
fundamental human right of privacy, of communication
while ensuring the free flow of information to promote
innovation and growth. The State recognizes the vital
role of information and communications technology in
the nation-building and its inherent obligation to ensure
that personal information in information and
communications systems in the government and the
private sector are secured and protected."
- This law encompasses the provisions on the
following:
(1) Rights of the data subject;
(2) Transmissibility of rights of the data
subjects;
(3) Right to data portability;
(4) Non-applicability;
(5) Security of personal information; and
(6) Underlying penalties for violation of the
said law.
LEGAL & ETHICAL ISSUES
• Internet Etiquette - 10 Rules of Netiquette
(Abadiano, 2018):
1. When typing, never write in all capital letters.
This means shouting.
2. Don't plagiarize. Recognize the owner of the
idea or concept or thought.
3. Use proper quotes and always use the
whole quote. Do not trim down the retrieved quotes.
4. Don't gossip and keep personal information
personal. Never tell unverified stories. Check first its
veracity.
5. Don't steal those photographs off the web.
Remember, they are copyrighted.
6. Watch your language.
7. Be patient with internet newbies. Remember,
they are learning.
8. No spamming.
9. If you are using a header, make sure your
header pertains to the header.
10.Avoid overuse of emoticons. This may
irritate people.
Issue on Plagiarism
• Plagiarism uses someone else's words or ideas and
passes them off as your own (Faltado et al., 2016).
Additionally, it is defined as stealing the work of
another and claiming it as one's own (Amorado & Talili,
2017). As cited by Roig (2002), the most recognized
intellectual crime and the most severe violations of the
contact between the reader and the writer is plagiarism.
It is significant to be reminded that intellectual rights
are protected by law under RA 8293 or the
Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines.
• Since plagiarism is an anticipated problem every
researcher faces, then the art of ethics is to analyze
written manuscripts/articles and detect plagiarism
ideas or assess the similarity index using online
software called Turnitin. However, manual checking
can be done, as well. For example, for undergraduate
research, the research adviser shall see to it that the
literature of the manuscript has been written and
appropriately cited. Some students are citing authors
in the content, however not mentioned or included in
the reference page. In this case, plagiarism is
committed.
• To prevent plagiarism, a researcher must see to it
that again, the paramount importance in research is its
INTEGRITY. Make sure that authors are correctly cited
and credited and make sure they do not forget to
paraphrase.
Lesson 3 – Media Information Literate Individual
• It has been known that being able to read and write is
a form of literacy. However, to be a literate person in
the 21st century, reading and writing alone will not
suffice. They are only two of the traditional literacies.
Due to the advent of technology, new literacies should
be embraced to proactively engage in the different
issues of life. One of these is media literacy. Now let
us take a look at the concepts on how to become a
media literate individual.
• Abadiano (2018) defined media literacy "as a means
of understanding and using mass communication
media in a pro-active, non-passive, and assertive
way." It is considered a fundamental life skill essential
for a vigorous democracy. Moreover, he defined a
media literate person as the one who effectively and
efficiently comprehends and uses mass
communication technologies to access, analyze,
evaluate, produce, and distribute information in a
variety of means.
• Measuring media literacy and its effectiveness is one
of the challenging tasks in education nowadays.
Teaching and learning are integrative to the use of
media technology, either offline and online. Thus,
researchers have created synergy for themselves to
investigate relevant facts and theories which could
help assess media literacy and to know the indicators
and dimensions of being media literate individuals.
• Eristi and Erdem (2017) conducted a study on the
development of a media literacy skills scale. This aims
to develop a reliable and valid scale to identify the
levels of media literacy skills. After their inquiry, they
have revealed, based on their findings, that there are
four (4) dimensions in media literacy. These Access,
Analyze, Evaluate, and Communicate.
Access This involves locating and using
appropriate media tools (Hobbs,
2010).
This means reaching the targeted
information via these tools and
comprehending the contents (Jolls,
2008).
Analyze Analyzing symbolic texts underlies
media literacy (Livingstone, 2003).
Evaluate This is a process to complete the
analysis phase and skill to make
judgments about the quality or the
value of media content (Eristi &
Erdem, 2017).
Communicate This comprises the ability to create
media messages and share them
with ithwe people (Schmidt, 2013).
The European Charter for Media Literacy, as cited
by Bachmair and Bazalgette (2007), stipulated
seven competencies in becoming a media literate
Individual. He or she should:
• Use media technologies effectively to access, store,
retrieve and share content to meet their individual and
community needs and interests;
• Gain access to, and make informed choices about, a
wide range of media forms and content from different
cultural and institutional sources;
• Understand how and why media content is produced;
• Analyze critically the techniques, languages, and
conventions used by the media, and the messages
they convey;
• Use media creatively to express and communicate
ideas, information, and opinions;
• Identify, and avoid or challenge, media content and
services that may be unsolicited, offensive or harmful;
and
• Make effective use of media in the exercise of their
democratic rights and civic responsibilities.
What is Media Literacy Not? (Alata & Ignacio, 2019)
• Alata and Ignacio (2019) stipulated the different
indications that you are not media literate. This
happens when you are:
• Criticizing the media. However, being media
literate sometimes requires that one indeed criticize
what one sees and hears.
• Merely producing media. However, part of
being media literate is the ability to create media.
• Teaching with the media. An education in
media literacy must also include teaching about media.
• Viewing media and analyzing it from a pure
perspective. True media literacy requires both the
ability and willingness to view and analyze media from
multiple positions and angles.
• Always remember that being media literate means
watching carefully and thinking critically.
LESSON 4: Integration of Media Literacy to Teaching
and Learning
• Many experts have shown their support in promoting
media literacy with the teachers and teacher educators
integrating it into the school curricula and programs.
Cortes (2000) stressed that,
"multicultural education is taught through the
media: "That enveloping media multicultural curriculum
guarantees that school educators do not have the
power to decide if multicultural education will occur. It
will... through the media, even if not in schools. Rather,
school educators can only decide whether or not they
will consciously participate and how they will
participate in the inevitable process of teaching and
learning about diversity."
• Given many challenges to media literacy education
like unavailability of devices to learners, slow internet
connection, and deficient technological skills, it is a
challenge for the teacher to integrate the philosophy
and principle of media literacy to his or her teaching
and learning activities. However, media covers all
forms from print media to new media. Thus, it is now
an opportunity for the teachers to become more
resourceful for him or her to provide meaningful
learning experiences to his or her learners.
Canada's Center for Digital and Media Literacy
enumerated different tips on integrating media
literacy in the classroom as follows:
• Exploit "teachable moments. "When students have
free time, take an opportunity to listen to what they're
talking about. Most likely, it's related to the media they
watch, play, and listen to! Breaking news stories,
blockbuster movies, and celebrity meltdowns are all
great opportunities for media analysis.
• Give students a chance to create media, not just
analyze it. Although there's more to media education
than just creating media, this is a vital part. There's no
substitute for hands-on experience to help kids
understand how things like editing and music can
influence the way a movie or TV show affects us
emotionally. Camera phones, storyboards, and even
magazine collages are affordable and accessible
options for bringing media production into your
classroom.
• Start and end with the key concepts. Media
education, and the media world, can be overwhelming
when you start to analyze it. By always returning to the
fundamental concepts of media literacy, you can keep
from getting sidetracked as you analyze media
products or cultural artifacts.
• Recognize that kids and adults - enjoy media. It's
essential not to take a negative approach to media
education. Teach the kids that critiquing is not
necessarily the same thing as criticizing. We can
identify and talk about problematic issues in the media
we love without losing our enjoyment of them. Don't
forget to look at positive examples when discussing
gender, stereotyping, etc.
• teach about the media, not just with the media.
It's not enough to use media in your classroom unless
students are learning about media as well. Any time
you're using media in the school, look for a media
education opportunity: for instance, if you're showing
the movie version of a play or book, have students
analyze the differences between the two using the key
concepts. How are the commercial considerations of a
movie different from those of a book or a play? What
technical differences change how the story is told?
How are the expectations of a movie audience
different from those of a game or a book? How are the
film-makers' values and assumptions like or different
from the original authors? How do all of these
differences affect the explicit or implicit meaning?
• Make media education about asking questions,
not learning answers. Even though you may feel
strongly about an issue or a media product, give your
students room to draw their conclusions. This is
especially important when you're dealing with issues
such as stereotyping or body image, where your
students (and you!) likely already have strong opinions:
you need to model the practice of keeping an open
mind and using critical analysis, not your emotions, to
lead you to a conclusion.
• Fight the perception that "It doesn't matter.
"Students often avoid talking about the implications of
media products by saying "it's only a TV show" or a
video game, a music video, or so on. Remind students
that - media can have meaning even if the creators
didn't plan it and that we rely as much on the Media as
anything else to tell us about the world. For instance,
research has shown persuasively that media
consumption can affect how we see others and how
we see ourselves, even if we don't realize it - a
condition is known as implicit or unconscious bias -
and the presence or absence of different groups in
media has been shown to affect how people feel about
those groups.

• Assess and evaluate media literacy work. "Will

this be on the test? "By doing formal assessment and
evaluation of the media literacy work students do, you
communicate to them that it is valuable and essential.
Ensure that your estimates are as well-thought-out and
objective as they are for all your other assignments,
and keep them consistent.

• Let students bring their media to the table. To get

students more engaged, look for opportunities to do
media literacy work with their choice of media products.
You can deal with concerns about content issues by
making your expectations clear and a part of the
evaluation scheme (ethical and responsible use of
Media is a vital part of media literacy), and by having
students only present excerpts of media products in a
group or whole-class settings.

• Keep up-to-date with media trends and

developments. You don't have to be a media expert
to teach media literacy, but it helps to be current about
what kids are watching, playing, reading, wearing, and
listening to, not to mention what they're doing online.
This is an excellent opportunity to let kids be the
experts and teach you about the latest thing!
MODULE 5 – FINANCIAL LITERACY
Lesson 1 – Financial Planning / Goal Setting and
Valuing Financial
- the ability to "use knowledge and skills to manage
one's financial resources effectively for lifetime
financial security" (Mandell, 2009).
- It is highly composed of two elements:
• understanding
• use.
Lesson 2 – Budgeting, Spending, and Investing
• Budgeting is a process that puts you in control of
your money. This shows how much money you
currently have and where will it go to meet your needs
and wants. This will also pave the way for attaining
your financial plan.
• Budgeting is a challenging thing in managing
your finances as this is crucial in making your
financial plans within the reach. Vohwinkle (2012)
cited in Gitman (2013) emphasizes tips on
budgeting:
1. Gather every receipt you have. This
includes your grocery receipt, utility bills, school
contribution expenses, and other transactions you
made with receipt.
2. Record all of your sources of
income/allowance. If you receive your monthly
allowance or your salary from a part-time job, list it
down as a monthly amount.
3. Create a list of usual monthly expenses.
This includes grocery purchase, school expenses, and
other expenses you usually encounter. Make sure that
you include your savings in your expense allocation.
4. Make adjustments to expenses if necessary.
The target in this tip is to make your monthly allowance
and monthly expenses equal. If your expenses are
greater than your monthly monetary source, adjust
your expenses.
5. Review your budget monthly. It is really
important to review your budget regularly in order to
make sure you know how things are going.
• After allocating a saving fund every month for your
monthly allowance, you can start investing something.
When we talk about investment, this emphasizes the
act to start a project. With investment, you can start a
small project. This can be in a form of selling small
food items or buying a printer and then offer a service
where you can print a certain document for a
reasonable price. In this way, the capital you have
invested in your small project prospers into a bigger
one, and this helps you to further achieve your
financial goals.
Lesson 3 – Integration of Financial Literacy across the
curriculum
• With the technological advent, there are many
technological tools that are available and
accessible for students and teachers in facilitating
financial literacy. Several examples are given
below:
1. iAllowance- this application helps parents to
give frequent reminders to their kids in getting their
chores done before giving their allowance.
2. Bankaroo- this mobile app motivates
students ages 5-14 years old in setting their financial
goals, saving money, using basic accounting skills,
and ways of budgeting their money.
3. PiggyBot- kids ages 6-8 years old can learn
goal setting, saving, and virtual banking. This mobile
app lets children upload photos and review transaction
records
Moreover, Page (2014) indicates four lesson
principles in preparing lessons that enhances the
financial literacy of the students:
1. Relevance. Making sure that the students see the
financial world through the lesson you made is vital in
the crucial development of students in their daily
survival. Saving strategies, goal-setting activities,
comparison shopping techniques, concepts in
compound interest, and behavioral finance strategies
are opportunities you can offer to the students. In this
way, students are given the skill in making better
financial decisions and managing their own money.
2. Integration. Introducing financial concepts that the
students can actually use throughout their lives are
useful. Giving them numerous opportunities in saving
money, doing saving challenges, encouraging students
to use expenses and budget tracker mobile
applications, and other ways can enhance the financial
literacy of the students.
3. Critical Thinking Skills. Giving students the
opportunity to use their critical thinking skills in making
financial decisions, such as prioritizing their needs and
wants will help them utilize empowered financial
strategies that they can carry throughout their lives.
4. Improvements of Knowledge, Behavior, and
Attitudes. As a teacher, always motivate your
students to put their learning into action. Encourage
your students to use financial tools that they can
access. Encouraging students to use spreadsheets,
financial ledgers, and other technological tools that will
let them keep a track on their expenses will improve
their lives in terms of financial literacy.
• With the enormous opportunities in encouraging your
students to build their financial literacy, it is important
to entice your students in applying basic financial
concepts that are highly applicable in their daily lives.
With different simulations and activities that will
enhance their financial literacy, this will incorporate
discipline and motivation in letting the students achieve
their financial goals. As an essential 21st century skill,
this will prepare students to attain their financial goals
in a short term, medium-term, and long-term basis.
MODULE 6 - CYBER/DIGITAL LITERACY
Lesson 1 - Cyber Citizenship in the Digital Age
9 Elements of Digital Citizenship
1. Digital Access
2. Digital Etiquette
3. Digital Commerce
4. Digital Rights and Responsibilities
5. Digital Literacy
6. Digital Law
7. Digital Communication
8. Digital Health and Wellness
9. Digital Security
• Digital Access involves the ability to connect with
others or access information using technology.
• Digital Etiquette is just what it sounds like: treating
other internet user with respect and avoiding
inappropriate behavior.
• Digital Commerce refers to buying and selling
electronics responsible.
• Digital Rights and Responsibilities refers to the
privileges that all students have while using the
internet, like freedom and speech.
• Digital Literacy is the ability to learn how to use
technology and access information online.
• Digital Law encompasses the rules or guidelines set
within an organization for using the Internet.
• Digital Communication have greater options for
students for communicating online.
• Digital Health and Wellness involves teaching
students how to protect their psychological and
physical well-being using the Internet.
• Digital Security involves teaching students how to
take steps of stay online.
What happens after an attack?
• Computer crashes
• Computer slows down
• Corrupter files
• Frozen files
• Frozen applications
• Stolen private information
Cyberbullying is the use of technology to
repeatedly harass, hurt, embarrass, humiliate or
intimidate another person. I s bullying that takes place
over digital devices like cellphones, computers, and
tablets. Cyberbullying can occur through text and apps,
or online in social media, forums, or gaming where
people can view, participate in, or sharing negative,
harmful, false, or mean content about someone else. It
can include sharing personal or private information
about someone else, causing embarrassment or
humiliation. Some cyberbullying crosses the line into
unlawful criminals. (StopBullying.gov)
“Cyberbullying is when someone repeatedly
and intentionally harasses, mistreats, or makes fun of
another person online or while using cellphones or
other electronic devices.” (Hinduja & Patchin, 2019)
Common Types of Bullying
• Harassment
• Flaming
• Outing
• Degradation
• Deception
Common tools used for Cyberbullying
• Emails
• Websites
• Text messaging
• Instant Forums/chat rooms

Lesson 2 - Internet Safety, Cyberbullying, and Cyber Cyberbullying can cause emotional scarring and can
Crime lead to depression.

There are types of Websites that we can visit such as

informational which gives information and corporate or Lesson 3 - Researching and Evaluating the web
E-commerce which the primary purpose is to sell
something. 8 Ways to determine Website reliability
1. Look for Established Institutions
Benefits of surfing the Web: 2. Looks for Sites with Expertise
1. Easy Date Comparison 3. Steer Clear of Commercial Sites
2. Convenient Media Consumption 4. Beware of Bias
3. Communication 5. Check the date
6. Consider the Site’s Look
Drawbacks of surfing the Web: 7. Avoid Anonymous Authors
1. Exposure to inappropriate material 8. Check the Links
2. Exposure to Cyberbullying
3. Attack by hackers or cybercriminals Website Evaluation Checklist
4. Attack by viruses • Author
• Contact Information
Computer Threats • Up-to-date material
1. Malware: Malicious software • Regularly revised information
2. Spam:unwanted mass emails • Links to support every side effect
3. Phishing: fake companies trying to get private • No broken links on the page
information • No grammar or punctuation mistakes
4. Pharming: redirecting user to phony websites • No misspellings
5. Pop-ups: messages (ads) that pop up while surfing • Mentioned in scientific sources
the web • Bibliography
Credible Sources for children HOW CAN ONE DEVELOP A SENSE OF
• Google Scholar RESPONSIBILITY IN A DIGITAL WORLD?
• iSeek
• Microsoft Academic Scenarios:
• Reefseek Jack can never remember his email password, so he
• OCLC.org just uses his name Jack1 whenever he needs a
• Dogpile password. Safe or Unsafe? Why?
• Core
Marjorie saw the flashing coupon on the computer that
Credible Science Sources said "Click here, you have won a free pizza." She
• ScienceDirect would really like a free pizza, so she clicks on the
• WorldWideScience coupon. Safe or Unsafe? Why?
• SciCentral
• Athenus She asks her mother what she should do. Safe or
• Science.gov Unsafe? Why? Davon wants to buy his dad a neat gift
• Q Sensei Scholar online. He has money from his allowance but the
company only takes credit cards. He knows his mom's
Credible News Sources credit card password, and decides to use it to order the
• BBC News gift. Safe or Unsafe? Why?
• ABC
• NPR Tia wants to join the Penguin Chat Room. The site tells
• The Economist her to check with an adult before joining and using a
• The Wall Street Journal make-believe name. She checks with her Dad. Safe or
• Google News Unsafe? Why?
• NBC
• The Guardian Bryan got an e-mail message from someone he
• CNN doesn't know. He does not open it. Safe or Unsafe?
• PBS Why?

Credible Science Sources Fathema got an email from a friend that said, "E-mail
• NASA this message to ten friends or you will have bad luck
• Scientific American for a month." She forwards the email to ten of her
• Popular Science friends. Safe or Unsafe? Why?
• Real Clear Science
• Discovery Vivian always makes sure the Virus Protection
• Nautilus software is turned on and up-to-date when she uses
• National Geographic the computer. If the software says "Virus Found," she
is careful to destroy the virus before opening a
document. Safe or Unsafe? Why?
Lesson 4 - Integration of Cyber/Digital Literacy to
Teaching and Learning Javier found a neat game online that downloads for
free, but it tells him to turn off his Virus Protection
When designing lessons there are components that we software before downloading. He turns off his Virus
need to include such as the following: Protection. Safe or Unsafe? Why?
• Topic: Responsibility through Safe Navigation
• Grade Level: Grade 4
• Essential Understanding: To develop responsibility, Have students work in pairs to analyze and make
students should consider all life’s dimensions and the decisions about the scenarios presented. Students
inclusions of media use is already part of life in his era. should share out giving reasons for their decisions.
• Learning Outcomes: Students can also create their own situations or report
Students will learn and be able to dramatize situations on similar situations they have encountered.
or come up with a poster that shows a clear
understanding of developing a sense of responsibility Sharing in a big group after the pair-share activity and
in life by being safe even in a digital world. students can also make additional statements to add
to an Internet Safety Chart or Poster
Students will analyze and make appropriate decisions
about Internet safety scenario presented by teacher or For group work
peers. Students can make a movie with Common Craft
discussing Internet Safety Design safety posters for
Introduction: Introduce and discuss Netsmartz the classroom or for the school.
Internet Safety Pledge
Or they can present a skit in an assembly through
portraying internet safety and how to develop
responsibility even in the digital world.
Assessment
You can have a peer assessment and self-assessment
during the pair share activity about the scenario. A
checklist for the poster/chart can be used as an
evaluation tool. A rubric on the movie that they will
create by group will serve as an assessment tool. They
can also take the Safekids Online Safety & Civility
Quiz if the internet is not a problem to the students.
MODULE 7 - ECOLITERACY
Lesson 1 - Eco Literacy
What is Eco-Literacy?
• It is the ability to understand ecology's basic
principles and to live accordingly. - Fritjof Capra
(American physicist)
• It is the ability to understand the natural systems that
make life on earth possible. To be ecoliterate, you
should be able to understand ecological communities,
to create sustainable human communities, to let nature
become our teacher, to form legacy by sharing our
knowledge to other individuals. Bill Graham (Marine
Biologist)
• It is fostered when teachers integrate an inquiry-
based approach on developing student's
understanding and awareness of all the environmental
elements and their interconnectedness. Environmental
education strengthens the ecoliteracy of students and
of the community where they belong. - Joel Barnes
(2013)
What is Sustainable Development?
"Development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs." - 1987 Brundtland
Commission Report
Environment, Society, Culture and Economy are the
four intertwined dimensions of sustainable
development. Thus, sustainable development pertains
to the many processes and pathways such as
sustainable agriculture and forestry, sustainable
production and consumption, good government,
research and technology transfer, education and
training to achieve sustainability. - UNESCO
Five Ways to Develop "Ecoliteracy" (Goleman et al.,
2013)
1. Develop empathy for all forms of life.
It is important to realize that all living
organisms, including human beings, need the same
materials to survive like food, water, and shelter. By
knowing this, humans will not feel superior but will view
oneself as a member of nature. This will allow us to
feel more empathetic towards other organisms.
2. Embrace sustainability as a community practice.
It is important to note that living organisms are
interconnected. This connection determines our ability
to survive and thrive. Strengthening relationships and
acting cooperatively as a community is very important.
3. Make the invisible visible.
A lot of people are still not convinced of the
effect on climate change of the increase on the
demand of fossil fuel. This is due to the fact that we
don't often experience changes in the weather, but
climate disruption overtime is a different story. Thus, it
is important to recognize the invisible things and make
it visible.
4. Anticipate unintended consequences.
Most of the environmental issues of today are
the effects of unpremeditated human activities of
yesterday. Thus, it is very important to turn to nature
and recognize that the capacity of natural communities
to bounce back from unintended consequences is very
essential for survival.
5. Understand how nature sustains life.
Eco-literate individuals live in such a way that
it fulfills the present generation's needs and at the
same time supports the ability of nature to sustain life
into the future.
25 Ultimate Ideas to Practice Sustainable Living
(conserveenergyfuture.com)
1. Become a member of a community garden.
2. Practice minimalism.
3. Change the lights (to CFL-Compact Fluorescent
Lamp) in your house.
4. Be more efficient with your errands.
5. Start using natural cleaners.
6. Spend more time reading and playing games.
7. Try to get on a more natural sleep schedule to
lessen the amount of power you use at night.
8. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.
9. Walk, bike or carpool to work.
10. Unplug device when not in use.
11. Buy a right-sized house.
12. Use daylight as much as possible.
13. Stop unwanted mail.
14. Practice keeping a "zero energy balance" budget.
15. Change your washing habits. 16. Choose
renewable energy.
17. Buy products with less packaging.
18. Ditch the plastic.
19. Skip single-use items.
20. Replace all possible disposables.
21. Carry your own disposable shopping bags.
22. Use sustainable technologies.
23. Observe an Eco-Sabbath-a day or an afternoon or
at least an hour of not doing anything and giving
yourself and the planet a break.
24. Share with friends or borrow.
25. Have a tree-free home (ex: replacing paper
napkins with cloth or towels).
Lesson 2 - The Seven Environmental Principles
THE SEVEN ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
• This part focuses on the fundamental environmental
principles. It is important to get acquainted to these
principles for us to be more effective in protecting our
environment and be wise in using our resources.
1. Everything is Connected to Everything Else
In Science, we are taught about the
"Ecosystem". This gives the idea that everything is
interconnected. Ecosystem is defined as the
interaction between the living components and
nonliving components of the environment. For example,
a tree which is essential to the living organisms such
as orchids, ants, birds, lichen, insects, and even big
animals happens to also play an important role in
converting carbon dioxide and water to oxygen and
glucose in a process known as photosynthesis. The
biotic components of the ecosystem (in this case the
tree) affects and is affected by the nonliving
components such as the air, temperature, and soil.
The interaction of humans with the
environment creates a chain of effects because any
changes outside of the system can cause imbalance
and might collapse the system.
2. All Forms of Life are Important
Most of the time we admire the beauty of birds
and butterflies flying around, but we are less
appreciative of snakes and alligators because of fear.
Appreciation leads to care but fear sometimes leads to
cruelty. Thus, it is vital to always remember that all
organisms are important and that they play a
significant role in the environment. All forms of life are
important and should be treated equally with respect.
3. Everything Must Go Somewhere
Enjoying your favorite chocolate bar and then
throwing the wrapper away may seem like the
packaging had disappeared, but it still exists and just
ends up elsewhere. This is because everything ends
up elsewhere. The use of resources and the disposal
of wastes must be our concern knowing that it can go
somewhere and affect other organisms. For example,
garbage not properly handled can cause air, soil, or
water pollution.
4. Ours is a finite Earth
There are two classifications of the resources
in our planet--- renewable and non-renewable
resources. It can be recalled that renewable resources
are Earth's resources which can be replaced or
replenished by the cycles of nature. Examples of
renewable resources are water, air, and biomass from
plants and animals. On the other hand, oil, natural gas,
coal, and nuclear energy are examples of
nonrenewable resources. It is important to remember
that even if renewable resources can be replenished, it
can be overused and can be destroyed by pollution
and other anthropogenic factors.
5. Nature knows best
It is necessary for human beings to
understand the rules of nature and follow these natural
laws. Following these rules and not going against the
natural process would ensure a continuous and steady
supply of natural resources. However, if human beings
disrupt nature's cycle, this will result to ecosystem's
imbalance.
6. Nature is Beautiful and We are Stewards of
God's Creation
Human beings are created in the image and
likeness of God and have given the right control over
His creations. Tagged as the most intelligent and gifted
with will and reasoning, human beings have the
capacity to manipulate God's creation to one's
advantage. However, it is important to remember that
living organisms do not exist to be damaged or abused,
but to be taken care of bearing in mind that humans
can never exist without nature. Human beings and
other creatures co-exist in the environment they inhabit.
Thus, destroying the environment is tantamount to
destroying one's self.
7. Everything Changes
Everything is constantly changing, including
the environment both its biotic and abiotic components.
Living organisms develop over time and the non-living
things change through time. However, with the
advancement of technology, the changes in nature
may now cause problems to us. Therefore, humans
should think wisely of the actions which might create a
beneficial but at the same time disastrous effects to
human beings and to other organisms.
Lesson 3 - Making Schools Dark Green Schools
A. What is Green School?
According to The Center for Green Schools, a
green school is a school that supports global
sustainability by looking at the future, and by creating
learning activities for students so they can lead a world
progressing towards a healthier, cleaner, more
sustainable future.
There are three pillars in measuring the school's
progress:
1. Reduced environmental impact;
2. Increased health and well-being;
3. Increased environmental and sustainability
literacy for all graduates.
These create a genuine impact on student and
teacher's health and on sustainability on a global scale.
The following are the benefits of Green School as
described by the Center for Green Schools:
1. Protect Health
2. Increase Student Performance
3. Save Energy, Save Money
4. Reduce Carbon Emissions
5. Reduce Water Usage
6. Improve Teacher Retention
7. Improve Daily Attendance
8. Provide A Unique Educational Opportunities
9. Create Green Jobs
10.Improve Equity
B. What is a Dark Green School (DGS)?
Dark Green School (DGS) as defined by the
Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) is "a
school that delivers Environmental Education through
assimilation of the environmental philosophy by the
students' day in and day out in formal lessons as well
as from activities outside the classroom". The main
objective of the Dark Green School Program is for the
graduating students from Philippine Schools to acquire
the necessary knowledge, skills, and motivation to
work for the integrity of the environment in the country,
for the whole God's creations, and for the sake of the
present and the future generations.
Characteristics of a Dark Green School
The following are the characteristics of a Dark Green
School as described by the Environmental
Management Bureau of the Philippines.
1. Neat and clean--- evidence of good management
and housekeeping.
2. Calls for green spaces, appropriate land use,
conservation of materials and energy, proper waste
management, segregation, appropriate use of
materials and avoidance of harmful ones, and respect
others' right to smoke-free air.
3. Calls for management policies and guidelines.
4. Has well-planned environmental curriculum for all
levels.
5. Faculty and students' awareness and appreciation
of the environmental programs of the school.
6. Community extension on information drive about
Mother Earth and conducts projects to improve the
environment.
7. Engages in research about nature and the impact of
human activities.
Lesson 4 - Environmental Education
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
(*The following content is taken verbatim from the
National Environmental Education Action Plan for
Sustainable Development 2005-2014)
BROAD DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION
- Environmental education is the process by which
people develop awareness, knowledge and concern of
the environment and its diverse values and processes,
and learn to use this understanding to preserve,
conserve and utilize the environment in a sustainable
manner for the benefit of present and future
generations. EE involves the acquisition of skills,
motivations and commitments to work individually and
collectively toward the solution of current
environmental problems and the prevention of new
ones.
- Environmental education adopts an integrated
approach to the environment, both natural and human-
made, and promotes a holistic, dynamic and
interactive view of its biological, physical, social,
economic, technological and cultural components.
Different emphases are recommended for
environmental education in various sectors:
1. Elementary, Secondary, and Teachers' Training.
Environmental education at the school level should
orient and develop students' perceptions and values
as well as encourage their active participation toward
environmental protection and conservation. At the
teacher education level, EE should train pre- and in-
service teachers to plan, develop and implement
environmental commitment, not only in teaching but
also in their daily life.
2. Non-formal Sector. Environmental education
should inculcate awareness and understanding, as
well as promote skills, commitments and actions
among individuals and social groups for the protection
and improvement of environmental quality for the
benefit of present and future generations.
3. Higher Education: Environmental education at the
higher education level should contribute in the
deepening of knowledge and developing the
necessary skills for the management and improvement
of environmental quality that is conducive to the
welfare/well-being of the Filipino people. EE at this
level should help develop a critical mass of specialists
for the management of environmental resources in a
manner which sustains its productivity and maintains
its ecological integrity. For the non specialists,
environmental education at the tertiary level should
incorporate important environmental perspectives in
the General Education Curriculum of all professional
disciplines.
Environmental education should:
1. consider the total environment (natural and human-
made, scientific and social dimensions, immediate and
global);
2. be integrated in all subject areas;
3. be taught in all grade levels, progressively building
up students' understanding, skills and attitudes;
4. utilize diverse learning environments and a broad
array of interactive approaches and learning
experiences;
5. be suitable to the cognitive level of students at
different year levels;
6. enable students to develop their own sense of
values and commitment by participating in the
problem-solving and decision-making situations;
7. promote the value of local, national and international
cooperation.
With the value that Filipinos place on education, a high
percentage of our children obtain some years of
schooling. The formal school can be utilized to reach
these millions of children. Their actions now and as
adults in the future will spell the difference between
environmental protection and environmental
degradation.
EE has two components. The first is the
knowledge component which describes:
1. what the problems are;
2. why these problems exist;
3. what is presently being done about the problems
and who are responsible; and
4. what remains to be done about the problems.
The second is the process component which includes
the teaching methods by which the knowledge base
may be taught to students at various levels regardless
of subject matter.
The scope of EE therefore includes the
development of the three aspects of the
teaching/learning process namely:
1. cognitive, to develop awareness and understanding
of environmental concerns;
2. affective, to develop positive values, attitudes and
behaviors; and
3. practical, to develop the "hands on" skills -
observation, - investigations, problem-solving and
decision-making for studying and protecting the
environment.
Teachers and teacher-trainers should be familiar with
the content and process component to effectively and
efficiently implement EE programs. Pre service and in-
service training programs should include EE
dimensions.
Higher Education
Environmental education should:
1. provide specialists with a clear understanding of the
intricacies and complexities of the different
components of the environment, both natural and
human-made ecosystems;
2. enable specialists to acquire a working knowledge
of the interrelationships between humans (and their
activities) and the different ecosystems; specifically,
how various activities of humans affect the
environment, and how various configurations of the
environment influence the behavior of humans;
3. inculcate within specialists a set of values
appropriate to the Filipino culture;
4. be responsive to the present needs of the country
and be anticipative of future needs;
5. stress the importance of sustainable development
and the contribution of the different specialist
disciplines in achieving this goal;
6. not only develop the technical capability of
specialists; it must also be able to foster critical
thinking and environmentally-sound decision-making;
7. inculcate within the business, economics, and
related non- environmental science professional
disciplines the right attitude toward resource
management and resource rents, and sustainable
development of common resources; and
8. integrate into the general education curriculum, the
significance of natural systems and environment as
economic sources of growth and life-support systems.
Non-Formal Sector Environmental Education
should:
1. enable people to appreciate the diverse values of
their natural heritage and to realize the importance of
each individual in protecting and restoring ecosystems
(i.e., promote awareness);
2. provide information about environmental problems
and foster in people a desire to improve the quality of
their local environment (i.e., be informing);
3. cater to all ages and social groups (i.e., be
including);
4. encourage the undertaking of initiatives and the
acquisition of skills to help solve environmental
problems (i.e., be empowering);
5. motivate individuals to participate in community
decision-making on environmental issues and
undertake responsible actions (i.e., be participatory);
6. motivate individuals to adopt an ethic of partnership
with Nature to enable the sustainable management of
natural resources (i.e., promote partnership)
OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES
The National Environmental Education Action Plan
(NEEAP) will operationalize the environmental
education strategy espoused under the Philippine
Strategy for Sustainable Development (PSSD), and the
Enhanced Philippine Agenda 21. It will also echo, in an
operational manner, the stipulation pertaining to
environmental education as embodied in the major
environmental laws of the country. Lastly, it will
address the issues/concerns highlighted in the review
of EE in the country,
OBJECTIVES:
The three-fold objectives of the NEEAP are as follows:
1. to initiate mass-based action on environmental
conservation through information, education, and
communication (IEC) campaign;
2. improve the delivery systems for environmental
education at the formal and non-formal levels; and
3. to produce the environmental human power needed
for the next two decades.
KEY STRATEGIES:
The major strategies that shall be adopted by the
DENR, in tandem with the major education
departments (DepEd, TESDA and CHED), in attaining
these objectives are as follows:
1. help in the establishment of centers of excellence in
environmental education in the different regions of the
country;
2. provide an incentive support to deserving
professionals who would wish to pursue specialization
in the fields of environmental science and
management;
3. strengthen the environmental education role and
advocacy work of NGOs;
4. improve the technical capability of the DENR and
the education departments, in the delivery of
environmental education to the general public and
other concerned agencies;
5. mobilize the youth in environmental enhancement
projects; and
6. promote an integrated approach in educating the
local communities on environmental conservation.
Lesson 5 - Integration of Eco-Literacy to teaching and
learning
TEACHING STRATEGIES
The Center for Ecoliteracy suggests different teaching
strategies that the teacher can use which would be
able to cater the students' level of development and
which are brain-based research. The goal is to nurture
the knowledge, skills, and values of the students which
are important to sustainable living. The teaching
strategies vary such hands-on activities, reflection,
discussion, indoor and outdoor exposures, and
interdisciplinary projects.
1. Place-based Learning
This is one of the ways to capture students'
imagination, environmental stewardship, and civic
involvement. Placed based programs let the students
participate in their community. The center for
Ecoliteracy suggests the following activities:
a. local environment mapping for learning of ecological
and cultural principles.
b. Habitat restoration projects
c. Projects in cooperation with the locals for quality life
improvements.
2. Project-based Learning
Traditionally, projects are supplementary to instruction,
but this teaching strategy is the core of the curriculum.
This is anchored to challenging questions which
requires higher-order thinking skills. In this type of
strategy, the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than
the sole source of knowledge because the projects
may range from a few weeks to an entire academic
year. This would also require the students to utilize a
variety of resources, community's involvement, field
experts, technology, written materials and the web.
The Center for Ecoliteracy already supported teachers
in projects such as:
a. Animal welfare
b. Workers' rights
c. Right to know the food content
d. Copyrighting of genetically modified plants.
4. Experiential Learning
This is based on the works of Piaget and Dewey who
were a firm believer that learning is an active process.
In a traditional setting, the teacher is viewed as an
expert while the learners are just passively taking all
the information. However, experiential learning
believes that students should be actively involved in
the process while the teacher facilitates the learning
process. This type of learning is important for
promoting sustainability because it is through firsthand
experiences of the environment that the students can
understand the primary ecological principles. The
Center for Eco literacy promotes the following as
learning laboratories:
a. School gardens
b. Food and cooking
c. Civic engagement
d. Schoolyard
5. Interdisciplinary Learning
This type of learning strategy focuses on the
connections of disciplines such as math, science,
history, and language arts, rather than focusing only
on one content area. This prevents the isolation and
fragmentation of topics and skills. Studies show that
students learn more when there is application in
different areas and at the same time interaction with
their classmates, teachers, and community. The
Center for Ecoliteracy believes that their:
a. Publication,
b. Seminars, and
c. Ongoing work take an interdisciplinary approach

a. Habitat restoration
b. Modeling the evolution of agriculture
c. Changing the food in schools

3. Socratic Inquiry
This strategy is named after Socrates, a Greek Ancient
philosopher. He believed that questions stimulate
learning and not the answers. Instead of presenting
facts, Socrates encouraged students to ask questions
about assumptions, values, and preconceptions. In this
way, the students will develop their critical thinking,
develop tolerance despite differences in opinion,
improve listening skills, and express their thoughts and
ideas. On the part of the teacher, he/she becomes
facilitator of the discussion. The Center for Ecoliteracy
developed a curriculum anchored to Socratic inquiry
which allows the students to discuss and debate about:
MODULE 8 - ARTISTIC AND CREATIVE LITERACY
Lesson 1 - Aesthetics and Creative Expressions in the
arts
• Etynnologically the word “art” came from the Latin
word “arti” which means craftsmanship, inventiveness,
mastery of form, skill. It serves as an original record of
human needs and achievements. It usually refers to
the so-called “fine arts” (e.g., graphics, plastic, and
building) to the so-called “minor arts” (everyday, useful,
applied, and decorative arts).
• However, some sources are saying the word came
from “ars” which means art, skill or craft. The first
known use of the word comes from 13th-century
manuscripts. However, the word art and its many
variants (artem, eart, etc.) have probably existed since
the founding of Rome (Gordon, n.d.).
• According to Marcos (2010), Art is the process of
using our senses and emotions in making creative
activities (Marcos, 2010). It is a human capability to
make things beautiful (e.g., buildings, illustration,
designing, painting, sculpture, and photography)
through the production of his/her imagination
depending on the preparation, the medium, and values
used.
• Significantly, the word artist comes from the French
word artiste and the Spanish artista, which means
“performer”. It is someone who creates art that is
merely trades and professions by which different
people make their living. (Goines, 2004).
• Artists as perceived usually by people are those who
create within a context of the fine arts only such as
acting, dancing, drawing, filmmaking, painting,
sculpture, writing photography, and music. They are
those who use imagination and skill to construct works
that may be judged to have aesthetic importance.
Creativity is a characteristic of an artist that progressed
in the extent of his/her life to express feelings.
• However, the title “artist” doesn’t only mean one who
paints, draws or sculpts. An artist is one who
recognizes talent and respects it. Artists are creative
individuals. Creativity does not belong to a selected
few. Everyone is creative and this creativity comes out
in our everyday lives. Therefore you are creative. Even
without knowing it, you are an artist.
• Look at this change makers (artists) whose work
created a significant impact in this world. Check out
Steve Jobs (Apple), Araham Lincoln (president).
Michael Jackson (performer), Howard Crter
(Archaeolgoist), William Shakespear (Poet), Wayness
Goss (Makeup Artist), Ansel Adams (Photogrpaher),
Adolphe Pegoud (Pilot) and Selvin (Forester) WE arll
reative. It’s just some of us earn our living by being so.
In recent years, the word “art” is roughly used
as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art, where
some skill is being used to express the artist’s
creativity, or to engage the audience’s aesthetic
sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards
consideration of the “finer” things. If the skill being
used is more lowbrow or practical, the word "craft" is
often used instead of art. Similarly, if the skill is being
used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be
considered "design" (or "applied art"). Some have
argued, though, that the difference between fine art
and applied art or crafts has more to do with value
judgments made about the art than any clear
definitional difference.
THE VALUE OF ARTS IN THE EEDUCATIONAL
SYSTEM
• According to the National Art Education Association
(1994), Arts are inseparable from education. Knowing
and practicing the art disciplines are fundamental to
the development of the minds and spirits of the
students. History has taught us that when early
humans drew images on the walls of the caves, the
artworks have been the means of recording human
experience and making sense of what is happening to
the world during that period. Those creations and
products educated us on how our ancestors lived and
survived. Thus, without the skills in the arts, you
cannot claim that you are professionally trained.
• There are significant reasons why the art needs to
be incorporated in an educational system. It is
apparent that involvement in the arts has helped
students in their academic, personal and social
development. Below are the significant points for this
contention:
1. Arts are worth studying because it serves to
connect our imagination with the most
profound questions of human existence.
2. Arts are always used because it helps to
present issues and ideas to teach, persuade,
and entertain people.
3. Arts are integral to everyone’s daily life
because it helps our spiritual, political, social,
cultural, and economic environments.
4. Arts are refreshing because it offers unique
sources of enjoyment, and it investigates
relationship between thoughts and functions.
5. Arts develop student attitudes because it
teaches self-discipline, reinforces self-esteem,
fosters the thinking skills and creativity and
values the importance of teamwork and
cooperation.
FUNCTIONS OF ARTS
There are many reasons why artists create art.
In the prehistoric period for example, people performed
songs and dances to gratify their ancestors. Likewise
hunters brushed different figures on the walls of caves
to depict their day to day experience. Function refers
to the intended effect of the artwork. Arts also served
several functions which are outcome to its purpose
(Menoy, 2009), namely:
Personal Function – The artist performs arts because
of the passion of their respective art forms. It can also
be to express personal feelings. A singer presents a
concert for free because of advocacy and the love of
singing. Or he/she may write to remind viewers of a
personal family tragedy or perhaps the artist wanted to
tell people to appreciate what they have.
Social Function – Man associates with others through
his art performance that arouses social consciousness.
This is also done to reinforce or enhance the shared
sense of identity of families and communications.
Examples of this association are the festive occasions,
parades, uniforms, choral singing, group dancing,
public art exhibits and other practices.
Economic Functions – Arts are emerging as a potent
force in the economic life of people assuming an
essential role as direct and indirect contributor to state
economies. Example of this is by generating economic
vitality in under-performing regions through crafts,
tourism, and cultural attractions.
Political Functions – Art provides a forum for ideas
that will lead to employment, prestige, status, and
power. During the election period, for example, the
candidates created their artworks (poster) which
expresses their propagandas, agendas and political
views about making a stable society.
Historical Functions – Art is an essential technique
for information to be recorded and preserved. It serves
to document or reconstruct historical figures and
events. Most arts that are in the Museum, for example,
are filled with amazing stories about the world's most
excellent and most creative people who brought us
treasures. By looking at a work of art’s colors,
materials, and symbolism, we can learn about the
story and culture that produced it in the past.
Cultural Functions – Arts is an articulation and
transmission of new information and values. Example,
when you think of Manila, you probably think of Fort
Santiago, Luneta Park, and its world- renowned
churches, or the famous Intramuros.
Physical Functions – Buildings are artistically
designed and constructed to protect their occupants
and make their life inside more meaningful. Architects,
Industrial and Graphic Designers, and Interior
Decorators share responsibility in building
environments that balance forms and functions.
Aesthetic Functions – Any artwork means beauty. It
is a visual spice for gracefully adorned interiors and
can bring out the most elegant features of different
décor elements. It reasonably reproduced visual
images which communicate through fantastic
persuasions and meaningful words.
Spiritual functions – To express spiritual beliefs
about the destiny of life controlled by the force of a
higher power.
PURPOSES OF ART
Creativity or imagination is the primary basis of art. Art
is created when an artist produces a stimulating
experience that is considered by his audience to have
artistic merit. The artwork is the visual expression of an
idea or experience of an artist, through the use of a
medium (Frank, 2011). It allows expression of the
individuality of the artist. Through artistic endeavors,
we can share what is important to us with others and
can learn about the values of feelings of those sharing
art with us. Some purposes of art are the following
( Marcos et al, 2011):
• Provide Decoration Beauty
• Reveal Truth
• Create Beauty
• Create Harmony
• Commemorate Experiences
• Express Values
1. Create Beauty – Art is an expression of our
thoughts, emotions, and intuitions. It is the
communication of concepts that cannot be faithfully
portrayed by word alone. The Artist has considered
nature as the standard of beauty. The example of
beauty can be in a snowy mountain scene, and the art
is the photograph of it shown to the family.
2. Provide Decoration - Artworks are used to create
a pleasing environment. It is intended to beautify
things to please and amuse the viewers through its
colors and patterns.
3. Reveal Truth – Artwork helped to pursue truth and
attempted to reveal about how the world works. It is a
kind of language that allows artists to send a message
to the souls of the recipients that help change their
attitudes, their sensibility, and their ethics.
4. Express Values – Arts can illuminate our inner lives
and enrich our emotional world. Through arts, the artist
will be encouraged to develop their creativity,
challenge, and communication skills. It also promotes
self-esteem and wellness.
5. Commemorate Experience – Art serves to convey
the personal experiences of an artist and record his
impression in his work.
6. Create Harmony – An artist makes use of the
composition to put an order in diverse content of his
work.
CLASSIFICATION OF ARTS AND THEIR CREATIVE
EXPRESSIONS
• FINE ARTS
The fine types of art expression are the kinds
of arts wherein the arts are visually attractive and
appreciable. This is why the fine types of art
expression include drawings, paintings, sculptures,
pottery, and many others. The thing is that when you
hear fine arts, it pertains to the many different kinds of
arts that are expressed wherein people can see their
visual appeal and value. Most of these types of arts
are well appreciated by other artists. They say that the
people who appreciate these arts are said to be born
artists as they are able to appreciate the beauty of
these kinds of arts. Fine Arts can be expressed
through the following:
• VISUAL ARTS
Art forms that create works that are primarily
visual in nature. Hence, all fine arts in addition to the
new media, photography, environmental art and
contemporary forms of expression.
• LITERARY ARTS
Literary works include nondramatic textual
works with or without illustrations. They may be
published or unpublished. Computer programs and
databases also are considered literary works. Plays,
dramas, and screenplays are not in the literary works
category. These belong to performing arts and
multidisciplinary arts.
• APPLIED ARTS
Applied art is a part also a visual art and it is
defined as art that has practical application of utilitarian
objects in everyday use. Whereas works of fine
art have no function other than providing aesthetic or
intellectual stimulation to the viewer, works of applied
art are usually functional objects which have been
"prettified" or creatively designed with both aesthetics
and function in mind. Applied art embraces a huge
range of products and items, from a teapot or chair, to
the walls and roof of a railway station or concert hall, a
fountain pen or computer mouse.
• MULTIDISCIPLINARY ARTS
Multidisciplinary arts are those that include
multiple types of arts. This means that something like a
comic book has both visual art and literary art. Films
or cinematography is a prime example of
multidisciplinary arts because it includes performing
arts (acting,) literary arts (scripts,) and visual arts
(effects, set design.)
Multidisciplinary arts combine various different
arts. An example is a Broadway play, which combines
music, acting, and dancing on stage. All of these arts
are an important aspect of culture, because it moves
everything forward. Arts are a way that people can
express themselves whether through written works or
performing them.
WHAT CAN YOU LEARN FROM THE ARTS?
Arts subjects such as art and design, music,
drama and dance are often associated with creativity
and innovation. A broad and balanced curriculum
recognises that encouraging the arts can help students
to develop their own creative voice and creative
thinking skills. Studying an arts subject can also build
learners’ self-confidence as they feel valued for their
unique contributions and talents. When encouraging
creativity across the curriculum, it can be useful to look
at the ideas and techniques that underpin the teaching
of creative subjects such as art, drama and music.
Learner autonomy: Arts subjects can be popular with
learners because of the perceived high level of learner
choice that is involved. Learners often work on projects
that they have devised themselves, according to their
own interests and passions. Unique and original work
is particularly valued, in both informal and formal
assessments. When learners take control of their work
in this way, their levels of intrinsic (internal) motivation
tend to increase (Craft, 2005, p.56).
Valuing uniqueness: Every learner’s outcome will be
different in arts subjects. The idea of there being ‘no
one right answer’ is deeply embedded in both the
teachers’ and the learners’ approaches. Although other
subjects have more fixed subject matter, it is important
for students to learn that there is often more than one
correct answer or more than one way to arrive at an
answer.
Experimentation and play: In all arts subjects, there
is an emphasis on experimentation and ‘play’. An art
teacher will introduce a technique or material, for
example acrylic paint, and learners try it out. This may
initially involve copying examples and practising.
Boden (2001, cited in Ferrari, Cachia & Punie, 2009,
p.19) describes this as ‘exploratory creativity’, and
likens it to a jazz musician learning to improvise based
on a defined set of chords or scales. Having developed
some degree of skill, learners can then start to
experiment and push the boundaries of the material or
technique. They may choose to combine it with
another technique or idea to produce something that is
original to them. Boden calls this ‘combinatorial
creativity’ – the generation of new ideas by combining
or associating existing ideas.
There is a role for experimentation and play in
all disciplines so that students learn to use their
imagination and develop engagement. As in arts
subjects, this must be balanced with, and be
supportive of, skill development so that it supports
students’ basic literacies.
Looking at and discussing artworks: The study of
artworks is not necessarily limited to art or art history
lessons. Images of artworks can be used to prompt
thinking in any subject area. Teachers can use
carefully chosen artworks to prompt discussions and
deeper critical thinking about a topic. Visual Thinking
Strategies (VTS), developed by Yenawine (2014, p.25)
uses art to help learners of any age to develop their
visual literacy, thinking and communication skills, and
is an excellent resource.
Journals, notebooks and sketchbooks: Keeping a
notebook, sketchbook or journal is an essential part of
an art and design education. All the creative skills can
be practised through the discipline of keeping a record
of a learner’s observations, ideas, reflections and
collections. By recording and collecting a wide range of
information, a learner can then start to cultivate
creative connections between different elements and
come up with more unique and original ideas.
Notebooks and journals have been used by many
great creators, such as the poet Lord Tennyson, who
recorded fragments of thought and then generated
connected words and images which led to his poetry.
Charles Darwin kept detailed journals on his travels to
the Galapagos Islands, and his journals contain a
record of his tentative diagrams of the branching
system on which he eventually based his theory of
evolution. Guy Claxton recommends encouraging
learners ‘to keep a commonplace book… in which they
keep scraps of overheard conversation, images,
quotes, fleeting thoughts that didn’t go anywhere… as
most creative writers, scientists, composers do’.
The value of failure: The arts, perhaps more naturally
than other subjects, accept and celebrate failure as a
learning opportunity and understand that it is an
inherent part of the creative process. As West-Knights
(2017, p.49) points out: ‘One of the mainstays of
drama classes… is the notion that mistakes are OK, as
long as you are trying things out.’
Peer review and feedback: Peer review sessions
(sometimes called group critiques) are commonly used
in art and design as a method of informal interim
assessment. Learners present their work to small
groups of their peers and receive constructive
feedback. The process is carefully scaffolded by the
teacher, who leads initial sessions, modelling the types
of questions and comments that are appropriate.
When successful, peer reviewing helps learners to
build independence, gain insight into their peers’
working and thinking processes, and develop
confidence in themselves as creative individuals.
As future educators you should reflect upon
personal philosophies and practices, you should
consider the benefits for children in engaging in
activities that focus on process rather than product.
Regardless of whether children are engaged in music,
visual arts, or dramatic arts there are very clear
differences between whether an activity is centered on
the experience itself or the final outcome.
Whether the art is music (improvising a
soundscape with instruments rather than singing along
with a recording), visual arts (freeform sculpting with
clay rather than pasting precut shapes onto a piece of
paper), or dramatic arts (improvising during creative
play rather than memorizing dialogue and actions for a
play), comparing experiences to end results clearly
reveal the depth of differences each activity provides
to children.
There is debate among art teachers as to
whether or not process or product is more important in
art education. In this case, process refers to the
learning that takes place during an assignment or
lesson. Product refers to the actual artifact that is
produced. Of course, both of these are essential in art
education. Some teachers feel that one should take
precedence over the other. So where should the focus
be in the lessons that you present to students? Should
you focus on process or product?
It should be understood that both are essential.
Introductory levels should be focused on process while
upper levels may focus more on product. You see, if
you are effective in your lessons that focus on process,
then the product will follow.
As art educators, we should be educating our
students. They should be learning from us. So-to be
fair, we should never focus on a product, because the
product naturally follows when the art instruction is
quality. Don’t misunderstand that this product is
important. It is important as an indicator of what is
being learned. When the product is quality across an
entire class, you know that you have done your job as
an art educator. The students have learned in the
process and as a result created a great product.
It is really your job to help students know how
to get to the quality product. Let’s look at the
basketball coach analogy in relation to advanced art
students. These students may have developed skills
just like a more developed basketball team may
have. The focus of the basketball team is now on
winning. But what is the job of the coach? Isn’t it still
the coach’s job to teach and show the team how to
win? Even though the focus has changed, the job of
the coach remains the same. The same is true of the
art educator at the advanced level. The focus of the
assignment may be on the product, but the focus of
the teacher remains on the process.
APPRECIATING BEAUTY IN THE ARTS
Aesthetics is from the Greek word eithesis
which means “perception”. It is a branch of philosophy
devoted to the study of art and beauty used during the
18th century by Alexander Baumgarten, a German
philosopher. This term also refers to the principles
governing the nature and appreciation of beauty,
especially in visual arts (Radar, 1979).
Art appreciation is a way to express ideas and
allow individuals to illustrate their feelings when they
view their art. It helps develop critical and innovative
skills in thinking and teaches essential qualities like
listening, observing, responding to multiple viewpoints,
It also requires an ability to differentiate what is
obvious and what is not ( Gargaro & Jilg, 2016 and
Sanger, 2012 as cited in Ramos, 2018.
For you to easily analyze works of arts, you must study
the following by heart.
THE PRINCIPLES OF UNDERSTANDING ARTISTIC
DESIGN AND COMPOSITION
Art principles are created by combining art elements.
Artists utilize organizing principles to develop forms
that inform. Among fundamental principles of art are
harmony, variety, balance, movement, emphasis,
proportion, and rhythm. Whether analysing or
composing artwork, one must have a complete
understanding of how art principles are created (Elsen,
1891).
The Principle of Harmony. When all of the elements
of art interact well in an artwork, visual harmony is
attained. This is accomplished by using similar types of
geometric shapes, lines or colors within a work of art to
create unified composition. Likewise, using various
cool or warm colors would help to produce a
harmonious work of art.
The Principle of Variety. A stable composition will
also demonstrate the principle of variety. It is
accomplished by using differing colors, lines, and
shapes within an artwork to make key areas stand out.
Artists can use this idea to direct a viewer’s eye to a
place within the art that he or she wants to emphasize.
The Principle of Balance. It refers to the symmetry of
opposing visual forces. It is created in a work of art
when colors, forms, shapes or textures are combined
harmoniously.
The Principle of Movement. It is the way that an eye
moves throughout a work of art. In this work of art, our
eyes move up through the pattern in the rippling
surface of the water to the two paddlers. An artist
creates a visual movement to drive the eye to the focal
point of the artwork.
Principle of Emphasis. It refers to the need for an
artist to create a focal point within an artwork. The
artistic point is an essential part of a work of art, and a
viewer’s eye should be drawn to that area.
Principle of Proportion. This principle is created
when the sizes of the elements in an artwork art are
combined harmoniously. The artist usually tries to
make all of the parts in a composition relate logically to
each other to depict the human form within the proper
proportion.
Principle of Rhythm. It refers to the visual pattern
within a work of art. Models within an artwork are
created by repeating certain colors, lines, or shapes in
specific areas. It can also be used to form a variety of
textures within a work of art.
Lesson 2 - Developing Creativity as a 21ST Century
THE STATE OF CREATIVITY DRIVE IN SCHOOLS
WORLDWIDE
• “Creativity” also called creative thinking in some
literatures is generally conceptualized as the ability to
produce something that is both novel and useful
( Amabile, 1996; Plucker, Beghetto, & Dow, 2004). For
example, inventions such as the computer and the
printing press and paintings such as the Mona Lisa are
creative endeavors.
• Creativity can also be described as the ability to see
ordinary things differently. An often-cited example of
this kind of creative thinking is the creation of Velcro,
which arose from the observation of cockleburs
clinging to clothes. The inventor, George de Mestral,
clearly was able to see a common item in a different
and original way and was able to generate a clear,
detailed idea that resulted in his million-dollar product.
The developers of the iPod, the cell phone, and the
YouTube Website all employed creative thinking in the
creation of their products.
• But notice that whenever one creates a thing for
whatever purpose it may serve, the creation will
always start with gathering thoughts known as “idea
generation. You do not create a product right away.
You go into a process of “self talk” to purge ideas that
you need for the step by step making of a product.
From these definitions, idea generation could be
viewed as a part of learning because all idea-
generating activities are experiences leading to the
change of a person’s knowledge or behavior.
• Developing student creativity has been, and
continues to be,one of the most important educational
goals in the world (Craft,1999; Pang & Plucker, 2012;
Shaheen, 2010 as cited in Pang, 2015). In support of
this goal, researchers have not only made great efforts
in developing relevant theories but also provided
numerous practical suggestions for school teachers
(e.g., Beghetto & Kauf-man, 2010; Starko, 2010;
Sternberg & Williams, 1996).
• However, classroom practices that focus on fostering
creativity are not as successful as expected (Bronson
& Merryman, 2010). For instance, the PISA 2012
results concerning students’ creative problem solving
abilities showed that about one in five students in
participating countries is only able to solve problems in
a conventional way, thus indicating a lack of creative
thinking(OECD, 2014). The reasons the teaching of
creative thinking is less than successful are
undoubtedly many, but the major reason might be the
de-emphasis and ineffectiveness of classroom
creativity in teaching and learning (Beghetto & Plucker,
2006).
• Since the issue of promoting classroom creativity is
directly associated with learning, idea generation, and
creativity, it might be useful for you to analyze their
relationships first. Learning is typically defined as a
relatively permanent change in human performance or
performance potential as a result of
experience( Driscoll, 1994; Mayer, 1982).
• Idea generation refers to “the creation of new and
potentially useful ideas”. But, not all learning is derived
from idea generation. For example, learning which
results from memorizing facts and familiarizing oneself
with mathematical rules, do not result in new ideas.
Similarly, creativity could be depicted as a type of idea
generation if put under the context of learning and
focusing on outcomes or products. The ideas that are
generated during learning can be any ideas: new or
old, useful or useless. However, be reminded that only
ideas that are novel and useful are creative ones
(Beghetto& Plucker, 2006).
• In other words, creative ideas are nothing but those
newly produced and at the same judged as useful. Yet
not all the ideas generated during learning are creative,
even if they have the potential to be creative. To help
better understand this relationship, you may look at the
figure below.
• From this figure, you can deduce that in terms of
cognitive outcomes, learning (outermost layer)
contains idea generation (middle layer), which in turn
contains creativity (innermost layer). This relationship
is partly supported by what Guilford (1950) claimed, “a
creative act is an instance of learning, for it represents
a change in behavior that is due to stimulation and/or
response”. So whenever there is less idea generation
because of the tight curriculum which focuses so much
on rote memory, then expect that lesser opportunities
for classroom creativity ensue
Pang( 2015) liken the relationship between
idea generation and creative development is to pearl
cultivation. Pearls are generated by living pearl oysters
and freshwater mussels. With human aid, an oyster or
mussel produces pearls of various sizes, shapes,
smoothness, and shine. The pearls with the finest
quality valued as gemstones are bigger, rounder,
smoother, and more nacreous. The smaller but round
and smooth pearls are also valuable. However, oysters
and mussels also generate pearls with irregular
shapes.
Although these may also be referred to as
pearls, most of them have no use. Thus, the best
cultured pearls are generated by oysters and mussels
and selected by humans from numerous pearls formed
in the same way. If a pearl farmer wants to harvest
valuable pearls, he must first enable the oysters or
mussels to generate pearls. Creative ideas or products
come from idea-generation activities in the same way.
If we want to obtain creative products (valuable pearls)
from our students, we must first engage them in
various idea-generation activities and encourage them
to generate as many new ideas as possible,
regardless of whether some are silly or of no use.
From our discussions in Lesson 1, it was
presented that creativity is one of the most essential
traits that every employer desires while hiring an
employee. Creativity is important in almost every
aspect of life, right from feeding a child to almost every
aspect of the business, creativity plays an exceedingly
crucial role. Therefore, it is important to understand
what is creativity and what is the psychology behind it.
Studying and understanding of creativity is not
easy. It is considered one of the most complex topics
to study by the psychologists. Since a lot of definitions
about it abound, there is no clear consensus on how to
define creativity. However, creativity is a way to
produce something new and different which has some
value or to do the same mundane thing or a new thing
in a new way using a new technique which is unique in
itself to get better / positive results or simply to get
more business.
Any person who has a fresh perspective
towards a particular thing is different from any usual
perception. Musicians, artists, engineers, business
tycoons, entrepreneurs, and several people like them
are creative thinkers. One cannot copy anything;
everyone has their way of creativity. Examples of
creative thinking skills include visual art, problem-
solving, communication skills, writing, composing
music. All creative thinkers are not an artist. Some
include science and business too.
So in simple words, we can say creativity
means when a person comes up with something new,
something unique which is different from others.
Hence, as an individual, try something new, take
challenges, keep struggling and come out of your
comfort zone. These ways are certainly you to help
you become a better thinker.
The Significant Benefits Of Creativity In The
Classroom ( Sylvia Duckworth)
Creativity is a valuable skill. All too often
people outgrow their imagination as adulthood
approaches due to an encroaching sense of self-doubt,
an ingrained belief that it’s an impractical pursuit, or
firm guidance from more experienced grown-ups
advising engineering over art school. Although almost
everyone would agree that creativity is important,
budget cuts to areas of education like art and music
programs demonstrate differently.
1. Creativity is Multidisciplinary. Not only can you
practice creativity through many different mediums, its
benefits are applicable to almost all professions.
2. Creativity allows you to express yourself. An
integral part of the human condition involves learning
who we are and recognizing how that fits into the rest
of the world. Creativity allows self-discovery, as well as
the opportunity to share a hidden side of ourselves.
3. Creativity promotes thinking and problem-
solving. From technical details of writing, drawing, or
composing to the challenge of creating, problem-
solving is a required component of the creative
process.
4. Creativity reduces stress and anxiety. People
usually pursue creative projects because they enjoy
the process or the outcome. Just the act of creating
inspires a sense of contentment.
5. Creativity allows you to enter your happy zone
and have fun. Creativity is really another form of play,
and play is universally important to each individual’s
sense of joy and well-being.
6. Creativity gives you a sense of purpose. Writers,
artists, and musicians often identify by those words
whether they make money at their craft or not. Their
creative method is their way of processing the world
and a way of describing who they are.
7. Creativity can lead to feelings of
accomplishment and pride. The combination of
brainstorming, the technical process, and a finished
process is often the perfect recipe for personal
satisfaction.
8. Creativity can link you to others with the same
passion. Art is important because it fosters a sense of
connection and understanding of what it means to be
human. A creative focus can help you find your
community and feel less alone in the world.
9. Creativity improves your ability to focus. The act
of creating requires dedication and commitment, not
only to each individual project but to the craft itself.
10. Creativity promotes risk-taking and iteration.
Making things isn’t easy; making things others will
appreciate is even harder. Creativity requires courage,
confidence, and the willingness to fail and try again.
11. Creativity is a prerequisite for innovation. Every
advancement known to mankind started with a new
idea, and new ideas are inspired by imagination and
creativity.
12. Creativity encourages us to be lifelong learners
Creativity requires the humbleness to know that there’s
always room for improvement and a commitment to
continue challenging your ideas and ability until new
growth occurs.
THE ROLES OF TEACHERS IN HELPING
LEARNERS DEVELOP THEIR CREATIVE HABITS
AND SKILLS
Teachers are creative, experimenting with new
ideas and pursuing an enquiring approach in their
teaching. They are open to new challenges, being
resourceful, imaginative, and flexible. They are always
ready to learn and apply new skills and techniques.’
However, it is very hard for a teacher to be creative if
they are following a prescribed curriculum and given
little or no room for their own creative input into their
teaching practice. Syllabuses, textbooks and teacher
support material are extremely important in helping to
structure and support learning but they also need to
allow for the teacher’s professional creativity. Teachers
can support creativity and innovation by:
1. Role modelling creative habits.
Nothing is more important than the teacher
exemplifying the habits, behaviours and thinking they
want students to demonstrate. They need to exemplify
creative traits such as curiosity and the development of
creative skills (see thinking routines later in this
chapter).
2. Appreciating the critical importance of
questions, both their own and those asked by
students
Questions of creative teachers are usually
open-ended, probing and requires time to come up
with answers to. Pose questions and challenges, and
follow up with opportunities for solitude and reflection.
Solicit questions from you’re the students too. This
provides time and space to foster the forging of new
connections that is so vital to creativity.
3. Treating mistakes as learning opportunities and
encouraging learners to take sensible risks in the
classroom.
Encouraging learners to take ‘sensible risks’ in
their work is important for building up their creative
confidence. It is important that this takes place in a
supportive environment, and that the teacher and
learner have discussed what boundaries are
acceptable in their context. It is also important to set
some ground rules in collaboration with learners.
4. Giving learners sufficient time to complete their
work.
Sometimes ideas need time to develop before
becoming valuable. Giving learners the scope to come
up with their own ideas can be challenging for both
teachers and learners. Learners will need time to think
and work independently of the teacher. Delay
judgement of learners’ ideas until they have had time
to work them out properly
5. Scaffolding tasks carefully to provide the
appropriate level of challenge
Ideally, a teacher should try to design tasks
that help the learner to cross over into this area by
‘scaffolding’, or supporting them at first, and then
withdrawing support so that the learner can
increasingly achieve the task on their own.
Even a small change in teaching approach can
bring about a change in a learner’s creative disposition.
If learners start to see that there is not always ‘one
right answer’ to many questions, both in school and in
life, then their creative confidence will grow. The most
important thing of all is for learners to lay the
foundation of their personal creative abilities, on which
they will build throughout their lives.
6. Focus less on the reproduction of information
and more on critical thinking and problem solving.
7. Curate activities that transcend traditional
disciplinary boundaries, such as by painting murals
that depict biological food chains, or acting out plays
about historical events, or writing poems about the
cosmos. After all, the world doesn’t come carved up
into different subject areas. Our culture tells us these
disciplinary boundaries are real and our thinking
becomes trapped in them.
CREATIVITY AS A LEARNED SKILL
Research studies have shown that creativity
can be learned Torrance & Torrance (1973) analysed
142 separate studies and concluded that creativity
training significantly improves individual creativity and
problem solving. This finding has been replicated
many times.
In a modern review across two studies, Scott,
Leritz & Mumford (2004) found that creativity training
programmes produced improvements on everything
from attitudes towards the importance of creativity at
work through to improvements in job performance. It is
a good thing if schools have allocated budgets for the
training of their teachers.
Although educators claim to value creativity,
they don’t always prioritize it.Teachers often
have biases against creative students, fearing that
creativity in the classroom will be disruptive. They
devalue creative personality attributes such as risk
taking, impulsivity and independence. They inhibit
creativity by focusing on the reproduction of knowledge
and obedience in class.
COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CREATIVITY
People sometimes hold tacit beliefs or theories
about the nature of creativity which can have
detrimental effects on attempts to nurture creativity in
an educational context. These theories are different
from what research suggests is in fact the case. For
example, many people believe that creativity is a
natural talent which cannot be taught, whereas studies
have shown that learners can improve their creative
thinking skills with the right type of input.
Sharp (2004), Behghetoo (2007) as cited in Ferrari, 2009, p 17
HOW DOES A CREATIVE CLASSROOM LOOK
LIKE?
When students are being creative in the classroom
they are likely to:
• Question And Challenge. Creative pupils are
curious, question and challenge, and don’t necessarily
follow the rules.
• Make Connections And See Relationships.
Creative pupils think laterally and make associations
between things that are not usually connected.
Envision Want Might Be. They imagine, see
possibilities, ask ‘what if?’, picture alternatives, and
look at things from different viewpoints.
Explore Ideas And Options. Creative pupils play with
ideas, try alternatives and fresh approaches, keep
open minds and modify their ideas to achieve creative
results
Reflect Critically On Ideas, actions and outcomes.
They review progress, invite and use feedback,
criticize constructively and make perceptive
observations.
To encourage the above is likely to require a
change in the way schools are run and the way
teachers teach. “The most powerful way to develop
creativity in your students is to be a role model.
Children develop creativity not when you tell them to,
but when you show them.
Give Students Extended, Unhurried Time To
Explore And Do Their Best Work. Don’t interfere
when students are productively engaged and
motivated to complete tasks in which they are fully
engaged.
Create an inviting and exciting classroom
environment. Provide students with space to leave
unfinished work for later completion and quiet space
for contemplation
Provide an abundant supply of interesting and
useful materials and resources.
Create a classroom climate where students feel
mistakes are acceptable and risk taking is
encouraged. Appropriate noise, mess and autonomy
are accepted.
BARRIERS AND BRIDGES TO CREATIVITY
Saying that creativity may be “deliberate”
means that it is intentional — something done with
thought and the application of specific processes. The
more the tools and skills associated with creative
thinking and Creative Problem Solving are used, the
more ingrained the habit of creative thinking becomes
and the easier it is to utilize in many contexts.
Of course, there are both barriers and bridges to the
practice of deliberate creativity. BARRIERS As with
any practice of effort, some barriers are quite common.
When people feel they are being judged negatively for
their efforts, these barriers can also become self-
protective statements:
• “We don’t have time!”
• “It takes too many resources.”
• “I’m just not the creative type.”
• “In this culture? You’ve got to be kidding.”
• “Not me! I’m not hanging myself out to dry
like that.”
• “I don’t have a creative bone in my body. Not
my skill-set.”
• “Don’t we have an art department that does
that?”
• “I don’t want to look stupid.”
• “We tried that before. It won’t work.”
Notice that all of these focus on time,
resources, culture, internal and external judgment, and
perceptions of talent or skill. Whether these are
external statements or internal self-talk, they have a
dramatic impact: they help others believe that they
aren’t, can’t be, or shouldn’t be creative — and that
simply isn’t the case. So, remember that everyone has
tremendous creative potential that can be unlocked
and harnessed. The challenge is to identify the factors
that affect awareness and use of creativity. Once an
individual knows those, it’s easier to make productive
choices about how to use, improve, and refine skills
that support creativity.
BRIDGES Along with the barriers that inhibit the ability
to express creativity, there are also bridges. These key
elements support deliberate creativity and creative
thinking. They include the choice to:
• Shift from “Yes, but” to “Yes, and” thinking.
• Foster a “What if?” outlook (remaining
curious).
• Suspend or defer judgments to maintain
openness to new ideas.
• Recognize that every experience informs
creativity.
• Embrace incubation and letting the brain
work “out of awareness” on ideas.
• Develop a climate for creativity; changing the
physical environment or mental/ emotional outlook to
be open to new ideas.
• Use Creative Problem Solving tools to hone
practice.
• Work ideas instead of using them (allowing
them to change and develop).
• Balance the use of imagination, knowledge,
and evaluation.
• Develop an internal observing “wise self.”
Two Main Components of Creativity
1. Originality. The method or idea must be new
and unique. It should not be the extension of
something, which already exists. However,
one can take inspiration from the already
existing methods and ideas to fabricate
something new and unique.
2. Functionality. Another important component
of creativity is its functionality. A creative idea
must work and produce results, otherwise, the
whole effort will be in vain.
Most of the time, people wonder how creativity
happens. It has been seen that creativity becomes
another nature of some people whereas others have to
spend hours on road or on a mountain to think of a tiny
idea. In the following paragraph, you will learn about
when creativity happens and what kind of people are
called creative?
- People who are thought-provoking, curious
and have a variety of uncommon thoughts are known
to be creative people. Sometimes these people don’t
even know what they are doing and how much
importance that innovation holds. Therefore, they
usually fabricate new ideas, which leave people
flabbergasted.
- People who have important self- discoveries,
who view the world with a fresh perspective and have
insightful ideas. These people make unique
discoveries which they don’t share with the outer world.
- People who make great achievements which
are known to the world. Inventors and artists fall under
this category.
Qualities of Creative Persons
• Creative people have numerous traits that influence
their creative thinking. Following are the
few personality traits of creative people. In his 1996
book Creativity: The Work and Lives of 91 Eminent
People, positive psychologist Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi suggested that "of all human
activities, creativity comes closest to providing the
fulfillment we all hope to get in our lives.
• Csikszentmihalyi proposes that some people possess
what he refers to as a creative personality. While some
people certainly come by these tendencies naturally,
incorporating a few of these creative practices into
your daily life might just help you achieve your full
creative potential.
1. Creative People Are Energetic, but Focused
2. Creative People Are Smart, but Also Naïve
3. Creative People Are Playful, Yet Disciplined
4. Creative People Are Realistic Dreamers
5. Creative People Are Extroverted and
Introverted
6. Creative People Are Proud, Yet Modest
7. Creative People Are Not Weighed Down by
Rigid Gender Roles
8. Creative People Are Conservative, Yet
Rebellious
9. Creative People Are Passionate, but Objective
About Their Work
10. Creative People Are Sensitive and Open to
Experience, but Happy and Joyful
Four Types of Creativity
1. Deliberate and Cognitive creativity
2. Deliberate And Emotional Creativity
3. Spontaneous and Cognitive creativity
4. Spontaneous And Emotional Creativity
THE CREATIVE PROCESS
As what you have read in the early parts of
Lesson 2, Creativity is an inevitable part of the human
condition that is indirectly related to learning with
intelligence and fun. Creativity is a mode game and a
game is one of the most important things in each
individual’s growth and development of the brain.
Creativity plays a major role in molding a
child’s character as creative thoughts always require
humbleness to know that every puzzle has an
improved parallel easy solution and that it can be
developed through patience, thus making it an
important part of the classroom.
 Lesson 3 - Aesthetics and Creative Arts Integration
The goal of true arts integration is to be co-
equal. This is when the arts are looked at and treated
with the same respect and validity as the core
academic subjects. This is visible when the arts have a
class time of their own to teach their subject matter,
have equal classrooms as academic teachers, are
incorporated into the staff culture, and have equal
planning time as their academic peers. In terms of
inserting the arts into an arts integration program, the
arts teachers are looked at as professionals and
collaborate with teachers to create lessons that match
both sets of objectives.

BENEFITS OF ARTS INTEGRATION

1. Sparks Interest. Students become active
participants in their learning when the arts are
intentionally integrated. This in turn, provides an
opportunity for students to own the learning and have
a vested interest in their own success.
2. Builds Critical Thinking Skills. Students engage in
critical thinking and construct personal meaning
through their learning in arts-integrated lessons. They
develop the skills to work through problem-solving and
to innovate new solutions. This builds grit
(determination) and perseverance capacities in all
learners.
3. Empowerment for Teachers and Students.
Teachers become facilitators of creative learning and
are empowered in their own professional
growth. Teachers feel fulfilled and able to provide a
hands-on learning environment for their students.
4. Provides Connective Learning. Furnishes a
research-based pathway to teaching 21st century
learning skills and natural avenues for differentiation.

Common Uses of Creative Thinking in Everyday

Life Planning For Integrating Art Instruction Across
Anything which involves intensive brainstorming Curriculum
followed by a “lightbulb” moment can be regarded as As with all curriculum, planning is critical to
creative thinking. Here are some examples of how to cross-curricular instruction. Teachers must consider
implement innovative thinking in day-to-day practical the objectives of each content area or discipline:
scenarios. Please take a look into the following steps for you to
learn how integration is done.
1. Artistic Creativity
2. Creative Problem-Solving Say for instance, you will integrate Arts particularly
3. Problem-Solving Elements of Art to Science on its lesson on Effects of
4. Organization Modification of Biosystems.
5. Communication 1. Decide on the core subject area to integrate Arts
with
Improving Your Creative Thinking 2. Select outcomes from the subject areas to be
1. Keep working even if you feel uninspired integrated
3. Decide on a Teaching Learning Activity that will
2. Leave your Comfort Zone
connect both subject areas
3. Work, Enjoy, Dream, Work 4. Identifying cross-curricular questions that can be
4. Brainstorm asked about the benchmarks that have been
selected;
Characteristics of effective creativity tasks 5. Identifying a product or
1. Focus on Content performance assessment that incorporates the
2. Emphasize divergent thinking benchmarks.
3. Incorporate creativity strategies
4. Engage Students
5. Employ information rather than controlling
feedback
 TEACHING
ALTERNATIVE
LEARNING
SYSTEM
EDUC323 – TEACHING ALTERNATIVE LEARNING
SYSTEM
Module 1
Unit I – A. Philosophy and Principles of ALS inspired
1. PESTALOZZI’S METHOD
• JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI
- a writer, political, social reformer, and educator
- born and educated in Zurich, Switzerland on January
12, 1746
- ideals were inspired by Jean-Jacquess Rosseau’s
idea of “going back to nature”
- known as the Father of Modern Education
- due to his deep sense of human suffering, he
continued to educate and help the orphan children
- in 1805, he opened his private school in Yverdon (a
French speaking district of Switzerland) and steadily
worked on this project for 20 years.
- in 1826, the school was closed and Pestalozzi retired
and died in 1827.
• PESTALOZZI’S CHILDHOOD
- The roots of Pestalozzi’s belief in the ‘original
goodness of man and his dedication to the poor’
resulted from the unfailing love and attention given by
his mother.
- the intense love and devotion of his mother and
faithful servant resulted in a sheltered environment and
limited opportunity to interact with other children or
develop practical skills.
- these early social difficulties impacted Pestalozzi’s
Philosophy of Education and resulted in his emphasis
on practical training and socialization of the child.
• OBJECT OF EDUCATION
- Education should not be a perfection in the
accomplishments of the school, but fitness for life; not
the requirement of habits of blind obedience and of
prescribed diligence, but a preparation for
interdependent action.
- Education is not to impart knowledge but to unfold
the natural or hidden in every individual.
He suggested two purposes of Education:
1. Development of the individual
2. Improvement of the society
He saw education as a central factor to the
improvement of social conditions.
• METHOD OF EDUCATION
- Centered on the child not the curriculum
- Teacher should not each through words but allow
children to discover the answer themselves.
- No use of books but direct method.
- Advocated the inductive method.
- Expanded the elementary education curriculum to
include geography, natural science, fine arts, and
music to allow children obtain more experience from
nature.
• PESTALOZZI’S METHOD
(Its Major Components)
1. Emphasis on observation or sense of perception.
2. Language always being rooted in observation of an
object.
3. Judgement or criticism being inappropriate when
students are learning.
4. Teaching “should begin with the simplest elements
and proceed gradually according to the development
of the child; in psychologically connected order.”
5. Enough time should be directed to the lesson to
allow mastery.
6. Teaching is not an exercise in dogmatism, but in
development.
7. Teachers must respect students.
8. “The chief end of teaching is not to impart
knowledge and talent to the learner, but to develop
and increase the powers of his intelligence.
9. Knowledge and power are related; skill results from
learning information. Love should regulate the relation
between teacher and student especially as to
discipline.”
10. The higher aims of education should regulate
instruction.
• DISCIPLINE IN THE CLASSROOM
1. Family Classroom
- the atmosphere must be loving and caring,
like in a good Christian family, where the family
members are cooperative, loving, and kind to one
another.
- Family: an essential component of education
- without love, neither physical nor the
intellectual powers will develop naturally
2. FRIEDRICH FROEBEL’S INFLUENCE ON
EDUCATION
• FRIEDRICH FROEBEL
- one of pioneers of early childhood educational reform
- he believed that every child possessed, at birth, his
full educational potential, and at an appropriate
educational environment was necessary to encourage
the child to grow and develop in an optimal manner.
- his vision was to stimulate an appreciation and love
for children and to provide a new but small world – a
world that become known as the kindergarten.
- the first to recognize that children experience
significant brain development in their first three years
of life and his kindergartens (children’s gardens) were
based on the philosophy that humans are essentially
creative beings that need to be given the opportunity to
experience, learn and develop on their own terms and
their own timeframe.
- young children possess unique capabilities and
needs, and that adult should serve as the “gardeners”
of children’s potential.
- Froebel asserted that young children learn best in
settings that provide a stimulating and prepared
environment where they can explore and learn from
their own experiences and perspectives.
- “Children are like tiny flowers; they are varied and
need care, but each is beautiful alone and glorious
when seen in a community of peers.”
- He saw mothers as the best first teachers and
women as the most appropriate teachers for his
kindergartens. As such, Froebel kindergartens offered
women a career option outside the home in a time
when there weren’t many options available.
• FROEBEL’S APPROACH TO EDUCATION
- Froebel education stresses that parents are the first
educators for children, and that there should be close
links between home and school. The main goal of a
Froebel education is to teach the whole child in all
developmental areas: socially, academically,
emotionally, physically, and spiritually.
Four main components of the Froebellian
approach:
1. Motor expression
2. Social participation
3. Free self-expression
4. Creativity
• FOUR MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE
FROEBELLIAN APPROACH:
1. Self-Activity
- the development of qualities and skills that
make it possible to take an invisible idea and make it a
reality.
- Theory of introducing PLAY as means of
engaging children in SELF-ACTIVITY.
- PLAY – is characterized by free play which
enlists all of the child’s imaginative powers, thoughts
and physical movements by embodying in a satisfying
form his own images and educational interest.
- Following given or prescribed system of
activities while he is engage in playful self-activity.
2. Social Participation
- working closely with family unit
- focusing on the HOME ENVIRONMENT
OCCUPATIONS as the foundation for beginning
subject-matter content allowed the child to develop
social interaction skills that would prepare him for
higher level subject-matter content in later educational
developmental stages.
3. Motor Expression
- refers to LEARNING BY DOING as opposed
to following rote instructions
- child should never be rushed or hurried in his
development
- the child needs to be involved in all of the
experiences each stage required and guided to see
the relationship of things and ideas to each other and
to himself.
• THE FROEBEL APPROACH STRESSES THAT:
1. Play Drives Learning
- Play earns the biologicals need to discover
how things work. Froebel education believes that play
is purposeful and not die, and that meaning is created
through hands-on play activities.
2. Children can only learn what they are ready for.
- Children develop differently and should be
allowed to learn at their own developmental pace.
3. The teacher should serve as a guide.
- Teachers should not be viewed as the
keepers of knowledge, but instead as guides who can
help lead as a child to understanding.
4. The classroom should be a prepared environment.
- Although Froebellian classrooms may look
like they are designed for free play, they are very
carefully prepared, presenting children with the tools
and materials that are optimal for their level of
development.
5. Movement is imperative for young learners.
- Froebellian classrooms are alive with finger
plays, songs, and all forms of movement.
• THE LEARNING
1. Environment
- Froebel thought that structured formal
schooling would be important to develop children’s
social skills, self-awareness, and self-regulation.
- The use of both indoor and outdoor
environment for educating his students (Weston, 2000).
• APPROPRIATE LEARNING MATERIALS
- Froebel believed that young children still need
concrete manipulatives to understand the world and
obtain advanced knowledge.
- A unique component of a Froebel classroom is the
use of the materials referred to as the Froebel Gifts
and Occupations.
GIFTS
- an object for children to play with, which
helped the child to understand and internalize the
concepts of shape, dimension, size and their
relationships
- a series of sets specially designed materials
with a fixed form, which provide hands-on explorations
of solids, surfaces, lines, rings, and points. The sets
are comprised of blocks and balls which can be
manipulated and stacked in open ended play to help
children explore principles of movement, math, and
construction.
OCCUPATIONS
- planned experiences designed to train
children’s eye hand coordination and mental activity
- the occupations are a set of activities
designed to provide further hands-on explorations and
practice with skills like clay work, woodwork, lacing,
weaving, drawing, and cutting.
- examples are drawing on grid paper, cutting
paper strips, weaving paper mats, folding and cutting
into designs, and painting.
- when training his students to become teachers,
Froebel encouraged them to create their own teaching
materials.
• APPROPRIATE INSTRUCTIONS
- Froebel developed various appropriate activities or
lessons based on mathematical concepts to teach
three concepts: Form of Life, Beauty, and Knowledge
(Liebschner, 2001; Milton & Wiebe, 1869).

FOR THE FORM OF LIFE
- He thought that connecting to the real world
is very important for his teaching method. For instance,
using small Gift blocks, he asked his students to build
something three dimensional that they had seen
before such as house, items in the house, or a church,
then allowed them to create something new using their
own imagination.
FOR THE FORM OF BEAUTY
- He wanted to teach a variety of harmonious
patterns. He asked his students to make something
familiar such as floor or ceiling patterns and then he
allowed them to create something new.
FOR THE FORM OF KNOWLEDGE
- He emphasized teaching language and
mathematics using Gifs because he believed that
language and mathematics could be a communicative
tool to understand God’s creatures and the world.
- Froebel systematically and concretely developed
teaching materials, songs and games, daily routines,
and curriculum o teach the three concepts. He also
provided the children with supplemental materials.
• APPROPRIATE ASSESSMENT
- Froebel was a very careful observer of his students’
growth and learning habits.
- Teachers should have keen eyes for observing their
own students for the purpose of understanding the
individual child’s developmental domains.
- He used rhythmic patterns of language like opera to
get his students’ attention and communicated with his
students very well.
- Another inherent aspect of the Froebellian approach
is the study and appreciation of plants and nature.
Froebel thought it was important for children to grow
up with an understanding of the importance of the
natural environment and can experience nature in its
many forms.
- The purpose of education is to encourage and guide
man as a conscious, thinking and perceiving being in
such a way that he become a pure and perfect
representation of the divine inner law through his own
personal choice; education must show him the ways
and… (Friedrich Froebel, 1826, p.2).
3. OBSERVATIONS ON PRINCIPLES AND
METHODS OF INFANT INSTRUCTION BY AMOS
BRONSON ALCOTT
• AMOS BRONSON ALCOTT
- born November 29,1799, Wolcott, Conn., U.S. – died
March 4, 1888, Concord, Mass
- The self-educated son of a poor farmer, Alcott
traveled in the South as a peddler before establishing
a series of schools for children.
- his educational theories owed something to Johann H.
Pestalozzi
- his aim was o stimulate though and “awaken the
soul”, his method was conventional, courteous, …
- Alcott’s first teaching job was in 1823, when began
his work at school in the town of Chinese Connecticut.
He was convinced that teaching was the most
important vocation a person could choose.
- Alcott like Pestalozzi believed that the classroom
should model itself on the loving family.
- Alcott rejected corporal punishment and established
a classroom court where students would discipline
each other.
• KEY POINTS ON ALCOTT’S OBSERVATIONS ON
THE PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF INFANT
INSTRUCTION
- He proposed a holistic approach to education as the
teaching should address ‘the whole being of the child”.
- He argued that there were four major faculties within
the child: “the animal nature, the affections, the
conscience and the intellect”.
- the physical development should be nourished which
will provide foundation for later intellectual growth.
- Instruction should contain “interest, certainty, and
love.”
- Alcott believed in the use of Socratic dialogue to
stimulate the conscience and the intellect.
- The child is essentially an active being. His chief
enjoyment consists in the free and natural exercise of
his material frame.
- Play is the appointed dispensation of the childhood of
a child.
- Playroom is an important part of infant instruction
which assists the child/learner on his/her intellectual
improvement and happiness
- It is in the school-room that the faculties of infancy
are to be separately addressed, and that systematic
attention becomes a necessary requisite.
- It is affection that claims the first attention of the child.
Affectionate and familiar conversation is the chief
avenue to the infant mind.
- An unrelaxing attention should be given to all
instruction that affects motive, since it is this which lays
the permanent foundations of character, and
constitutes the true glory of the soul.
- It is affection that claims the first attention of the child.
Affectionate and familiar conversation is the chief
avenue to the infant mind.
- An unrelaxing attention should be given to all
instruction that affects motive, since it is this which lays
the permanent foundations of character, and
constitutes the true glory of the soul.
- The work of the infant teacher, simple and attainable
as it may seem, involve resources of the purest and
the happiest character and imposes responsibilities of
the deepest kind.
- The teacher should have patience and experience.
- Infant happiness should be but another name for
infant progress; nature, and providence. And
instruction, cooperating in their influences to elevate
and to bless the infant spirit.
- The teacher comes as much in direct contact with
each as he can; avoiding all general instructions,
except for the purpose of mental relaxation, of
improving the faculties of sympathy, and imitation.
-·The more direct and individual the methods of infant
instruction become in their influence, the more efficient
and happier will be their results.
- As teachers, he/she should make herself/himself
understandable when conversing with the
children/students.
- The work of the teacher is to become acquainted and
give image of permanence and truth by the terms of
language.
- The teacher should use language in the teaching and
learning process which are familiar and
comprehensible to the child.
- Language is the chief instrument to be used – the
connecting link between material and intellectual
nature; the channel through which thought and feeling,
truth and love, are to pass between the teacher and
the child.
- The teacher should make sure that he should
understand what he presents to the children’s minds
and that the child understands what he presents for in
all misapprehension on the part either, there is
perversion, there is error.
- The faithful observer will recognize in the universal
fondness of children for stories and pictures, a ready
and happy means of influence.
- The story is an intellectual play. The observation of
nature and life, the story and the picture offer them the
greatest charms; by addressing all their moral and
intellectual sympathies, contribute most effectually to
their culture.
- Stories and prints are important to the success of
infant cultivation and should be selected with much
discrimination and care. Familiar Tales, parables from
the New Testament and some portions of the Old
Testament are encouraged to be included to be told in
stories.
- Stories should be told to be accompanied with toys.
- Classrooms should have books, particularly fiction
books.
- Students are encouraged to write through personal
biography.
Accurate representations, by cuts, by simple
descriptions, and by anecdotes embodying the
character of various animals, insects are important in
early education. Illustration of scientific apparatus
should be included.
Numbers, manuscript and roman letters, slates and
pencils, pictures representing scenes in history, arts,
life, manners, customs, and natural scenery.
The eye, hand, ear, and voice, become the subjects of
discipline in the school room.
·Since children re fond of using pencil and chalk
(especially the colored ones), the following exercises
for eyes and hands are encouraged: writing and
drawing
- delineate in the roman character, letters, figures,
lessons in spelling, in defining, and arithmetic.
- In the cultivation of ear and voice, vocal and
instrumental music, reading and pronunciation are
most favorable. Singing and integration of body
movements are also encouraged.
- Sympathy, imitation, adaptation to
surrounding influences, are prominent tendencies of
the infant child.
- The teacher’s voice, presence and character has a
direct influence towards a child.
- The teacher’s voice, presence and character has a
direct influence towards a child.
- Few laws are required and few punishments and
rewards.
- Familiar and affectionate conversation should
become the medium of communication of the teacher
and the child.
- Encouragement and approbation should always be
observed.
- Simplest sciences and arts can be applied as
individual exercises of the school-room for the
cultivation of memory, judgment, reason and
reflection.
- Enunciation, spelling the simplest names of familiar
objects, actions, and qualities, defining their thoughts,
writing, the elements of morality,and natural
history are encouraged to be included in the child’s
lessons.
• IDEAL VIEW OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
TEACHER, TO WIT:
- Through the teacher, the infant mind should find the
object of its imitation and its love;
- The teacher should unite an amiableness of temper,
a simplicity of manner, and devotion to his work, which
shall associate with it his happiness and his duty.
- The teacher’s mind should be well disciplined by
various experience.
- The teacher should be familiar with the infant mind
and a deep reverence.
- The teacher should possess understanding in the
simplest and happiest forms;
- The teacher should impart instructions from the pure
foundations of truth and love.
Unit I – B. ALS and Its History in the Education
WHAT IS Alternative Learning System (ALS)?
- a parallel learning system in the Philippines
that provides opportunities four out-of-school youth
and adult (OSYA) learners to develop basic and
functional literacy skills and to access equivalent
pathways to complete basic education.
- a viable alternative to the existing formal
education system, ALS encompasses both non-formal
and informal sources of knowledge and skills.
- serves as a second chance education
program which aims to empower OSYA learners to
continue learning in a manner, time and place suitable
to their preference and circumstances.
- a laderized, modular non-formal education
program by the Department of Education (DepEd).
- Teachers that are involved in this program
are called "Mobile Teachers" for reasons that they
often go about teaching in rural and depressed areas
where a formal classroom is not available.
Who are the target clients of ALS?
• Elementary and Secondary school dropouts
• Youth and adults although in school but over- aged
for Grade 6 and Grade 10
• Unemployed/underemployed OSY's and adults
• Industry-based workers, housewives, maids, factory
workers, drivers
• Members of cultural minorities/indigenous people
(IPs)
• Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)/physically
Challenged
• Inmates, rebel/soldier integree
How ALS implemented in the Philippines?
• May 21, 1908
Act 1829 – An Act Providing For Popular
Civico-Educational Lectures in the Municipalities and
Principally in the Barrios of the Philippine Islands.
• October 26, 1936
Commonwealth Act no. 80 – An Act Creating
the Office of Adult Education, Enumerating its Duties,
Defining its Objectives, and Providing Funds for its
operation.
• October 04, 1947
Executive Order No.94 – The Office of Adult
Education was converted into Adult and Community
Education Division under the Bureau of Public Schools.
• May 13, 1977
Presidential Decree No. 1139 – Creating the
Position of the Undersecretary of Education and
Culture for Non-Formal Education.
• September 11, 1982
Batas Pambansa Bilang 232 – An Ac
Providing For the Establishment and Maintenance of
an Integrated System of Education.
- an act providing for the
establishment and maintenance of an integrated
system of education. In accordance with Section 2, this
act shall apply to and govern both formal and non-
formal system in public and private schools in all levels
of the entire educational system.
• 1986 PH Constitution Article XIV, Sec. 2 – provides
special focus to nonformal education.
- “The state shall encourage
nonformal, informal and indigenous learning systems
as well as self-learning, independent and out-of-school
study programs particularly those that respond to
community needs, and provide adult citizens, the
disabled, and out-of-school youth with training in civics
efficiency and other skills."
• January 30, 1987
Executive Order No. 117, s. 1987 –
Reorganizing of the Ministry of Education, Culture and
Sports Prescribing its Powers and Functions and for
other Purposes.
• Executive Order No. 117, Section XV s. 1987.
Bureau of Continuing Education, hereby
renamed as Bureau of Non-Formal Education.
The Bureau of Continuing Education shall have the
following function
a. Serve as a means of meeting the learning needs of
those unable to avail themselves of the educational
services and program of formal education;
b. Coordinate with various agencies in providing
opportunities for the acquisition of skills necessary to
enhance and ensure continuing employability,
efficiency, productivity, and competitiveness in the
labor market;
c. Serve as means of expanding access to educational
opportunities to citizens of varied interests,
demographic characteristics and socio-economic
origins of status.
• September 13, 2004
Executive Order No. 356 – Renaming the
Bureau of Non-formal Education to Bureau of
Alternative Learning System.
- mandated to ensure that all learning
needs of marginalized learners are addressed
- one of the most important initiatives
in Non-formal Education in the Philippines in the last
10 years is the Alternative Learning System (ALS),
which is a major component of basic education with a
clearly defined role within the overall educational goals.
Functions of the Bureau of Alternative Learrning
System
a. Address the learning needs of the marginalized
groups of the population including the deprived,
depressed and underserved citizens;
b. Coordinate with various agencies for skills
development to enhance and ensure continuing
employability, efficiency, productivity, and
competitiveness in the labor market;
c. Ensure the expansion of access to educational
opportunities for citizens of different interests,
capabilities, demographic characteristics and socio-
economic origins and status; and
d. Promote certification and accreditation of alternative
learning programs both formal and informal in nature
for basic education.
• October 30, 2015
DepEd Order 52 – New Organizational
Structures of the Central, Regional, and School Offices
of the Department of Education.
• October 03,2016
DepEd Memorandum 166 Series 2016 –
Appointments and Assignments of Undersecretaries
and Assistant Secretaries
• February 18, 2019
DepEd order no. 03 series of 2019 – Creation
of the Alternative Learning System (ALS) Task Force
and Designation of Members Thereof.
ALS OBJECTIVES, MISSION AND VISION
OBJECTIVES
ALS aims to open more educational
opportunities for Filipino citizens of different interests,
capabilities of demographic characteristics,
socioeconomic origins and status as well as
addressing the needs of marginalized groups. The
program cuts the time needed to finish high school,
hence, significantly cuts the expenses as well. Aside
from giving hope to the less fortunate, it also provides
opportunities to Out-of-School Youths (OSY) and
adults elementary and secondary school drop-outs.
MISSION
It is envisioned that with the help of ALS, every ANDRAGOGY
Filipino will be awakened, empowered, and • In greek origin, andragogy means andras (man) and
transformed into a productive, self- reliant, responsible, ago (guide).
humane, and upright citizen who can contribute to the • Andragogy refers to the methods and approaches
betterment of the family, community and country. It is used in adult education and is directed towards self-
also envisaged that ALS will help alleviate poverty and actualization, gaining experience, and problem-solving.
sustain social and economic growth via the
development of employable skills and the generation Differences between Pedagogy and Andragogy
of self-employment. PEDAGOGICAL ANDRAGOGICAL
Learner is dependent Learner is depending
VISION on the teacher. Teacher on self. The method
Envisions itself to be the best producer of is the one who evaluates requires self-evaluation
lifelong learners among Filipinos. progress and assumes and direction and self
full responsibility for takes responsibility for
what is taught and its the process.
LEGAL BASIS OF ALS efficacy.
• REPUBLIC ACT 11510 – An Act Institutionalizing Learner comes to the Learner uses life
The Alternative Learning System In Basic Education table with little life experience as a
For Out-Of-School Children In Special Cases And experience. Child-like foundation. Instructors
Adults And Appropriating Funds Therefor. learning comes with a build on existing
blank slate and the knowledge and require
educator is one of the an understanding of
Unit I – C. Legal Basis most influential figures, diverse backgrounds.
as peers likely have the Adults learn from the
1987 Philippine Constitution same lack of experience. instructor, but also from
 Provides for the recognition and promotion of other one another
forms of education other than formal education. Students advance Learning is triggered
 Article XIV, Section 2, Paragraph (1) declares that once they have by any number of life
the State shall establish, maintain and support a completed the experiences and not
complete, adequate and integrated system of necessary steps. Child necessarily led by a
education relevant to the needs of the people and learners are told what designated instructor.
society; and paragraph (4) concisely encourages non- they need to do to Learners don’t advance
formal, informal and indigenous learning systems as master a topic in order to to another topic, but
well as self-learning, independent and out of school move onto the next one. rather fill knowledge
study programs particularly those that respond to gaps as where needed.
community needs. Learning is prescribed Learning is prescribed
by an instructor and by self. Learners see a
Republic Act 9155 sequenced in a way problem or knowledge
 The Governance Act for Basic Education otherwise that makes logical gap and organize topics
known as the Republic Act 9155 mandates the sense. Topics are around life/work
Department of Education to provide non-formal and broken down into solutions.
informal education to out-of-school children, youth, and content units.
adults in the Philippines through the Alternative Learners are motivated Learners are motivated
Learning System. by external sources, by intrinsic means:
such as parents and self-esteem, quality of
Executive order no. 356 teachers. The topic is life, problem-solving,
 renaming the Bureau of Non-formal education to completed by a pass or and the quest for
Bureau of Alternative Learning System. fail grade. recognition. Topics are
 mandated to ensure that all learning needs of completed by mastery.
marginalized learners are addressed.
 one of the most important initiatives in Non- formal
Education in the Philippines in the last 10 years is the
Alternative Learning System (ALS), which is a major
component of basic education with a clearly defined
role within the overall educational goal.

Unit I – D. Pedagogy versus Andragogy

PEDAGOGY
• In Greek origin, pedagogy literally translates to paidi
(child) and ago (guide).
• Pedagogy is an education method in which the
learner is dependent on the teacher for guidance,
evaluation, and acquisition of knowledge.
MODULE 2 – THE CONCEPT OF ALTERNATIVE not permit other parallel in a variety of ways to
LEARNING SYSTEM activities, especially meet the needs and
productive work. convenience of learners.
Unit II – A. ALS vs. Formal Education
C. Content
FORMAL EDUCATION ALS EDUCATION 1. Input-Centered and 1. Output-Centered
Standardized and Individualized
A. Purpose
1. Long-term and 1. Short-term and - The basis of the - Non-formal education
general specific curriculum for formal is task- or skill-centered
education is a well- and designed to produce
- Formal education is - Education meets short- defined package of quite specific changes in
expected to provide the term learning needs of cognitive knowledge with the learners. Units are
basis for an individual's individuals and limited emphasis on discrete and variable
whole future life. communities. psychomotor or affective and may be related to
- Therefore, even in - It therefore emphasizes consideration. The the precise functional
technical fields, it is the learning of specific content is standardized learning needs of
general in character knowledge and skills across large groups of individual participants or
and the inculcation of learners small homogeneous
specific attitudes which groups.
result in immediate 2. Academic 2. Practical
functional behavioral
changes. - The curriculum is -The curriculum is
2. Credential based 2. non-credential founded in theory and dictated by the particular
based isolated from uses to which the
- The end product of environmental and social learning will be put and
formal education is the - Produces learning realities. consequently is closely
acquisition of which is immediately related to the
qualifications and valued in the context of environment of the
certificates which enable the individual's or learners.
individuals to obtain community's life 3. Clientele determined 3.Entry Requirements
specific socio-economic situation. Rewards are by Entry Requirements determined by
positions in the wider tangible and may include Clientele
society. Rewards are improvements in
therefore deferred. material well-being, - Clientele are defined in - Non-formal education
productivity, self- terms of their ability to is geared to the needs
awareness, ability to cope with the level of and interests of the
control the environment, education being offered. potential clientele.
etc. - Literacy is essential - Specific characteristics
(except at the lowest such as literacy or
B. Timing level) and successful formal educational
1. Long Cycle 1. Short Cycle levels is required for qualifications are not
admission to higher essential for admission.
- Formal education - This type of programs levels.
programs are rarely less are quite short, rarely
than 1 year in length and longer than 2 years and D. Delivery System
usually last for much often much shorter than 1. Institution-based 1. Environment-based
longer periods, often 10 this. Length will depend
years or more. One level on the period required to - Formal education takes - Non-formal education
of study leads achieve the learning place in highly visible takes place in a variety
immediately on to the objectives in question. and expensive of settings, but emphasis
next. institutions called is given to locales (such
"schools," whose sole as the work place or
2. Preparatory 2. Recurrent purpose is educational. home) which are not
education specific. Such
- Formal education is - may be designed for specific facilities that are
child-centered and children or adults, used are minimal and
futureoriented and depending on the low-cost.
provides the basis for immediate learning 2. Isolated 2. Community-based
future participation in needs arising from the
society and economy. individual's roles and - Formal education - Non-formal education
stage in life programs are isolated is conducted close to
3. Full-Time 3. Part-Time from the socio-economic where learners live and
environment and from work, and the
- Formal education takes - Can be part-time, and social action. Learners environment is
place full-time and does activities may be timed are removed from their functionally related to
own environments for
substantial periods.
3. Rigidly structured
- Formal education is
rigidly structured around
the parameters of time
and the participants' age
and/or performance. It
involves uniform entry
points, is graded into
uniform units, and is
sequential and
continuous. Clear
interrelationships exist
between different
programs.
4. Teacher-centered
- Formal education
involves a labor-
intensive technology and
emphasizes teaching
rather than learning.
Authority and control is
vested in formally
qualified and certified
members of a teaching
profession.
5. Resource-intensive
- Formal education
utilizes expensive plant
and staff, involves a high
opportunity-cost of
student time, and largely
draws its resources from
outside the immediate
surrounding community.
E. Control
1. Externally controlled 1. Self-growing
- Curricula and
standards are externally
determined and publicly
controlled or supervised
by national
bureaucracies.
2. Hierarchical
- Internal control is
highly structured and
based on role-defined
relations among
teachers and between
teachers and learners.
the learning which takes
place.
3. Flexibly structured
- Non-formal education
programs have varying
degrees and types of
structure, but a variety of
relationships and
sequences are possible
within them. Programs
are discrete and few
relationships exist
between them.
4. Learner-centered
- Non-formal education
uses a variety of
resources and
technologies. Emphasis
is on learning rather than
teaching, and a variety
of personnel (often not
professional educators)
are utilized as facilitators
Rather than teachers
5. Resource-saving
- Non-formal education
economizes on
resources by utilizing
community facilities and
personnel (especially at
slack times) where
possible, by keeping
specific facilities low-
cost, and by part-time
study.
- Control is
uncoordinated,
fragmented, and diffuse,
involving a variety of
agencies, often non-
governmental. There is
substantial autonomy at
program and local
levels, with an emphasis
on local initiative, self-
help, and innovation.
2. Democratic
- Substantial control is
vested in participants
and the local community.
Unit II – B. ALS Projects and Programs
A&E (Accreditation and Equivalency Program)
- nonformal education certification program for out-of-
school children, youth, and adults that recognizes prior
learning. It offers elementary and secondary education
comparable to that of formal basic education.
- A&E test is given to those who wish o be recognized
as an equivalent elementary or high school graduate.
BLP (Basic Literacy Program)
- is a community-based program for he non-literate
out-of-school children, youth, and adults to acquire
basic reading and numeracy skills or the ability to read
with comprehension. Write simple messages and solve
simple numeracy problems.
INFED (Informal Education)
- is an ALS program that addresses special needs and
interests of learners for personal and community
development as well as for employment through
INFED, multiple literacies, such as social, civic,
spiritual, cultural, recreational, financial and economic
literacies are developed for lifelong learning.
ALIVE in ALS (Arabic Language and Islamic Values
Education)
- is a learning intervention for Muslim out-of-school
children, youth, and adults, who migrated into other
regions, provinces, and cities due to peace and order
problems in their communities. It addresses their need
to use Arabic language to be able to read and
understand the teachings of the Koran as well as
practice Islamic values in their everyday life while
inculcating love for their own culture, religion, and
language, the facilitators/instructional managers are he
Imams and Asatidz.
RBI (Radio-Based Instruction)
- is an alternative delivery mode utilizing local
community radio and other modes of broadcast. The
core learning modules are transformed into radio
scripts by ALS implementers and produced for public
broadcast.
ALS-PWD (ALS for persons with disability)
- is a learning intervention for the out-of-school
children, youth, and adults with disabilities that uses
specialized teaching-learning strategies such as sign
language and Braille.
BP-OSA (Balik-Paaralan Para Sa Out-of-School
Adults)
- is a school-based nonformal education Accreditation
and Equivalency program for the elementary and
secondary school leavers and dropouts. It is delivered
in selected public elementary and secondary schools
by public school teacher serving as Instructional
Mangers (IMs).
Unit II – C. ALS Vision, Mission and Objectives
OBJECTIVES
- ALS aims to open more educational opportunities for
Filipino citizens of different interests, capabilities of
demographic characteristics, socioeconomic origins
and status as well as addressing the needs of
marginalized groups. The program cuts the time
needed to finish high school, hence, significantly cuts
the expenses as well. Aside from giving hope to the
less fortunate, it also provides opportunities to Out-of-
School Youths (OSY) and adults elementary and
secondary school drop-outs
VISION
- “Empowerment of the Filipino with desirable
knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills that will enable
him to think critically and creatively, act innovatively
and humanly in improving the quality of his life and that
of his family, community and country.”
MISSION
- “It is envisioned that with the help of ALS, every
Filipino will be awakened, empowered, and
transformed into a productive, self-reliant, responsible,
humane, and upright citizen who can contribute to the
betterment for the family. Community and country.it is
also envisaged that ALS will help alleviate poverty and
sustain social and economic growth via the
development of employable skills and the generation
of self-employment.”
- As an ALS Teacher of the DepEd, the Mobile
Teacher/DALSC is entitled to promotion to the next
higher level as a Master Teacher, as a School Head or
as a Supervisor at the district, division and regional
levels based on the CSC qualification standards.
- As an ALS Teacher the Mobile Teacher/DALSC shall
receive the same benefits and professional
development packages awarded to regular teachers in
terms of fellowships, scholarships and training
opportunities in all learning areas of the basic
education curriculum.
- As an ALS Teacher exposed to high risk and
hazardous teaching environment, the Mobile
Teacher/DALSC is qualified to receive additional
welfare compensation such as hazard, hardship,
transportation and teaching aid allowances.
- As an ALS Teacher who follows a flexible teaching
schedule without summer vacation and different
teaching hours to meet the learning needs of the ALS
learners, the Mobile Teacher/DALSC is entitled to earn
leave credits and avail of the privilege of monetization
of leave credits.

Unit II – D. ALS Learners and Teachers

ALS LEARNERS
Target Learners:
- Out-of-school youth
- Adults (16 years old and older)
- Beyond basic school age that need basic literacy
skills (reading, writing, and basic computation)

Identification of ALS Learners

- ALS is intended for out-of-school youth and adults
who are 16 years old or older and beyond basic school
age that need basic literacy skills particularly in
reading, writing and simple computation.
- These people are usually located in far-flung
communities with no or limited access to formal
schools.
- Learners who can take the A&E Test for Elementary
Level- 12 years old and above and for Junior High
School- 16 years old and above.
- Specially, this group of marginalized learners
consists of street children, indigenous peoples,
farmers, fisher folks, women, adolescents, solo
parents, children in conflict area not reached by the
formal school system, rebel returnees, and others.

ALS TEACHERS
- The ALS Teacher, better known as the Mobile
Teacher (MT), is a DepEd Teacher as provided for by
the Department of Budget and Management (DBM),
and recognized by the Civil Service Commission
(CSC). Therefore, the generic term Teacher shall
apply to all Mobile Teachers. The District ALS
Coordinator (DALSC) is also a DepEd teacher
assigned either part-time or fulltime to the ALS.
Therefore, the generic term Teacher shall likewise
apply to all District ALS Coordinators.
MODULE 3 - ALTERNATIVE LEARNING SYSTEM
CORE CURRICULUM
Unit III - A. ALS Basic Education Curriculum
ALS K to 12 Basic Curriculum
- The ALS Program uses a contextualized non-formal
curriculum which is substantially aligned with the K to
12 Curriculum for Basic Education of the formal school
system, bu it is not the mirror image of the formal
school curriculum. It is aligned but not identical. This
takes into account the prior learning of its learners and
reflects the indicators of functional literacy into six
interrelated learning strands.
- ALS provides opportunities for out-of-school youth
and adult (OSYA) learners to develop basic and
functional literacy skills and to access equivalent
pathways to complete basic education.
- With the introduction of the ALS K to 12 Basic
Education Curriculum (BEC), there is a need to
harmonize the policies pertaining to ALS to ensure
strategic,efficient and effective implementation.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
• Basic Literacy Level - refers to the first ALS key
stage for learners who cannot read or write.
• Non-Literate Learners - refers to learners with little
or no exposure to literacy in their first or second
language.
• Neo-Literate Learners - refers to learners with
minimal exposure to literacy in their first language.
They often lack of confidence in their literacy skills.
• Post-Literate Learners - refers to learners who are
able to read with comprehension, to compute and
solve simple numeracy problems and ability to express
ideas in writing and speaking in one’s language.
2019 ALS K to 12 Basic Education (2019 ALS-K to
12 BEC)
- A new ALS K to 12 Curriculum was developed to
provide the blueprint for the enhanced ALS. Known as
the 2019 ALS K to 12 BEC, the curriculum is
benchmarked on the DepEd K to 12 Formal School
Curriculum and focuses on the 21st Century Skills of
Information, Media and Technology Skills, Learning
and Innovation Skills, Communication Skills, and Life
and Career Skills.
THE KEY FEATURES OF THE 2019 ALS-K to 12
BEC
a. Is substantially aligned with the competencies of
the formal K to 12 Curriculum.
b. Is not a mirror image of the formal school
curriculum given the nature of the ALS program
and the type of learners enrolling in this program.
c. Covers Information, Communication and
Technology (ICT) and Life and Career skills and
competencies not found in the formal school
curricula have been added.
d. Includes examples of application of competencies
in everyday life to help/guide the learning delivery
and the delivery and the development of
appropriate, relevant and responsive learning
materials and learning assessment tools; and
e. Uses the standard terminologies and coding
system pf the DepEd K to 12 curriculum.
f. Provides opportunities for learners to acquire
vocational and technical skills to enhance their
work readiness/employability.
THE KEY STAGES OF LEARNING (under the 2019
ALS-K to 12 BEC are indicated in Table No.1)
Table No.1 Key Stages of Learning (ALS K to 12
BEC)
ALS-K to 12 Key Corresponding Grade in the
Stages Formal School System
Basic Literacy (BL) Kinder to Grade 1
Level
Lower Elementary Grades 2 to 3
(LE) Level
Advanced Grades 4 to 6
Elementary (AE)
Level
Junior High School Grade 7 to 10
(JHS) Level
Senior High School Grade 11 to 12
(SHS) Level
• Basic Literacy (BL) level develops the basic literacy
skills of reading, writing, viewing, speaking, listening,
and numeracy. It is equivalent to Kinder to Grade 1 of
the formal basic education.
• Lower Elementary (LE) level, learning
competencies equivalent to Grades 2 to 3 are
developed. At this level, learners are encouraged to
begin to learn how to learn so they can increasingly
study and learn independently.
• Advanced Elementary (AE) level requires the
development of learning competencies parallel to the
Grades 4 to 6 of the formal basic education.
• Junior High School (JHS) level advances the ALS
learners to a deeper understanding of the learning
competencies that is equivalent to Grades 7 to 10. The
learning competencies have a higher degree of
complexity and help learners develop an increasing
degree of independence in applying knowledge, skills
and values learned.
• Senior High (SHS) level is equivalent to Grades 11
to 12. It ensures that all learners will be equipped with
competencies required for employment,
entrepreneurship, middle level skills and tertiary
education.
ALS K TO 12 BEC LEARNING STRANDS
Table No.2 ALS K to 12 BEC Learning Strands
Learning Strand 1 Communication Skills (English /
Filipino)
Learning Strand 2 Scientific and Critical Thinking
Skills
Learning Strand 3 Mathematical and Problem
Solving Skills
Learning Strand 4 Life and Career Skills
Learning Strand 5 Understanding the Self and
Society
Learning Strand 6 Digital Citizenship (formerly
Digital Literacy)
• Learning Strand 1 (Communication Skills - Filipino), Advanced EL Approximately 8-10 months
and Learning Strand 3 (Mathematical and Problem Junior High School Approximately 2 years
Solving, are considered foundational competencies (JHS)
and are required at the BL Level. Senior High School ALS SHS curriculum for
• Content areas related to Learning Strand 2 (Scientific (SHS) issuance - in the
and Critical Thinking Skills), Learning Strand 5 interim,learners will complete
(Understanding Self and Society), and Learning Strand the 2 year formal SHS program.
6 (Digital Citizenship), may be used to provide
‘functional context’ to the communication and
numeracy competencies taught at the BL Level. Unit III - B. ALS Assessment Forms
Individual Learning Agreement (ILA)
ENHANCED ALS LANGUAGE POLICIES Assessment Form 1
a. In the teaching and learning process, the mother
tongue may use as a medium of instruction in BL Individual Learning Agreement Form 1
Level for Non-Literate Stage to Neo-Literate
Stage in consultation with ALS learners. Filipino
and English shall be used for Elementary Level
(EL) level to JHS level, although ALS teacher may
use mother tongue or Filipino as an auxiliary
language of instruction to clarify concepts and
understanding. However, selected learning
strands of the Accreditation and Equivalency
(A&E) test will be in English as described in Table
No.3.

Table No.3. Language in A&E test per Learning

Strand
Learning Strands Filipino English
LS 1: Communication Skills x /
(English)
LS 1: Communication Skills / x
(Filipino)
• It is a plan that will be developed by the ALS Teacher
LS 2: Scientific and Critical x /
and each Learner.
Thinking Skills
• It records the learner’s learning goals, or what he/she
LS 3: Mathematical and Problem x /
wants to learn, how and when the learner wants to
Solving Skills
achieve the learning goals
LS 4: Life and Career Skills / /
• It provides the learner the opportunity to change the
LS 5: Understanding Self and / / delivery mode that he/she prefers.
Society • This form can be accomplished in Mother Tongue, in
LS 6: Digital Citizenship x / English or in Filipino.
(formerly Digital Literacy) • The ALS Teacher may assist the learner or complete
the form if he/she is not confident to do at the start of
b. For the learning resources, only BL level learning and during the learning sessions.
modules shall be translated in the major mother • It sets the timeline, or when the learner wants to
tongue languages subject to availability of funds. achieve the learning goals.
Lower and Advanced Elementary (LE and AE) • It guides the ALS Teacher in the review of the
level modules will be in English or Filipino as per learning goals of the learner.
Table 3. As learning materials are being • It also helps the ALS Teacher provide appropriate
developed, ALS teachers can still use the existing learning interventions to the learner.
A&E Filipino language learning resources How to Use the ILA
addressing competencies in LS 2 and 3.
c. The DepEd will continue to use the existing ALS
Step 1: The ALS Teacher explains the purpose of the
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) and ILA to the learner.
Assessments forms. The ALS Task Force is in the
process of developing upgraded versions of these Step 2: The ALS Teacher assists the learner through a
forms in bilingual (English/Filipino) formats. small group or one-on-one discussion in identifying the
learner’s learning goals.
ALS PROGRAM DURATION Note: If the identified learning goal is too general at
ALS Program Program Duration first, the ALS Teacher should help the learner break
Approximately 9-10 months this large goal into more specific achievable/reliable
(Non-Literate - approximately 2- goals.
Basic Level (BL) 3 months; NeoLiterate - 2-3 Note: In the identification of the learning goal, use the
months; Post-Literate - 2 Least Learned Skills from the FLT result and the
months) Learner’s Checklist of Competencies (RPL Form 4).
Step 3: The ALS Teacher advises the learner on what
Lower Elementary Approximately 4-5 months
learning module to use.
Level (EL)
Note: At this point, introduce Assessment Form 2:
Record of Module Use and Monitoring of Learner’s
Progress, and discuss it briefly.
Step 4: The ALS Teacher helps the learner set a
timeline for the completion date of the identified
learning goal.
Step 5: The ALS Teacher and the Learner review and
update the ILA at least once a month or as often as
needed to account for new learning goals, learning
strategies or timeline.
Step 6: When the timeline set to complete the
identified learning goals end, the LF should assess the
learner’s learning progress to determine whether
he/she has achieved it or there’s a need to modify.
Note: If the learner’s learning goal has been modified, Sample Assessment Form 1 for JHS
new timeline must be set.
If the learner’s learning goal has been
achieved/completed, a new learning goal must be
identified.
Note: The ALS Teacher and the learner should affix
their signatures at the bottom of the ILA form along
with the specific date of agreement.
Sample Assessment Form1 for BL

Record of Module Use and Monitoring of

Learner’s Progress
Assessment Form 2
Record of Module Use and Monitoring of Learner’s
Progress Assessment Form II

Sample Assessment Form 1 for LEL

• This form contains the record of the learning module

Sample Assessment Form 1 for AEL
that the learner has completed and the learning strand
to which the module belongs, the date of
accomplishment, the pre-test and posttest results, and
other related activities accomplished by the learner.
• This form can be accomplished in Mother Tongue, in
Filipino or in English.
• The ALS Teacher may assist the learner or complete
the form if he/she is not confident to do during the
conduct of the learning intervention.
• The ALS Teacher should review the learner’s
completed activities, as well as the learner’s self-
assessment of his/her performance, and then provide
a written and oral feedback to the learner at least once
a month or as deemed necessary.
• This form shall be used as reference document in
reviewing the ILA (Assessment Form 1).
Sample Assessment Form 2 for BL
Sample Assessment Form 2 for LEL
Sample Assessment Form 2 for AEL
Sample Assessment Form 2 for JHS
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the ALS Assessment Form 2?
2. When do we use this form?
3. Who should accomplish it and how is it
accomplished/completed?
4. Why is it important for the ALS teacher to monitor
and review the learning progress of each learner?
5. How often should the ALS Assessment Form 2 be
reviewed / revisited?
REMINDER
“ASSESSMENT FORMS 1 AND 2 ARE THE SETS OF
ACCOMPLISHED/COMPLETED EVIDENCES OF
LEARNING TO BE INCLUDED IN THE
PRESENTATION PORTFOLIO.”
Mechanics on the Self-Paced Learning Activities
1. Find a partner
2. From the given FLT and ABL result. Plan and
accomplish assessment forms 1 and 2
3. Submit outputs through email.
Answer the following questions:
1. Why is ILA important to ALS learners?
2. What do the sets of learner’s accomplished ILAs
(Assessment Form 1) tell us?
3. How important it is to accomplish Assessment Form
2?
4. How these assessment forms impact learner’s
journey in learning?
Share your responses by posting in the Facebook
group
REMINDER
“The ALS K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum is the
backbone of ALS 2.0, while the ALS Assessment
Forms 1 and 2 are the heart of the learning
intervention.”
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) Forms
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) provides
holistic assessments and authentic measure of
learners’ prior learnings before their intervention in the
Alternative Learning System.
ALS RPL FORM 1 - DOCUMENTATION OF LIFE
EXPERIENCES
ALS RPL FORM 2 - RECORD OF TRAINING
ALS RPL FORM 3 - SUMMARY OF WORK HISTORY
ALS RPL FORM 4 - LEARNER’S CHECKLIST OF
SKILLS
Specific Parts of ALS RPL Form 1
DOCUMENTATION OF LIFE EXPERIENCE
- This form documents a range of life experiences that
the learner has had. These experiences are important
to be documented fully as they provide information on
the learner’s interests, hobbies, strengths, weaknesses,
ambition/s, about his/her family, what the learner
already knows and able to do.

- This form adds to the information collected in the

Summary Record of Training (ALS RPL Form 2)

Two Parts of ALS RPL Form 1

(1) About Me
(2) Experiences

ABOUT ME

EXPERIENCES
A. Communication (Komunikasyon)
B. Social Activity (Panlipunang Aktibidad)
C. Science (Agham)
D. Numeracy (Matematika)
E. Livelihood (Kabuhayan)
F. Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Relationship
( Pang-unawa sa sarili o Pakikipagkapwa)
G. Information and Communications Technology (ICT)
(Teknolohiya ng Impormasyon at Komunikasyon)
 ALS RPL FORM 3 - SUMMARY OF WORK HISTORY
This form is used to record or document all the formal
work (e.g. office receptionist, mail clerk, security guard,
Barangay/office secretary, Sales lady/man, cashier,
service crew, merchandiser, OFW, Babysitter and
Networking etc.) that the Learner has completed.
If the learner have not done any formal work, they
need NOT to fill out this form.

- In this form, the learner with the assistance of the

ALS Teacher records the formal work he or she has
done. This formal work may be paid or voluntary.

ALS RPL FORM 2 - RECORD OF TRAINING

ALS RPL FORM 3 - SUMMARY OF WORK HISTORY

ALS RPL FORM 2 - RECORD OF TRAINING

This form records the formal training that the Learner
has completed. The formal training will normally be
work-related.
If the learner does NOT have formal training, he or she
will NOT complete this form.

Specific Parts of ALS RPL Form 4

- This form is used to assess the learner’s
competencies in Communication Skills (English and
Filipino), Scientific Literacy and Critical Thinking Skills,
Mathematical and Problem Solving Skills, Career and
Life Skills, Understanding the Self and Society, and
Digital Citizenship. The results serve as the basis for
the development and completion of the Individual
Learning Agreement (ILA).
- Score the learners’/examinees’ responses according
to the Guidelines for Scoring of the FLT. Use the
results to determine the levels of interventions for the
learners/examinees in the ALS program.
The learner will have a corresponding Checklist of
Competencies based on the result of his
Functional Literacy Test

Learning Areas per Level


Reminders!
a. Each month, the ALS Teacher should review this
form to determine the progress that has been made by
the learner.
b. The Individual Learning Agreement (ALS
Assessment Form 1) should be updated if the learning
goals have been successfully accomplished by the
learner.
c. If the learner changes his or her learning goal, a
new Individual Learning Agreement should be
prepared.
Unit III - C. Accreditation & Equivalency Test
Readiness Test (AERT) and Presentation Portfolio
Accreditation & Equivalency TEST
The ALS Accreditation and Equivalency (A&E)
Assessment and Certification is a process that
comprises an exam and other appropriate
assessments to measure the competencies acquired
by ALS Learners based on the ALS K to 12 Basic
Education Curriculum (BEC).
Completers of ALS who are passers of the A&E Test
are given certificates bearing the Department of
Education (DepEd) seal, the ALS logo, the Schools
Division Office’s logo, dry seal and designated
signatories, and the school’s name (if the A&E passer
completed ALS under a school or an SBM School for
ALS) or the Community Learning Center’s name (if the
A&E passes completed ALS under a CLC). This duly
signed official document certifies their competencies
as comparable graduates of the formal education
system.
Under the DepEd Order No. 27, series 2018
(Amendment to DepEd Order No. 42, s. 2015, or the
High School Graduates who are eligible to Enroll in
Higher Education Institutions in School Year 2016-
2017, in Relation to ALS), beginning school year 2018-
2019 and for subsequent school years, passers of
previous A&E Tests (high school level), and of the
November 2017, March 2018, and February and
March 2019 A&E Tests (high school level), who are all
high school graduates of the old basic education
curriculum for ALS, are eligible to:
a. Enroll in college/university as First Year
students, subjects to admission policies and
requirements of higher education institutions (HEIs); or
b. Take skills development training programs;
orc. Enroll in Senior High School at any public school,
or private school of their choice (subject to admission
requirements).
Portfolio Assessment
The DepEd, through the Curriculum and Instruction
strand and the Bureau of Alternative Education (BAE),
announces the conduct of the Presentation Portfolio
Assessment (PPA) Year 3 for ALS Accreditation and
Equivalency (A&E) Elementary and Junior High School
Learners for School Year (SY) 2021-2022.
The Bureau of Education Assessment (BEA) plans to
administer the Computer-Based A&E Test (CB-A&E)
for the ALS Elementary and Junior High School Levels
Program Completers for School Year 2021-2022. The
Office of the Assistant Secretary for ALS through the
BAE, requested BEA to administer the pilot CB-A&E in
select Schools Divisions Offices (SDO) in the last
quarter of 2022.
The selection of test takers shall be voluntary, and
they shall also be allowed to undergo the Presentation
Portfolio Assessment (PPA). The result of their A&E
test shall not affect the result of their PPA.
A separate DepEd Order on the administration of the
CB-A&E shall be issued by the Curriculum and
Instruction strand through BAE and BEA.
The following are eligible to submit their Presentation
Portfolio for assessment:
a. A learner enrolled in the Learner Information System
(LIS) for SY 2021-2022 who has established met he
set of competencies in the learning level of A&E
Program as agreed with the ALS Teacher/Community
ALS Implementor/Learning Facilitator.
b. Previous ALS Program Completer not registered in
the LIS of the current school year who submitted but
did not meet the minimum required points in the two
previous PPA but underwent additional learning
intervention in the ALS K to 12 BEC certified by he
ALS Teacher/Community ALS Implementor/Learning
Facilitator. (Attachment No. 5)
c. Previous ALS Program Completer not registered in
the LIS of the current school year who did not submit
presentation portfolio but underwent appropriate
learning intervention in the ALS K to 12 BEC and with
duly updated all the formal records certified by the ALS
Teacher/Community ALS Implementor/Learning
Facilitator. (Attachment No. 5)
Presentation Portfolio refers to a collection of a
learner’s achievements, assembled specifically for
assessment. It contains formal records that document
the learner’s background and experiences, the
learning process he/she has followed, and work
samples selected by the learner to show what he/she
can do. It also contains records documenting the
learner’s prior learning and records documenting the
learner’s progress toward achieving stated learning
goals.
Presentation Portfolio Assessment refers to the
process of measuring and certifying the competencies
of ALS program completers through checking of
learner’s formal records, evaluating and validating the
pieces of evidence in the work samples. It covers four
phases which include initial assessment, district
validation, final assessment, and inter-district revalida.
Presentation Portfolio Assessment Passer refers to
Division Qualifier who passed the Presentation
Portfolio Assessment.
Program Completer refers to the ALS learner who
has met the set of competencies in either Elementary
Level or Junior High School Level as agreed by the
learner and ALS Teacher/Community ALS
Implementor/Learning Facilitator based on the ALS K
to 12 Curriculum. Further, a learner should be tagged
as completer in the Learner Information System.
The Division Office shall develop their own mechanism
in conducting the reading and writing proficiency.
The rubric below shall be used in assessing the oral
reading and writing proficiency of the Division Qualifier.
Oral Reading
Score Description
3 Can read all the words correctly and clearly.
Can speak clearly and audibly.
2 Can read most of the words correctly and
clearly. Can speak clearly and audibly most of
the time.
1 Can read clearly but has the tendency to
mispronounce some words.Frequently unable
to speak clearly and audibly.
0 Cannot read the selection. Mispronounce
most of the words. Cannot speak clearly and
audibly.
Writing
Score Description
3 Can write legibly and provide clear and
corrects answer to the questions about the
selection read. The ideas are logically
sequenced and stated in a complete
sentence. Correct grammar, spelling, and
punctuation are evident.
2 Can write legibly and provide broad answer to
the questions to the selection read. The ideas
are not sufficiently developed yet they are
stated in a complete sentence. Only few
errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation
are observed.
1 Can write legibly but answer to the questions
are incomplete about the selection read.The
ideas lack organization, and they are stated in
fragments. There are several errors in
grammar, spelling, and punctuation that are
identified and somehow affect the
understanding of the answers.
0 No written answer about the selection read.
The answer is inaccurate or not related to the
question about the selection read.
No legible handwriting that makes it difficult to
read with numerous errors in grammar,
spelling and/or spelling that impacts
understanding.
Unit III - D. Functional Literacy Test (FLT)
OVERVIEW, PARTS AND FEATURES OF THE FLT
1. What is the purpose of FLT?
• to determine his/her readiness for higher
level;
• to serve as diagnostic test for competencies
needed;
• as pre-test / post-test comparison; and
• as a test for the placement of ALS learners in
the appropriate ALS level.
2. Who will take the FLT?
• Target learners who would like to enrol in the
program
3. When do we conduct the FLT?
• Before the start, during and at the end of the
intervention
TEST ADMINISTRATION
1. How do we conduct the FLT Test?
• Face to face
• Individual or group
2. How about on our current situation>
• Limited face to face
• Online
• Take home
3. If the test is online/take home,how do we conduct
the listening and speaking?
• Through recording
• Through call
• Through online platform
• Orient a family member
4. How about the integrity and validity of the test?
• Orient the learners, parents and family
members
• Have and agreement with the learner
SCORING, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
1. Who is responsible in keeping the answer sheet?
• ALS Teacher
2. Do we need to discuss the answers in the FLT test?
• No
3. What if a learner has completed the Grade 12 level
but has difficulty in reading? What test are we going to
administer? FLT or ABL?
• If depends on the result of the PIS.

4. A JHS learner from a formal school got a score

below the benchmark for JHS in FLT, what is the level
of the learner?
• The level of the learner is JHS, but the start
of his learning intervention depends on the over all
score.

5. Some ALS Teachers have difficulty in scoring the

writing part using the rubric?What is the guiding point
in the decision making?
• Learning competency of the question

6. What if the learner got an almost perfect score?

What are we going to put in Assessment Form 1
(Individual Learning Agreement)?

Applies knowledge of addition and subtraction of

integers in solving daily problems

Apply knowledge of addition and subtraction in solving

daily problems, e.g.,
• add positive and negative money values in a
profit/loss statement
• prepare a balance sheet comparing
budgeted line items and actual expenses.

Apply knowledge of multiplication and division of

integers to solve daily problems, e.g. prepare an
annual financial statement of sale.

Solve routine and non-routine problems involving basic

operations of integers using appropriate strategies and
tools.

7. Can we also include the competency of the correct

responses in the FLT?
• Yes it can be included if in the RPL Form 4,
the learner checked the statement “I wan to learn to
this”.
MODULE 4 - THE TEACHING OF ALTERNATIVE
LEARNING SYSTEM
Unit IV - A. The Adult Learner
ADULT LEARNER
• An adult learner or, more commonly, a mature
student, is a person who is older and is involved in
forms of learning. Adult learners fall in a specific
criterion of being experienced, and do not always have
a high school diploma. Many of the adult learners go
back to school to finish a degree, or earn a new one.
• In Andragogy or adult learning theory, it is presumed
that adults have specific learning requirements.
The adult learning theory also suggests that the best
learning environments are the ones that are
collaborative and utilize a problem-based approach. It
is important to note that not every student is in the
adult learner stage. With this in mind, it is encouraged
that students be made aware of the traits of adult
learners, and aspire to gain a few of these
characteristics.
4. Adult learning is relevancy-oriented
One of the best ways for adults to learn is by relating
the assigned tasks to their own learning goals. If it is
clear that the activities they are engaged into, directly
contribute to achieving their personal learning
objectives, then they will be inspired and motivated to
engage in projects and successfully complete them.
5. Adult learning highlights practicality
Placement is a means of helping students to apply the
theoretical concepts learned inside the classroom into
real-life situations. It is very important for educators to
identify appropriate ways and convert theoretical
learning to practical activities! Learning is facilitated
when appropriate ways of implementing theoretical
knowledge in real life situations are made clear.
6. Adult learning encourages collaboration
Adult learners thrive in collaborative relationships with
their educators. When learners are considered by their
instructors as colleagues, they become more
productive. When their contributions are acknowledged,
then they are willing to put out their best work.

6 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNER YOUNG LEARNERS vs ADULT LEARNERS

There are 6 main characteristics of adult learners Lack motivation and Self-motivated &
according to Malcolm Knowles (1980, 1984) who was enthusiasm. Independent learners.
one of the pioneers in this field. Should be taught Disciplined and
organizational, study & organized.
1. Adult learning is self-directed/autonomous thinking skills.
Adult learners are actively involved in the learning Need to be given a wide Weighed down by work
process such that they make choices relevant to their variety of activities. pressure &
learning objectives. As such, adult learners also direct responsibilities.
their learning goals with the guidance of their mentors. Lesson should be short & Reluctant to experiment &
As an educator, it is important to facilitate the process engaging take chances. Afraid of
of goal-setting. Students need to be given the freedom making mistakes.
to assume responsibility for their own choices. When it Lesson plans have to be More focused lesson &
comes to workload, they also need to be proactive in tailored to the young tasks.
making decisions and in contributing to the process. learner’s interests.
Have little prior Courses designed to
2. Adult learning utilizes knowledge & life knowledge & few life meet learner’s goals
experiences experiences, but still within a specific timeline.
Under this approach educators encourage learners to enough to capitalize on.
connect their past experiences with their current The teacher must be The average adult forgets
knowledge-base and activities. Learners are taught upbeat & enthusiastic. 25% of what they learnt
ways to bring to their current placement past within one hour & 85%
knowledge, opinions, and experiences. Educators within one week.
need to be well-versed in how to help students in Children are like sponges. Adults crave immediate &
drawing out relevant past knowledge and experiences. positive feedback.
In addition, educators must know how to relate the Have no fear & are willing Lessons can be intensive
sum of learners’ experiences to the current learning to try anything. & last longer in duration
experiences. than 60min per session.

3. Adult learning is goal-oriented

The motivation to learn is increased when the
relevance of the “lesson” through real-life situations is
clear, particularly in relation to the specific concerns of
the learner. The need to acquire relevant and
adequate knowledge is of high importance. With this in
mind, adult learning is characterized as goal-oriented
and intended learning outcomes should be clearly
identified. Once the learning goals have been identified,
it is now imminent to align the learning activities such
that these objectives are fulfilled within a certain period
of time. This approach is a great way to maximize a
students’ learning experience.
Unit IV - B. ALS Learning Strands and ALS Curriculum
Guide
THE ALS K TO 12 BASIC EDUCATION
CURRICULUM
• The ALS Program uses a contextualized non-formal
curriculum which is substantially aligned with the K to
12 Curriculum for Basic Education of the formal school
system, but it is not the mirror image of the formal
school curriculum. It is aligned but not identical. This
takes into account the prior learning of its learners and
reflects the indicators of functional literacy into six
interrelated learning strands.

The table below shows the six learning strands and

corresponding topics or skills.

ALS K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum Learning

Strands
Learning Strands Skills
Learning Strand 1 Communication Skills (English)
Communication Skills (Filipino)
Learning Strand 2 Scientific Literacy and Critical
Thinking
Learning Strand 3 Mathematical and Problem
Solving Skills
Learning Strand 4 Life and Career Skills
Learning Strand 5 Understanding the Self and
Society
Learning Strand 6 Digital Citizenship
ASSESSMENT IN
LEARNING 1
EDUC311 - ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING 1
MODULE 1 - THE LANGUAGE OF EDUCATIONAL
ASSESSMENT
Assessment is a vital element in the curriculum as
part of the teaching and learning process. Its major role is
to identify the learning needs, monitor learners’ progress
and examine their performance in accordance to the
identified student learning outcomes. So, it is frequently
conducted in class discussions. However, you, as a
teacher, seldom fail to vary assessment activities who
viewed that assessment is mainly a paper-and-pencil task
for learners to comply and excel, regardless of when to
conduct, what is its purpose of conducting, and how to
evaluate the results. Consequently, learners are obliged to
focus its preparation in this form of assessment.
Lesson 1 - Learning Standards, Outcomes, Objectives,
and Indicators
Learners who are well informed about what
behaviors are expected of them in a course/subject or
learning activity have a definite guide during the learning
activity and are, therefore, perceived to attain success.
Relatively, you, as a teacher, who know very well what
you wish your students to demonstrate or perform will be
in the best position to align your instructional activities to
the desired learning outcomes. For both the learners and
teachers like you, learning expectations are very essential
in the teaching-learning process.
There are lots of figures that can be formed using
tangram the pieces. So when you start forming the pieces,
it is important that you are given direction on what to do
next so that you will reach the desired image of the figure.
That’s why, you find it difficult to accomplish the first
image because you just are not guided clearly.
Fortunately, you, as teachers, are already guided what to
discuss in the class before you even stepped in the
classroom, just like what you aimed for in the second
figure you solved in the tangram activity. These guides are
not just picked by someone randomly, but an intensive
effort was made to ensure the accuracy, feasibility and
appropriateness of information to the learners. In the
Philippine context, broader expectations set by the
Department of Education (DepEd) is classified according
to the learning standards as reflected in the curriculum
guides of every subject area.
List of Expectations
• Learning Standards - Learning standards are exact
written description of what is expected from the
learners at a certain stage of their education.
These provide guide on the educational objectives
to be implemented in the classroom, with no
mention on the teaching pedagogies and
assessment methods involved.
• Learning Outcomes - Learning outcomes, sometimes
called as student learning outcomes (SLO), are
statements to indicate the attainment of the
subject expectation through exhibiting the desired
skills, competencies and values. Evidences are
stated from the learning outcomes and solicited
from the learners to identify their progress in
attaining what is expected from them.
• Indicators - Indicators are established measures used to
determine how well a result has been achieved in
a particular area of interest. Usually, it is a set of
measurable characteristics in which all other
educational measurements are built.
• Learning Objectives - Learning objectives are short
statement to determine what to expect from the
learners after the course, unit, or lesson. It is
presented to structure specific expectation that
will gage learners to achievement a broader
expectation.
Applications:
These four concepts are important in identifying
the learners’ attainment in the class.
LIST OF EXPECTATIONS
LEARNING STANDARDS: The learner demonstrates
communicative competence through his/her
understanding of Philippine Literature and other
texts types for deeper appreciation of Philippine
Culture.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: The learner observe the correct
production of vowel and consonant sounds,
diphthongs, blends, glides, etc. in reading literary
texts.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES: Students will be able to
identify the diphthongs used in a sentence.
INDICATORS: To determine how much a learner has
performed, the teacher will count how many words
have identified out of 10 diphthongs being placed.
Lesson 2 - The K-12 Curriculum Guide
You can decide how to teach your learners based
on how you know them. You can also choose the
assessment tasks you will conduct to your class as long
as it is feasible for your learners. However, as teachers,
you cannot just pick what to teach to your learners.
Instead, you are guided what to information to deliver to
the learners across the whole school year of being in your
class.
The K to 12 Program of the Department of
Education covers 12 years of education, with additional 2
years for Senior High School (SHS) after the completion of
the 4-years Junior High School (JHS), that aims to
enhance the holistic development of the learners and
prepare them to their tertiary education, employment and
entrepreneurship.
To realize this, the curriculum has 6 salient features.
• Strengthening Early Childhood Education (Universal
Kindergarten)
• Building Proficiency through Language (Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual Education)
• Making the Curriculum Relevant to Learners
(Contextualization and Enhancement)
• Gearing Up for the Future (Senior High School)
• Ensuring Integrated and Seamless Learning (Spiral
Progression)
• Nurturing the Holistically Developed Filipino (College and
Livelihood Readiness, 21st Century Skills)
For English, however, the presentation is per quarter of
every grade level. The program, grade level, content and
performance standards were presented first table; the
integrated language arts domains for English for the
second table; and the learning materials after it. Just refer
to the tables presented below.

Among those, the spiral progression is

emphasized. Spiral progression is an approach wherein
concepts and knowledge are taught to the learners in its
simplest form to its complex forms as the learner
progresses. In this curriculum, branches and fields of the
------
different subject matters are taught during the elementary
level, but will only deal with simple ideas, until the learners
Since there are lots of learning competencies to be taught
reach the higher level in the JHS. This is to ensure the
are grouped by quarter in every grade level, it is hard to
learners’ mastery of skills and knowledge after each grade
determine what to teach each day. The codes inserted in
level. Just like in the activity, skills are taught and learned
the table will help you understand what to teach every
at various level of life to ensure that what has been
week. Refer to the images below for the legend of each
learned will be used to learn its more complex skill.
code for every subject area.
As teachers, you are provided by the DepEd with
Mathematics
the Curriculum Guide (CG) to be used in teaching the
learners following the spiral progression. In each subject
area, there are specific guide outline objectives, or
standards, that each learner should achieve at the end of
a time frame. Also, the guides are specific on what to
teach for every week, and when and how to teach a topic.
For you to understand how these are identified, you have
to know how to read the guide of your specific subject
area.

The introduction of curriculum guide of each

subject area presents the conceptual framework for every
subject, along with the grade level standards that each
learner should achieve in a certain subject at the end of Science
the school year. Also, a series of competency will follow
starting from Grade 1 for Mathematics and English, Grade
3 for Science, and a separate CG for TLE for every field
starting in Grade 7.
--------
For Mathematics and Science, the presentation of the
learning competencies, along with the content and
performance standards, and learning materials and
equipment that can be used for that competency are
presented in the image below.

For TLE, it is just the same with Mathematics and Science,
but there are columns for learning materials and the
equipment to be used, as presented below in the image
on the next page.
TLE
For TLE, however, there are different
competencies for every field – ICT, Home Economics,
Industrial Arts and Agri-Fishery Arts. For ICT, there are 4
CG’s for the following groups – computer hardware
servicing, technical drafting, illustration, and contact center
services. For Home Economics, there are 8 CG’s for the
following groups – beauty care, caregiving, cookery,
dressmaking, front offices services, household services,
travel services, and wellness massage. For Industrial Arts,
8 CG’s for the following groups – automotive servicing,
carpentry, consumer electronics servicing, electrical
installation and maintenance, masonry, plumbing, RAC
servicing (DOMRAC), and shield metal arc wielding
(SMAW). For Agri-Fishery Arts, 3 CG’s for the following
groups – agri-crop production, aquaculture and
horticulture. In this example, it is taken from the Computer
Hardware Servicing of ICT field.
English
Now, try to scan the competency of your
specialized field. What have you observed with the
competencies to be taught in a weekly basis?
Eventually, you will realize that some, if not most,
of the competencies are broad and needs many teaching
sessions for it to be accomplished. With that, these
competencies need to be unpacked in a way to determine
bits of achievement that can only be attained in a day’s
session. This will likely form the learning objectives to be
given to the class, but are still anchored to the mandated
learning competencies from the DepEd’s CG. In doing this,
you have to follow some steps to unpack your
competencies.
Application:
The knowledge here pertains to the major organs
of the human, particularly the musculo-skeletal,
integumentary, digestive, circulatory, excretory, respiratory,
and nervous system. This is what the learners should
know in this competency. Then, the skill they need to
perform is to be able to make and explain. However, the
condition in performing the competency is in the context of
a chart showing healthful habits and considering how the
different organ systems work together.
With that, you can now identify that the learning
competency concerns until the doing component, since
the context does not stop only in explaining of how the
organ systems work together, but until making a chart as
well.
This time, you can now design unpacked
competencies to be used for your learning objectives. In
this way, you will be guided on how to attain the
competencies based on the expected performance of the
learners. Considering that this is a two-week competency
based on the code, you can construct many unpacked
competencies, but I will present just one from each
component.
Try to add more unpacked competencies to attain
the content standards, performance standards, and
learning competencies.
Lesson 3 - Student Learning Outcomes Cognitive Domain, along with the outcomes verbs that you
can used in your learning outcomes and some illustrative
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my examples.
own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee
to take any one at random and train him to become any Sample Learning
type of specialist I might select — doctor, lawyer, artist, Level of Cognitive Sample Outcome Outcomes
merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, Domain Verbs (Students will be able
to:)
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, REMEMBERING: define, describe, state the Newton’s
vocations, and race of his ancestors.” – John Watson, recall of previously identify, label, list, Laws of Motion.
Behaviorism, 1930 learned information match, name,
recall, recognize, match the parts of
As a teacher, you have the power and authority in class to select, state the sewing
make your learners what you want them to be. Thus, you machine and its
have to realize the sensitivity in molding these learners for name.
their best. Luckily, you will be guided with what to expect
from them as you learn the characteristics of learning UNDERSTANDING: distinguish, distinguish among
comprehending the classify, compare, the list of objects
outcomes which portrays significant role in the teaching-
meaning, translation estimate, that is a rhombus
learning process. As such, your learning outcomes should and interpretation of exemplify, explain, but not a square.
embody the following SMART characteristics. instructions, and infer, interpret,
stating a problem in organize, explain the climax
Specific: Instead of telling the one’s own words paraphrase, of Romeo and
learners to bake a cake, tell them summarize Juliet in 3 to 5
to make a cake for the late adults sentences.
with these ingredients in a span of
time. APPLYING: using apply, change, prepare a daily
what was learned in compute, menu for one
Measurable: Tasting the cake and
the classroom in demonstrate, week using the
giving to the learners the rate that similar new situation discover, execute, Canva app.
they can’t understand is a no-no. implement, modify,
But, show them rubrics prior to prepare, show, use the
their performance so that they will solve, use Pythagorean
know the scoring scheme. theorem to solve
Achievable: You cannot expect distance problems.
the learners to provide you 3
different types of cakes in a ANALYZING: analyze, compare, differentiate a
session, because it is still out of separating materials contrast, prose and a poetry.
or concepts into differentiate, draw
their skill as they are still learning. component parts to a diagram, illustrate how to do
Relevant: You cannot just expect learners to perfect a understand the illustrate, organize, the 3R’s at home.
fusion of Caribbean and modern European cake to be whole outline, select
served to a panel of distinguished bakers; since they can’t
relate to what they do and it’s not what the goal expects EVALUATING: conclude, criticize, justify the theory of
them to develop. judging the value of defend, evaluate, Charles Darwin
Time bound: Structuring a cake-making task to be simple an idea, object or justify, relate, using the various
and delicious is enough for a onehour session, rather than material select, support examples.
expecting a grandeur presentation in a short time.
defend a research
proposal.
Knowing the characteristics of a learning outcome
is a big help to encourage learners’ performance. But, the CREATING: combine, compile, design a landscape
effectiveness of these outcomes may not be a guarantee, building a structure compose, devise, considering all its
especially if the learners cannot relate from the tasks. In or pattern; putting design, generate, principles and
our modern context which believes that limitations exist to parts together to modify, organize, properties.
every learner which also has complexities that are unique convey a thought plan, produce,
to them, you, as a teacher, are compelled to consider revise, rearrange generate important
these limitations and cater what is unique for each of them. components in
evaluating an
argumentative
3 DOMAINS OF LEARNING essay.
• Cognitive Domain of Learning. The cognitive domain
involves the development of knowledge and intellectual Note: Some verbs can be used for a different level. It depends on what
skills. It answer the question, “What do I want the learners the outcome demands to fully classify it to its appropriate level.
to know?”. Originally, it was devised by Bloom, Engelhart,
Furst, Jill and Krathwohl in 1956 and was revised by • Psychomotor Domain of Learning. The psychomotor
Anderson and Krathwohl is 2001. Presented below domain focuses on physical and mechanical skills
summarizes the level of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of involving coordination of the brain and muscular activity. It
answers the questions, “What actions do I want learners RESPONDING: answer, assist, present ways to
to be able to perform?”. The table presented below showing comply, conform, develop creativity in
displays the levels of psychomotor domain combining the commitment to discuss, greet, recycling garbages.
taxonomies built by Simpson, Dave and Harrow. respond in help, label,
some measure to perform, practice,
the idea or present, read,
Sample Learning
phenomenon recite, report,
Levels of Cognitive Sample Outcome Outcomes
select, tell, write
Domain Verbs (Students will be able
to:)
OBSERVING: watch, detect, identify non-verbal VALUING: showing complete, demonstrate
working the mental distinguish, Communication willingness to be demonstrate, resourcefulness in
attention actively to differentiate, cues. describe how perceived as valuing describe, budgeting a dinner
a physical activity describe, select, the tallying of data or favouring certain differentiate, for four.
relate, identify is done. ideas explain, follow,
form, initiate,
IMITATING: begin, explain, state the processes invite, join, justify,
attempting to copy a move, display, done in deboning a perform, propose,
physical behavior proceed, react, bangus. read, report,
show, state, select, share,
volunteer, initiate initiate a study
conversation using
Idiomatic ORGANIZING: adhere, alter, prepare a list of
expressions. arranging values arrange, combine, important practices
into priorities, compare, in maintaining a
PRACTICING: bend, calibrate, perform a chemical creating a unique complete, defend, clean and healthy
performing a specific construct, experiment value system by explain, garden.
activity repeatedly differentiate, involving comparing, relating generalize,
dismantle, display, emulsifiers. and synthesizing identify, integrate,
fasten, fix, grasp, values modify, order,
grind, handle, measure the organize, prepare,
measure, mix, dimensions of the relate, synthesize
operate, classroom.
manipulate, mend INTERNALIZING: act, discriminate, display credibility in
practicing value display, influence, gathering data for
ADAPTING: fine Organize, relax, write the reasons system that controls listen, modify, statistical analyses
tuning of the skill shorten, sketch, why the plants did one’s behavior, and perform, practice,
and making minor write, rearrange, not grow using also, exhibiting propose, qualify,
adjustments to attain compose, create, some fertilizers. behavior that is question, revise,
perfection design, originate pervasive, serve, solve, use,
create a new recipe predictable and verify
of cooking chicken characterizes other
intestines. person’s behavior.
In some source,
Note: Some verbs can be used for a different level. It depends on what internalizing is
the outcome demands to fully classify it to its appropriate level. equated to
characterization.se
• Affective Domain of Learning. The affective domain
Note: Some verbs can be used for a different level. It depends on what
emphasizes emotional knowledge. It answers the the outcome demands to fully classify it to its appropriate level.
questions, “What actions do I want learners to think or
care about?”. The affective domain includes factors such Learning the three domains of learning is
as learner’s motivation, attitudes, appreciations and essential in understanding how diverse a learner is and
values. In the table below, the classification scheme for how they perform in class. As you listed in the activity,
the affective domain developed by Krathwohl, Bloom and attaining what you desire to every learner requires multiple
Masia in 1964 is presented. pedagogical ways. Thus, knowing the three domains of
learning will help you to structure varied teaching-learning
Sample Learning techniques for your future classes.
Levels of Cognitive Sample Outcome Outcomes
Domain Verbs (Students will be able
to:) So in this part, you will learn how to craft learning
RECEIVING: being ask, choose, identify the values outcomes to clearly depict what the learners are expected
aware of or describe, follow, being exhibited in to demonstrate. Highly precise learning outcome can be
attending to give, hold, identify, the story, “Si written using a simplified basic formula, the ABCD method.
something in the locate, name, Pagong at si Audience – It answers the question, “Who will
environment and point to, select, sit, Matsing”. achieve the learning outcome?”. Mostly, his is a
being willing to listen reply, use description of the learners who are expected to perform or
or pay attention
demonstrate the behavior of a specific grade level.
 Behavior – It answers the question, “What do you
want them to be able to do?”. Specific behavior is
indicated by behavioral action verbs to write observable
and measurable behavior that shows mastery of the
objective.
Condition – It answers the question, “How will the
activity be done?”. This is the circumstances, equipment,
or materials used when demonstrating the behavior, such
as with or without the use of a calculator, an open book, or
a dictionary. Also, it may also answer the question, “What
is the content and context of the activity?”. This is done by
providing the sense and idea of the activity.
Degree – It answers the question, “How much
should be done?”. This is a description of the criteria used
to indicate whether the behavior has been demonstrated.
Application:
Presented below are some examples of learning
outcomes following the ABCD method, along with the
labels of each component. Then, a domain of learning with
its corresponding level and explanation is included.
The outcome below is under the affective domain of
learning since the learning outcome focused on using the
content to develop personal values. With that, it is under the
internalizing level.
The outcome below is under the cognitive domain of
learning since the learning outcome asks the learner to provide
idea on what they have learned from the concept. With that, it is
under the understanding level.
The outcome below is under the psychomotor domain
of learning since the learning outcomes requires learners to
perform the whole Tinikling dance given certain time to master
the skill. With that, it is in the practicing level.
Lesson 4 - Educational Evaluation, Measurement, Testing
and Assessment
After almost an hour of teaching the class, you, as
a teacher, will now feel relaxed because you can now
conduct assessment tasks where your learners will
answer and that you can just slouch at your chair. You
may simply lift items from the textbook and give it to the
class as their quiz. But, are those components enough for
you to conduct your assessment tasks? In the first place,
do you know what assessment is?
Ending a lesson is not just an assessment task.
Teachers, like you, may only focus on assessment since
this is what you thought the most essential of all. Besides,
you usually think that doing things religiously is tiresome
which consequently, compromises the wholesomeness of
what you are doing. However, one has to remember that
doing assessment tasks is not just an assessment task,
but have to inculcate its four essential components. In this
lesson, you will be explained on the concepts of testing,
assessment, measurement and evaluation, as
components in determining learners’ outcomes and
performances.
TESTING EXPLAINED
Testing is a formal, systematic procedure for
gathering information as defined by Russell and Airasian.
According to Miller, Linn and Gronlund, a test is a tool
comprised of a set of questions administered during a
fixed period of time under comparable conditions for all
learners. It is an instrument used to measure a construct
and make decisions. Teachers score tests in order to
obtain numerical descriptions of learners’ performance.
Types of Test
Throughout the years, psychologists and educators have
cooperatively produced new and better tests and scales
that measure the learners’ performance with greater
accuracy. An understanding of the types of tests is
beneficial to get the most out of them.
According to Ease of Qualification of Response
1. Objective test – It is a test 2. Subjective test – It is a test
with single, specified that is divergent in nature, with
convergent response, and is often requires varied
often corrected and quantified responses. Thus, there is no
with ease. definite answers in this test.
According to the Mode of Response
1. Oral test – It is a test used 2. Written test – It is a test
to elicit how learners used to ask learners to provide
understand concepts, theories or select responses for a set of
and procedures through oral questions of varying levels of
responses. difficulty, which is often done in
a paper-and-pencil test.
3. Performance test – It is a test that requires learners to show
ability in performing specific tasks about the learning outcomes
required from them, and it often done to meaningful and
authentic tasks.

According to Mode of Administration
1. Individual test – It is a test 2. Group test – It is a test
given to one person at a conducted to a group of
moment. It aims to elicit in- learners to assess their
depth response based on how cognitive skills. It aims to
he thinks and process ideas provide achievement and
from a certain question. evaluation that group of
learners.
According to Nature of Test Constructor
1. Standardized test – It is a 2. Non-standardized test – It is
test made by the experts of the a test prepared by the
field. Since consistent results teachers to be utilized in the
and the validity of the test are class. Usually, errors are
ensured (will be discussed on contained because the test is
the succeeding modules), it is made for a short time.Usually,
often conduct for a long time. it is used to measure the
Results from this test are often learners’ attainment of the
used for educational planning. course.
Functions of Testing
A. Instructional Functions
1. Tests facilitate the clarification of meaningful learning
objectives. You will be reminded on what to assess
based on the learning outcomes you presented.
2. Tests provide a means of feedback to the instructor
and the student. Learners will be guided on their
progress and will have a chance to enhance what
needs to be enhanced.
3. Tests can motivate learning. When the learners are
assessed well, they will have chance to prepare and
eventually increase achievement.
4. Tests can facilitate learning. Retrieval of information
is enhanced by the learners before the test is given.
And when immediate feedbacks are given, they will
like to boost their self for the mastery of the topic.
5. Tests are a useful means of overlearning.
Overlearning means continued study, review,
interaction or practice of the same material even after
concepts and skills had been mastered. Preparation
for scheduled test encourages overlearning.
B. Administrative Functions
1. Tests provide a mechanism of quality control. Test
scores give accurate data on the strengths and
weaknesses of the curriculum, so administrators will
be guided on the areas of improvement.
2. Tests facilitate better classification. Test scores help
the school identify learners’ strengths and needs.
Through this, school can design programs designed
for their learners.
3. Tests can increase the quality of selection decisions.
Test scores provide good data for the selection of
process of the school when it comes to their
admissions.
4. Tests can be useful means of accreditation, mastery
or certification. Test scores certify the knowledge and
skills of their learners, which will lead to enhancing
the status of the schools as a whole when it comes to
licensure examinations and accreditations.
C. Research and Evaluation
Tests are useful for program evaluation and
research.
Tests are good media for developing new and
effective educational techniques as validated by various
researches. Educational administrators can determine
what works best for their school programs based on what
is recommended by their research works.
D. Guidance Functions
Tests can be of value in diagnosing an individual’s
special aptitudes and abilities.
Tests give the guidance counselors a chance to
know the learners, as their clients, even more. By learning
the knowledge and abilities of the learners, they will know
what educational opportunities they can lead them to, and
will also help these learners to enhance their weaknesses
by giving them good scholarly techniques.
ASSESSMENT EXPLAINED
This time, focus on the image on the right. What
do you think they are doing? How do these images differ
from testing, as discussed in the previous session?
Assessment is derived from the Latin word
“assidere” which means “to sit beside a judge”. Moreover,
Miller, Linn & Gronlund defined assessment as any
method utilized to gather information about learners’
performance. Black and Wiliam gave a lengthier definition
emphasizing the importance of feedback and signifying its
purpose. They stated that assessment pertains to all
“activities undertaken by teachers – and by their students
in assessing themselves – that provide information to be
used to modify the teaching and learning activities in
which they are engaged”. Assessment provides data
directly from the learners. These data are interpreted to
help you make decisions on how to deal with the learners
even more, and eventually evaluate them afterwards.
Thus, it is a significant process in the teaching-learning
process that helps enhance instruction and improve
classroom practices. In that sense, test is a form of
assessment.
MEASUREMENT EXPLAINED
Once assessment is done, the responses
gathered from the learners will be subjected to
measurement. Measurement is the process in which
characteristics or attributes of objects and behavior are
quantified. Measuring involves giving values of using
defined and structured measuring tools, such as rulers,
scales and rubrics. With that, established standards are
necessary to attain accurate measurement values.
Types of Measurement
In some cases, however, not all things can be measured
directly. Learners’ performance and their scores in a
multiple-choice test cannot be measured using the same
manner. So, learning the types of measurement will you
identify how to measure different subjects in the
educational setting.
 Objective measurement – In this type, test results give
values to the knowledge of the learners in the topic. In this
type of measurement, there is a definite standard which is
independent from any person who score and that each
learner has to attained.
 Subjective measurement – Test results are determined
based on how the raters perceive the attainment of the
learners of each item. Because of the lack of standards,
this is usually done through rubrics to quantify the values
of the responses.
EVALUATION EXPLAINED
After quantifying the learners’ performances,
evaluation will follow. Evaluation originates from the root
word “value” and so when you evaluate, you have to
validate the worth of a thing given the facts and data as
your bases. So in this process, you are expect to be
critical as you give judgment about a particular situation so
that you can either adopt, revise or reject the focus of your
evaluation.
In the education setting, the implemented
curriculum, the teaching strategies, and the learners’
performance are all evaluated using the difference value
gathered from these situations, which is provided by the
assessment and measurement processes. With this, the
administrators, heads and person with authority can help
determine the success and efficiency of the educational
methods offered by the institution.
Application:
Whenever you engage in instruction, you must
always keep in mind the complete cycle of assessment
and evaluation. You should remember that the ultimate
purpose of any educational endeavor is to improve
instruction to further motivate learners in exceeding their
past performance. As such, the four concepts are
interrelated.
MUST DO IN TEACHING
(Designing the test and preparing a method for
measurement)
Mr. Alfonso looked for a literary piece and crafted
instructions on what the learners will do. Then, he
established that when the learners obtained a score of a
half or more, the learners have passed.
(Selecting appropriate testing method for assessment)
Mr. Alfonso chose to give the quiz immediately
after the discussion.
(Measurement of gathered data)
After answering, the learners checked the papers of their
classmates; and the papers were collected by Mr. Alfonso
after.
(Evaluating evidence and making judgments)
Mr. Alfonso separated the papers of those who
passed and those who failed. He identified that most of
the class had passed the quiz, with only 2 who failed.
(Making decisions)
Mr. Alfonso decided to proceed to the next lesson
by tomorrow and pursue giving special assignment for
those who failed in the quiz.
Lesson 5 - Principles and Ideas of Assessment
The entire module focused on discussing the
learning outcomes and assessment, along with its
importance principles and characteristics. Indeed, great
consideration should be observed in crafting these, along
with choosing the best teaching strategies you can think.
However, good learning outcomes, diversified pedagogical
techniques and assessment tasks won’t be effective if
these won’t jive in a teaching-learning session.
Assessment requires careful planning. It is not just
something that you do whenever you want to. Test scores
are important for learners to monitor their progress and
establish their performance. For you to understand the
principles and ideas in conducting assessment tasks, you
have to learn its principles, purposes, roles and relevance.
Principles of High-Quality Assessment
High-quality assessment provides what you need from you
learners. It gives you guide on how your learners
developed, and at the same giving you ways on how to
improve your instruction. To ensure the quality of any test,
the following criteria must be considered:
1. Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets
A learning target is a describes what a learner
know and can perform. So in designing an assessment
task, you have to make sure that the learning targets fit for
the learners’ ability, and will also represent the different
types of learning targets. Learning targets are categorized
by Stiggins and Conklin into five.
a. Knowledge learning target is the ability of the
student to learn a practical subject matter.
b. Reasoning learning target is the ability to utilize
learned concepts and solve substantive problems.
c. Skill learning target is the ability to exhibit
achievement-related skills like conducting experiments,
playing basketball, and operating computers.
d. Product learning target is the ability to design
achievement-related products like written reports, oral
presentations, and art products.
e. Affective learning target is the ability to show
affective traits such as attitudes, values, interests, and
self-efficacy.
2. Appropriateness of Assessment Methods
Once the learning targets have been identified,
match them with their corresponding methods by
considering the strengths of various methods in measuring
different targets. Refer to the table below for the
assessment methods along with its corresponding
learning targets.
 Assessment Methods Corresponding Learning Targets
Objective Supply Knowledge, Reasoning, Affective
Objective Select Knowledge, Reasoning
Essay Knowledge, Reasoning, Affective
Performance-based Reasoning, Skills, Products
Oral Question Knowledge, Reasoning, Skill,
Product, Affective
Observation Knowledge, Reasoning, Skills
Self-report Knowledge, Affective
3. Balance
As much as possible, assessment methods
should assess all the domains of learning. Moreover,
these methods should also observe the attainment of all
the levels in each domain of learning. Mathematics and
Sciences should not only involve the reasoning skills of
the learners in assessment nor TLE and PE courses must
not just enhance the learners’ skills and performances.
4. Validity
Validity refers to how the test serves its purpose and how
efficient to what it intends to measure. This certifies the
suitability of the inferences, uses, and results of the test.
Although complicated as it may sound, validity is
determined by professional judgment, that even you can
do. You have to learn the different types of evidence to
use in determining validity. The following major sources of
information can be used to establish validity.
a) Content-related validity ensures how the
assessment represents what the learners learned. In a
summative test, a test blueprint or table of specification
will help narrow down what target should be assessed. It
answers the following questions: How appropriate and
comprehensive is the content?; Does it logically get at the
intended goal?; and How adequately does the sample of
items or questions represent the content to be assessed?.
b) Criterion-related validity relates the
assessment to another assessment of the same trait. In
this case, validity is determined by relating an assessment
to some valued measures that may give estimation of your
current or future performances. If the test score predicts
your likeliness to be in the honor roll, then the test
embodies concurrent criterion-related validity. Moreover,
when your consistent top scores of the test makes you top
the licensure exam, the test has predictive criterion-related
validity. It answers the question: How well do such scores
estimate present or predict future performance of a certain
type?.
c) Construct-related validity provides idea on
what assessment task will measure an unobservable trait
like intelligence, reading comprehension, honesty,
motivation, attitude, learning style, and anxiety. It answers
the question: How well does a measure of the construct
explain differences in the behavior of the individuals or
their performance on a certain task?.
d) Face validity gives basis on how the
assessment should appear, either on the physical look of
the test or the correctness of all its components. It
answers the following questions: How presentable and
effective does my test appear?; Is my test free from
teachers’ errors?; and How well is my test constructed for
its purpose?.
5. Reliability
Reliability refers to the consistency of the learners’
test score may be expected to perform on a given test. It
is identified by looking into the stability of the score of a
learner despite the frequency of administration for a
different period of time. So, it measures how dependable
and stable the test is.
To determine the reliability of a test, the length of
the test, difficulty of the test, and objectivity of the scorer
should be adhered. There are four methods you can utilize
in estimating the reliability of a good measuring instrument
given the test scores of a group. However, details on
these processes, along with the ways on how test
reliability will be improved, will be discussed on the 6th
module.
Test score is not as easy as you view. The
concept of error should be taken into consideration in
understanding reliability. The score is not a product of the
learners’ progress, but can also be affect by some degree
of error. It’s not actually the true score that you get from
your learners as their teacher, but just the observed score.
Observe Score = True Score + Error
Thus, an observed score can be higher or lower
than the true score, depending on the nature of error. The
sources of error are listed in the table.
Internal Error External Error
Health Directions
Mood Luck
Motivation Item Ambiguity
Test-taking Skills Heat in the Room
Anxiety Lighting
Fatigue Sample of Items
General Ability Observer Differences and Bias
Test Interpretation and Scoring
6. Fairness
Fairness intents a transparent, bias-free and
impartial assessment task for the learners, that embodies
clear instruction and items. In standardized test usually,
contextualization, like culture and locality, are often set
aside to ensure that all learners are on the same level,
that’s why intelligence tests often focus on tasks and
knowledge rather than applications. Identified elements of
fairness are the learners’ knowledge of learning targets
before instruction, the opportunity to learn, the attainment
of prerequisite knowledge and skills, unbiased
assessment tasks and procedures, and you, as teacher,
who avoid stereotypes.
7. Authenticity
Assessment should touch the real-life situations.
Thus, practicability should be emphasized. For example,
use situations in which students can relate. Using
calamansi fruit in asking learners to add objects is more
relatable that using mistletoe and blue berries. For
authenticity to be attained, knowing the situation of the
test takers is necessary when designing assessment tasks.
8. Practicality and Efficiency
Practicality and efficiency in assessment is
ensured when consideration of learner’s familiarity of the
method, the time requirement, the difficulty of
administration, the ease of scoring, and the cost of
implementation are adhered. As much as possible, the
test should be uniformly administered without taking much
of the learners’ time, and the instructions are well
communicated. Moreover, the scores should be efficiently
made and must be given to the learners for remedial
measures.
9. Ethics
Assessment should be done ethically. Learners’
rights should not be derogated; but should feel the
assurance in their participation. Confidentiality of their test
results should also be observed at all times. Moreover,
transparency of the learners’ test scores is encouraged.
10. Positive Consequences
Assessment should have positive effect in the
educational field. For the learners, they should feel that
the assessment will motivate them to learn more and
improve their performance. For you and the school
administration, it should aim to improve your instruction
and the quality of the teaching curriculum.
There are lots of principles to observe in order to conduct
a good assessment. This will serve as a guide so that you
can craft an effective assessment task for your learners.
However, conducting assessment tasks in the classroom
varies depending on the purpose you want. This time, you
will learn the purposes of why you conduct assessment.
Purposes of Assessment
There are three interrelated purposes of
assessment. Knowledge of these purposes and how they
fit in the learning process can result to a more effective
classroom assessment.
Each purpose of assessment will be elaborated in
the second to the fourth module of this course.
Assessment is not only limited in the classroom
setting. Assessment do also portray necessary roles in the
educational setting as a whole. These roles will be
elaborated in the next section of this lesson.
Role of Good Assessment
Tests has some functional roles in the classroom
instruction. These roles are classified accordingly with
specific aims that will enhance the learners’ performance
in the following manner:
• Diagnostic Role - This is used to determine the recurring
and unresolved learning difficulties of the learners
in the instructional process, which will eventually
be used for their remedial instructions.
• Summative Role - This is used to determine if the
learners’ mastery and achievement the given
content, and will eventually lead to the overall
evaluation of their performance and the
instructional process as well.
• Formative Role - This determines how the learner
performs during the instructional process to be
able to monitor the progress by providing
continuous feedback concerning learners’
successes and failures.
• Placement Role - This is conducted to determine what
the learners currently are for the purpose of
evaluating the position in the instructional process
and the ways on how to deal with them.
Learning the different principles, purposes and
roles of assessment gives you an idea on how will design
effective assessment tasks. But remember that whatever
result you gather from any assessment tasks, its
relevance will not only be limited to the learners
themselves, but to all the stakeholders who are indirectly
involve in the process. The last section of this lesson
outlines the relevance of assessment to the stakeholders.
Relevance of Assessment to Stakeholders
Assessment is an indispensable tool in the teaching-
learning process to continuously monitor and improve the
education as a whole. And education, in general, is not
just for you and your learners, but will the involvement of
the parents, administrators, and all the players of the
education system as well. Thus, it is necessary to
understand the relevance of assessment to them.
• Learners
Because of diverse assessment tasks, the
learners learned how to be responsible with their own
learning and become more engaged in the process. With
you help, they were able to monitor their progress and
polish their outputs making them feel good on their works.
• Teachers
Assessment gives idea to you on your
instructional practice as you learned how to adjust your
pedagogies to suit your learners’ ability. Moreover, you will
be guided on how to lead your learners using their
competence and place them to levels of education
programs.
• Parents
Since education is a shared process, assessment
will be strengthened by parents’ involvement as they are
the first source and witness of their child’s skills and
competence. In return, the assessment result gives
feedback to the parents on their child’s progress.
• Administrators and Program Staff
Assessment helps administrators and school
planners to evaluate the efficiency of the program and the
curriculum. With that, they can be able to suggestion
areas for improvement. Lastly, assessment will also guide
the school on the admission of their learners.
• Policymakers
Assessment provides information to the
government agencies on the quality of education the
school offers. With that, they can help strengthen
efficiency and sanction low performances. The CHEd in
response to their program on quality assurance shut down
substandard academic programs of schools with low
graduation and passing rates in licensure examinations.
On the other hand, the DepEd can allot the focus of
improving the educational quality of those schools whose
performance in the National Achievement Test (NAT) are
below average.
Lesson 6 - The Relationship of Assessment to Learning
and Teaching
Although it is your decision, as a teacher, to
structure your teaching plan for the class’ session,
achieving an effective plan does not come from an
impromptu decision. Careful thought is needed to facilitate
the alignment of the activities from the start to the end
class.
Alignment is the connection between learning
outcomes, learning activities and assessment. An aligned
course means that your learning outcomes, activities and
assessments match up to students learn what you intend
and you accurately assess what students are learning.
The figure above illustrates the principle of
constructive alignment. The principle of constructive
alignment simply means that the teaching-learning
activities and assessment tasks are aligned with the
intended learning outcome. For example, if the intended
learning outcomes is “to drive a car”, the teaching-learning
activity is really guiding them while driving a car, not giving
lectures on car driving. Moreover, the assessment task is
to let the learner drive a car, not just asking them ways
how to drive a car with utmost safety. The term
“constructive” for constructive alignment is based on the
constructivist theory that learners use their won activity to
construct their knowledge or other outcomes. To further
understand the constructive alignment done in the
classroom setting, the three broader concepts are further
divided into specific concepts shown by phases of
outcome assessment in the instructional cycle on the next
page.
The points of this cycle are explained below.
1. The institutional outcomes, from the school where
you are teaching in particular, provide goals on what
graduates are they expecting. This is anchored
through the programs offered by your school, and the
specific subject courses in each program. With that, it
is you task, as a teacher, to craft the student learning
outcomes that will help attain the expectations of the
school, the program, and the subject courses.
2. When the student learning outcomes are already
structured, you may choose to conduct a diagnostic
assessment. This diagnostic assessment will help
determine if the learners have good existing
knowledge to facilitate their understanding of the
lesson. With that, you can design your lesson
depending on the needs of your learners. However,
this part of the process is only optional, and is mostly
done only if you don’t know yet your learners’ prior
performance, or you want to assess their prior
knowledge of the topic.
3. Once the student learning outcomes are design, or
the needs of the learners are identified from your
diagnostic assessment, you can now structure your
class activities. This will involve planning how the
lessons will be oriented to the learners and how the
learners will participate in the teaching-learning
process.
4. After the conduct of the teaching-learning activities,
formative assessment will be done to determine the
learners’ degree of attainment of the learning
outcomes. This will give significant result that will help
your decision-making for the next day’s session.
5. If it is found that the level of learner’s attainment is
low, reteaching of the topic will be a better option. But,
if only some of the class left behind, review of the
lesson will be done the next day, and will then
proceed to the next lesson. Reteaching and reviewing
of the previous topics will help the learners master
the topic.
6. Once all the topics are delivered to the learners,
summative assessment will be conducted to help
evaluate the performance of the learners in general.
This is the time where you will judge your learners’
performance.
7. The result of the learners’ summative performance
will help determine their performance in their specific
grade level, and their advancement in that certain
subject area. When a considerate number of learners
failed to meet the program goals and subject objectives for
consecutive batches already, re-evaluation of the program
goals and the subject objectives should be conducted.
This often happens in curriculum planning to meet the
learners’ needs in coping up the modernity’s demands.
Application:
Looking back at your time during your elementary
and high school days, you have been victims of teachers
who taught you one thing but assessed you on another.
As you observed, the result is more confusion and
disappointments in your part as learners. So now that you
will have your chance of being one in the teaching
profession, you are obliged to break the cycle of not
victimizing your learners, too. Observing the principle of
constructive alignment makes sure that your assessment
tasks are aligned with your learning outcomes.
MODULE SUMMARY:
• Learning standards are exact written description of what
is expected from the learners at a certain stage of their
education.
• Learning outcomes are statements to indicate the
attainment of the subject expectation through exhibiting
the desired skills, competencies and values.
• Learning objectives are short statement to determine
what to expect from the learners after the course, unit, or
lesson.
• Indicators are established measures used to determine
how well a result has been achieved in a particular area of
interest.
• Spiral progression is an approach wherein concepts and
knowledge are taught to the learners in its simplest form to
its complex forms as the learner progresses.
• DepEd made the Curriculum Guide (CG) for teaching the
learners with the aim of achieving the specific guide
outline objectives, or standards, that each learner should
achieve at the end of a time frame.
• Designing unpacked competencies is useful for
determining the learning objectives which will serve as a
guide on how to attain the competencies based on the
expected performance of the learners.
• Learning outcomes should follow the SMART
characteristics – specific, measurable, achievable,
relevant, and time-bounded.
• Learning outcomes may focus on the cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective domain of learning.
• In constructing learning outcomes, the audience,
behavior, condition and degree should be specified.
• Testing is a formal, systematic procedure for gathering
information.
• Assessment is any method utilized to gather information
about learners’ performance.
• Measurement is the process in which characteristics or
attributes of objects and behavior are quantified.
• Evaluation is validating the worth of a thing given the
facts and data as your bases.
• High-quality assessment should embody the principles of
having clear and appropriate learning targets,
appropriateness of assessment methods, balance, validity,
reliability, fairness, authenticity, practicality and efficiency,
ethics, and positive consequences.
• The purpose of assessment may be FOR, AS and OF
learning.
• The roles of good assessment are placement, diagnostic,
formative and summative.
• Assessment is a process which are relevant to the
learners, teachers, parents, administrators and program
staff, and policymakers.
• Alignment is the connection between learning outcomes,
learning activities and assessment.
• The principle of constructive alignment simply means
that the teaching-learning activities and assessment tasks
are aligned with the intended learning outcome.
MODULE 2 - ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
Teaching is hard if teachers do not know their
clients who, apparently, are the learners. For them to
know their learners more than their profiles and
background, they really need to gather ideas on their
learners’ level of performance when it comes to their
holistic competence. To do this, assessment should be
done; and in the earliest time possible. In this way,
teachers will know how to deal with their learners as they
progress throughout the school year of honing them even
more.
Lesson 1 - Using Assessment to Classify Learning and
Understanding
Assessment for learning (AfL) is an approach to
teaching and learning that creates feedback which is then
used to improve learners’ performance. Learners become
more involved in the learning process and eventually gain
confidence in what they are expected to learn and to what
standard. So as a teacher, you are to encourage the
learners to be more active in their learning and associated
assessment.
The essence of of AfL in the classroom instruction is to
close the gap between what the learner is in the current
situation and what they can achieve and learn. As
teachers, you are expected to create self-reliant learners
who can deliver what is expected from them and be
responsible in decision making. So, it is necessary to
involve learners actively in the teachinglearning process.
To realize this, you have to think this cycle of thinking in
assessment for learning as presented below.
The figure illustrates your aims in teaching your
learners. Knowing where the learners now can be
assessed using a diagnostic assessment or a series of
formative assessment so that you will identify their
progress from their previous or current learning situation.
This will tell you their strengths and weaknesses in that
subject, chapter or lesson. With that, you as teachers will
have an opportunity to structure your teaching strategies
that will utilize their intellect and skills. You will then revise
the learning outcomes as to how they can show evidence
of their progress. The use of their strengths throughout the
process causes them to efficiently work and perform. As
such, your mode of instruction will follow as guide your
guide on how will you lead them to where they should be.
Since activities in the classroom are wide-ranging and
different lessons may demand different ways of teaching,
doing assessment for learning should still utilize these
essential steps as listed below.
• comprises two phases – initial or diagnostic assessment
and formative assessment
• assessment can be based on a variety of information
sources (e.g. portfolios, works in progress, teacher
observation, conversation)
• verbal or written feedback to the learner is primarily
descriptive and emphasizes strengths, identifies
challenges, and points to the next steps
• as you check on understanding, you adjust your
instruction to keep learners on track
• no grades or scores are given – record-keeping is
primarily anecdotal and descriptive
• occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset
of the course of study to the time of summative
assessment
For you to be an effective teacher, you have to integrate
AfL in the learners’ lessons as a natural part of what the
learners do, choosing how much or how little to use the
method. AfL can be adapted to suit the age and ability of
the learners involved. As teachers, these strategies will
help you to design assessment for learning tasks.
• the strategic use of questioning
Questioning is used not only as a pedagogical tool
but also as a deliberate way for the teacher to find out
what students know, understand and are able to do.
• effective teacher feedback
Effective teacher feedback focuses on established
success criteria and tells the students what they have
achieved and where they need to improve. Importantly,
the feedback provides specific suggestions about how that
improvement might be achieved.
• peer feedback
Peer feedback occurs when a learner uses
established success criteria to tell another student what
they have achieved and where improvement is necessary.
Again, the feedback provides specific suggestions to help
achieve improvement.
• learner self-assessment (assessment as learning)
Learner self-assessment encourages learners to
take responsibility for their own learning. It incorporates
self-monitoring, self-assessment and self-evaluation.
• the formative use of summative assessment
Summative assessment is a necessary aspect of
education. Formative use can be made of summative
assessment, both before and after the assessment event.
As assessment, teaching and learning are
inextricable linked as each informs the others, AfL has
become a powerful process that can optimize or inhibit
learning, depending on how it is applied. So as teacher,
you have a big role to portray in your future class.
Application:
AfL tasks may vary in different subject areas.
Mathematics teachers may conduct boardwork to
determine how far the learners have progress in solving.
English teachers may ask questions randomly on how
they understand the concept. Science teachers may elicit
responses which focus on the familiarization of theories
and laws. TLE teachers may require learners to follow on
what they have done throughout the demonstration
method. Because of these strategies, teachers like you,
know if they will proceed or go back to what most of the
learners are confused. This will help them clarify their
confusions and settle everything before you proceed to
the next part of the discussion.
Imagine for an hour of discussion, Mathematics
teachers will just discuss how the formula is used in
sample problems, English teachers will just give ideas on
a certain literary piece with relevance to the real setting,
Science teachers will discuss just theories and laws with
application, and TLE teachers will do an output for the
entire session until it will be completed. What do you think
will happen to the learners? Most, if not all of them, will
end up remembering how things are discussed and done
but won’t really grasp what has been taught. In the end,
the session will just to be a teacher showcasing his/her
idea and skill on a certain topic, without really transferring
these information and skills to the learners, who should
have been the center of the teaching-learning process.
Lesson 2 - Examples of Assessment for Learning
Assessment for learning (AfL) is an essential
aspect for teaching, as discussed by the previous lesson.
With that, you, as teacher, should know how to integrate it
in the class. To realize this, you have to make sure that
you have enough tools to aid you in effectively facilitate
this in your class. This lesson provides you tools you can
use for AfL, but these are just some of the many tools you
can utilize and innovate. These tools are grouped based
on when you present your lesson in the class.
Before the introduction of the lesson
Class Review
Especially if the topics are interrelated, teacher review will
help you gather ideas from the learners. With that, you
can see how far the leaners have progressed in the topic
and how much they have attained from the given
objectives. This can be done by you asking series of
openended questions to the class or the learners will
group given the guide questions you have made.
All You Know
If the topic is familiar to the class, ask the learners what
they already know about it. In this way, you can gage your
discussion to the experiences and ideas they already have.
You will just polish their thoughts and build new
knowledge to add up.
Scene-Setting
Setting the scene means opening the lesson with a big,
broad question which requires learners to think critically
and you, in return, will anticipate responses and followups
from the class as the discussion progresses. In this way,
learners will be guided what to grasp important ideas to
answer the question by themselves. After the class, you
may call randomly to respond.
In this part, AfL aims to gather learners’ insights,
ideas and thoughts that will help them understand the
day’s topic. This done by establishing their prior
knowledge, soliciting important experiences related to the
topic that will still be presented, or giving idea what things
to be learned throughout the session. In this way, learners
will be guided and directed where and how to proceed.
During the lesson
Wait Time
Wait gives learners the time to think, process thoughtsand
explore ideas before responding to a certain query. This is
done by you asked questions and waiting before you call
learners so that all can think of their own answers. Once
the learner has responded, you may wait before giving
your feedback to allow the learners, or the other learner,
to elaborate or continue.
‘Might’
‘Might’ strategy is used whenever you will ask responses
from your learners on giving insights about a topic. In
questioning, you will insert the word ‘might’ to encourage
learners to explore and think of possibilities of a topic. For
example, instead of asking “what is democracy?”, just ask
“what might be the meaning of democracy?”. The first
infers a single answer known by you whereas the second
is inherently more open.
X and Y
In this activity, learners should be asked why X is an
example of Y. For example, why is whale and example of
a mammal?. In this way, the learners will use reasoning to
explicitly convey his/her answer.
Idea Thoughts
This is a tool that will help learners know how their
classmates think. After gathering answers from the
question posed, ask a learner who responded to that
question to call someone whom he/she thinks has an idea
about his response. In that way, the class will be able to
polish each idea together.
Bouncing
It is somewhat similar to idea thoughts but it involves
continuing process. Bouncing answers around the class
will help build and develop concepts and clarify
misconception. For example, “Helen, what do think Alan’s
answer?”, “Bruce, how could you develop Helen’s answer
to include more detail?”, “Chester, how might you combine
all we’ve heard into a single answer?”.
Incorrect Discussion
This is a strategy that uses wrong answers as basis of
a discussion. In this way, misconceptions will be laid
down and processed to be corrected. Learners will
eventually get the idea that it is okay to give wrong
answers, and will encourage responses from the class.
Students Raise Questions
You can do this using two options, you may put a box
somewhere in the classroom that learners can put their
queries on a topic or you may elicit queries every after the
discussion. In this way, you can assess what confuses
them and will be able to answer them in the next session.
The question may be a thing they like new things to learn
in the topics or confusions which they like to further
explore.
Learners in this part of the teaching-learning
process are constructing knowledge on the topic, for them
to deliver the desired outcome from them. So, AfL in this
part focuses on enhancing learners’ competence on the
topic by broadening their understanding, applying their
learning of the topic in their own experiences, and
clarifying confusions and misconceptions.
After the discussion of the lesson
In this part, you may often conduct short quizzes,
oral recitation, and games. However, there are other
activities that you can do to practice formative
assessments at the end of the lesson. You may refer to
some of the list below.
Traffic Lights
Traffic lights is creative way of assessing learners’
understanding. To do this, the red, amber and green
colors will be reflected in cards that the learners will raise.
Red will be raised signifying ‘no understanding’, amber for
‘confused and/or queries’, and green for ‘gotten the idea’.
Class can also use this to assess group presentations.
Student Marking
Involving learners in the assessment process will help
them to be aware of their own learning, as they are given
the chance to mark their own and their classmates’ work.
They can do this with their own homework or short
assessment tasks in the class.
Comment-only Marking
Comment-only marking is done for the formative
assessment outputs. Usually, it is written somewhere in
the learners’ outputs. Once a series of outputs are
collected and comments are written on it, the learners will
be able to track their progress in the class. It’s a way of
feedbacking as well.
Two Stars and A Wish
This can be used to as a topic-ender or as a form of peer
assessment. Two stars represent 2 good things learned or
seen in the topic or output. A wish serves as something
that can still be learned or improved.
In this last part of the teaching-learning process
where usually, you settle for short quizzes. However, AfL
is not only limited in giving paper-and-pencil tests, and
may also come from other tangibles and intangibles
stipulated in the learning outcome. AfL in this part will help
these learners design their output and monitor their
progress through effective comments. These comments
may also come from their peers. Feedbacking is also an
essential matter in AfL and will be discussed in the next
lesson.
Application:
Mrs. Teodoro is discussing the Marcos’ regime to his
learners. She decided to have these strategies in her one-
hour session.
1. She will begin by using the "Scene Setting" strategy.
She will ask the learners, "What are those that
Filipinos enjoy today that Marcos had work on?"
2. She will proceed by asking 'might' questions on what
will happen if some infrastractures and government
relations won't exist. But, the learners still do not
know that it's Marcos who realized those. "Idea
thoughts" will also be applied in this part to
acknowledge others ideas.
3. At the end of the lesson, she will utlize the "Two Stars
and a Wish" method so that the learners can raise
ideas and confusions. This will serve as a starting
point for the next session's review.
Lesson 3 - Feedback in Assessment for Learning
Conducting assessment for learning is not just
about inserting assessment tasks in the teaching-learning
process. Even if it is just a simple oral questioning or a
short quiz, the scores of each learner has something to tell.
With that, results gathered in assessment for learning
should be used analyzed well.
The purpose of assessment for learning task is to provide
feedback to both the teacher and learner regarding the
learner’s progress towards achieving the learning
objectives. This feedback should be used by you to revise
and develop further instruction. Feedback is a twoway
discussion by you and your learners to discuss their
learning progress as to what they can learn and how they
will get there. Feedback is often when learner deliver
output in response to your teaching; thus, it is often
referred to as ‘bridge’ between teaching and learning.
Feedback may come in two forms – ego-focused and
task-focused. In ego-focused feedback, it is the learners
which were commented, not directly his/her output. Here
is a sample of this kind of feedback: ‘Great work Melanie,
the best in the class.’ This comment makes good learners
complacent as they thought they have nothing to improve.
They may also fear to explore as they may lose this kind
of comment. Oppositely, weak learners may feel that they
have nothing to improve. On the other hand, task-focused
feedback provides praises and critiques on what the
learner has delivered as proof of progress. Here is a
sample of this kind of feedback: ‘Ali, you have written a
good introduction to your story. Now, can you think how
you can make the description of the main character more
striking?’. In this way, all learners, regardless of their
previous performance, will be able obtain feedback which
is will drive them to enhance their crafts even more. Also,
no one will be feeling neglected as the selected some are
lifted up.
Giving the learners a meaningful feedback helps them Goals already claimed learner knows
improve and perform well (Stenger, 2014). So to realize that the output is how to proceed
this, Stenger (2014) provides 5 research-based tips in absolute. towards the best
providing learners with meaningful feedback which suits version of the
well with AfL. work.
• Be specific as possible Present Feedback The learner may The feedback
Take time to give learners the detail on what is Carefully not dare to makes the
good and what needs improvement. Also, present what improve the work learner feel
they did differently that before. since there were overwhelmed and
• The sooner the better no points for challenged at the
The moment you have gathered the output, improvement. same time, and
immediately give feedback to the learners. This allows may cause
them to plan and take quick action. further
• Address the learner's advancement towards a goal development of
Learners are driven to achieve something, so your the skill.
feedback should tell them how to progress toward the final Involve the The feedback is The learner can
goal. Learners in the closed, so the discuss how the
• Present feedback carefully Process learner cannot give process of
Good feedbacks may be delivered in a wrong idea on what is improvement is
manner which may affect learners' focus. If the learners said. done because
feel they are strictly monitored, they may become nervous there is a
and disengaged in learning. If the learners take feedback challenge posted
as way to control them, they may take it as the only way to as point for
do, and lose the purpose of guidance for improvement. If improvement.
the learners feel an unhealthy idea of competition,
learners may be driven to compete for scores, and will be
diverted from learning. To avoid these, you should explain MODULE SUMMARY:
to them the purpose of monitoring and it aims to compete • Assessment for learning (AfL) is an approach to teaching
for themselves for their own personal bests. and learning that creates feedback which is then used to
• Involve the learners in the process improve learners’ performance.
Involving the learners in the collection and • In classifying learning and understanding, it is important
analysis of their performance will help them develop to determine where the learner is now, where the learners
awareness and recognize their mistakes. Eventually, they is going, and how the learner will get there.
can monitor their progress as they develop strategies to • The strategic use of questioning, effective teacher
cater their weak points. feedback, peer feedback, student self-assessment, and
the formative use of summative assessment will help
Application: design assessment for learning tasks.
• Before the introduction of the lesson, AfL aims to gather
On the comments for Melanie’s and Ali’s performances in learners’ insights, ideas and thoughts that will help them
the Abstraction part, it can be said that the two feedback understand the day’s topic.
have differ significantly. Presented below is a table with its • During the lesson, AfL in this part focuses on enhancing
explanation on how meaningful feedback is considered. learners’ competence on the topic by broadening their
understanding, applying their learning of the topic in their
Tips Melanie’s Comment Ali’s Comment own experiences, and clarifying confusions and
Be Specific as No details on the The strength and misconceptions.
Possible strengths and weakness are • After the discussion of the lesson, AfL will help these
weaknesses of the identified, so the learners design their output and monitor their progress
output delivered. learner can through effective comments.
adhere • The purpose of assessment for learning task is to
the strength and provide feedback to both the teacher and learner
improve the regarding the learner’s progress towards achieving the
weakness. learning objectives.
The Sooner the This feedback may This feedback is • Feedback may come in two forms – ego-focused and
Better be given at aimed to be given task-focused.
anytime – may be the earliest • Giving the learners a meaningful feedback helps them
early or late. possible so that improve and perform well.
the weaknesses
can immediately
be improved.
Address Learner’s There is no Direction is
Achievement direction of the emphasized and
Towards the feedback since it the
MODULE 3 - ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
A worthwhile session of teaching-and-learning
process is manifested when students’ eagerness and
contentment of learning contents are satisfied. However,
affective reactions like those are not the main basis of
establishing the effectiveness of the teaching process.
The utmost priority is still ensuring that learners have
learned from the experience; and this can only be done if
these learners will be assessed on what were taught to
them. With that, it is very essential for teachers to exhibit
competence in assessing students’ learning after the
wholesome teaching course.
Lesson 1 - Using Assessment as Support for Achievement
and Evaluation
Learners’ achievement from their months of
learning is determined by how they performed in an
examination or other quarterly assessment tasks.
Assessment of these types are very necessary in order to
identify learners’ competence. However, test results
obtained from these assessment tasks will also impact the
education stakeholders in general. The school personnel,
including you, specifically, are guided how effective the
learning goals are based on these learners’ performances.
Assessment of learning (AoL) is used in the class
in order for you to provide summary of how far your
learners know and do as basis of their achievement and
progress in the learning process. That’s why, AoL is also
called as summative assessment.
In view with summarizing learners’ achievements,
conducting summative assessment differed based on their
purposes. Moreover, how assessment is carried also
varies considerably.
THE PURPOSES OF SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Individual learners:
• Uses internal to the school/college – done to keep
records and provide reports to your colleagues, parents
and learners.
• Uses external to the school/college – this includes
certification, selection and meeting statutory requirements.
Groups of learners:
• Evaluation – of you, schools and local authorities.
Evidences of these types are determined by the national
and local policy rather that the individual schools.
• Monitoring – for yearly comparison of learners’
achievements at the national level. The process of doing
this is identified outside the school.
Learning why to conduct summative assessment to the
learners helps you and the school know how these
learners will be assessed. Regardless of the purpose
though, knowing what to assess is still one of the priorities
in all assessment tasks, especially in summative
assessment. As being emphasized, learning should help
young individuals, like your learners, live and cope up
from the rapidly changing world. Thus, they should be
taught and be assessed with these two goals: to learn with
understanding and to learn understanding. Based on the
image, which among two illustrates the two goals?
To learn with understanding pertains to the “big
ideas” learners can acquire. These “big ideas” may make
them learn application in various contexts, understand
different phenomena, and link wide range of events.
These will not be realized by just requiring learners to
memorize facts.
To learn understanding develops learners’
awareness of the learning process. Believing that not all
things will be learned in school, assessment should give
skills, understanding and motivation needed for lifelong
learning should also be provided. In this way, learners will
get to use their skill and values to learn and explore for
more. And when assessment is conducted, reviewing on
what is taught and how it is taught should be observed
rather than just looking at what is assessed.
Although formative and summative assessments
are frequently done in the class which become basis in
determining learners’ achievement, the two still has lots of
differences that should be considered. Moreover,
evaluation, as succeeding step from summative
assessment, should also be anchored based on the data
being gathered. Below follows the explanation on these
two main ideas.
First, it is important to reconcile the difference of formative
and summative assessment. Many classroom events
make you, teachers, gather information from your learners
which is very useful in formative assessment, as you plan
for future learning activities. However, information
gathered may be inconclusive and contradicting as towhat
learners can do is influenced by the context, not based on
their own understanding. This is a problem for summative
assessment, especially when contexts are changed.
Indeed, it is necessary to
distinguish between the evidence and the interpretation of
evidence in understanding these two
purposes.
Evidences in formative assessment are
interpreted on how learners progress towards the next
section of work. So, it has to be interpreted in terms of
what has to be done to help further learning. Summative
assessment, on the other hand, is applied to summarize
achievements for a specific quarter or grade level, which
is constant to all learners. So, knowledge applied
formatively must be anchored from broader criteria that
define reporting quarter or grade level when used in
summative assessment. When applied in summative
assessment, the best evidence showing learners’
achievement must be observed across the period when it
was gradually developed.
When analyzing evidences of achievement, you
have to understand that summative assessment is not a
cumulative summative of formative tasks being done, but
as a re-evaluation based on the broader criteria. You have
to remember that grades are not used formatively, but will
just serve as pitstop for ‘mini-summative’ assessments.
Since grading and reporting is highly dependent on
summative assessment, more quality assurance is
needed through experts’ collaboration and adherence of
standards, as compared from teacher-made standards for
formative assessment.
Second, it is necessary that evaluation should be done Lesson 2 - Planning for Assessment of Learning
correctly as a step after summative assessment. The previous lesson discussed how impact
Evaluation is done at the level of each learner, you as assessment of learning (AoL) in polishing instructional
teacher, the school, or even the DepEd. Its impact, plans and goals in certifying learners’ achievement. As
however, depends on the type of information concerned, AoL is designed to confirm what the learners really know,
the criteria used in evaluation and what to after it. As can demonstrate, and can be able to do, you can tell if
observed, judging the curriculum or effectivity of the your learners have successfully made improvements
school and its personnel is based on the learners’ enough to bring themselves to the next level. So as a
achievement. One has to remember that information teacher, it is very important that your work with the
derived from learners’ summative assessment for other underlying logic and measurement of AoL should be
purposes may not serve the purpose of evaluation. credible and defensible so that you can provide an
Evaluation is best anchored from learners’ accurate evaluation for your learners’ progress.
information along with their achievements and learning
activities, in relation to the context and circumstance of the Since the effects of AoL gathered from the learners will
school. Thus, you should be aware of what the school’s affect in the long run and will after them seriously, you
curriculum and the teaching methods, with learners’ have the big role in reporting and evaluating them
backgrounds and learning histories. This may likely realize accurately based on the variety of contexts and
the aim of a more accurate evaluation. applications of their learning. To effectively provide AoL
tasks for your learners, you have to give them the
Application: following:
• a rationale for taking the AoL task at a particular
As discussed in the previous section, conducting time;
summative assessment has different purposes. Though • clear descriptions of the learning intended for the
the purposes are varied, it still supports learners’ AoL task;
achievement and evaluation of their progress. Presented • processes that will enable learners to show their
below are some of the common summative assessment skill and competence;
scenarios along with the importance of using it. • a range of alternative ways in assessing the
Examples of same learning outcomes;
Summative Assessment Importance • public and defensive ways on how judgment will
Assessment Methods be made;
Quarterly This a test designed to Quarterly • clear and transparent methods of the
Examination measure how far the examinations interpretation of scores;
learners have learned provide a very
• descriptions of the assessment process; and
throughout the quarter. reliable data to
Learners are assessed evaluate learners’
• strategies for recourse in cases disagreement
based on how critical performance and occurs.
they are and how determine how much
meaningful their they have achieved Upon observing your roles in the AoL tasks, the
learning is. during the entire learners will be able to show the breadth and depth of
quarter. their competence. In these tasks, mere recognition and
Licensure This is a standardized Licensure recall of facts and processes are not enough. Genuine
Examination test that determines examinations allow a learning should be assessed in ways that learners can
how much a graduate high-quality show the complexity of their understanding. Concepts,
has learned through evaluation of a
knowledge, skills, and attitudes should be integrated and
their college life, and graduate’s capability
their study life in to deliver what they applied in ways that are authentic and consistent with the
general. Graduates know and what they current thinking in the domains of learning.
are expected to can do for their
answer questions that profession. To cater the diversity of learning expectations, it is
assess their important that you know other AoL tasks that will show
knowledge, skills, and learners’ understanding and craft credible outputs. Some
values on their of the various tools for AoL are listed below, along with its
profession. corresponding descriptions.
National This is a test given to NAT enables the Assessment of
Achievement all the learners of the DepEd to identify Learning Descriptions
Test (NAT) DepEd nationwide how the learners Methods
simultaneously. perform in the
Portfolios This tool allows learners to collect their work
Learners are asked different parts of the
that exhibits their growth, accomplishment
questions regarding country, and will
and reflection about their learning
their learning for the help evaluate what
experiences.
entire grade level. school performs best
Demonstrations These tools give opportunities for learners to
and those schools
and express and exhibit their learning through
which need support
Presentations oral, visual and media performances. These
to improve their
tools may also let them to impart credible
learners’
ideas to their audience.
performance.
Simulations This tool encourages learners to make
connections about the various concepts they
have learned to a realistic situation.
Multimedia This tool enables learners to design output
Projects that will connect their learning and represent
it using a meaningful substance.
Tests and This tool provides learners the chance to put
Examination their learning into writing.
Since there are varied AoL tools that you can
choose for your learners, it is very important that you know
what tool is appropriate for a certain learning outcome. As
AoL is designed for summative assessment whose
interpretation stretches for a long time, certification of
learners’ proficiency must be based on a rigorous, reliable,
valid, and equitable process of assessment.
To ensure that your AoL tool is reliable that is fair,
accurate and free from biases, you might yourself these
questions:
• Do I have enough information on the extent of
learning of this learning for me to make evaluation?
• Was the information collected obtained in an equal
way to show their learning?
• Would another teacher arrive with the same
conclusion as mine?
• Would I come up with the same decision if
assessment was done in the other way or time?
Ensuring how reliable your AoL tool is definitely a
consideration. But above the consistency and reliability of
these tools offer, you should always remember that the
tools should also yield valid information. This will be done
by always reviewing the curriculum you are following and
how you deliver your lesson as reflected in your lesson
plan. Moreover, results should always be based on the
evidence collected, without the influence of other factors.
Lesson 3 - Results in Assessment of Learning
Inarguably, assessment of learning (AoL) is the
most important purpose of assessment when it comes to
evaluating learners. However, some teachers only used
the information gathered in AoL as a way to determine the
honor roll or know who are the least performing. What
even made this problematic is the idea that scores are
even publicized. As a teacher, you have to remember that
there is more to these values as these will tell a lot about
how your learners do and deliver in the class. Thus, it is
very important to know how these will be communicated
and used in order for these values, regardless if its high or
low, to make sense and start a transformational change in
the instructional process.
After the gathering process in your AoL tasks, learners’
scores are identified based on the standards being
identified. In this process, scores are interpreted and
learners are evaluated based on the interpretation of their
scores. It is only an important consideration that teachers
should know how grades are to be appropriately process.
The guidelines below present some of the important things
to remember when you are grading.
• Use the curriculum’s competencies or the clustered
standards you identified as basis for grading.
• Ensure that grades come with clear descriptions of the
outcomes and standards; so when learners achieve the
outcome, a corresponding grade will be given.
• The achievement of the learners to the outcomes should
be the only basis of grading. Attitude, efforts, and
participation should be reported separately, unless these
are stated in the outcomes and standards. Moreover,
penalties like tardiness and absence should not distort the
achievement.
• Use different methods to sample learners’ performance.
Do not include al assessments in grades, and provide on-
going formative feedback using rubrics and
checklists, but not grades.
• Acknowledge second-chance assessments (or more), so
keeping records in pencils to easily take considerations is
encouraged. However, high, most consistent marks
should be given to the learners, and not the average mark
for multiple assessments.
• Compute scores carefully. Mean is not the only statistical
method of computation. If possible, weigh components for
each learning outcome when you identify the final grades.
• Make sure that the assessment meets quality standards
such as the principles of high-quality assessment
discussed in the first module, and should be properly
recorded and maintained.
• Always involve the learners in the process of grading
throughout the teachinglearning process.
As essential factors to be considered in assessing
the progress of every learner, every teacher should also
observe proper record-keeping of their learners’
information. In keeping records, you should make sure
that the description of the competent measures, accuracy
of the criteria, and supporting evidences are presented to
justify your decision.
Keeping summative records of your learners will
put you in a great position as you provide meaningful and
credible report you the parents and other stakeholders.
Make sure that apart from providing symbolic
representation of learners’ accomplishments, the intended
learning, assessment methods, and criteria for judgement
should also relayed objectively. As traditional reporting,
which merely provides learners’ average score, seems to
be ineffective now, alternate mechanisms are encouraged.
One thing that is commonly done now is the
parentlearner-teacher conference which recognizes forms
of strengths and the level of performance of the learners
on an emergent-proficient range. However, make sure that
your reporting methods are appropriate to your audience
that will likely help them make reasonable decisions.
Lastly, you should remember that reporting
learners’ records won’t likely affect the learning of your
learners as compared to the assessment for learning (AfL)
and assessment as learning (AaL) since learners cannot
do anything from their progress at the end of every unit.
Though it is the case, it will still tell the learners on what
future learning decisions should they adhere as they rely
on the marks and comments their previous teachers gave
them.
Application:
Conducting summative assessments requires lots
of considerations as results of these assessments are
utilized significantly. Learners’ scores will greatly tell
something about the curriculum and its implementation.
For example, if all of the class performed poorly in your
summative assessment, you may want to reexamine your
teaching styles, learning materials, and assessment
procedures. These teacher-controlled factors may have
affected the learners so much that they failed to connect
with either of these. One idea mentioned by Marcy
Emberger, a former director of the Maryland Assessment
Consortium, focuses on using learners’ scores in
considering the revision or restructure of the learning
materials or teaching strategies in order for these to
contribute towards meeting the learning goals.
Moreover, the use of summative assessment data
over the course of the educational experience of the
learners may also be used to provide information on
learner function and their classroom performance. When
these are considered, you may identify the earning
roadblocks for a specific lesson or the curriculum
dysfunction in general. For example, if a learner’s
summative assessment score is significantly different from
the previous quarter’s or year’s data, you may think that
the learner is facing issues or problems. As a teacher, you
have to remember that these learners may also have
problems outside their academics, particularly in their soft
skill issues and happening that may influence their
learning. With that, you may be empathetic with an
attempt to help these learners be back on track. So when
instructional plans are made for the future, you will
consider establishing learners’ emotional stability prior to
your learning interaction.
MODULE SUMMARY:
• Assessment of learning (AoL) is used in the class in
order for you to provide summary of how far your learners
know and do as basis of their achievement and progress
in the learning process.
• In view with summarizing learners’ achievements,
conducting summative assessment differed based on their
purposes – it may be for the individual learners’ purpose
that is internal or external to the school, or for the group of
learners for the purpose of evaluation or monitoring.
• Learners should be taught and be assessed with these
two goals: to learn with understanding and to learn
understanding. To learn with understanding pertains to the
“big ideas” that may make them learn application in
various contexts, understand different phenomena, and
link wide range of events. To learn understanding
develops learners’ awareness of the learning process by
catering their skills, understanding and motivation needed
for lifelong learning.
• It is important to reconcile the difference of formative and
summative assessment. Evidences in formative
assessment are interpreted on how learners progress
towards the next section of work while summative
assessment is applied to summarize achievements for a
specific quarter or grade level, which is constant to all
learners.
• Evaluation is best anchored from learners’ information
along with their achievements and learning activities, in
relation to the context and circumstance of the school.
• Since the effects of AoL gathered from the learners will
affect in the long run and will after them seriously,
teachers have the big role in reporting and evaluating
them accurately based on the variety of contexts and
applications of their learning.
• To cater the diversity of learning expectations, it is
important that you know other AoL tasks that will show
learners’ understanding and craft credible outputs.
• As AoL is designed for summative assessment whose
interpretation stretches for a long time, certification of
learners’ proficiency must be based on a rigorous, reliable,
valid, and equitable process of assessment.
• In processing learners’ scores in an AoL task, scores are
interpreted and learners are evaluated based on the
interpretation of their scores, so it is an important
consideration that teachers should know how grades are
to be appropriately process.
• As essential factors to be considered in assessing the
progress of every learner, every teacher should also
observe proper record-keeping of their learners’
information.
• Keeping summative records of your learners will put you
in a great position as you provide meaningful and credible
report you the parents and other stakeholders.
• Though learners’ records won’t likely affect the learning
of your learners as compared to the assessment for
learning (AfL) and assessment as learning (AaL), it will still
tell the learners on what future learning decisions should
they adhere as they rely on the marks and comments their
previous teachers gave them.
MODULE 4 - ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING
On the course of the class, one worry of every
teacher concerns on learners’ understanding of the lesson.
The best way to manifest this is to elicit information from
the learners. This is to ensure that every learner follows
the discussion and avoid confusion throughout the lesson.
But, carrying out these types of assessment activities has
considerations especially that it concerns more of
polishing learners’ understanding of the lesson.
Lesson 1 - Using Assessment to Monitor One’s Learning
At the start of their school days, most of the
learners, especially in the early stages of education, are
often thrilled of their progress and are used to enjoy while
learning. As they move towards the more complex stages
of education, some fades away, leaving only minimal
number of learners who are consistently performing in the
class. For many years, this has been the case of learners’
educational progress. Most of the learners cannot really
perform well in a series of quizzes and summative
assessments conducted in the class especially if the
concepts become more complicated to understand.
Maybe this can be alleviated only if learners are not
exposed to competition with emphasis on quizzes and
tests in general. Maybe learners just lack understanding of
what they can do and excel at. Assessment as learning
(AaL) will offer a different perspective of assessment that
will emphasize what the learners can do in consideration
of their strengths as learners.
Nowadays, society expects people to be dynamic
in dealing with real-life situations and to be critical and
innovative in solving real-world problems. This idea is
what Learning How To Learn (LHTL) theory says which
adheres that people should develop metacognitive skills to
help them manage their learning, aside from being
equipped with knowledge-based understandings. So, it is
expected that as learners competently tackle learning
courses, they are also expected to develop skills to help
them apply their learning and overcome challenges they
encounter in their everyday life. As modern teaching
started to embrace this concept of honing learners,
assessment practices in many schools are still very less
effective than others in implementing the learning
outcomes needed by the learners today and in the future.
The observance of prioritizing learners’ level in
assessment is still not fully realized.
To place learners in the center of the assessment
process, assessment as learning (AaL) stemmed out
which provides continuous self-assessment for learners to
monitor their own learning as manifested by their
adjustments to understand and progress towards deeper
development of thoughts. Understanding AaL in this
modern world where information is all around you helps
you from being “knowledge-bearers” to “knowledge-
guides” to your learners. As you guide them to acquire
credible and relevant knowledge, you must also lead them
to understand their metacognitive processes in order to
monitor their own learning.
Because of the introduction of AaL in the
educational curriculum, you, as a teacher, can realize the
purpose of formative assessment in the classroom by
emphasizing the learners’ role of critical connector
between the learning and assessment process. In this way,
learners serve the link between these processes. They are
given the opportunity to be active and critical assessors of
their own learning. With the responsibility of their own
assessment, they will be engaged in making sense of
information, utilizing prior knowledge, and mastering the
skills involved. In this way, AaL provides a regulatory
process in learners’ metacognition.
Despite of this viewed importance of AaL, it is not
yet given emphasis in most of the classroom interactions.
As a matter of fact, it is said that AoL is still the most used
approach in the teaching-learning process. In cases of
progress, AoL is very useful to inform learners’
achievement of their attainment and compare these to
others for the purpose of ranking and promotion. However,
one has to look if this is the only purpose assessment is
limited at and will be used over and over again. This
notion of assessment gives a tradition relationship among
the three assessment approaches, as illustrated in the first
figure on the right.
Recently, a reconfiguration of the pyramid, shown in the
second figure on the right, provides a different kind of
balance that emphasizes the significant use of AfL and
AaL. In this, AoL has still a role in decisions that require
summative evaluation and in looking the cumulative effect
of learners’ work. However, this role is only a small part of
the process. In this new model, classroom assessment
focuses mostly on learning as contributed by the teacher
(AfL) and by the learners (AaL). As AfL emphasizes the
role your role as a teacher in promoting learning, AaL
placed special attention on the role of learners in engaging
themselves.
As classrooms transform to ready for AaL, learners’ roles
are given much emphasis as they establish the link
between teaching and learning. Listed below are some the
significant roles learners has to remember in a classroom
that applies AaL.
• Learners should work with an active mind to be able to
relate prior knowledge and make sense of information.
• Learners should be a critical assessor that deliberates
the strategies and skills involved to progress learning.
• Learners should take time to self-analyze, self-reference,
self-evaluate, and selfcorrect in the learning process.
• Learners should be aware of their skills in order to plan
the learning strategies that may work best.
• Learners should be oriented with the learning outcomes
as communicated by you and have to work it out.
Although learners’ roles are significant in AaL, your role as
teachers are still inevitably necessary. Below are some of
the roles you have to portray in your class as you
implement AaL.
• You should encourage learners to be independent from
you, that they should learn to work by themselves.
• You have to ensure that the environment is conducive
enough to facilitate understanding of the learners so that
they can practice what they have learned.
• You align teaching procedures for learners to move
independently in the required learning.
• You have to provide criteria on various tasks that they
have to deliver after the desired learning is attained.
• You should help learners to be critical in the information
they gathered and develop their understanding of what
quality work looks like.
• You should provide detailed feedback on their progress
and allow peer assessment in the class.
Since AaL has had a discussion for quite some
time, concepts are established regarding its effective. With
that, the AaL Framework was designed to be able to
transfer these concepts into actions, and will eventually
bridge gap between theory and practice.
The AaL Frameowrk utilizes the terminology of contextual,
societal, communication, and action domains. They
domains work interrelatedly to realize the effectivity of the
framework. The table below present the ideas of these
domains used in the AaL Framework.
Domains Domain Principles
Contextual It stands for the what the heads of the
government and other sectors in the society
have created. These became the policies that
the working personnel should address in the
educational process.
Societal It represents the values, perceptions and
expectation of the people in the society.
These acts as the beliefs and philosophies
these people adhere.
Communication It includes vocabulary, definitions and
concepts used to communicate a certain
belief or idea. It is the language through which
principles are understood.
Action It describes how activities are done and
implemented in the society. These activities
may be simple or complex done in daily or
regular basis.
The contextual domain is the core of the
framework. The information in the context is utilized by
other domains to deliver actions. The context domain, in
turn, benchmarks from the societal, communication and
actions domains in order to monitor and update the
information stored. Below is the illustration of the basic
structure of the four domains in AaL Framework.
The four domains of AaL Framework in teaching
and learning works in a dynamic process, considering the
evolving principles of social perceptions and plans of
actions in various contexts, with the aim to actively involve
learners in the process. The context domain are the
policies which considered the principles of AaL in
documents that continuously evolving so that these
policies will be able to observe the three underlying
domains making in understandable in the society and
implementable in the educational process. The
communication domain presents the definition of AaL
terminologies pertaining to the assessment and active
learning as what the framework is communicating. The
societal domain includes the various societal attitudes of
the those involved in the education process, such your
perceptions and attitudes, learners’ beliefs, and relevance
of learnings. This time, changes in the framework
language are observed on how learners gather
information, analyze and make inferences on it, and take
appropriate actions for their own learning. With these,
modern changes in assessment are communicated, in
which society are adaptive for these changes, which
reflects the action domain of the framework. This domain
represents how learners and you view your role and
responsibilities in the process. This also includes your
implementation of AaL strategies.
In this framework, learners are oriented with what
to do as active participants in the process of assessment.
Your help, as their teacher, will make them realize the
understanding of the desired goals. In this way,
communication will be strengthened as understanding is
actualized in the process, and learners can make
successful connections for societal significance of their
learning. Upon their greater understanding, your teaching
pedagogies can help them apply, change, and make
actions regarding the learners’ knowledge. The figure
below, which is anchored on the the AaL Frameowrk
above, present salient features on how learners become
active in the learning process.

Application:
As the domains discussed are new to the
framework for learning, this can be well understood using
an example in the business industry. In the restaurant
industry, more specifically, there are considerations to
observe on how to get big sales knowing that this
business requires tremendous preparation. The context
domain revolves around the Filipino foods that Filipinos
find delicious. To determine the what will work best with
the customers and that will yield profit to the restaurant,
the owner should know the target consumers, as the
restaurants in the BARMM has a different menu than in
NCR (societal domain). At the same time, the restaurant
should use terminology that will click, apply unique
presentation of products, and incorporate marketing
strategies, adhering to how it is communicated to the
target consumers so that they can relate (communication
domain). Then, the action domain will now play its role in
realizing the plans with a good and high-quality service.
Lesson 2 - Providing Evidence of Independent and
Strategic Learning
As discussed in the previous lesson, AaL
emphasizes how learners can maximize their participation
in the teaching-learning process. Learners, through your
guidance, can be able to monitor their own learning and
make adjustments as they progress in the realization of
learning outcomes. With the increasing role of learners in
the process, they are encouraged to be effective
independent learners.
It has been discussed the independent learning is the
ability of the learners to set, work and evaluate their own
academic progress, in order to establish their own
motivation for learning. According to the What is
Independent Learning and What are the Benefits for
Students? (2008), independent learning can have good
effects for the learners themselves.
• Improves academic performance
• Increases opportunity for creativity
• Develops motivation and confidence
• Facilitates social inclusion and cooperation
• Opens ways for completing various class tasks
set by you
In order to see the abovementioned benefits of
independent learning to the learners, Mullings (2019)
suggested ways on how to encourage independent
learning, as presented below.
1. Give opportunities for self-monitoring - You can
assist the learners develop the use of peer and self
assessment to see whether their strategies are effective in
attaining their goals.
2. Use questioning to scaffold ideas - You can develop
effective classroom discourse by asking the learners
higher-order questions and responding to their responses
to promote problem-solving and understanding skills.
3. Model behaviors to be developed - You can show to
your learners how behaviors are developed, such as
categorizing information, and let them follow such
behaviors innovatively.
4. Facilitate languagefocused communication - You
can help your learners share their ideas to orient them on
how they do well in their learning process and that they
understand their own learning style.
5. Incorporate feedback on classwork and homework -
You can improve your learners’ confidence in working by
themselves through limiting the use of grades and
considering their ideas and efforts.
6. Encourage collaboration from the class - You can let
the learners collaborate with each other in order to learn
what others can that they can’t and eventually develop
their own ideas and skills as well.
7. Provide options and let learners set goals - You can
encourage learners’ effective decision making when you
give them options to work on and with this, they can feel a
sense of ownership and empower their learning.
8. Involve the learners in planning the lesson - You can
make learners feel their presence in the class when you
give them responsibility for and involvement in their own
learning
9. Have activities for learners to reflect - You can
increase their sense of self-guidance when they can write
what they think and track their own learning for constant
monitoring.
Independence will help learners progress by their
own, but this will be more efficiently done if they know how
to strategize their learning. Strategic learning aims to
teach learners the strategies they need to acquire to
effectively monitor and develop learning on their own in a
various learning environment.
As one of the essential strategies that learners
should acquire, metacognition provides a set of processes
in monitoring and directing one’s own thinking. In this way,
learners may assess the demands of a learning task,
evaluate their skills to work on it, plan their approach,
monitor their progress, and make adjustments if needed.
Moreover, they can be capable to reflect on and evaluate
their strategies used for improvement.
Metacognition affects the general development of a
learner. In the classroom setting, it will be beneficial if they
will be guided how to monitor their metacognition. Present
below are list of guide questions that will realize will help
the learners on this matter.
- What is the goal of learning these concepts and
skills?
- What prior knowledge do I have about the topic?
- What strategies do I have to help me learn this?
- Do I understood the topic?
- What should I observe for me to improve my
learning?
- Do I attain the goals expected from me in this
topic?
Helping the learners develop strategic learning in their
educational journey is a good characteristic that every
learner has to acquire. With that, strengthen strategic
learning to your learners will be efficiently facilitated if you
know what behaviors to observe, as listed below.
- exhibits positive behavior for the completion of
class tasks
- shows resourcefulness and diligence in class
tasks despite difficulties
- understands that learning is a systematic
and active process and takes control of it
- determines if they have understand information
or not
- use help-seeking way from the people to solve
problems and cater difficultes
Application:
In you teaching experiences, you can make your
learners to be independent and metacognitive thinkers.
The following situations presents how metacognition is
used for active learning.
- After the session, an instructor handed out a sheet of
paper for the learners to write the “muddiest point” from
their class. The next class, the instructor summarized the
confusing points identified by the learners and altered
instruction to address these points. Afterwards, the
instructor asked the learners if the points still remained as
confusions.
- After receiving their grades in their essay assignment,
the learners are asked to review what they have done to
accomplish their work and identify the list of most and
least effective methods. Lastly, they were asked some
ways to improve their writing.
- The learners are asked to keep a weekly journal to
document their study habits and successes in their
outputs. At the middle and end of each quarter, the
learners are asked to review their journals for them to
assess what habits led them to their best performances.
- An instructor grouped the class to make concept
maps based on what has been discussed. The groups are
asked to share their maps, discuss the differences from
the other groups, and defend the ideas they have written.
Lesson 3 - Strategies and Tools of Assessment as
Learning
AaL is still new to the field of education. But due
to its perceived advantage learners can get from it,
educational personnel are doing ways to integrate it in a
classroom setting. Learning different tools to be used and
strategies that can be integrated in the class will help you,
as teachers, realize its use effectively.
AaL is a valuable strategy that will activate learners’ own
thinking as they strive to construct understanding using
their own experiences at their own pace. As a teacher,
you can help them work successfully by having a
repertoire of strategies. Some of these strategies are
listed below.
• 60-second Think
60-second Think is a strategy that you can
integrate in the class to make the learners process
information by themselves. In this activity, 60 seconds will
be given for the learners to stop and think of their progress
in their learning at the moment. Learners can either write
or share their thoughts to share their understanding.
• Learning Journal
Learning journal allows learners to reflect what
they have learned, compile their knowledge and review
their learning. In this activity, learners may express ideas,
feelings and plans they have regarding a subject through
writing or drawing illustrations. In this way, learners can
personalize their learning.
• The ICE Tactic
The ICE tactic is a way of learners to deepen their
understanding about a certain topic. Ice standards for
Ideas (basics, details, facts, terminology), Connections
(relationships, synthesis, patterns) and Extensions
(transfer, hypotheticals, creative adaptations, going
beyond the obvious). These are things they should think
and reflect to keep them focused on the big picture even
while they are on the run, learning, during any lesson.
• Laminated Criteria
The criteria which are frequently used in your
subject may be laminated for learners to keep and review
whenever needed. English, it is better to make fixed
criteria in writing essays and ask them to laminate it as
basis of checking their essay. The same goes for problem
solving, experiments and output-making tasks. In this way,
learners will have a chance to demonstrate mastery of the
criteria and progress will be evident. Criteria should be
expressed in simplest and friendliest way for learners to
observe.
• Self-Assessment
Self-assessment is an aspect of AaL which
shapes learning. It can be expressed using writing or oral
discussion, depending the intention of the assessment
tasks. Selfassessment will help the learners’ critical
thinking and their understanding of the concept before
they assess and evaluate ideas and outputs. In doing this,
learners are given rubrics or a set of criteria designed both
by the learners and you as their teacher. However, self-
directed forms and means can also be utilized in self-
assessment. Presented below are some of the graphic
organizers that your learners can use in self-assessment,
along with the description of when to use it.
Venn Diagram: In this tool, learners can give
similarities and differences of the two ideas being
compared. Usually, this is used to determine the logical
relationship of two, or more, objects and phenomena.
Webs: In this tool, learners can arrange their
thought by linking details of the main idea. They can do
this by placing the major topic at the center, and the things
they learned will be placed as branches of the ideas. It is
similar to a concept map and mind map.
Triangles: In this tool, ideas are group as the
triangle is divided into four equal triangles where learners
can write their feeling and learning in each part, e.g. what I
have seen, have heard, have done, and would ask now.
With this, the learners can add questions they like to ask,
can think ahead of the topic, and can identify what impacts
them to be remembered.
Ladder: In this tool, ideas will be placed for every
level of the ladder. The learners can prioritize and
sequence the importance of idea, or what they have
understood the least to the best. In this way, areas of
clarity and confusion will be identified.
PMI Diagram: In this tool, comments will be
grouped in the table with sections labelled as plus, minus
and interesting elements of a work or performance. This
encourages learners to identify what has been achieved
and not achieved for learning.
SWOT Analysis: In this tool, learners can be able
to plan and solve problems. SWOT stands for strength,
weakness, opportunities and threats, that can be used to
analyze and identify the positive and negative internal
(strength and weakness) and external (opportunities and
threats) factors on a certain situation. This is done by
listing factors of a certain situation that fall under each grid.
Know oneself, planning and implementation, and feedback
are some of the activities that uses SWOT Analysis.
 KWHL Chart: In this tool, learners can track what
they know, what they want to know, how they will know
and what they know after about the lesson, reading or
research. It is used usually to activate learners’
background knowledge, plan on how they proceed and
use what they know as they progress.
• Peer Assessment
Peer assessment is just similar to self-
assessment, only that the assessment process involves
learners’ peers. In this way, sharing of ideas and
information regarding one’s progress will be discussed.
With the involvement of the peers in assessment, learners
get constructive criticism that will likely improve their
performance. Moreover, they get to learn something from
their peer which they do not know yet. Just like self-
assessment, peer assessment may be done orally or in
written form. Some ways of doing this are listed below.
Feedback Strips: This way of peer assessment is
used to assess oral presentations and performances. This
is a direct and simple way of assessing other learner or
peer on their strengths and weaknesses based on their
performance.
Peer Feedback Protocols: This is similar to
feedback strips, but ‘ground rules’ are set for face-to-face
or peer feedback sessions. This can be designed by the
class and be posted around their room for accessibility of
the basis for assessment.
The strategies and tools listed above supports the
integration of AaL in the teachinglearning process. With
the advancement of education, reflective learning, inquiry-
based learning and problem-solving methodologies may
be efficiently facilitated in the classroom using the AaL
tools and strategies. In that way, the methodologies
mentioned above will help make the learners become
independent and strategic as they progress. Below
explains how these methodologies support independent
and strategic learning.
Reflective Learning
Reflective learning a way to make learners active
in the learning process by letting them examine their own
thoughts as they explore explanation on a certain idea or
phenomenon. Usually, this is done privately as learners
relate their personal experiences or background on the
idea being studied. In this process, critical thinking is
strengthened.
Inquiry-based Learning
Inquiry-based approach to learning gives
emphasis on learners to explore the topic and ask
questions as much as they can, rather than just mere
recipients of information. It engages in active process to
get a deep first-hand experience of the lesson.
Problem Solving
Problem solving is a systematic approach to
learning which requires extensive analysis of data in order
to justify or negate hypotheses and come up with a sound
and valid solution. This process involves how learners
take the responsibility of in order to channel personal
actions to solve problems, resolve conflicts, narrow down
alternatives and identify what works best. In this process,
learners’ personal experiences and real-life activities will
assist them to work at higher levels of thinking.
MODULE SUMMARY:
• The Learning How To Learn (LHTL) theory says which
adheres that people should develop metacognitive skills to
help them manage their learning, aside from being
equipped with knowledge-based understandings.
• To place learners in the center of the assessment
process, assessment as learning (AaL) stemmed out
which provides continuous self-assessment and
metacognition for learners to monitor their own learning as
manifested by their adjustments to understand and
progress towards deeper development of thoughts.
• Because of the introduction of AaL in the educational
curriculum, a teacher can realize the purpose of formative
assessment in the classroom by emphasizing the learners’
role of critical connector between the learning and
assessment process.
• In a new view that gives more emphasis of AoL in the
teaching-learning process, the AaL Framework was
designed to be able to transfer these concepts into actions,
and will eventually bridge gap between theory and
practice.
• The AaL Framework has four domains in which an AaL
task should embody – contextual, societal, communication,
and action domains. In this framework, learners are
oriented with what to do as active participants in the
process of assessment.
• Learners, through teacher’s guidance, can be able to
monitor their own learning and make adjustments as they
progress in the realization of learning outcomes. With the
increasing role of learners in the process, they are
encouraged to be effective independent learners.
• Independence will help learners progress by their own,
but this will be more efficiently done if they know how to
strategize their learning.
• As one of the essential strategies that learners should
acquire, metacognition provides a set of processes in
monitoring and directing one’s own thinking.
• The 60-second think, learning journals, the ICE tactic,
laminated criteria, selfassessments, and peer
assessments tasks allow learners to activate learners’
own thinking as they strive to construct understanding
using their own experiences at their own pace.
• In doing self-assessment, learners can choose graphic
organizers to manage their thoughts, and of these are
Venn diagram, webs, ladder, PMI diagram, SWOT
analysis, and KWHL chart.
• With the advancement of education, reflective learning,
inquiry-based learning and problem-solving methodologies
may be efficiently facilitated in the classroom using the
AaL tools and strategies.
MODULE 5 - DEVELOPING AND USING TEST
Usually, learners taking an examination to identify
how far they have learned get errors in some of the items.
These errors are often caused by their lack of
understanding in those items. However, it can’t be denied
that some of these errors are out of the learners’ hands
anymore, because some are caused by the teachers.
These teacher’s errors may be faulty sentence
construction, blurry printouts, out-of-the-context questions,
and some included topics which were not discussed yet.
As much as possible, teachers should construct tests as
perfect as they can to eliminate learners’ out-of-control
errors; thus increasing the efficiency of the test.
Lesson 1 - Planning a Test
Designing a good test is not made in an instant.
Planning is an essential component to tailor everything out
from your learning competencies, pedagogical techniques
used in the class, content given to the learners, and the
series of assessment being conducted and formative
evaluation being done. Good thing that most of the
teachers observe the importance of a systematic
procedure in determining how learning competencies are
met. However, some of the teachers just settle for a test
with is done with minimal planning, or worse, without
planning at all.
Planning a test for every lesson begins from the moment
the curriculum is conceptualized. This practice is
discussed by Ralph Tyler, who is now considered as the
“Father of Educational Evaluation”.
Planning Stage
1. Define objectives behaviorally.
2. Classify goals and objectives.
3. Establish clear and specific goals and objectives.
4. Compare performance to the behavioral objectives.
5. Collect performance data in the instructional process.
6. Design measurement tasks.
7. Determine situations to achieve the objectives.
Based on the figure, the sixth step is what this course is
concerned about. The figure below present how a valid,
reliable and useful test made, according to Linn and
Gronlund.
Based on the figure, the first step is already
determined test examinations is a summative assessment.
This will help you, as a teacher, to judge whether your
learners have performed enough throughout the
instructional course. So, you can now proceed to the
preparation of your Table of Specifications (TOS). A Table
of Specifications (TOS) is a test blueprint provides
guidance to you as you craft your test. This is to ensure
that you observe balance between the lower and higher
levels of thinking, which usually is determined between the
easy and difficult items. But, the main concern of doing
this is to observe proportionality of the test items to the
time spent in teaching the content. With that, the concern
of giving purely difficult (or easy) items and
overemphasizing topics is addressed. This is why making
a TOS before crafting your testquestionnaire ensures the
content validity of your test. So as a teacher, you must
make the TOS first before your test questionnaire.
As made mentioned on the previous paragraph, the TOS
helps you to distribute the items of your test into the
different levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Make sure that your
objective will coincide to the appropriate level of taxonomy
it should be (i.e. objectives focusing on “defining” should
have a taxonomy under knowledge). As a review, you may
refer to the short discussion below in deciding what level
of the taxonomy does each item you create belongs.
• Knowledge/Remembering – This item concerns on
letting learners identify and provide what is asked based
on how they remembered the concept.
• Comprehension/Understanding – This item concerns
on giving a response based on how the learners
understand and comprehend the question given.
• Application/Applying – This item concerns on using
the learners’ learning in giving response to a certain
situation.
• Analysis/Analyzing – This item concerns on how
learners lift concepts from the whole to get a specific idea
as their response.
• Evaluation/Evaluating – This item concerns on
utilizing learners’ holistic understanding of the concern to
provide critics on a certain problem/issue.
• Synthesis/Creating – This item concerns on designing
responses that will incorporate all the details learned from
the concept.
In making your TOS, you should also define the contents
in more refined parts. Aside from managing the content of
your lesson in every session, creating finer components
will also help you to identify test items easily.
Application:
The figure in the next page illustrates a TOS. As a
teacher, you can make your own format of TOS especially
if the institution you are working did not specify a specific
format. In the DepEd’s case, their format is based on the
experts working for their quarterly tests.
Regardless of any format, a TOS should contain the
following components:
• refined learning objectives anchored from the learning
competencies
 • number of hours spent teaching each objective
• level of objective to be tested based on the Bloom’s
Taxonomy
• item numbers where an objective is being tested
• number of points given to each objective
• total number of points in the test
As discussed in the previous section, knowing what level
does each item belong is important. However, one or two
levels should not be overemphasized. In distributing the
number of points in every level, you may consider the
30%-50%-20% rule.
• 30% - KNOWLEDGE and COMPREHENSION level
• 50% - APPLICATION and ANALYSIS level
• 20% - SYNTHESIS and EVALUATION level
Aside from considering the levels of taxonomy for each
item, the test as a whole should also be considerate in a
way that learners will be able to finish at a certain amount
of time. Considering the different types of tests you use,
you should also look into how long the learners will spend
in answering the items in each type. Refer to the list below
for the time spent by every learner in answering items in
every type of test.
Steps in Doing the TOS
1. Identity topics/lessons/chapters to be included in the
TOS. Place it in the lettered items in the “Learning
Competencies/Objective” column.
2. From the identified topics/lessons/chapters, reflect all
the necessary objectives concern on the numbered
items below every topic/lesson/chapter.
3. Reflect the time you have spent in teaching each
objective. Make sure that the sum should be the total
number of hours for every week, month, or quarter.
4. Input the total number of hours spent in the quarter
(week or month) and the total number points in your
test. Remember that this is a separate table for the
sole purpose of checking the consistency of your
TOS, and this won’t be included in the final
presentation of your output.
5. Based on the solved values in the “Points” column,
distribute these points to the “Levels of Cognitive
Domain” in every learning objectives. And, observe
consistency between the behaviors in every objective
to the levels of taxonomy of learning.
6. After distributing all the points, determine what item
should each of the question on every objective be.
7. Review all the components of your TOS. Make sure
that all values and contents are consistent and
accurate.
Lesson 2 - Fundamental Types of Test and Their Purpose
As the very person who knows your learners, you
have a large part of determining the quality of test for them.
After spending time in honing and molding your them in
the entire chapter or quarter, you really want to determine
your effectiveness and efficiency as their teacher. But
above all, you want to identify how much your learners
have achieved the different levels of learning – from the
remembering level to the creating and evaluating level of
learning objectives. For you to do that, you have to be
equipped in making the different types of test.
After many years of formal and informal schooling and
added up to your experience now as future educators, you
have been exposed to the different types of test already.
To organize these various types of test, refer to the figure
below that illustrates a tree chart for test types.
The selection of test types is not just your decision as a
teacher, but must also be based on the learning objectives
you are assessing. There are some test types which are
assessing learners’ knowledge and simple understanding, • Best Answer
while some aims to measure how learners manage to Example:
think critically and exhibit complex understanding. The 9. Since there is no clear-cut or well-defined policies on
discussion in this section aims of orienting you the observing privacy in all instances, the teacher is simple
different test types you can use for your test. required to be __________.
A. Anonymous B. carefree
C. secretive D. sensitive
SELECTED-RESPONSE TYPE
Selected-response type of tests require learners
• Correct Answer
to select the answers of the posted questions based on
Example:
the choices given for that item. 2. What island province in the Philippines that has 7 volcanos?
A. Biliran B. Camiguin
Multiple Choice Type C. Guimaras D. Marinduque
The multiple-choice type of test allows learners to
identify the correct or best answer based on the list of • Contained Options
choices. This is the most common type of test used by all Example:
academic institutions since its versatility in assessing Identify the error in the sentence.
learning ranges from the knowledge of the learners up to 1. My parents was in Manila to assist my sister enroll in college. No error.
how they utilize learning in evaluating concepts and A B C D E
creating ideas. This type of test is consisted of two parts:
the stem and the set of choices. The stem can be • Group Options
expressed as a question or a statement. The set of Example:
choices includes key and distracters. The key is the For items 10-11, identify what probabilistic sampling technique is
correct or best response of the stem, while distracters are illustrated on the situations. Use the choices below.
those incorrect responses designed to test how much
a cluster c. stratified
learners can correctly to the stem. b. random d. systematic

As you design your multiple-choice type of test, you may 10. A researcher divided the subjects into two groups according
choose on the following types presented below. to gender and then selected members from each group for
her sample.
• Stimulus Materials-Stem-Options 11. Every 100th hamburger manufactured is checked to
Example: determine its fat content.
For items 5 and 6, refer to the text below.
The papers, of course, had been fully of tragedy –
glaring headlines, sandwiched biographies of every member of Upon learning the different types of multiple-choice test,
the household and the usual familiar tag about the police having you should also remember how these items should be
no clue. Nothing was spared. The war was momentarily inactive constructed by following the guidelines listed below.
and the newspaper seized with avidity on this crime in Discussions of
fashionable life: “The Mysterious Affair at Styles” was the topic of Guidelines Bad Examples Errors and/or
the moment. for Improvement
- From “The Mysterious Affair at Styles” by Agatha Cristie Present a The Roman Empire has In this case, the
problem in the no ____. learners will be
5. Why are the newspapers making The Mysterious Affair at stem. confused of what
Styles their lead story? A. heroes the item needs.
A. The war is over. B. definite territory It’s very difficult
B. They are bored with regular news. C. common religion for them to recall
C. The Cavendishes were fashionable. D. central government all the details just
6. How would one describe the newspapers’ coverage of the to answer this. It
crime? should have
A. thorough focused on a
B. silly specific aspect in
C. humorous the Roman
Empire.
• Stem-Options Keep the options The swimming pool The phrase
Example: as short as which needs cleaning “which is filled
8. What planet is next to Earth? possible and most often is that ____. with water”
A. Mars B. Mercury include the should have been
C. Neptune D. Uranus repeating A. which is filled with inserted in the
phrase in the water from a well stem to keep the
• Negative Stem choices to the B. which is filled with choices short.
Example: stem. water from a
4. Which of the following is NOT a prime number? stream
A. 2 B. 5 C. 9 D. 11 C. which is filled with
water from the
ocean
D. which is filled with
 water collected be considered in frying is an _____. neglected
from rainfall crafting the stem. because the
Do not use What would be the Use the terms A. oil C. soy sauce article used in the
unfamiliar words system reliability of a “slave” and B. water D. vinegar stem is “an”, so
and phrases. computer system “peripheral” may the next word
whose slave and cause errors to should start with
peripherals are the learners a vowel. Better
connected in parallel despite their make it as “a/an”.
circuits and each one knowledge of the The degree of If the three angles of Based on the
has a known time to content. technicality, two triangles are length, it’s
failure probability of length and congruent, then the obvious that “D”
0.05? explicitness of triangles are is the correct
the choices _______________. answer. The rest
A. C. should not be of the distracters
B. D. equivalent to a A. congruent are stated as if
Refrain from Much of the process of Using “much” correct answer. whenever one of forcing the
using modifiers photosynthesis makes an unclear the sides of the learners to
which are happens in the ______. point in the stem, triangles are choose among
subjective from a so it’s better to be congruent them.
person to the A. bark precise by stating B. Equiangular
other such as B. leaf exact values like and/therefore,
much, often, C. stem “90% of the …”. must also be
usually, etc. congruent
Do not use As President of the The question C. equilateral if they
complex, wordy, Republic of the exhibit too much are equiangular
and awkward Philippines, Corazon use of words but D. similar
word Cojuangco Aquino only asking a Avoid stems that 1. Who will most After reading the
arrangements. would stand next to simple idea, will reveal the strongly disagree with first item, the
which Philippine which pertains to answer to the the progressivist who learner can easily
President subsequent the next next question. claims that the child answer the
to the 1986 EDSA president after should be taught only second item.
Revolution? Cory Aquino. that which interests him Thus, it’s better
Better state it and if he is not to create or use
A. C. directly. interested, wait until the other description
B. D. child gets interested? or idea in making
Do not use Which will not give To cater this the stem
double negatives unbiased judgment? problem, you A. essentialist especially if the
in the stem to should be direct B. progressivist series of
avoid confusion A. C. and simple by C. empiricist questions belong
of the takers. B. D. rephrasing the D. rationalist to the same topic.
stem into “…will
give biased...”. 2. Which group will
The stem should Cells of one kind belong Based on the most strongly focus its
be expressed as to a particular group stem, the teaching on the interest
short as possible performing a preceding of the child?
by omitting specialized duty. We sentences
phrases and call this group of cells a contribute A. progressivist
words that won’t tissue. All of us have nothing in raising B. perrenialist
help pose the different kinds of the problem in C. essentialist
problem. tissues in our bodies. the item. Actually, D. idealist
Which of the following the question will Avoid distracters What change causes Be looking at the
would be classified as still be the same which are ice to transform from choices, the
epithelial tissues? without the first synonymous to solid state to liquid learner can easily
three sentences. each other, or state? narrow down one
A. C. expressed the choice since B
B. D. same thought. A. pressure and C are just the
Make plausible Which Filipino author Obviously, B. heat levels same, and they
distracters to wrote the story May learners with no C. temperature are left with A,
really test Day’s Eve? knowledge of the D. chemical B/C, and D. Also,
learners’ A. Edgar Allan Poe item can easily composition this item has two
understanding B. Jose Garcia Villa eliminate the first answers which is
and competence. C. Nick Joaquin and last unacceptable.
D. Robert Frost distracters. In this Better look for
case, make sure other property.
that the Use negative Which of the following D is the answer,
distracters are all words in the item structures of the ear is but to rephrase it
Filipinos. sparingly. NOT concerned with without using the
Grammatical The first ingredient to The distracters hearing? NOT word, you
concerns should be used in can be easily may emphasize
 A. cochlea the role of pages.
B. eardrum semicircular Avoid patterns When the
C. oval window canals in answers learners noticed
D. semicircular maintaining that the flow of
canals balance. answers has
patterns, they
If ever negative All are equipment used The word may choose to
words are used in sewing except: “except” in the continue
in the stem, put stem may be answering based
emphasis. A. C. underlined or on the pattern
B. D. expressed in and won’t mind
capital letters. reading the items
Use the “none of Using these anymore.
the above” and options may
“all of the above” influence learners Binary Type (True-or-False Type)
option sparingly. to settle for these The binary-choice type of test makes learners
as answers, choose between two possible answers, true and false, yes
without digging
their
and no, etc. Except for a Yes-No type, all other types of
understanding to binary-choice test present proposition as the item stimulus.
answer the item. In this test, you can easily sample and construct items for
When you will a specific lesson because the stimulus will just be short
these in your test, and direct. However, because of the 50% probability of
make sure that getting the correct answer, learners may tend to gamble
you have a key in their points by guessing.
your choices.
Arrange options What year did the To help the Just like with the multiple-choice type of test, the binary-
unless another Japanese bomb the learners, arrange
choice test also has different types that you may use in
order is more American base at Pearl the choices so
logical to avoid Harbor? that when they your future tests.
your tendency of read the choices,
over A. 1940 C. 1941 they can • Simple True or False
emphasizing a B. 1942 D. 1939 immediately get Example:
letter as the the flow of the Write T if the statement is correct and F if not.
answer. items. If the T 1. The product of a number and 1 is always a number.
choices are
words, do it • Modified True or False
alphabetically. If Example:
the choices are Write T if the statement is correct and F if not. If the statement is
sentences, FALSE, underline the word/s that make/s the statement wrong.
arrange the F 2. A jeepney has five wheels.
choices from the
shortest to the
• True or False with Correction
longest
sentences. If the Example:
choices are date, Write T if the statement is correct and F if not. If the statement is
arrange it FALSE, rewrite the statement to make it right on the spaces
chronologically. provided beside the item.
Avoid trivial Who is the first female In this case, the T 3. 5 X 3 = 8 5+3=8
information in the president? learners can
choices. A. Cory A. Aquino immediately • Cluster True or False
B. Cory B. Aquino choose the Example:
C. Cory C. Aquino correct answer Encircle the letter T if the statement is TRUE and F if it is FALSE.
D. Cory D. Aquino even without In simplifying numerical expression,
reading the stem T F 1. multiply and divide from left to right.
as long as they T F 2. perform the operations on outside the grouping
know the full symbol first.
name of Cory T F 3. add and subtract from left to right or vice versa.
Aquino. The
choices should • True or False with Options
be Filipino Example:
women to Refer to the following choices below. Write the CAPITAL letter of
enhance its your answer on the blank before the number.
effectivity. Write A if only the FIRST statement is TRUE.
In arranging the If that is the case, B if only the SECOND statement is TRUE.
items in your test better transfer the C if BOTH statements are TRUE.
questionnaire, first part of the D if BOTH statements are NOT TRUE.
avoid breaking item to the next
one item into two page.
 1. In transforming mixed fractions to improper negative nations are not in be confused on
fractions, multiply the numerator to the whole statements. favor of joining the how to determine
number, and then add the product and the European Union. if the statement is
denominator. To show an example, 2 and 7/9 TRUE or FALSE
because of the
is converted to become 25/9.
word “not”. Better
remove it.
• Fact or Opinion Avoid ____ 5. The Raven Only the word
Example: insignificant and was written by Edgar “Allen” is
Identify if the statement is a FACT or an OPINION. Write your trivial facts. Allen Poe. misspelled. Focus
answer on the space provided before the number. on the
1. Isosceles triangles are triangles whose only two significance of the
sides are equal. content to their
2. In creating an equilateral triangle, a ruler should be learning.
used. Avoid double ____ 6. The changes The phrase “not
negatives in of a child are not unpredictable”
• Identifying Inconsistencies in a Paragraph every item. unpredictable. can simply be
Example: made into
For items 11-13, underline the word/s in any part of the “predictable”.
paragraph that make/s the statement/s wrong. Observe 1. T 4. T 1. F 4. T Using
In finding the area of a complex polygon, study it first. proportionate and 2. T 5. T or 2. T 5. F disproportionate
Remember to combine the complex polygon into square, patterns answers. 3. T 6. F 3. F 6. T and patterned
rectangle, and triangle because these are the most complex type answers will likely
of polygons. After doing so, find the area of the simple polygons. Implicate
Then, add the results to find the perimeter of the whole polygon. predictability of
After you subtract, you are now done. But, do not forget to put a your test for the
hypothesis signifying that you answered what is being asked. learners. Always
randomize answer
As a test type that is prone to learners’ negative practices, with proportional
learning some guidelines on how to properly make it will numbers.
help you in your future binary-choice type of test.
Discussion of Matching Type
Guidelines Bad Examples Errors and/or for The matching type of test is a modified multiple-
Improvement choice test where choices are reduced progressively items
Be mindful with ____1. The Philippines It is very obvious of the left are gradually matched by the responses on the
unintentional hint gained its that the answer is right. Based on the sample below, matching type is
in the question. independence in FALSE by basic composed of two columns. The first column are the
1898 and will mathematical
premises that act as the stems of the item, while the
celebrate its computation.
centennial year in Using more second column are the responses that will serve as the
2000. meaningful idea of choices to answer the premises.
the topic will help
improve this item.
Do not use words ____2. Christmas Day Items containing
like always”, is always celebrated “always” are
“never”, “often” on Sundays. mostly false.
and other specific Whereas, using
determiners. “sometimes” most
likely makes the
statements true.
Use only a single ____ 3. The right to The question
idea in the item. suffrage is given to basically asks on
citizens in a suffrage as a
democratic country in basic right to
order to enjoy every citizen in a
economic gains. democratic
country. There is
no need for the
other ideas.
Avid lifting direct Lifting direct texts
statements from will give an idea to
the references. the learners on
memorizing the
reference. You
should always
paraphrase the
content.
Do not use ____ 4. All European The learners will
The matching type of test also has different types. Preparing a matching type of test is not that easy
Presented below are the types of matching type with compared to the first two types since there are important
examples. considerations that you have to make especially on its
content and presentation. The pointers in writing a
• Perfect Matching – It is a form of matching type in which matching type test presented below may help you.
one response is match to exactly on premise.
Example: 1. The responses should always be shorter than the
premises. Premises act as questions in a multiple-
Column A Column B
Provinces Tourist Destinations
choice type of test and responses serve as choices.
1. Albay a. Luneta Park Also, this will prevent learners from reading lengthy
2. Bohol b. Mt. Mayon responses and will cause them more time answering.
3. Banaue c. Chocolate Hills 2. Use homogeneous options. If the test includes all
4. Pangasinan d. Rice Terraces authors of a novel, then there should be no option in
5. Manila e. Hundred Islands the response column that is a painter. This is to make
f. Pagsanjan Falls the responses plausible.
g. Malolos Church 3. Have more responses than premises. As the learners
progress in answering the test, the responses are
• Imperfect Matching – It is a form of matching type in narrowed down which increases their likeliness to
which a response may be matched to more than one guess. Having more number of responses will help
premises. avoid guessing.
Example: 4. Consider arranging the premises and responses.
Arranging the premises and responses improve the
Column A Column B presentation of your test and will less likely help you
Tourist Destinations Provinces make patterns in your answer key.
1. Luneta Park a. Albay
2. Mines View Park b. Manila
5. Limit the number of items within a set. To maximize
3. Chocolate Hills c. Banaue the effectivity of the test, you can include a minimum
4. Camp John Hay d. Bohol of 5 and a maximum of 15 items in a set.
5. Intramuros e. Pangasinan 6. Provide clear directions. Do not just instruct the
f. Baguio learners to match the two columns. Discuss the basis
g. Palawan of matching by describing the concepts that
overarches the set given.
• Sequencing Matching – It is a form of matching type in 7. Place the entire test in just one page. Imagine if half
which concepts, ideas, steps, or events are arranged in a of the set is placed on the next page, the paper will
chronological manner. be constantly flipped in order to look for the correct
Example: response for a specific premise.
Arrange the steps in making a stencil. Put the CAPITAL letters
A-E on the blank before the number, where A is the first and E is
the last. SUPPLY-RESPONSE TYPE
_____ 1. Tape the stencil to the sheet of paper. Supply-response type of tests require learners to
_____ 2. Let the paint dry.
provide what is asked from by the question, since there
_____ 3. Cut out the shape with a craft knife. Be careful.
_____ 4. Using an almost dry brush, stipple the paint over the will be no list in which they can choose the answer.
hole in the stencil.
_____ 5. Draw a simple design on stencil paper or cardboard Completion Test
with a pencil. The completion type of test present questions that
seeks short answer from the learners, that is why it is also
• Multiple Matching called as short-answer test. These answers may come in
Example: words, phrases or sentences. There are four types of
Match the provinces listed in Column A with their capital towns in completion test commonly used by teachers.
Column B and the tourist spots they are known for in Column C.
Draw a line to match the concepts. • Identification Test
Column A Column B Example:
1. Bohol Tagaytay City 1. It refers to the process of summing up the results of tests,
2. Camarines Sur Tagbilaran City giving the learners some meaning based on valued
3. Batangas Puerto Princesa judgments. __________________
4. Palawan Pili
Batangas City • Enumeration
Example:
List down the three main island groups of the Philippines.
a. ______________
b. ______________
c. ______________
• Filling the Blanks
Example:
Complete the lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem.
Bayang Magiliw
Perlas ng __________
Alab ng puso
Sa __________ mo’y buhay.
__________ hinirang
Duyan ka ng __________
Sa manlulupig
‘Di ka __________.
• Analogy
Example:
Father: Son, Mother: __________
As a commonly used test tool by a teacher of any subject,
you have to consider important pointers on how can this
be designed effectively. The guidelines below present
some of these pointers.
1. Make sure that the items clearly imply the required
response – date, place, event, name, reason, etc.
2. Except for filling-the-blanks type, have one blank per
item only to avoid confusion on the part of the
learners.
3. As much as possible, express each item in question
form.
4. Place each blank at the end of every item to help
learners get what the item requires. Also, this will
avoid the learners to reread the item if the blank is
placed at the beginning of the item.
5. For an efficient scoring, place the blanks of each item
in one column.
6. Avoid lifting direct texts from the book to encourage
meaningful learning of the learners.
7. All blanks in the test should be equal in length to not
give a hint on how long the expected responses are.
8. Provide enough space for the learners to write their
answer.
Cloze Test
The cloze test is an assessment tool that includes
a portion of a text with some words removed allowing
learners to fill or replace the missing words. This type
requires learners understanding of the given text in order
to identify the word that will really fit to the blanks. The
cloze test has three types, which are presented below.
• Fixed-ratio Method – In this method, the nth words of the
texts are removed. n is the frequency that determines the
number of deletions.
Example:
Ours was the marsh (1) __________, down by the river,
(2) __________, as the river wound, (3) __________ miles of the
sea. (4) __________ first most vivid and (5) __________
impression of the identity (6) __________ things, seems to me (7)
__________ have been gained on (8) __________ memorable
raw afternoon towards (9) __________. At such a time (10)
__________ found out for certain, (11) __________ this break
overgrown (12) __________ nettles was the churchyard; (13)
__________ that Philip Pirrip, late (14) __________ this parish,
and the (15) __________ wife of the above, (16) __________
dead and buried.
Based on the same, every 5th word is removed.
• Variable-ratio Method – In this method, words are
omitted based on how the test constructor thinks the
importance of the concept, like the nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverbs, preposition, etc.
Example:
Mr. Lim is one of the leaders in the community. He is a
__________ man of medium height and built. He is a little on the
__________ side. He has __________ hair that is starting to get
__________, a __________ fare, and a __________ complexion.
His most impressive feature is his eyes. They are __________
and they seem to be smiling at all time. This gives him the
appearance of being very __________. He is __________ and is
involved in almost everything that goes on in the community.
Some people are jokingly referring him as the __________
guardian of this place.
Based on the words omitted, you can tell the blanks look for an
adjective that will fit to the text.
• Modified Fixed-ratio Method – In this method, the nth
words is still omitted, but some words are skipped.
Example:
Ours was the marsh (1) __________, down by the river,
(2) __________, as the river wound, (3) __________ miles of the
sea. My first most vivid and (4) __________ impression of the
identity (5) __________ things, seems to me (6) __________
have been gained on a memorable raw afternoon towards (7)
__________. At such a time (8) __________ found out for
certain, (9) __________ this break overgrown (10) __________
nettles was the churchyard; (11) __________ that Philip Pirrip,
late (12) __________ this parish, and the (13) __________ wife
of the above, (14) __________ dead and buried.
Based on the same, every 5th word is removed. But, the 20th and the
40th words are skipped.
In constructing a cloze test, you may also list the
possible answers in a box for the learners to choose, but
make sure that there are extra options to avoid learners
from guessing whenever they gradually reduce options as
they answer.
Essay Test
The essay test is a widely used tool in every
subject that allows learners to respond comprehensively
on certain question. More writings are required from the
learners to deliver their ideas and thoughts which even
stretches to two or three paragraphs. However, grammar,
content and coherence are strictly considered in this test.
Unlike the first five types of test discussed, the essay test
is a non-objective test.
The essay questions have twenty categories that allows
you, teachers, to construct essays of various types. The
list below presents these categories, with samples from
the Araling Panlipunan field.
• Selective Recall (Basis Given)
Example:
Anu-ano ang apat na salik sa produksiyon? Ipaliwanag
ang bawat isa sa loob ng tatlo hanggang limang pangungusap.
• Evaluating Recall (Basis Given)
Example:
Magbigay ng tatlong pangulo ng Pilipinas na may
pinakamalaking naiambag sa edukasyon ng bansa. Magbigay ng
pruweba.
• Comparison of Two Thing (In General)
Example:
Sa loob ng tatlo hanggang limang pangungusap,
ihalintulad ang bansang Timor-Leste sa Pilipinas.
• Comparison of Two Thing (On a Single Basis)
Example:
Sa loob ng tatlo hanggang limang pangungusap,
ihalintulad ang mga likas na yaman sa mga bansang Iran at Iraq.
• Causes or Effects
Example:
Bakit hinatulan ng kamatayan ang magkapatid na
Bonifacio? Ipaliwanag sa loob ng lima hanggang limang
pangungusap.
• Decision (For or Against)
Example:
Naaayon ba ang proseso ng naturalisasyon sa pagiging
Pilipino ng mga banyaga? Mangatwiran sa loob ng lima
hanggang pitong pangungusap.
• Explanation of the Use or Exact Meaning of Some
Phrase or Statements in a Passage
Example:
Ano ang ibig sabihin ng katagang “obras pias”?
Ipaliwanag sa loob ng dalawa hanggang tatlong pangungusap.
• Summary of One Unit of the Test or Some Articles that
were Read
Example:
Sa loob ng lima hanggang limang talata na may
tigtatalo hanggang tiglilimang pangungusap, ibuod ang mga
karanasan ni Rizal sa Espanya.
• Analysis
Example:
Paano nakatulong ang pagbubuwis sa pag-unlad ng
bansang Pilipinas? Ipaliwanag sa loob ng lima hanggang limang
pangungusap
• Statement of Relationship
Example:
Bakit napayaman pa ng globalisasyon ang mga
mayayamang bansa at inilulugmok pa sa kahirapan ang mga
mahihirap ng bansa? Ipaliwanag ang iyong punto sa loob ng pito
hanggang sampung pangungusap.
• Illustration or Examples (The Student’s Own) of the
Principles in Science, Construction in Language, or Other
Subject Matter
Example:
Gamit ang concept map, magtala ng tig-iisang
halimbawa ng mga uri ng anyong lupa at anyong tubig sa
Pilipinas. Ilarawan ang mga ito sa isang pangungusap lamang.
• Classification
Example:
Sa aling sistemang pang-ekonomiya napapabilang ang
mga bansang Pilipinas, Estados Unidos, at Italya? Ipaliwanag
ang iyong sagot sa loob ng lima hanggang pitong pangungusap.
• Application of Rules or Principles in New Situations
Example:
Gamit ang konsepto demand at suplay, ipaliwanag sa loob ng
lima hanggang limang pangungusap ang bentahan ng palay sa
Pilipinas sa mga panahon ngayon.
• Discussion
Example:
Sa loob ng lima hanggang limang pangungusap,
talakayin ang Kasunduan sa Tordesillas.
• Statement of Aim
Example:
Bakit kaya tumutol si Daniel Tirona sa pagkakahalal ni
Andres Bonifacio bilang director ng interyor? Ipaliwanag sa loob
ng lima hanggang limang pangungusap.
• Criticism
Example:
Sa loob ng lima hanggang pitong pangungusap,
husgahan ang ginawang pagpapatay ni Shih Huang-ti sa daan-
daang iskolar na Confucian at pagpapasunog ng mga aklat nila.
• Outline
Example:
Gumawa ng balangkas sa sinaunang kabihasnan sa
Hapon – mula sa Imperyong Yamato hanggang sa pamamahal
ni Tokugawa Shuganate.
• Reorganization
Example:
Sa loob ng lima hanggang sampung pangungusap,
magbalik-tanaw sa pamumhay ng mga Pilipino sa sistemang
piyudal salungat sa sistemang encomienda.
• Formulation of New Questions (Problems and Questions
Raised)
Example:
Anu-ano ang mga solusyon upang malutas ang
problemang kinakaharap ng bansa sa agrikultura? Ipaliwanag sa
loob ng lima hanggang pitong pangungusap.
• New Methods or Procedures
Example:
Gumawa ng iba pang pamamaraan upang malunasan
ang suliranin ng Pilipinas sa industriya. Ipaliwanag ang iyong
pamamaraan sa loob ng lima hanggang sampung pangungusap.
In order to craft your essay questions in a friendly and
effective manner, you may utilize the suggestions in
constructing essay questions are listed below.
1. Use essay questions to the learning outcomes that
the objective tests cannot measure. Objective tests
cannot measure how learners organize ideas and
synthesize information by themselves. These
concerns will be catered in essay tests as learners
indulge in higher-order thinking skills.
2. Design questions that will allow the delivery of the
skills specified in the learning standards. Most of the
learning standards in the curricula require learners to
show application of knowledge, analyze the data,
evaluation results and create new and significant
ideas. As the one who designs activities to realize
such competencies that will mold the higher-order
skills of the learners, you have to orient the learners
what they are entailed to do. Through effective essay
questions, the learners can perform these thinking
process.
3. Construct the questions that the learners can clearly
define. Make sure that what you expected your
learners to answer will also be what the learners
understand. For example, if you want to test how your
learners apply the learned properties of a substance
for a specific purpose, then you can write question
stated “Explain the property of copper that makes it
good for making cooking pans” instead of asking
“Why is copper a good material?”
4. Indicate a time limit for each question. Especially if
the test is composed of objective and non-objective
type, informing to the learners the time allotment is
important. In this way, they can budget their time in a
way that all items are answered without skipping the
last part, which are mostly non-objective types of
questions.
5. Do not use optional questions. Refrain from letting
the learners choose what essay question to respond
among the set of items. Learners make like memorize
the concepts for the questions they prefer to answer
and you may not use the same basis for reporting
their test results.
Writing an essay item is really not an easy task, but what
makes things more difficult is scoring an essay. Unlike the
objective tests previously discussed, the essay test
requires time and reading before a teacher can give a
corresponding score to the answer. To facilitate the
scoring of an essay, the scoring suggestions below may
be adopted.
Outline the possible Use the most Decide how
answers in appropriate rubric handle irrelevant
advance. when checking. factors that may
affect the scores of
the answers.
Check all the Do not look at the Use
answers in one learners’ names as independent ratings
item first before you check the if important
proceeding to the answers. decisions are to be
next one. done based on the
results.
In scoring the responses of your learners in your essay
item, you may also choose among the four ways given
below.
• Analytic/Point System: This method allows you to break
the components of your scores, and the score of each
essay item will be based on the sum of the scores of each
component.
• Universal/Holistic Approach: This method asks you to
general impression or quality of the answers to the
question as you determine the total score each item gets.
• Sorting Method: Instead of giving point system for each
essay, this method requires you to sort out essays with
best, intermediate, or worst contents. After sorting, these
essays are reread to ensure homogeneity as the scores
are given. In this way, maximizing the differences between
the groups and minimizing the difference within each
group is attained.
• Demerit Method: In this method, each essay is already
given the perfect score. However, points will be deducted
if ever there are inconsistencies spotted as you read the
content.
Lesson 3 - Considerations in Test Item Development
As the people who know how much they have
taught for a given competency, teachers should make
tests which are really designed for their learners. However,
the purpose of these tests will not just last the moment it
was answered by the learners. Possibly, these tests will
still be utilized for future uses. With that, it is necessary
that a test should always serve its purpose. Through
revision of some of its parts and updating some of its
necessary components, these tests will eventually yield an
accurate, credible, and bias-free results.
In order to ensure the usefulness and functionality
of the test, doing the item analysis and determining the
validity and reliability of the test are encouraged. With
these processes, it is assured that the test will be effective
enough to gather data from your learners.
First among the three is doing the item analysis. This
process allows you to discover which item in the test is
ambiguous, too easy or too difficult, and non-
discriminating. The multiple-choice of test is the most
amenable types for item analysis. However, it is difficult to
do this process without conducting the test to some group
of learners. The flow below presents the basic process of
item analysis.
to
two
To further breakdown each phase, the following
procedures of item analysis are discussed in details below.
1. Check and score the answers.
2. Arrange the paper from highest to lowest.
3. Split the papers into halves: the upper group and the
lower group. Make sure that the number of papers of
the upper and the lower groups are the same.
a. For a class of 50 or less learners, do a 50-50 split.
The upper half will be the upper group, and the
lower half will be the lower group.
b. For a big group of more than 50 learners, take
the upper 25%-27% as the upper group and the
lower 25%-27% as the lower group. The
remaining of percentage will be the middle group.
4. Get the p value (Index of Difficulty). The Index of
Difficulty will tell you how easy or difficult the item is.
To compute the p value, follow the formula below:
where, P is the difficulty index;
R is the total number of learners who
answered the item correctly; &
N is the total number of learners who
answered the item.
Follow the interpretation table below to interpret the values
obtain.
5. Get the d value (Index of Discrimination). The Index
of Discrimination will tell you how much the item
discrimination those knowledgeable and the non-
knowledgeable learners for that specific item.
To compute the d value, follow the formula below:
where, D is the discrimination index;
Difference is the difference of the number
of learners who got the correct answer
from the lower and upper group; &
T is the total number of learners who
answered the item from either group.
Follow the interpretation table below to interpret the values
obtain.
6. Decide on what to do with each item. Use the table
below for your basis.
The format for item analysis differs at every institute.
However, whatever presented below is the general format
of item analysis, which includes all the necessary
components needed to make an interpretation for every
item of the test.
After establishing the credibility of the items, the
test, in general, should also be valid and reliable. With
regards to the validity of the test, it has already been
discussed in the first module the different types of validity
that a test should exhibit.
To enhance the validity of your assessment, the following
suggestions may be adhered:
• Prepare a TOS.
• Design test items which are appropriate to the expected
competencies.
• Provide clear and concise test instructions.
• Consider the reading vocabulary of the examinees, your
learners.
• State the test items in simple manner.
• Do not have identifiable pattern of answers.
• Arrange the items based on the difficulty or the order it
was taught.
• Give ample time for the learners to complete the test.
• Utilize various methods to assess the same competency.
• Use test for intended purposes only.
Aside from making the test valid, it should also be
reliable. Reliability refers to how consistent the scores are
obtained from the test used. In simple terms, if you are to
conduct your first quarter examination for 5 consecutive
school year, it can consistently provide good scores for
every set of performing learners in your batch.
The reliability of the test can be affected by some of the
factors listed below:
• your inconsistency, as a scorer, because of your
subjectivity
• the limited sampling because of the incidental inclusion
and accidental exclusion of the materials in the test
• the changes in the learners, as examinee, and their
instability during the examination
• the testing environment
To determine the reliability of the test despite the factors
mentioned above, better integrated mathematical methods
that you may use. There are four way of doing this.
1. Test of Stability – It is used to identify how stable the
test is. In this method, the same test is conducted for
two administrations over a period of time. However,
timing is considered since memory effect will affect if
the time interval is short, and forgetting may affect if
the interval is long.
The Pearson-r correlation is used to test the stability of the
test. The formula is given by:
where, r is the reliability score;
n is the total number of test scores;
x is the individual score of the first
administration; &
y is the individual score of the second
administration.
2. Test of Equivalence – It is used to determine to
reliable the test scores are after conducting a parallel
test. In this method, two sets of tests are used to
assess the learners, but these tests are just parallel –
the first two items, and so on, are of the same content
and idea, but constructed using different wordings.
With that, you have to allot time and effort in
preparing the process.
The Pearson-r correlation will still be used in this
process. But this time, the variable x means the individual
score of the first test, and the variable y means the
individual score of the second test.
3. Internal Consistency Method – It is used to determine
if the learners who mastered the learning will really
do well and those who do not may likely get the items
wrong. There are two ways of how this is done.
a. Spearman-Brown Formula – A split-half method is
used in this formula.
This is done my dividing the test into two parts –
the first half of the test, or the odd and even
numbered parts. The formula for this method is
given by:
where, rtt is the reliability score; &
rh is the correlation between the two parts
b. Kuder-Richardson 20/21 – This formula is used to
analyze the internal consistency of a test with
dichotomous items. If the items are correct, it will
be marked as 1; otherwise, it is 0. The formula
for this method is given by:
where, KR20 is the reliability score;
N is the number of test items;
S^2 is the variance of the test score;
p is the proportion of the learners who
got the item correctly;
q is the proportion of the learners who
got the item incorrectly; or you may
use the formula q = 1 – p.
4. Inter-rater Reliability – It used by gathering
assessment decisions from different raters or judges.
This is done to avoid unnecessary rates caused by
biases, halo effect, moods, fatigues, and other factors.
The use of Cronbach alpha if judgments are
quantitative and Spearman’s rho if the judgments are
in ordinal data.
The table below presents the interpretation of the values
computed from the different tests of reliability.
Reliability Interpretation
.90 - above Excellent reliability; at the level of the best
standardized tests
.80 - .90 Very good for a classroom test
.70 - .80 Good for a classroom test; in the range of
most. There are probably few items which
could be improved.
.60 - .70 Somewhat low. This test needs to be
supplemented by other measures (e.g. more
tests) to determine grades. There are probably
some items which could be improved.
.50 - .60 Suggest need for revision of test, unless it is
quite short (ten or fewer items). The test
definitely needs to be supplemented by other
measures (e.g. more tests) for grading.
.50 or below Questionable reliability. This test should not
contribute heavily to the course grade, and it
needs revision.
To improve the reliability of the test, you may follow the
guidelines below.
• Use enough number of items or tasks. A longer test is
more reliable.
• Utilize independent rater who can give similar scores
to similar standards.
• The assessment procedures and scoring should be
objective.
• Continue the assessment until the results are
consistent.
• As much as possible, minimize the extraneous events
or factors.
• Assess the difficulty level of the test.
Application:
First, a sample of item analysis is presented below, along
with discussion based on the steps and its interpretation.
Steps 1 and 2: Make sure that the test is checked
correctly, and that the scores are arranged from
highest to lowest.
Step 3: When the data of the “Total” column are added,
there are 100 takers who took the test. Using the
guide discussed in the previous section, the group
is considered big. With that, a middle group
should be identified. To meet half way, a 26% of
 the number of takers will be obtained to qualify for
both the upper and the lower group. So,
total # of takers X 26% = 100 X 26% = 26
As you can see, a value of 26 is obtained when
the five data in the “Upper Group” and the “Lower Group”
columns are added.
When crafting your item analysis, always mark the correct
answer because only the row of the correct answer will be
analyzed for the interpretation of the item.
Step 4: Compute the p value (Index of Difficulty). Based
on the formula, the equation is presented below.
Based on the value, 0.36 denotes that the item is difficult.
Step 5: Compute the d value (Index of Discrimination).
Based on the formula, the equation is presented
below.
Based on the value, 0.12 denotes that the item is moderately
discriminating.
Step 6: Since the item is difficult and moderately
discriminating at the same time, then the item may
need revision.
Aside from ensuring the credibility of each item,
the test, in general should also exhibit validity and
reliability. As with the validity, you can simply observe the
types prior to making your test questionnaire; and one
thing that you always ensure is making a TOS. But after
the conduct of the test, you can now test its reliability. The
sample below is just an application of one of the types of
reliability.
Let’s say that you have already conducted the 50-point
test with the scores of the learners placed in the second
column. After a day, you have conducted a test again, and
the learners’ scores are placed in the third column. This
test was not exactly different, because the content of each
item is just the same. What differs is only the manner of
questioning. The scores are listed below.
Since there are two tests conducted, in which the two
tests are not really exact but with the same content, the
Test of Equivalence is best to be used. With this, the
Pearson r correlation is the method to be used in
determining the reliability of the test. To solve using the
required statistical tool, your Grade 11 – Statistics and
Probability class notes will help you. Though, you can
follow the solution presented below.
1. Fill out the 5-column table. The first two columns are
given values, the test scores of the learners. The third
column squares each of the score in the first column.
The fourth column squares each of the score in the
second column. The fifth column is the product of the
two scores in the first and second columns. The 5
values in last row of the table is the sum of the twenty
data in the column.
2. Using the formula for the Pearson-r correlation, find
the reliability score.
Based on the computed value of the reliability
score which is 0.91, the test exhibits an excellent reliability.
The test can be standardized, and be adopted for the
entire school to utilize as a basis for their quarterly
examination score.
MODULE SUMMARY
• Planning a test for every lesson begins from the moment
the curriculum is conceptualized.
• Ralph Tyler, the “Father of Educational Evaluation”,
illustrate the evaluation framework – 1. Define objective
behaviorally, 2. Classify goals and objectives, 3. Establish
clear and specific goals and objectives, 4. Compare
performance to the behavioral objectives, 5. Collect
performance data in the instructional process, 6. Design
measurement tasks, and 7. Determine situations to
achieve objectives.
• The sixth step of the framework of Tyler was further
broken down by Linn and Gronlund – 1. Know the purpose
of measurement, 2. Develop a Table of Specifications
(TOS), 3. Choose test types, 4. Prepare test items, 5.
Assemble the test, 6. Appraise the test, and 7. Utilize the
test.
• A Table of Specifications (TOS) is a test blueprint
provides guidance to you as you craft your test.
• The TOS helps you to distribute the items of your test
into the different levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy.
• In distributing the number of points in every level in the
TOS, you may consider the 30%-50%-20% rule - 30% -
KNOWLEDGE and COMPREHENSION level, 50% -
APPLICATION and ANALYSIS level, and 20% -
SYNTHESIS and EVALUATION level.
• Considering the different types of tests you use, you
should also look into how long the learners will spend in
answering the items in each type.
• The types of test may be selected-response (multiple-
choice test, binary test, and matching type test) and
constructed-response (completion test, cloze test, and
essay
test).
• The multiple-choice type of test allows learners to
identify the correct or best answer based on the list of
choices.
• The binary-choice type of test makes learners choose
between two possible answers, true and false, yes and no,
etc.
• The matching type of test is a modified multiple-choice
test where choices are reduced progressively items of the
left are gradually matched by the responses on the right.
• The completion type of test present questions that seeks
short answer from the learners, that is why it is also called
as short-answer test.
• The cloze test is an assessment tool that includes a
portion of a text with some words removed allowing
learners to fill or replace the missing words.
• The essay test is a widely used tool in every subject that
allows learners to respond comprehensively on certain
question.
• In order to ensure the usefulness and functionality of the
test, doing the item analysis and determining the validity
and reliability of the test are encouraged.
• In doing the item analysis, a try-out phase, item analysis
phase, and item revision phase should be done.
• In the item analysis, there are important steps to perform
– check the scores, arrange the papers from highest to
lowest, split the papers into halves: the upper group and
the lower group (or can also create a middle group),
compute the Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination,
and decide on what to do with the item.
• Reliability refers to how consistent the scores are
obtained from the test used.
• To determine the reliability of the test, the following ways
may be performed – Test of Stability, Test of Equivalence,
Internal Consistency Method, and Inter-rater Reliability.
MODULE 6 - ANALYZING, INTERPRETING AND • Formative assessments – Formative assessments
EVALUATING TEST RESULTS include short quizzes, homeworks, and reflections. These
Test scores are important for students to know assessment tasks highlight how learners think and
their performance in a certain subject. Despite its progress prior to delivering big tasks in the summative
essentiality to every learner, these test scores are not only assessments. Teachers can clearly observe what needs
limited for learners’ feedback. Test scores can also be to be done and immediately make changes which can also
used to explain the group of learners as a whole, and how affect the educational decision making as a whole.
they performed generally. Moreover, it will also help
determine the effectiveness of the teacher’s pedagogies Conducting educational decisions regarding your
and the implemented curriculum. In these ways, test instructional processes has long been done in all
scores make greater impact for educational decision educational institutions worldwide. As a matter of fact,
making. doing this has been an important consideration of being
an effective teacher. But, a big difference on this decision
lies on where it is anchored. As Mertler discussed in his
Lesson 1 - Test Results and Educational Decision Making book “The Data Driven Classroom”, educational decision
Teachers around the world have been using the may be anchored using the “old tools” and the “new tools”.
data from their learners to make instructional decisions. The table below discusses the difference of these two.
As a matter of fact, a teacher may be considered good in
his/her field whenever she utilizes various instructional DIFFERENCES OLD TOOLS NEW TOOLS
methods and strategies in order to cater the needs and Tools Used Intuition, teaching Learners' data,
strengths of his/her learners. This change is caused by philosophy, personal assessment and test
observing the effectiveness of considering learners’ experience results
performances in their results in the standardized test. How it is Used Gut instinct based on Values and data are
philosophy and interpreted into a
Education sectors in the government often emphasized
experiences guides meaningful
how teachers’ understanding of their learners paved a way teachers in making information to be
for their significant improvement in education. decisions with regards used for educational
to the instructional decisions and
Educational decision making is an important methods. instructional
aspect that helps the people involved to progress towards planning.
the educational goals. But, these decisions should be Ways Used Teachers may Teachers utilize
anchored mainly on the data gathered by the educational integrate whatever interpretations of the
personnel, including you, the teachers; thus, the term they have decided data and channel it
and do trial-anderror in making important
datadriven educational decision making is coined.
way based on how changes in
learners receive it. educational
Data-driven educational decision making refers to practices.
how educators utilize assessment data of their learners in
order to determine learners’ strengths and deficiencies as The old tools in making educational decisions
they design and implement strategies in their practices. enable teachers, like you, to decide and make specific
Through this method of using learners’ data, the learners’ changes in their instruction. Since these tools are very
curriculum along the teaching and learning pedagogies personal, chances are these teachers may have various
are accurately redefine to fit with a certain set of learners. beliefs and principles despite working in the same school,
Moreover, accurate and relevant instructional decisions division, or region; thus, varied instructional decisions as
will likely be made. well. This makes old tools as an “art” of teaching since it’s
a personal way of teachers to express themselves,
As learners’ assessment data play significant role in including in their own instructional decisions. And for them
educational decision making, you have to know where to to find out if these decisions will really work in a classroom
obtain these data. Refer to the list below. setting, teachers have to utilize a trial-and-error method to
• Standardized tests – Standardized tests, such as the establish novel instructional strategies. Trial-and-error is
NAT, provide every school, or school district and division, not a bad thing as mistakes is a great avenue for learning,
a conclusive data about their learners in general. it may not provide an efficient and consistent outcome, but
Educational supervisors will be informed the deficiencies just an ambiguous result.
that needs to be addressed and competencies that need
to be enhanced. Although old tools have affected educational
• Local assessments – Local assessments include decisions for a long time now, expanding these decisions
summative tests and performancebased outputs like using additional strategies and ideas builds an even
portfolios. These assessments help teachers determine effective classroom teaching. These additions as basis of
the level of their learners’ performance and to what extent educational decisions are the new tools in the teaching
they can deliver competence expected from them. and learning process. As new tools, it facilitates
Moreover, school heads will be guided the strengths of systematic and responsive approaches that considers
their learners based on the kind of output is effectively learners’ sides. In educational decision making. Thus, the
shown by the learners. new tools support the “science” of teaching.
Application:
In a classroom setting, you, as a teacher, can
start integrating new tools in your decision making. This
method helps you create options based on the data you
gathered, and the “trial” process becomes a lot more
systematic and is anchored on a good deal of professional
reflection, compared to the decisions made based solely
on the old tools. In this scientific process, data gathered
by you will be continually used in informing subsequent
instructions and deciding which strategy is the winner. But
as a cyclical process, these decisions are done every after
results are evaluated.
Data gathered from local and formative
assessments are teacher-friendly when it comes to
decision making decisions, since you, as the designer of
these assessments, really know what you are focusing.
The case is not the same with standardized test, which is
usually utilized for educational decision making in a larger
scale. As teacher, you do not rely much on these data
because of the sheer volume of the data that you don’t
even know where to start. For you to do this, focusing your
attention on a few key pieces of the assessment reports
will likely help you.
A standardized test may contain seven or eight
subtests for every subject like Science and Mathematics.
These subtests are broken down to specific skills, like the
reading subtest may include vocabulary, reading
comprehension, and analogies. These more refined
subsections may contain only five to six items in the actual
test. Thus, it is essential that learners’ performance should
be dealt with care.
Aside from that, you should also be aware of the
likeliness that learners made careless errors or lucky
guesses to skew their score in a particular area, especially
that results are expressed based on how high or low the
learners’ scored compared to the other takers. It is
important that whatever type of assessment, you have to
avoid over-interpretation – that is making sweeping
decisions out of a limited set of data.
After considering all those observations, it is
therefore necessary to not just look at the raw scores or
ranks of the learners, but also the total number of items on
the given test, and the subsections. Moreover, looking at
multiple sources of learners’ data may provide you a
complete view of their progress. In this way, you may
reduce making inaccurate and invalid decisions about
learning and teaching effectiveness by putting too much
weight on a single measure.
With that, many teachers say that using data as
sole sources of information makes educational process as
a businesslike transaction. Process focused more on
profiling data, inventory, and sales-like experiences as
crucial factors of determining successes and failures.
Though it is partly true, education is still focusing on the
“human” side of things as learners are still living entities.
At the bottom of it, what makes the educational decision-
making process to be holistic is the utilization of the data
side and human side along the way.
Lesson 2 - Fundamental Analytical Techniques
Having data and test scores of at least 200 of your
learners in the same grade level is overwhelming. If you
look into every value, you will be frustrated as to what to
do with these numbers. Because at the end of the quarter
or school year, these numbers will significantly be reduced
to only few numbers that will tell the learners’
performances in general. This is why a general weighted
average (GWA) is always computed whenever all of the
learners’ grades are given, instead of looking at all the
grades in every subject and make separate
generalizations.
The two teachers below all have an advisory of 10
learners. The results of the 50-point quarterly exam of
their learners in English are listed on the table.
By looking at the table below, you cannot
immediately tell that Mr. Alfonso’s class is less performing
compared to Mr. Cruz’ just because many of Mr. Alfonso’s
class performed lower than Mr. Cruz’. For this to be
understood in an analytical and accurate lens, analytical
tools should be used. In the field of assessment, this
serves as the very foundation of using learners’ data and
the very basic, yet commonly used, tools are those under
the Measures of Central Tendency.
Measures of Central Tendency
The tools under the Measures of Central
Tendency provides a single value out of the many data
presented. This single value will be a general
representation of the data, and is where interpretation of
the entire data is anchored. Just like in the sample
situation, obtaining a single value will probably solve the
problem on whose class performed well in the
examination. There are three most commonly used tools
under the Measures of Central Tendency – mean, median,
and mode.
Mean
This value gives a central description of the
learners’ performance as a whole. An interpretation of this
depends on the standards set by every school to define of Dispersion/Variability. The most commonly used
learners’ performance. measures of variability are range, variance, and standard
Although mean has been used most of the time, deviation.
there are instances that its use is discouraged. Since all of
the data values are considered in the computation process, Range
the measure is very susceptible to the influence of outliers.
Outliers are values which are extreme far from the rest of
the data, making it unusual or separated from the group.
For example, Mr. Lim’s learners have scores of the same
exam as follows: 3, 37, 38, 38, 39, 41, 44, 45, 46. Based
on the data, the score of 3 so far from the rest of the data,
and it might drag the value of the data below. With
instances like that of Mr. Lim’s class, a different measure
of central tendency will suit.

Median

Variance and Standard Deviation

Mode

It may be complicated when you are to look at the formula,

so it’s better to discuss how to use this in detail. Use the
data of Mr. Alonso to illustrate the steps.
I. Compute the mean of the data.
As solved, the mean of the scores of Mr. Alfonso’s
learners is 22.5.

II. Make a table with three columns. The columns

should be named as Data Values (or Scores),
Deviation from the Mean , and Squared
Deviation

Measures of Dispersion/Variability
If you computed the mean, median and mode
values of the scores of Mr. Cruz’ learners in their exam,
you will find out that it’s just the same with Mr. Alfonso’s.
Does that mean that the learners if Mr. Alfonso’s and Mr.
Cruz’ classes are the same? By inspection, the two sets
are really not the same. It can be observed that Mr.
Alfonso’s learners have scattered diverse scores, while Mr.
Cruz’ are concentrated on a certain range of values. Thus, III. Compute the “Deviation from the Mean” column by
the difference of these two sets lies on how spread out the subtracting the computed mean to the data values.
group of scores are. This is the concern of the Measures Place the difference in the second column.

IV. Compute the “Squared Deviation” column by
squaring the values in the second column. Place the
answers in the third column.
V. Add the answers in the third column to obtain the
values of the in the variance formula.
VI. Compute the variance using the data and the formula.
Since the differences of the values in the
devitation is squared, the values of the variance is
expectedly large. That’s why in many fields, what is used
to interpret data is the standard deviation. Computing the
standard deviation is so easy if you have computed the
variance correctly
VII. Compute the standard deviation by squaring the
variance.
Therefore, the variance and standard deviation of
the scores of the learners of Mr. Alfonso are 229.1667 and
15.1383, respectively.
If you compute the variance and standard
deviation of the scores of the Mr. Cruz’ learners, you will
get the values 9.1667 and 3.0277 respectively. For these
values to make sense, it is important to remember that
these tools are measures of variability; and will therefore
tell how varied a set of data compared to the other.
When compared to the standard deviations of Mr.
Alfonso’s and Mr. Cruz’ learners, it can be said that the
learners of Mr. Lim do have consistent scores, and will
most likely have similar abilities to learn and perform since
their scores are less diverse. On the other hand, Mr.
Alfonso’s class is varied because the class has a large
variability of scores. There are instances that some of his
learners are really performing, while some do not really
have good performance in the class.
When you are to search information about
variance and standard deviation, you will likely encounter
two ways of how it is solved – using population or using
sample. What is usually used in the field of research and
other fields is the latter, since is easier to access, cheaer,
and efficient.
Lesson 3 - Fundamental Techniques in Interpreting and
Evaluating Test Results
Having the computed values from your learners’
data is not enough. These values won’t make sense if left
that way, or analyzed separately from their previous
performance, or from the other learners. That’s why after
values are obtained, an established benchmark should be
used as basis of making interpretation and evaluation of
these values. Through this, a uniform, transparent, and
fair decision will be made which will likely help the learners
and the educational process in general.
The previous lesson taught you how the three
measures of central tendency provide you a credible way
to interpret test values. In this lesson, these three
measures will be used interactively to further provide
interpretation that will determine the performance of the
class as a whole. In this way, teachers, like you, will be
given a more solid basis of making important educational
decisions.
To be able to do that, drawing a representation,
as presented below, is useful. For example in a 150-point
exam, there are 70 students who got a score from 70-80,
63 students who got a score from 60-70 and 80-90, 47
students who got 50-60 and 90-100, 30 students who got
40-50 and 100-110, 19 students who got 30-40 and 110-
120, 9 students who got 20-30 and 120-130, 4 students
got 10-20 and 130-140, and no one score from 0-10 and
140-150. If a bar graph is constructed, it will look exactly
like the bar graph below. The smooth curve drawn for the
top of each line illustrate the movement of scores from on
interval to the other. This smooth curve, which is like a
bell-shaped curve, illustrate a normal distribution.
If you try to compute the mean and median values,
values will be exactly 75. And by inspection, the module is
in the 70-80 interval. If you recall how grouped scores are
analyzed by getting its class mark, 75 is the most accurate
value to use. With that, it can be said that the mean,
median, and mode values are all the same. That’s what a
normal distribution in the set of value illustrates.
However, most of the time, a score distribution is
not normal; because these are skewed. The skewness of
a distribution may be negative or positive. A set is a
negatively-skewed distribution if the mean is less than the
median and the mode. On the other hand, a set is a
positively-skewed distribution if the mean is greater than
the median and mode. The three types of distribution are
shown in the image below.
Since the mode of the set is higher compared to
the median for a negatively-skewed distribution, a good
number of the class got a score higher than the median,
which stands in the center of the data, and the mean,
which gives a value that represents all of the data in the
set. With this, it can be said that the majority of the class is
referenced interpretation will
performing well and only a few got a low score in the
group. In the positive-skewed distribution, on the other
hand, most of the class scored lower than the median and
mean. Since median and mean represents the center-
most values that represent all the data, it can be said that
many of the class did not perform well and only a few did
a really good job in the class. If learners who are often
whose scores below the mean with a class that has a
negative-skewed set of scores, they should work more for
their learning and strive to perform well in the class.
Aside from focusing on the learners’ side,
applying these concepts will also aid you as a teacher. If
the scores of the learners a negatively-skewed, your job
as teacher have been successfully enough in facilitating
your learners towards learning. Your strategies and
activities might have worked well. But if their scores in
your assessment are mostly low, learners may be difficulty
in your class which may be caused with poor facilitation of
classes.
Aside from knowing how the class performed in
the educational process, you also need to be acquainted
with the frame of reference in making sense of the test
scores. Test scores and marks may be explained in
relation to the norm of the class or the established
criterion. In a norm-referenced interpretation, learner’s
grade is placed in relation to the other learners’
performances. A grade of 80 means that the learner
performed better or the same as 80% of the class.
However, struggles are found in this way of interpretation.
Refer to the sets of scores of 10 learners as an illustration.
A = {30, 40, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85}
B = {60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 90, 95, 100}
In the set A, a learner with a score of 75 will get a
grade of 80 while on the second set, that will be for the
learner with a score of 90. By just looking at that, it can be
said that the system is really unfair. If you are an enrollee
oriented with that process, you will strive to be in set A
because it is easier to get a grade of 80 that in set B. This
problem in this interpretation is called the problem of
equivalency.
Another problem is that norm-reference
interpretations have pre-established formula regarding the
percentage of the learners to receive a specific grade. So,
there will also be a percent of learners to pass or fail in a
course. If the school decides to fail the bottom 20% in the
previous data, a score 60 and 65 in set B will fail and will
pass in set A. It’s worrisome to the learners.
Since the objective of this way of interpretation
finds out the best performers in a group, this will work well
in screening selected learner populations knowing that
learners cannot advance due to limitations. Using it in
grading will be a problem since a very predictable portion
of the group will receive the same grade regardless of the
level of knowledge and ability of the learners.
Since the norm-referenced interpretation is not an
option for grading, a criterion
likely fit in this purpose. In this way of interpretation, a
fixed criterion should be targeted by the learners in
obtaining a passing grade, regardless of how the other
learners perform. There are chances where all if the class
will pass, or all will fail, depending on each learner’s
performance. Since a standard performance is needed to
achieve the criterion, anyone from the class can help
fellow learners without really worrying about lowering
his/her grade in the subject. Thus, a rich learning
environment is established.
Since the criterion is set by the teachers prior to
the teaching-learning process, you, as a teacher, should
collaborate with the other teacher especially if they are
teaching with the same subject. This will likely improve the
validity of the standard. Moreover, learners should be
given an opportunity to know and make scrutiny to avoid
teachers’ biases.

MODULE SUMMARY
• Data-driven educational decision making refers to how
educators utilize assessment data of their learners in
order to determine learners’ strengths and deficiencies as
they design and implement strategies in their practices.
• As learners’ assessment data play significant role in
educational decision making, you have to consider the
standard test, local assessment, and formative
assessment results of the learners.
• As Mertler discussed in his book “The Data Driven
Classroom”, educational decision may be anchored using
the “old tools” and the “new tools”. The old tools in making
educational decisions enable teachers to decide and
make specific changes in their instruction while new tools
facilitate systematic and responsive approaches that
considers learners’ sides.
• Data gathered from local and formative assessments are
teacher-friendly when it comes to decision making
decisions.
• The tools under the Measures of Central Tendency
provides a single value out of the many data presented.
• The common measures of central tendency are mean,
median, and mode.
• The Measures of Dispersion focuses on the difference of
these two sets lies on how spread out the group of scores
are.
• The common measures of dispersion are range,
variance, and standard deviation.
• A set is normally distributed if the mean, median, and
mode values are the same.
• A set is a negatively-skewed distribution if the mean is
less than the median and the mode, and a set is a
positively-skewed distribution if the mean is greater than
the median and mode.
• It can be said that the majority of the class with a
negative-skewed distribution is performing well and only a
few got a low score in the group; while those which are
positively-skewed does not manage to do well.
• Test scores and marks may be explained in relation to
the norm of the class or the established criterion.
• In a norm-referenced interpretation, learner’s grade is
placed in relation to the other learners’ performances,
while fixed criterion should be targeted by the learners in
obtaining a passing grade, regardless of how the other
learners perform, is the basis of criterion-reference
interpretation.
ASSESSMENT OF
LEARNING 2
EDUC321A – ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING 2
MODULE 1 – STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOME (SLO)
Students who are well-informed about what
behaviors are expected of them in a course/subject or
activity have a definite guide during its conduct and are
therefore perceived to attain success. Correlatively,
teachers who know very well what they wish their
students to demonstrate will be in the best position to
align their instructional activities to the desired learning
outcomes. Thus, it is necessary that teacher should
“begin an end in mind” through identifying and
clarifying student learning outcomes.
Lesson 1 – Principles of Student Learning Outcomes
Knowing what you expect from your learners
at the end of a particular lesson help you to meet those
targets successfully. In relation to this, you who have
set clear targets for their lessons, will be guided
accordingly as you deliver their lesson through
instructional learning activities to meet the desired
outcomes. Thus, all assessment and evaluation
activities must be founded on the identified student
intended learning outcomes (ILO). These ILO should
be identified and clarified with learners so that it will be
an effective teaching-learning process as teachers
commence the learning activities through delivery of
the lessons.
The student learning outcomes are the skills,
competencies, and values that the learners are
expected to demonstrate at the end of every
course/subject which are in turn, integrated into the
year-end formation of learners as they progress
towards becoming learned individuals. Attainment of
these learning outcomes must be continuously done
during the entire teaching-learning experience both by
you and the learners to ensure that the activities are
aligned with the expected outcomes set for the
learners. Providing feedback including the results of
assessment is important to identify the next steps
toward the realization of the learning outcome.
To effectively realize the expected student learning
outcomes, presented below are several factors that
need to be considered in defining the outcomes to
ensure that these are aligned to the set direction of the
program and evaluation setting in general.
1. Mission statement of the school.
2. Mandated policies on competencies and
standards issued by government education agencies
such as the Department of Education (DepEd),
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA), and Commission on Higher Education
(CHEd).
3. Competencies expected by different
professions, business, and industry.
4. Development plan and goals as well as the
current thrusts of both the national and local
governments.
5. Current global trends and developments so
that graduates can compete globally.
6. General 21st century skills focusing on the
following:
a. Oral and written communication.
b. Quantitative reasoning ability
together with scientific methodology.
c. Analyzing, synthesizing and
developing creative solutions.
d. Use of technology.
e. Information literacy
Lesson 2 – Characteristics of Student Learning
Outcomes
It is important to define learning outcomes as
clearly and explicitly as possible. Good learning
outcomes give emphasis to the application and
integration of the knowledge and skills acquired in a
particular unit of instruction, and emerge from a
process of reflection on the essential contents of the
activity, course, program, etc.
Particularly, this lesson presents the characteristics of
good learning outcome as guide in crafting such.
1. Good student learning outcome are centered on the
learners, on what they are capable of doing, instead of
the teaching technique. The teaching strategy will only
be guided by the desired competencies of the learners.
2. Good student learning outcomes are based on the
program mission and statement agreed upon by the
program faculty in consultation with other stakeholders
like alumni and other professionals. It is important that
the student learning outcomes are based on issuances
from government regulatory agencies such as DepEd’s,
the CHEd’s policies, thrusts of appropriate professional
organizations and advocacies of employer and
industry groups.
3. Good student learning outcomes are very well
understood by both the learners and you, the teachers.
They should be in agreement on the importance of
these competencies which they will cooperatively
develop. Here are the suggested steps that you and
the learners can take together in your cooperative
monitoring of the progress towards the desired student
learning outcomes.
Hooking the learners to the desired learning
outcome
Exploring and experiencing the supporting
learners’ activities
Applying the ideas/knowledge required in
contrived, simulated or real-life situations
Refining, rehearsing, reviewing the target
skills/competencies
Evaluating the degree of learning outcome
performance
Deciding on the action, solution or creative
project to apply the learning outcome
4. Good student learning outcomes include a spectrum
of thinking skills from simple to the higher order of
application of knowledge and skills. Below presents
the range of learning outcomes from simple to complex
under the competency, “ability to understand”.
 a. can identify e. can synthesize stating a problem in explain, infer, not a square.
b. can explain f. can evaluate one’s own words interpret, explain the
c. can apply g. can judge organize, climax of
d. can analyze h. can create paraphrase, Romeo and
summarize Juliet in 3 to 5
sentences.
5. Good student learning outcomes are measurable.
Transitive verbs and/or action words used should allow
APPLYING: using apply, change, prepare a daily
demonstrative and observable behaviors at various what was learned in compute, menu for one
levels. the classroom in demonstrate, week using the
similar new situation discover,
Canva app.
6. Good student learning outcomes are realistic. All execute,
use the
passing learners should be able to demonstrate the implement,
modify, Pythagorean
knowledge/skill described by the learning outcome at theorem to
the conclusion of the course. prepare, show,
solve, use solve distance
problems.
7. Good student learning outcome offer timeline for
completion of the desired learning. Below presents a ANALYZING: analyze, differentiate a
time table monitoring when the student learning separating materials compare, prose and a
outcomes of varying degree of practice are achieved. or concepts into contrast, poetry.
component parts to differentiate,
illustrate how to
understand the draw a
do the 3R’s at
whole diagram,
home.
illustrate,
organize,
outline, select

EVALUATING: conclude, justify the theory

judging the value of criticize, of Charles
an idea, object or defend, Darwin using
material evaluate,
the various
justify, relate,
select, support examples.
defend a
research
proposal

CREATING: combine, design a

Lesson 3 – Classification of Student Learning building a structure compile, landscape
Outcomes or pattern; putting compose, considering all
parts together to devise, design,
its principles
Learning outcomes may be classified into convey a thought generate,
modify, and properties.
three: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. The
organize, plan, generate
discussion below presents these classifications.
produce, revise, important
rearrange components in
Cognitive Domain of Learning. The cognitive domain
involves the development of knowledge and evaluating an
intellectual skills. Presented below summarizes the argumentative
level of Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive essay.
Domain, along with the outcomes verbs that you can
used in your learning outcomes and some illustrative Note: Some verbs can be used for a different level. It
examples. depends on what the outcome demands to fully
classify it to its appropriate level.
Levels of Sample Sample
Cognitive Domain Outcome Learning
Verbs Outcomes Psychomotor Domain of Learning. The psychomotor
(Students will domain focuses on physical and mechanical skills
be able to:) involving coordination of the brain and muscular
REMEMBERING: define, state the activity. The table presented below displays the levels
recall of previously describe, Newton’s Laws of psychomotor domain combining the taxonomies
learned information identify, label, of Motion.
list, match,
built by Simpson, Dave and Harrow.
match the parts
name, recall,
of the sewing Levels of Sample Sample
recognize,
machine and its Cognitive Outcome Verbs Learning
select, state
name. Domain Outcomes
(Students will
UNDERSTANDING: distinguish, distinguish be able to:)
comprehending the classify, among the list OBSERVING: watch, detect, identify non-
meaning, translation compare, of objects that is working the distinguish, verbal
and interpretation of estimate, mental attention differentiate,
a rhombus but communication
instructions, and exemplify, actively to a describe, select,
physical activity relate, identify cues. write
describe how the
tallying of data is VALUING: complete, demonstrate
done. showing demonstrate, resourcefulness
willingness to be describe, in budgeting a
IMITATING: begin, explain, state the perceived as differentiate, dinner for four.
attempting to move, display, processes done valuing or favoring explain, follow,
copy a physical proceed, react, certain ideas form, initiate,
in deboning a
behavior show, state, invite, join,
bangus. justify, perform,
volunteer, initiate
initiate a propose, read,
conversation report, select,
using idiomatic share, study
expressions.
ORGANIZING: adhere, alter, Prepare a list of
PRACTICING: bend, calibrate, perform a arranging values arrange, important
performing a construct, chemical into priorities, combine, practices in
specific activity differentiate, experiment creating a unique compare, maintaining a
repeatedly dismantle, value system by complete, clean and
involving
display, fasten, comparing, relating defend, healthy garden.
fix, grasp, grind, emulsifiers.
and synthesizing explain,
handle, measure, measure the
values generalize,
mix, operate, dimensions of
identify,
manipulate, the classroom.
integrate,
mend modify, order,
organize,
ADAPTING: fine Organize, relax, write the reasons prepare, relate,
tuning of the skill shorten, sketch, why the plants synthesize
and making write, rearrange, did not grow
minor compose, create, INTERNALIZING: act, display credibility
using some
adjustments to design, originate practicing value discriminate, in gathering data
attain perfection fertilizers.
system that display, for statistical
create a new
controls one’s influence, analyses
recipe of cooking
behavior, and also, listen, modify,
chicken
exhibiting behavior perform,
intestines.
that is pervasive, practice,
predictable and propose,
Note: Some verbs can be used for a different level. It characterizes other qualify,
depends on what the outcome demands to fully person’s behavior. question,
classify it to its appropriate level. In some source, revise, serve,
internalizing is solve, use,
equated to verify
characterization
Affective Domain of Learning. The affective domain
emphasizes emotional knowledge. In the table below, Note: Some verbs can be used for a different level. It
the classification scheme for the affective domain depends on what the outcome demands to fully
developed by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia in 1964 is classify it to its appropriate level.
presented.

Levels of Sample Sample

Cognitive Domain Outcome Learning
Verbs Outcomes
(Students will
be able to:)
RECEIVING: being ask, choose, identify the
aware of or describe, values being
attending to follow, give, exhibited in the
something in the hold, identify, story, “Si
environment and locate, name, Pagong at si
being willing to point to, select, Matsing”.
listen or pay sit, reply, use
attention

RESPONDING: answer, assist, present ways to

showing comply, develop
commitment to conform, creativity in
respond in some discuss, greet, recycling
measure to the help, label, garbage.
idea or perform,
phenomenon practice,
present, read,
recite, report,
select, tell,
MODULE 2 – AUNTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
Teachers are not just facilitators in the class;
they are also the most credible persons to assess the
learners. They are tasked to craft assessment
activities which are not one-sided, but will cater all
aspects of the learners’ growth in the class. So, a
teacher should assess learners’ knowledge through
product-oriented and performance-oriented
assessment activities applied in real-life experiences.
Lesson 1 – Meaning, Characteristics, and Phases of
Authentic Assessment
Nowadays, learning goes with modernity. As
time progresses, new batch of more diverse learners
are enrolled in the academe with the aim to holistically
develop. As a result, teachers are challenged to vary,
not just their collection of teaching pedagogies, but for
their assessment strategies as well. This requires
teachers to be equipped with the tasks in assessing
learners holistically.
This lesson gives you principles on how to
conduct contextualized assessment strategies that will
cater the holistic development of your learner. This is
made possible through authentic assessment.
Authentic assessment is defined by many educators
around the globe. However, this module presents two
of those comprehensive definitions.
According to Jon Mueller (2011), “authentic
assessment is a form of assessment in which students
are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate
meaningful application of essential knowledge and
skill…”
According to Grant Wiggings (1987), authentic
assessment presents “…engaging and worthy
problems or questions of importance, in which
students must use knowledge to fashion performances
effectively and creatively. The tasks are either replicas
of or analogous to the kind of problems faced by adult
citizens and consumers or professionals in the field.”
Based on the definitions, you can see that
authentic assessment shifts from teacher-centered
activities to student-centered. You, as teacher, design
activities ad evaluates results which provide
information needed for monitoring your learners’
progress and evaluating your instructional strategies.
Now that you have understood what authentic
assessment is, it is now the right time to realize its
characteristics. The list below presents the
characteristics of authentic assessment (AA).
1. AA starts with clear and definite criteria of
performance made known to the students.
2. AA is criterion-referenced rather than norm-
references and so identifies strengths and weaknesses,
not compare ranks in different levels of performance.
3. AA requires learners to make their own
answers to questions and requires them to use a
range of higher order thinking skills (HOTS).
4. AA often emphasizes performance, so
students are required to demonstrate their knowledge,
skills, or competencies in appropriate situations.
5. AA encourages both teacher and learners to
determine their rate of progress in cooperatively
attaining desired learning outcomes.
6. AA changes the role of students as passive
test takers into active and involved participants in
assessment activities that emphasize what they are
capable of doing.
These characteristics will help you to consider
the necessary elements in crafting authentic
assessments for your learners’ performance and
product outputs.
Aside from considering the effective assessment
strategies for learners’ holistic development, authentic
assessment also aims to improve the teaching-
learning process. So, in this section, you will now learn
the important phases of authentic assessment with
an aim to improve further instruction. Use this figure
below as your guide.
Lesson 2 – Traditional Assessment vs. Authentic
Assessment
In the previous lesson, authentic assessment
was highlighted as a really a good assessment tool
catering the diversity of learners. However, it can’t be
denied that traditional assessment does also has
significant roles in the teaching-learning process. As a
teacher, you should remember when to use these
types of assessment.
Since you have now an idea of the difference
between traditional assessment and authentic
assessment, you can now follow these differences
through these guidelines.
Traditional assessment is commonly associated with
pre-determined choice measures of assessment such
as multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blanks, true-or-false,
matching type and other tasks. Basically, learners
typically recall or select answers. These are some
principles and practices in which in traditional
assessment sprung from:
1. A school’s mission is to develop useful
citizens;
2. To be a useful citizen, one must possess a
certain body of knowledge and skills;
 3. The school is entrusted to teach this body of different assessment tools. Consider these three
knowledge and skills; modes of authentic assessment as basis for evaluation.
4. To determine if the students have acquired • Observations are used to monitor learner’s
these knowledge and skills, the school must test the progress. It includes date and information that you
students on these knowledge and skills. collect from daily work with your learners.
• Performance samples are tangible results
Authentic assessment, on the other hand, is that demonstrate learners’ achievements.
grounded on the following principles and practices: • Actual performances are test and
1. A school’s mission is to develop useful measures of the learners at a specific place and time
citizens; on a certain learning outcome.
2. To be useful citizen, one has to be capable
of performing useful tasks in the real-world; After learning the three modes of authentic
3. The school’s duty is to help students assessment, you will now be oriented on the different
develop proficiency in performing the tasks that they principles and assessment tools that you can utilize for
will be required to perform after graduation in the work each mode.
place;
4. The school must then require students to I. Observation-based Assessment Tools
perform tasks that duplicate or imitate real-world You have to ensure that the observation-
situations. based assessment systematic and objective. To do
this, Hart (2004) suggested the following guidelines:
After learning the difference of traditional and 1. Observe not only one but all the students.
authentic assessment on the general lens, you will 2. Observations must be as frequent and as
now learn how to observe different assessment tasks regular as possible.
in terms of their specific attributes. 3. Observations must be recorded in writing.
4. Observations should cover both routine and
Table 1 – Basic Differences Between Traditional exceptional occurrences.
Assessment and Authentic Assessment 5. Reliability of observation records is
Attributes Traditional Authentic improved if multiple observations are combined.
Assessment Assessment
1. Action / Selecting a Performing a This time, you will learn the types of observation-based
Options response task assessment tool that you can use for observational
2. Setting Contrived / Simulation / assessment activities.
Imagined Real-life
a. Developmental checklist is an observational tool
3. Method Recall / Construction /
Recognition Application which requires you to describe the traits or learning
4. Focus Teacher- Learner-centered being assessed by your learners. When regularly used,
centered it gives a moving picture of your learners’ progress
5. Outcome Indirect evidence Direct evidence towards the desired competencies. Developmental
checklist has two types with an example below.
From these, you can tell that there is no
necessity in choosing between traditional and i. Individual Development Checklist
authentic assessment. Mastery of the lesson is still
encouraged as this serves as groundwork to anchor
assessment activities designed for reflective thinking
and concept application; and this is the focus of
traditional assessment.

Lesson 3 – Authentic Assessment Tools

You have already learned the principles of
authentic assessment and its difference from
traditional assessment. Just like traditional assessment,
authentic assessment does have various forms to
cater diverse skills of learners. If you want learners to
develop competencies as analyzing, interpreting,
synthesizing, and evaluating information, you must
realize those skills in relevant settings. So, you have to
be oriented with the various assessment tools to match ii. Group Development Record Sheet
it with the competences that the learners must possess
at the end of the lesson.

Now that you have understood the principles

of authentic assessment and how to design it for a
specific learning outcome, you will now learn how to
evaluate authentic assessment activities using

b. Interview Sheet is an observational tool which is
also called the conference recording form. It consists
of a list of questions that you intend to ask and space
for recording your learners’ answers. Below shows an
example of interview sheet.
II. Performance Samples Assessment Tools
Performance samples are arranged by the
learners to form a portfolio. A portfolio is a
compilation of pieces of evidences of learner’s skills,
ideas, interests, and accomplishments. It can be a
simple folder of these pieces of evidence, a fancy
scrapbook of learner’s accomplishments, or even a
high-tech laser disk containing stored descriptions and
pictures of the learner’s activities.
The following may be the performance samples
included for a portfolio:
• essays • artwork
• video tapes • group reports
• audio tapes • compact disk
• conference note • field reports
• pictures • journals
• graphics /charts • quizzes
In Module 6, you will be presented with a more
comprehensive discussion on portfolio assessment.
III. Performance Assessment Tools
With the implementation of the Outcome-
Based Education (OBE) across the country, greater
emphasis is given in assessing student outcomes
through real life which requires learners to work and
carry-on tasks to perform and do something.
Assessment in which learners carry out activities or
produce product in demonstrating their meta-cognitive
knowledge, understanding and skills is called
performance-based assessment.
The main objective of performance tasks of the
learners is to capture all the learning targets which
shall be aligned to the teaching and learning objectives,
activities, and assessment. Thus, the focus of
performance-based assessment is the final output that
must be developed or completed. Musial (2009) gives
you the type of performance-based assessment tasks
that you can utilize in your class.
1. Solving a problem – Complex authentic problems or
issues to be solved by learners enhances their
independent thinking to be learners for life, and help
them meet the challenges of the 21st century.
Examples of this include applying mathematical
concepts and solving real-world problems.
2. Completing an inquiry – It asks learners to collect
and present data in order to develop understanding on
the topic. Examples of this include research-based
activities and investigatory projects.
3. Determining a position – This requires learners to
make decisions by clarifying positions. Examples of
this include debate and case analysis.
4. Demonstration task – This task shows how learners
use knowledge and skills to complete well-defined
complex tasks. It enhances accuracy of the learners as
well as careful reasoning concerning the rationale of
the process. Examples of this include cooking
demonstration and using microscope.
5. Developing exhibits – It enhances creativity and
knowledge of the subject as learners present visual
displays of something accompanied by explanation of
its essence. Classroom applications include exhibit of
best works and paintings.
6. Presentation task – As learners perform in front of
the audience, their performing skills were improved.
Examples of this include theatrical plays and
storytelling presentations.
7. Capstone performances – These tasks are
conducted at the end of a program of study which
showcases learners’ knowledge and skills in the
context that matches the world of practicing
professionals. Examples of this include internship
programs and practice teaching.
From the given performance-based activities above,
learners were able to enhance their holistic growth.
Consequently, learners’ achievements through these
activities performed at a specific place and time are
actual learner performance that deserves to be
assessed. In assessing these skills, Dave (1975) and
Harrow (1972) provided taxonomy of psychomotor
domain to evaluate the degree of achievement of a
certain skill that the learners develop.
• Dave’s Psychomotor Domain
Dave’s Psychomotor Domain is the simplest
and easiest domain to apply and assess. Dave’s five
levels of motor skills represent different degrees of
competence in performing a skill. It captures the levels
of competence in the stages of learning from initial
exposure to final mastery. The table below presents
the levels of Dave’s Psychomotor Domain.
Level Definition
Imitate The ability to observe and pattern your
behaviour after someone else. At this level,
learners simply copy someone else or
replicate someone’s actions following
observations.
Manipulate The ability to perform certain actions by
memory or following instructions. At this
level, learners can perform a task from
written or verbal instructions.
Precision The ability to perform certain actions with
some level of expertise and without help or
intervention from others. At this level,
learners are able to perform a skill with a
high degree of precision and accuracy, and
with few errors.
Articulation The ability to adapt and integrate multiple
actions to develop methods to meet varying
and novel requirement. At this level,
learners’ skills are so well developed that
you can modify movement to fit special
requirements or meet a problem situation.
Naturalization The ability to perform actions in an
automatic, intuitive, or unconscious way. At
this level, learners’ performance is
automatic with little physical or mental
exertion. Learners’ performance has
become second-nature or natural, without
needing to think much of it.

• Harrow’s Psychomotor Domain

One of the most frequently used and the very
basic instrument is the checklist. A performance
checklist consists of list of behaviors that make up a
certain type of performance (e.g., using microscope,
preparing a letter, solving mathematical problems, etc.).
It is used to determine whether or not an individual
behaves in a certain way when asked to complete a
particular activity. You will check a particular behavior
to signify its attainment. Below presents a sample
checklist.

This is one of the many tools that you can

utilize for performance-based assessment. In Module 3
and Module 4, you will be presented the types of
performance-based assessment (process-based and
product-base) and how to design and evaluate these.
MODULE 3 – PROCESS ORIENTED
PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT
Lesson 1 – Process Oriented Learning Competencies
It is important to assess students’ learning not
only through their outputs or products but also the
processes which the students underwent in order to
arrive at these products or outputs.
Learning entails not only what students know
but what they can do with what they know. It involves
knowledge, abilities, values, attitudes and habits of
mind that affect academic success and performance
beyond the classroom.
Competencies are defined as groups or
clusters of skills and abilities needed for a particular
task. The objectives focus on the behaviors which
exemplify “best practice” for the particular task. Such
behavior ranges from a “beginner” or novice level up to
the level of expert.
Example of a process-oriented learning competencies
are:
1. Create a brochure in order to spread
awareness about Covid19 virus and its disease.
2. Deliver a persuasive speech before a class.
In creating a brochure, the students have to
develop skills on gathering data or researching,
manage the data to be included in the brochure,
writing skills, skills in design and layout. Also, this is a
group work so they will also develop their collaboration
skills, communication skills and technology skills which
are the 21st skills needed by the students in the 21st
century education.
In delivering a persuasive speech before a
class, students will be developing skills on using
appropriate voice quality, skill in hand gestures,
establishing rapport with the audience, facial
expression, skills in pronunciation and proper diction.
Lesson 2 – Tasks Designing
When designing a task, see to it that what you
are trying to target are the competencies that you set
at the beginning of the lesson through an activity.
Using Taskonomy, you will have to identify
what task will be given to your learners. If it is a group
work activity, determine the tasks and distribute to the
members of each group.
For example, the activity that you want your
students to do is to create a brochure as your learning
competency. You need to identify the researchers of
the group who will take charge of the relevant and
correct information to be included in the brochure, a
writer who will be writing articles for the brochure, a lay
out artist for the proper placement of written article,
and a designer for color blending and proper
placement of articles and graphics.
Each task should be given instruction on what
to do and what output to contribute to the group for the
creating of the final output. This is what we called
“Scaffolding”. Learners will be properly guided if we
give them correct Scaffolds that they can use as guide
in the process of creating the output.
Task designing should be connected with your
learning competencies that you want to evaluate and
develop for your learners. This is to see to it that each
learner will become an active member of the group,
will develop accountability and responsibility through
the given task. This will also ensure proper monitoring
of progress of the learners.
Lesson 3 – Scoring Rubrics
Assessment purposes
• Gauge student needs
• Encouraging collaboration and self-direction
• Monitoring progress
• Checking understanding and encouraging
metacognition
• Demonstrating understanding
What is Formative assessment?
The kind of assessment that occurs before
and during a unit of study is called formative
assessment, because it helps to form an
understanding of learning that is in progress.
When do I use formative assessment?
Formative assessment is part of learning and
can be embedded during classroom work. You
probably already do formative assessment, but many
not realize it.it includes, for example, observing
students, having students share their work, or
reviewing student work. Formative assessment may be
done by teachers as well as students for themselves
and their peers.
Using Rubrics as a tool for formative assessment:
A rubric is a versatile and flexible instrument
that can support assessment for all purposes and can
be used with many different methods.
BENEFITS OF RUBRICS:
1. Rubrics can be used for both formative and
summative assessment.
- students can use rubric as they work on a
product or performance to help the assess their work,
and a teacher can use the same rubric to make a final
assessment or grade. Rubrics of 21st century skills can
help students think about their learning processes
while they work projects in order to reflect and set
goals.
2. Other kinds of instruments can be developed
from rubrics.
- Checklist can be expanded into rubrics, and
the highest level of a rubric can often be made into a
checklist. Rubrics can also be modified into scoring
guides to assign points on grades to final products and
performances.
 participate participate participate not wasted
3. Students can use rubrics throughout a project fully and d most of d but time, or
was the time wasted worked on
or unit for self and peer-assessment always on and was time unrelated
- Rubrics give students the language and task in a on task regularly or material.
concrete descriptions they need to assess their own group. most of was rarely
products, performances and processes and to give the time. on task.
Leadership Group Group Group Group
feedback to peers. member member member member did
assumed sometime usually not assume
4. Rubrics can make instruction more effective. leadership s allowed leadership
- Rubrics set out the learning expectations for in an assumed others to or assume it
appropriat leadership assume in a non-
a unit and can be used to plan instruction in 21st e way in an leadership productive
century skills. Modelling the behaviors describe in the when appropriat alternativel manner.
highest level of a rubric gives students concrete necessary e way. y, or often
examples of a skill, and helps them to self-assess their by helping dominated
the group the group.
skills and give their peers good feedback. stay on
track,
Process-oriented assessment is done before, encouragi
during, and after of a particular activity, which we ng group
participatio
called assessment timeline. Let’s take a look in the n, posing
brochure making activity, the students will have to start solutions
brainstorming about the articles, writings, photos, to
layout that they are going to make and include in the problems,
and having
brochure. a positive
attitude,
Listening Group Group Group Group
First, is the brainstorming part you can start using peer member member member member did
listened usually sometimes not listen to
and self-assessment which are considered carefully to listened to did not others and
assessments before the conduct of an activity. others’ others’ listen to often
ideas. ideas. others’ interrupted
Checklist for Small Group Activity to be used as a peer ideas. them.
Feedback Group Group Group Group
assessment tool member member member member did
Criteria Observed Not Observed offered offered occasionall not offer
Shared relevant detailed, constructi y offered constructive
information during constructiv ve constructiv or useful
e feedback feedback e feedback.
small group when when feedback,
sharing. appropriat appropriat but
Helped the group e. e. sometimes
develop good the
comments
ideas for the were
brochure. inappropria
Gave helpful te or not
useful.
suggestions
Cooperatio Group Group Group Group
regarding the n member member member member did
making of the treated usually often did not
brochure. others completed not complete
respectfull assigned complete most of the
Accepted y and tasks on assigned assigned
suggestions from shared the time and tasks on tasks on
others. workload did not time, and time and
Listened carefully fairly. hold up held up often forced
progress completion the group to
to other group on the of project make last
members during projects work. minute
brainstorming because adjustments
activity. of and
incomplet changes to
e work. accommoda
te missing
Second, is during the making of an activity that is the work.
next part of assessment timeline, you can assess the
students per group through a peer collaboration rubric
to monitor their progress. Summary of the Peer Assessment Collaboration
Rubric
Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric Group Particip Lead Listeni Fee Cooper Time
Criteria / 4 3 2 1 memb a-tion er- ng d- a-tion managem
Performan Excellent Very Satisfactor Needs er ship bac ent
ce Level Satisfacto y Improve- k
ry ment
Participatio Group Group Group Group
n member member member member did
Third, is after the activity has been done, you have
assess the output of the students or the group. This is
the last part of an assessment timeline.

Example of Rubrics for the Brochure as an activity for

process-oriented learning.

Brochure Grading Rubric

CATEGO 5 4 3 2 1
RY
Attractive The The The The The
ness & brochure brochure brochure brochure brochure
Organizati has has has has has no
exception attractive some limited formattin
on ally formattin formattin formatting g and
attractive g and g and and organizat
formattin well- organize organizati ion of
g and organize d of on of material.
well- d informati informatio
organize informati on. n.
d on.
informati
on.
Content- Use of Use of Use of Use of Use of
Accuracy facts and facts and facts and facts and facts and
/ Quantity the quantity quantity quantity of quantity
quantity of of informatio of
of informati informati n about informati
informati on about on about the aims on about
on about the aims the aims and goals the aims
the aims and and of and
and goals of goals of mathemati goals of
goals of mathema mathema cs mathema
mathema tics tics education tics
tics educatio educatio is present educatio
educatio n in very n is good but n is
n is good. buy not limited. limited.
exception consisten
al. t.
Writing Brochure Brochure Brochure Brochure Brochure
Organizati has has very has good has has no
on exception good organizat limited organizat
al organizat ion. organizati ion.
organizat ion. on.
ion.
Writing There There There There are Grammat
Grammar are no are very are some several ical
grammati few grammati grammatic mistakes
cal grammati cal al are so
mistakes cal mistakes mistakes numerou
in the mistakes in the in the s that the
brochure. in the brochure. brochure. readabilit
brochure. y of the
brochure
is
impaired.
Graphics / Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics Graphics
Pictures go well go well go well do not go not
with the with the with the with the present
text and text, but text, but accompan in the
there is a there are there are ying text brochure.
good mix so many too few or appear
of text that they and the to be
and distract brochure randomly
graphics. from the seems chosen.
text. “text-
heavy”.
Sources Careful Careful Careful Sources Sources
and and and are not are not
accurate accurate accurate document documen
records records records ed ted
are kept are kept are kept accurately accuratel
to to to or are not y or are
documen documen documen kept on not kept
t the t the t the many on any
source of source of source of facts and facts and
all of the most of some of graphics. graphics.
facts and the facts the facts
graphics and and
in the graphics graphics
brochure. in the in the
brochure. brochure.
MODULE 4 – PRODUCT-ORIENTED
PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT
Product-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment.
Product-oriented performance-based assessment or
Product–oriented assessment is a form of assessment
that requires students to perform a task rather than
answer questions from a ready-made list. It is also a
form of assessment that measures students' ability to
apply the skills and knowledge learned from a unit or
units of study. In this module you will be able to
understand the meaning ang importance of product-
oriented -based assessment and you are to also
create a task design and a product assessment
scoring rubric.
Lesson 1 – Product-Oriented Learning Competencies
Performance assessments are very effective
for measuring the process and products involved
with student achievement. Also referred to as
authentic assessment or alternative assessment.
Performance-based tasks require performance-
based assessments in which the actual student
performance is assessed through a product, such as
a completed project or work that demonstrates levels
of task achievement.
Product-Oriented Assessment
A product refers to something produced by
students providing concrete examples of the
application of knowledge.
A product is the output/outcome in performing
a task which is concrete or real and can be
assessed.
Performance assessment of process and
product refers to the on-the-spot evaluation of
performance behavior of the student to determine his
interest and willingness to perform the task. The
quality of the product depends on the performance of
the student to perform. Student products provide
tangible indicators of the application of knowledge
and skills. Many educators believe that product
assessment is especially” authentic” because it
closely resembles the real work outside of school.
Learning Competencies
- Target tasks can also include behavior
expectations targeting complex tasks that students
are expected to achieve.
- Products can include a wide range of student
works that target specific.
There are ways to state product-oriented assessment
competencies:
(Beginner). Does the finished product illustrate
the minimum expected parts?
(Skilled level). Does the finished product or
project contain additional parts and function
on top of the minimum requirements which
tend to enhance the final output?
(Expert level). Does the finished product
contain basic minimum parts and function,
have additional features on top of the
minimum and is aesthetical pleasing?
Lesson 2 – Task Designing
Performance assessment of product refers to
the on- the-spot evaluation of performance behavior of
the student to determine his interest and willingness to
perform the task. The quality of the product depends
on the performance of the student to perform. Student
products provide tangible indicators of the application
of knowledge and skills. Many educators believe that
product assessment is especially” authentic” because
it closely resembles the real work outside of school.
Task Designing
The design of the task in this context depends on what
the teacher desires to observe as outputs of the
student.
- Complexity- within the range of ability of the
students.
- Appeal- interesting enough so that students
are encouraged to pursue the task to completion.
- Creativity- lead the students into exploring
the various possible ways of presenting the final
outcome.
- Goal- Based-project is produced in order to
attain a learning objective.
Suggestions for Designing Performance Tasks
Linn (1995) suggested ways to improve the
development of task:
1. Focus on learning outcomes that require
complex cognitive skills and students’ performances.
2. Select or develop tasks that represent both
the content and the skills that are central to important
learning outcomes.
3. Minimize the dependence of task
performance on skills that are irrelevant to the
intended purpose of the assessment task.
4. Provide the necessary scaffolding for
students to be able to understand the task and what is
expected.
5. Construct task direction so that the student's
task is clearly indicated.
Clearly communicate performance expectations in
term of the scoring rubrics by which the performance
will be judged.
Lesson 3 – Scoring Rubrics
A rubric is an authentic assessment tool which is
particularly useful in assessing criteria which are
complex and subjective. Rubrics can improve student
performance, as well as monitor it, by making
teachers' expectations clear and by showing students
how to meet these expectations.
Rubrics are said to be an authentic
assessment tool. They are most helpful when used to
evaluate real-life tasks where students are engaged in
solving real-life problems. They are a formative type of
assessment because they are used before, during, 2 - The student is able to (description of what
and after the learning process. basic performance would look like) but not yet able to
(description of proficient performance).
Advantages of the Use of Rubrics 1 - The student is unable to (description of
- Make expectations clear desired performance).
- Help students judge own work
- Reduce time spent evaluating
- Easy to use and explain
- Make scoring fair and consistent

Types of Rubrics
Holistic Rubrics
Holistic rubrics ask the evaluator to make a
single judgment about the object or behavior being
evaluated. If you are using a 4-point holistic rubric to
evaluate students’ oral presentations, you indicate
whether the presentation is a 1, 2, 3, or 4 based on the
level at which it meets the described criteria. This is a
quick way to provide an overall evaluation of the
presentation. Table 1 presents an example of this type
of rubric.

Analytic Rubrics
Analytic rubrics are used to assess multiple
outcomes simultaneously or for multidimensional
outcomes and each dimension needs to be rated
separately, resulting in multiple judgments about an
object or performance. The analytic rubric describes
the criteria for each of the judgments. Analytic rubrics
provide more useable data than holistic rubrics
because the criteria provide strengths and
weaknesses and describe the performance at each
level in more detail, thus providing more information on
what is lacking in the poorer performance. Table 2 is
an example of an analytical rubric.

Steps in Writing Rubrics

1. Set the Scale
Select a learning outcome from your academic
program. Use your professional judgment to assess
student learning on a scale of 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, or 1-X that
is appropriate for evaluating the performance.

2. Define the Ratings

Add appropriate descriptors to each number
on the scale that you have identified.
4 = Advanced;
3 = Proficient;
2 = Basic;
1 = Beginning

3. Identify basic descriptions

Add simple descriptions for each number on
the scale.
4 – Advanced ability to ;
3 – Proficient ability to ;
2 – Basic ability to ;
1 – No ability to .

4. Descriptions of what performance will look like at

each level
4 - The student is able to (description of what
advanced performance would look like).
3 – The student is able to (description of what
proficient performance would look like) but not yet able
to (description of advanced performance).
MODULE 5 - ASSESSMENT IN THE AFFECTIVE exercise greater control.
DOMAIN Characterization Internalization has Student
by Value taken place in an applies the
Lesson 1 - The Taxonomy in the Affective Domain individual’s value lessons
hierarchy to the extent learned in
that he or she can be mathematics
In 1964, David R. Krathwohl, together with his characterized as in daily
colleagues, extended Bloom’s Taxonomy of holding a particular activities/real-
Educational Objectives by publishing the second value or set of values. life scenario.
taxonomy of objectives, this time giving emphasis on
the affective domain. The affective domain refers to Moreover, given below are the sample behavioral
the way in which we deal with situations emotionally verbs appropriate for the affective domain.
such as feelings, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation, Category / Level Behavioral Verbs
values, and attitudes. Receiving attend, accept, develop, recognize
Responding complete, comply, cooperate,
discuss, examine, obey, respond
Valuing accept, defend, devote, pursue,
The categories/levels, definition, and example are seek
given as follow: Organization codify, discriminate, display, order,
organize, systematize, weigh
Category / Characterization by a internalize, verify
Level Value
Definition Example

Receiving Concerned with Student does If we are desirous to apply the continuum of
student’s sensitivity to mathematics Krathwohl et.al to our teaching, then we are
the existence of certain activities for encouraging students to not just receive information at
phenomena and stimuli, grade. the bottom of the affective hierarchy, instead, as
that is, with student’s teachers, we would like them to respond to what they
willingness to receive or
learn, to value it, to organize it, and even to
to attend to the stimuli.
characterize it.
It is categorized in 3 The affective domain is the least studies and
subdivision that shows most often overlooked domain in educational literature
the different levels of despite the fact that almost every researcher or author
attending the begins with a premise on the importance of the
phenomena: affective domain in the teaching-learning process. The
1. Awareness of the reson, perhaps, is the fact that affective domain is the
phenomena most nebulous and the hardest to evaluate among
2. Willingness to
Bloom’s three domains. Traditional assessment
receive the
phenomena procedures, for instance, concentrate on the cognitive
3. Controlled or aspects of learning and as teachers majority of us
selected attention typically focus our efforts on the development of tasks
to phenomena and instruments for measuring cognitive learning.
Responding Concerned with Student gives However, it is important to realize that by tapping the
responses that go special potentials of the affective domain in enhancing
beyond merely attention to learning, we increase the likelihood of real and
attending to the discussion authentic learning among our students.
phenomena. Students of Similarly, students may experience affective
are sufficiently mathematics
motivated that they are lesson to be
roadblocks to learning that can neither be recognized
not just “willing to able to answer nor solved with using a purely cognitive approach.
attend” but are actively the activities.
attending
Valuing Reflects the student’s Student Lesson 2 - Affective Learning Competencies
holding of a particular actively and Affective desired learning competencies are often
importance or value. consistently stated in the form of instructional objectives.
Students display participated in • Instructional objectives are specific, measurable,
behavior with sufficient the shortterm, observable student behaviors.
consistency in discussion.
• Objectives are the foundation upon which you can
appropriate situations
that are perceived as build lessons and assessments that you can prove
holding this value. meet your overall course or lesson goals.
Organizing Students successively Student • Think of objectives as tools you use to make sure you
internalize values; they integrates the reach your goals. They are the arrows you shoot
encounter situations in lessons towards your target (goal).
which more than one learned in • The purpose of objectives is not to restrict
value is relevant. This math with spontaneity or constraint the vision of education in the
requires the necessity science. discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly
of organizing their enough that both students and teacher know what is
values into a system
such that certain values
going on, and so learning can be objectively measured.
Different archers have different styles, so do different • The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more
teachers. Thus, you can shoot your arrows (objectives) individuality, humanness and psychological health a
in many ways. The important thing is that they reach person will show.
your target (goals) score the bulls eye!

• In the affective domain, and in particular, when we

consider learning competencies, we also consider the
following concepts:

• Attitudes- are defined as a mental predisposition to

act that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity
with some degree of favor or disfavor. Individuals
generally have attitudes that focus on objects, people,
or institutions. Attitudes are also attached to mental
categories. Mental orientations towards concepts are
generally referred to as values. Attitudes are The Two-Factor Theory by Frederick Herzberg. One
comprised of four components: of the theories that explain human motivation. He
stated that certain factors in the workplace result in job
• satisfaction while others do not, but if absent lead to
Cognition Affect Behavioral Evaluation dissatisfaction. He distinguished between:
Intentions • Motivators (challenging work, recognition,
responsibility- positive satisfaction
- beliefs, - refers to - refers to - central • Hygiene factors (status, job security, salary
theories, our feelings goals, component
and fringe benefits) which do not motivate if present,
expectancies, With aspirations, of attitudes.
cause and respect And our but if absent will result in demotivation.
effect beliefs, to the focal expected - consists of
and object such response to the The ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness, and
perceptions as fear, the attitude imputation of Growth) by Clayton Alderfer. He expanded the
relative to the liking, or object. Some Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
focal object. anger. degree of
goodness
- not the same or badness
as “feelings” to an
attitude
object.

- function of
cognitive,
affect and
behavioral
intentions of
the object.

Why study attitudes? Self-efficacy. An impression that one is capable of

• Can influence the way we act and think in the social
communities.
• Can function as frameworks and references for
forming conclusions and interpreting or acting for or
against an individual.
Motivation. A reason or set of reasons for engaging in
a particular behavior, especially human behavior as
studied in psychology and neuropsychology. According
to Geen (1995), motivation refers to the initiation,
direction, intensity, and persistence of human behavior.
The Need Theory (Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of
Human Needs). One of the theories that explain
human motivation. It can be summarized as follows:
• Human beings have wants and desires which
influence their behavior; only unsatisfied needs can
influence behavior, satisfied needs cannot.
• Arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the
complex.
• The person advances to the next level of needs only
after the lower need is at least minimally satisfied.
performing in a certain manner or attaining certain
goals. It is a belief that one has the capabilities to
execute the courses of actions required to manage
prospective situations.
Affective Traits and Learning Targets
The word affective refers to a variety of traits and
dispositions that are different from knowledge,
reasoning, and skills. This term means the emotions or
feelings that one has toward someone or something.
Shown in the table below are the different affective
traits and its corresponding description:
Trait Description
Attitudes Predisposition to respond favorably
or unfavorably to specific situations,
concepts, objects, institutions, or
persons
Interests Personal preference for certain kinds
of activities
Values Importance, worth, or usefulness of
modes or conduct and end states of
existence
Opinions Beliefs about specific occurrences
and situations
Preferences Desire to select one object over
another
Motivation Desire and willingness to be engaged
in behavior including intensity of
involvement
Academic self- Self-perception of competence in
concept school and learning
Self-esteem Attitudes toward oneself; degree of
self-respect, worthiness,
desirability of self-concept
Locus of control Self-perception of whether success
and failure is controlled by the
student or by external influences
Emotional Growth, change, and awareness of
development emotions and ability to regulate
emotional expression
Altruism Willingness and propensity to help
others
Moral development Attainment of ethical principles that
guide decision
making and behavior tasks assigned to them into logically sequenced steps
Classroom Nature of feeling tones and
development interpersonal relationship in a class
Lesson 3 - Development of Affective Assessment
Tools
Assessment tools in the affective domain, in
particular, those which are used to assess attitudes,
interests, motivations, and self
efficacy, have been
developed.
Three feasible methods of assessing affective traits
and dispositions:
1. teacher observation
2. student self-report
3. peer ratings
Three considerations in assessing affect:
1. Emotions and feelings change quickly
most especially for young children and
during early adolescence.
2. Use varied approaches in measuring the
same affective trait as possible.
3. Decide what type of data or results are
needed: individual or group data.
Teacher Observation
This is often used when the teacher wants to
observe the approach behaviors (positive) and
avoidance behaviors (negative). There are two types
of this kind of observation: the unstructured and
structured observation.
• Unstructured observation- normally open-
ended, no checklists or rating scale is used. Everything
that is observed is just simply recorded.
• Structured observation- checklist or rating
forms are to be made since it will be used to record
observations.
Student self-report
• Student interview- there is an opportunity
that teachers may have direct involvement with the
students wherein teachers can probe and respond for
better understanding.
• Surveys and questionnaires- there are two
types of using survey and questionnaires: the
constructed response, in
which it I straightforward approach asking the students
about their affect by responding to simple statement of
question; the selected-response, in which students
can choose from options and this assures anonymity.
Peer ratings
• Least common method in assessing affect because
or students may not take this seriously. However, the
teachers can accurately observed what is being
assessed in peer ratings since teachers also engage
with the students.
Sample of Affective Assessment Tools
a. Checklists
- contain criteria that focus on the intended
outcome or target. It helps students in organizing the
rhat will lead to successful completion of the task.
Sample Observation Checklist
Name: Subject: Date:
Type of Assignment
Not Yet Sometimes Frequently
Gets work done on time
Organizes work
Works well with others
Comments:
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
b. Rating Scale
- helps students understand the learning
target/outcomes and to focus students’ attention to
performance. It gives feedback to students as far as
their strengths and weaknesses with respect to the
targets to which they are measured. Students not only
learn the standards but also may internalize the set
standards. In addition, ratings help to show each
student’s growth and progress.
Sample Rating Scale
Directions: Put the score on the column for each of the
statement as it applies to you. Use 1 to 5, 1 being the
lowest and 5 the highest possible score.
SCORE
1. I am happy during Mathematics class.
2. I get tired doing board work and drills.
3. I enjoy solving word problems.
c. Likert Scale
- It is a list of clearly favorable and unfavorable
attitude statements. The students are tasked to
respond to each of the statement that usually uses a
five-point scale: Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided,
Disagree, Strongly Disagree.
Sample of Likert Scale
Direction: Put a check on the column for each of the
statement that applies to you.
Legend:
Strongly Agree (SA)
Agree (A)
 Undecided (U)
Disagree (D)
Strongly Disagree (SD)
(SA) (A) (U) (D) (SD)
5 4 3 2 1
1. I am happy during
Mathematics class.
2. I get tired doing board work
and drills.

d. Semantic Differential Scale

- This uses adjective pairs that provide
anchors for feelings or beliefs that are opposite in
direction and intensity. Students would place a check
between each pair of adjectives that describes positive
or negative aspects of the trait.

Sample of Semantic Differential Scale

Traits/attitude toward Mathematics subject

Boring 1 2 3 4 5 Interesting
Useless Important

e. Sentence Completion
- It captures whatever comes to mind from
each student.

Sample of Sentence Completion

1. I think Mathematics as a subject is
________________________________________

2. I like my Mathematics teacher the most because

________________________________________

MODULE 5 SUMMARY
• Positive affective traits influence motivation,
involvement, and cognitive learning.
• The term affect refers to emotions and feelings, yet
affective targets include cognitive and behavioral traits.
• Attitudes refer to predispositions to respond favorably
or unfavorably. They include cognitive, affective, and
behavioral components.
• Motivation is the purposeful commitment to learn.
• Motivation is determined by self-efficacy and the
value of learning.
• The affective domain of Bloom’s taxonomy defines
different levels of affect in hierarchical manner, from
attending to something to using something as a factor
in determining one’s life.
• The three methods to assess student affect are:
teacher observation, student self-report, and peer
ratings.
• Students affect can be measured through checklist,
rating scale, likert scale, semantic differential scale,
and sentence completion..
• A holistic approach is required so as to have a
meaningful evaluation of student learning.
MODULE 6 - PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
Lesson 1 - Features and Principles & Purposes of
Portfolio Assessment
As students you need to be aware on how to
come up with a meaningful portfolio because this can
be an additive factor to improve your knowledge in
your subject. Your portfolio becomes an avenue to
look into how you grow with the evidences that you
included in your portfolio.
Below you can find the features and principles
as well as the purposes of portfolio assessment. In that
manner you as students you can have a chance of
improving your performance ahead of you.
Features and Principles of Portfolio Assessment
- A portfolio is a form of assessment that students do
together with their teachers.
- A portfolio represents a selection of what the
students believe are best included from among the
possible collection of things related to the concept
being studied.
- A portfolio provides samples of the student’s work
which show growth over time.
- The criteria for selecting and assessing the portfolio
contents must be clear to the teacher and the students
at the outset of the process.
Purposes of Portfolio Assessment
First, portfolio assessment matches
assessment to teaching.
Second, portfolio assessment has clear goals.
Third, portfolio assessment gives a profile of
learners’ abilities in terms of depth, breadth, and
growth.
Fourth, portfolio assessment is a tool for
assessing a variety of skills not normally testable in a
single setting for traditional testing.
Fifth, portfolio assessment develops
awareness of students’ own learning.
Sixth, portfolio assessment caters to
individuals in a heterogeneous class.
Seventh, portfolio assessment develops social
skills. Students interact with other students in the
development of their own portfolios.
Eighth, portfolio assessment develops
independent and active learners.
Ninth, portfolio assessment can improve
motivation for learning and thus achievement.
Tenth, portfolio assessment provides
opportunity for student-teacher dialogue.
Lesson 2 - Essential Elements & Types of Portfolio
Just like preparing for school,before you shall
present the contents of your portfolio you need to
provide preliminaries which give a package of what
your portfolio is all about. These are essential
elements you need to provide so that the readers will
have a picture of your output. You shall find below the
6 essential elements of a portfolio.
Essential Elements of Portfolio
1. Drafts of aural/oral and written products and
revised versions; I.e., first drafts and
corrected/revised versions
2. Dates on all entries, to facilitate proof of growth
over time
3. Reflections can appear at different stages in the
learning process (for formative and/or summative
purposes)
4. Table of Contents with numbered pages
5. Entries - both core (items student have to include)
and optional (items of student’s choice)
6. Cover Letter “About the author” and “What my
portfolio shows about my progress as a learner”
Types of Portfolios
1. Documentation Portfolio - As the name implies,
this approach involves a collection of work
over time showing growth and improvement
reflecting students’ learning of identified.
2. Process Portfolio - The process portfolio in
contrast demonstrates all facets or phases of
the learning process.
3. Showcase Portfolio - The showcase portfolio only
shows the best of the students’ outputs and
products.
Lesson 3 - Stages in Implementing Portfolio
Assessment
Implementing Portfolio assessment needs to
follow the 6 stages.The concept should be clear to you.
Through this you shall determine the traditional from
portfolio assessment . This kind of assessment is fair .
You should also know how much weight this portfolio
will have in the computation of your final grade. You
can present as many evidence of learning as you can
since you can be left at your own.Take a look at the
stages and discover the sequence to develop your
own portfolio.
Lesson 4 - Assessing and Evaluating the Portfolios

This is the detailed criteria in evaluating a portfolio:

- Thoughtfulness ( including evidence of students’
monitoring of their own comprehension, metacognitive
reflection, and productive habits of mind)
- Growth and development in relation to key curriculum
expectancies and indicators
- Understanding and application of key processes
- Completeness, correctness, and appropriateness of
products and processes in the portfolio
- Diversity of entries ( e.g. use of multiple formats to
demonstrate achievement of designated performance
standard)

Lesson 5 - Student-Teacher Conferences

It takes courage to submit ourselves for a

conference with our teacher But we have to do this.

The main philosophy embedded in portfolio

assessment is “shared and active assessment”.

The teacher should have short and individual

meeting with each student to discuss the progress and
goals set for a future meeting. The student and the
teacher keep careful documentation of the meetings
noting the significant agreements and findings in each
individual session. The formative evaluation process
for portfolio assessment is facilitated. Indeed, the use
of portfolio assessment takes time but in the formative
evaluation worth the time and effort presented
expended by the teacher.

Finally, student-teacher conference can also

be used for summative evaluation purposes when the
students presents his final portfolio product and where
final are determined together with the teacher. Even
at this grades are determined together with the teacher.
Even at this stage of the process students can
negotiate for the appropriate grade to be given using
as evidence the minutes of the regular student-teacher
conferences. It is for this reason that notes from this
conference have to be included in the portfolio as they
contain joint decisions about the individual’s strengths
and weaknesses.
MODULE 7 - GRADING AND REPORTING SYSTEM Name Type of code used
Letter grades A, B, C, etc., Also “+” and “–” may be
Lesson 1 - Functions and Types of Grading and added
Reporting System Number of a Integers (5, 4, 3, ...) or percentage (99,
percentage grade 98, ...)
Grading is the process of judging the quality of the Two-category Pass-Fail; Satisfactory-Unsatisfactory;
grade Credit-Entry; Competent-Not
performance of a student. Nonetheless, the grade is
Competent
the symbol used to represent the achievement or
Checklist and Checks next to objectives mastered or
progress of a student. rating scales numerical ratings of the degree of
Grading and reporting the progress of the mastery
students are two of the most challenging tasks of Narrative Report None; may refer to one or more of the
teachers because there are so many factors and above but usually not to numeric
decisions to be considered. Teachers find this task grades
demanding because (1) they have insufficient, formal
instruction in grading; (2) they have to make a
judgment based on incomplete evidence; (3) they have Lesson 2 - Development of a Grading and Reporting
conflicting classroom roles; and (4) there is no single System
universally accepted grading system. According to
Erickson and Strommer (1999, cited by Gabuyo & Dy, Development of a Grading and Reporting System
2013), grading and reporting systems are used to: The grading and reporting system needs to be:
▪ based on clear statement of learning objectives
▪ Communicate the achievement of the students ▪ supportive of the school standards rather than
▪ Provide students information to improve their self- opposing the school standards already set
evaluation ▪ based on adequate assessment, hence, verifiable
▪ Provide incentives for students to learn through adequate systems of testing, measurement
▪ Select or group students from certain educational and assessment methods
path or progress ▪ detailed enough to be diagnostic but compact
▪ Evaluate the effectiveness of the program enough to be practical
▪ Inform the teacher about what students have and not ▪ able to provide for parent-teacher conferences as
learned. needed
▪ Motivate and encourage good work.
Commonly found components of student’s grades:
Nonetheless, these functions may be summarized into ▪ Periodic test
three: ▪ Quiz
➢ Enhancing student’s learning ▪ Unit test
- enhancing students’ motivation ▪ Participation/performance
- indicating where teaching might be modified ▪ Project/output
➢ Reports to parents/guardians ▪ Assignment
- inform parents and guardians of students on ▪ Behavior
the progress of their wards
➢ Administrative and guidance uses Methods of Computing Final Grade
- helping to decide promotion, graduation, There are two conventional methods of computing the
honors, athletic eligibility final grades: the averaging method and the cumulative
- reporting achievements to other schools or to method. The computation of the final grade will depend
employers on the grading policy of the school or college and
- providing input for realistic educational, universities.
vocational and personal counseling
In the averaging method, the weights of the grade in
Different schools have different grading and each grading period are equal. The formula is:
reporting systems. They are designed to serve many
purposes in the educational system. Linn (2009, cited
by Gabuyo & Dy, 2013) indicated that the purposes of
grading and reporting system are to be used for
instruction, to report to parents/guardians, and for
administrative and guidance uses.
Example: Benjamin’s grade in Mathematics IV is
As stated earlier, grading systems of different schools shown below. Find the final grade.
Subject First Second Third Fourth
vary. So as the reporting systems. No single way of Grading Grading Grading Grading Final
reporting the students’ achievement is available. This Grade Grade Grade Grade Grade
depends on the policies and guidelines imposed by Math IV 89 92 94 96 ?
institutions and government agencies’ mandates.
These can be numbers, percentages, letter grade Solution
equivalents, and descriptions. Nonetheless, these
grades are then communicated to parents through a
parent-teacher conference.
 grade needed to pass a specific learning area is 60
(percentage score), which is then transmuted to 75
in the report card. The lowest mark that can appear on
the report card for Quarterly Grades and Final Grades
is 60.

To record and compute the learner’s progress, these

Final Grade = 92.75
series of steps are done:
1. Add the grades from all learner’s work. This will
On the other hand, in the cumulative method, thefinal
result in the total score for each component.
grade gives a higher weight on the present grade than
in the previous grade. The percentage of the present 2. Divide the total raw score by the highest possible
and previous grade will depend on the policy of the score, then multiply the quotient by 100%. This will
result in a Percentage Score.
school, most notably in the private schools, as defined
3. Convert Percentage Scores to Weighted Score.
by the manual of private schools or as their grading
Multiply the Percentage Score by the weight of the
policies. An example of a cumulative method is when
component indicated in the tables below.
the final grade can be obtained by multiplying a certain
percentage (usually 70%) to the current (tentative) 4. Add the Weighted Scores of each component. The
grade, while 30% is to be multiplied to the previous result will be the Initial Grade.
5. Transmute the Initial Grade using the given
grade, then add the products.
Transmutation Table in Appendix B of DepEd Order
No. 8, s. 2015.
Example:
What is Liana’s final grade in PE if her previous grade
is 85, and her present grade is 89? Weights of the components for Grades 1 to 10 are the
given below:
Components
Solution Subjects Written Performance Quarterly
Work Tasks Assessment
Languages
Araling
Panlipunan 30% 50% 20%
Policy Guidelines on Classroom Assessment for Edukasyon sa
the K to 12 Basic Education Program (DepEd Order Pagpapahalaga
No. 8, s. 2015) Science
This stipulated that there are three Math 40% 40% 20%
components of summative assessment, namely: MAPEH
Written Works, Performance Tasks, and Quarterly EPP / TLE 20% 60% 20%
Assessment.

Written Works - This component ensures that Meanwhile, the Senior High School has the following
students are able to express learned skills and distribution of weights for each component:
concepts in written form. This may include essays, Components
written reports, long quizzes, and other written outputs. Subjects Written Performanc Quarterly
Work e Tasks Assessmen
t
Performance Tasks - This component allows the Core Subjects 25% 50% 25%
learners to show what they know and are able to do in Academic Work
Track Immersion
diverse ways. Learners may create innovate products / Research
or do performance-based tasks. Note that some / Business
Enterprise
written outputs may be considered as performance Simulation 35% 40% 25%
tasks. / Exhibit /
Performan
ce
Quarterly Assessment - This component measures Major
learning at the end of the quarter. This may be in the Subjects 25% 45% 30%
form of objective tests, performance-based TVL / Work
Sports / Immersion
assessments, or a combination thereof. / Research
Arts and
/
Design Performan
The grading system, according to this policy, is Track ce
standards based and competency-based. For the All other 20% 60% 20%
Kindergarten, checklists, anecdotal records, and subjects
portfolios are used instead of numerical grades, which
are based on the Kindergarten curriculum guide. On
the other hand, Grade 1 to 12 learners are graded on
three components every quarter: Written Works,
Performance Tasks, and Quarterly Assessment. The
weights of these components vary depending on
the subject and grade level of the learner. All
grades are based on weighted raw scores of the
learner’s summative assessments. The minimum
The transmission table is given below: Solution:
First, compute the Percentage Score for each
component by dividing the total raw score with the
highest possible score:
Component Highest Total Percentage
Possible Raw Score
Score Scores
Written Work 120 87

Performance Tasks 150 80

Quarterly Assessment 50 40

Second, identify the distribution of the weights for each

component in Mathematics 10. Then, multiply the
weight with its respective Percentage Score:
Highest Total Percent
Possible Raw Percent- Weight -age
Component Score Score age Score x
Score Weight
Written 0.725 x
Work 120 87 40% 40 = 29
In computing grades at the end of the school year: Perform- 0.533 x
▪ Kindergarten: checklists, anecdotal records, ance Tasks 150 80 40% 40 =
and portfolios are presented to the parents at the end 21.32
of each quarter for discussion Quarterly
Assess- 50 40 20% 0.80 x
▪ For Grades 1 to 10: the average of the ment 20 =
Quarterly Grades produces the Final Grade; the 66.32
General Average is computed by dividing the sum of Initial Computed Grade 66.32
all final grades by the total number of learning areas
since each learning area has equal weights. Afterward, identify the equivalent computed
▪ For Grades 11 to 12: the average of the grade based on DepEd’s transmutation table. Tina’s
Quarterly Grades produces the Semestral Final Grade; computed grade is 66.32, which is equivalent to 78.
the General Average is computed by dividing the sum This grade will be reflected in the report card.
of all Semestral Final Grades by the total number of
learning areas. In decisions of promotion and retention, different
guidelines are followed depending on the grade level:
For Grades 1 to 3, a learner is promoted to the
The summary of the learner's progress is shown next grade level when he or she obtained a final grade
quarterly to parents and guardians through a parent- of at least 75 in all learning areas. If the learner did not
teacher conference, in which the report card is meet expectations (failed) in one or two learning areas,
discussed. the learner must pass remedial classes for learning
Descriptor Grading Scale Remarks areas with failing marks to be promoted to the next
Outstanding 90 - 100 Passed grade level. Otherwise, the learner is retained in the
Very Satisfactory 85 - 89 Passed grade level. However, when the learner did not meet
Satisfactory 80 - 84 Passed expectations in three or more learning areas, he or she
Fairly Satisfactory 75 - 79 Passed is retained in the same grade level.
Did Not Meet Expectations Below 75 Failed For Grades 4 to 10, it still follows the
guidelines for promotion for Grades 1 to 3 learners but
Example: Obtaining a student’s computed grade is must pass all learning areas in the Elementary to earn
given below: the Elementary Certificate and be promoted to Junior
What is Tina’s grade in Mathematics 10 if she High School. Additionally, Grades 7 to 10 must pass all
has the following scores in her the summative learning areas in the Junior High School to earn the
assessments? Junior High School Certificate and be promoted to
Component Highest Total Raw Senior High School.
Possible Score Scores For Grades 11 to 12, the learner must have a
Written Work 120 87 final grade of at least 75 in all learning areas in a
Performance Tasks 150 80 semester to proceed to the next semester. If the
learner did not meet expectations in a prerequisite
Quarterly Assessment 50 40
subject in a learning area, the learner must pass
remedial classes for failed competencies in the subject
before being allowed to enroll in the higher-level
subject. Additionally, if the learner did not meet
expectations in any subject or learning area at the end
of the semester, he or she must pass remedial classes
for failed competencies in the subjects or learning
areas to be allowed to enroll in the next semester;
otherwise, the learner must retake the subjects failed. formation of their values and attitudes anchored on the
Contrariwise, when the learner passes all subjects or Vision, Mission, and Core Values of the Department of
learning areas in Senior High School to earn the Education (DepEd Order No. 36, s. 2013). This is
Senior High School Certificate. through the Core Values of the Filipino child: Maka-
How are remedial class grades computed? Diyos, Makatao, Makakalikasan, at Makabansa. Core
Summative Assessments are also given during Values have been translated into behavior statements,
remedial classes, and these are computed, weighted, and indicators have been formulated for each behavior
and transmuted in the same way as Quarterly Grade. statement.
The equivalent of the Final Grade for remedial classes Non-DepEd schools may modify or adapt the
is the Remedial Class Mark. The Final Grade at the guidelines from the DepEd Order as appropriate to the
end of the school year and the Remedial Class Mark Philosophy, Vision, Mission, and Core Values of their
are averaged. If the recomputed final grade is 75 or schools. Additionally, schools may craft additional
better, the student is promoted to the next grade level indicators for the behavior statements, ensuring that
(for Grades 1 to 10), or he/she is able to enroll in the these are child-centered, gender-fair, and age- and
higher- level learning area (for Grades 11 to 12). On culture appropriate.
the contrary, if the recomputed grade is below 75, the A non-numerical rating scale will be used to
student is retained in the grade level for Grades 1 to report on learners’ behavior, demonstrating the Core
10. For Grades 11 to 12, the student will need to Values. The Class Adviser and other teachers shall
retake the subject, and if the failed subject is a pre- agree on how to conduct these observations and
requisite, he or she will not be allowed to enroll in the discuss how each child will be rated.
higher-level learning area. Marking Non-Numerical Rating
AO Always Observed
Example: SO Sometimes Observed
Henry, a Grade 11 STEM student, has the following RO Rarely Observed
grades for his first semester objects: NO Not Observed
Third Fourth Semestral
Subjects Quarter Quarter Final
Grade
Lesson 3 - Norm-Referenced and Criterion-
Core Subjects
Oral Communication in Referenced Grading
Context 83 87 85
Komunikasyon at There are two common types of grading
Pananliksik sa Wika at 84 80 82 systems used at different educational levels in the
Kulturang Pilipino Philippines. We have the norm referenced grading
General Mathematics 81 81 81 system and the criterion-referenced grading system.
Earth Science 75 73 74
Introduction to the In the norm-referenced grading system, Student’s
Philosophy of the 87 91 89 performance is evaluated relative to the performance
Human Person of the other students within the group. When grades
PE and Health
are compared to other students (where you rank), it is
Applied and Specialized Track Subjects
called norm-referencing. In such a system, grade
Empowerment
Technologies (for the 81 83 82 depends on what group you are in, not just your own
Strand) performance. In addition, the typical grade may be
Pre-Calculus 73 74 74 shifted down or up, depending on the group’s ability.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Notice that Henry got a Semestral Final Grade 1. It is easy to use. 1. The performance of
of 74 in Pre- Calculus and in Earth Science. With this a student is not only
grade, the learner needs to take remedial courses determined
classes/sessions for specific competencies failed and by his achievement,
retake Pre-Calculus and Earth Science as back but also the
subjects. achievement of the
other students.
After remedial classes, Henry got the following grades: 2. It works well for the 2. It promotes
Learning Final Remedial Recomputed with retention competition among
Area Grade Class Mark Final Grade policies, and it limits the on students
Earth Science 74 74 74 only a few students rather than
Pre-Calculus 74 76 75 to advance to the cooperation.
next level of the
Since Henry already had a passing recomputed final course.
grade, he can no enroll Basic Calculus but needs to 3. It is useful if the 3. It cannot be used
retake Earth Science since he has a failed recomputed focus is the individual when the class size
final grade for this subject. achievement of the is smaller than 40.
students.
Aside from the cognitive and psychomotor aspects, the 4. It is appropriate for a 4. Not all students can
affective domain is also assessed in the K to 12 large group of pass the given
programs. The development of learners’ cognitive students (that is subject or course.
competencies and skills must be complemented by the more than 40).
5. It does not system, most especially in the Higher Education
encourage Institutions (HEIs).
cooperation among
the students. 1. Discuss your grading procedures to the students
6. The teacher easily at the very start of instruction.
identifies learning 2. Make clear to the students that their grades will
criteria – the be purely based on achievement.
percentage of 3. Explain how other elements like effort or personal-
students who social behaviors will be reported.
received the highest 4. Relate the grading procedures to the intended
grade or lowest learning outcomes or goals/objectives.
grade. 5. Get hold of valid evidence like test results, reports
presentation, projects, and other assessment
Meanwhile, criterion-referenced grading system results as bases for computation and assigning
give grades that reflect absolute performance or grades.
compared to specified standards. The student must 6. Take precautions to prevent cheating on tests and
get a grade higher than or equal to a given standard to other assessment measures.
pass a given test. 7. Return all tests and other assessment results, as
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES soon as possible.
1. It promotes 1. All students may not 8. Assign a weight to the various types of
cooperation among pass the subject or achievement included in the grade.
the students. course when they do 9. Tardiness, weak effort, or misbehavior should not
not meet the be charged against the achievement grade of
standard set by the students.
teacher or the 10. Be judicious/fair and avoid bias, but when in doubt
institution. (in case of a borderline student), review the
2. All students may evidence. If still in doubt, assign the higher grade.
pass the subject or 11. Grades are black and white, as a rule, do not
course when they change grades.
meet the standard 12. Keep pupils informed of their class standing or
set by the teacher. performance.

Lesson 4 - Distribution of Grades and Guidelines to Lesson 5 - Conducting Parent-Teacher Conference

Effective Grading
Distribution of Grades
➢ Norm-referenced or Relative Performance
- “grading on the curve”
- when “grading on the curve,” any pass-fail
decision should be based on an absolute standard
(failed the minimum essentials)
- standards and ranges should be understood
and followed by all teachers
➢ Criterion-referenced or Absolute Grading
- seldom uses letter-grade alone
- often includes checklists of what has been
mastered
- the distribution of grades is not
predetermined
Score Compared to Learning Potential
▪ grades are inconsistent with a standards-
based performance, that is, each child has his/her own
standard
▪ reliably estimated learning ability is very
difficult
▪ one cannot reliably measure change with
classroom measures
▪ should only be used as a supplement
Guidelines for Effective and Fair Grading
Miller, Linn, and Gronlund (2009) suggested
the following guidelines for effective and fair grading,
and this can be adopted in the Philippine educational
Parent-teacher conferences are a means of
communicating the student’s achievements to their
parents. This is where the teacher can inform parents
on the good and bad points of their child, at the same,
give an opportunity to parents to be involved in their
children’s education.
The following points provide helpful reminders when
preparing for and conducting parent-teacher
conferences.
• Make plans for the conference. Set the goals
and objectives of the conference ahead of time.
• Begin the conference in a positive manner.
Starting the conference by making a positive statement
about the student sets the tone for the meeting.
• Present the student's strong points before
describing the areas needing improvement. It is helpful
to present examples of the student’s work when
discussing the student’s performance.
• Encourage parents to participate and share
information. Although, as a teacher, you are in charge
of the conference, you must be willing to listen to
parents and share information rather than “talk at”
them.
• Plan a course of action cooperatively. The
discussion should lead to what steps can be taken by
the teacher and parent to help the student.
• End the conference with a positive comment.
At the end of the conference, thank the parents for
coming and say something positive about the student,
like “Mary has a bright personality and is friendly with
her classmates.”
• Use good human relations skills during the
conference.

MODULE SUMMARY
• Grade – the symbol that represents a value judgment
concerning the relative quality of a student’s
achievement during a specified period of time
• Norm-reference grading – assigning grades of a
student’s performance in comparison with others
• Criterion-referenced grading – assigning grades of a
student’s performance based on a set of criteria or
standard
• Grading system – a method of assigning and
computing student grades
• Reporting system – a method of describing or
informing student grades to concerned individuals
• Averaging method – a method of computing final
grades by assigning equal weights to the grades, then
getting the mean or average of these grades
• Cumulative method – a method of computing where
the final grade is giving a higher weight on the present
grade than the previous grade
• Transmutation table – a table presenting equivalents
of final computed grades for final reporting.
THE TEACHING
OF SCIENCE
SCI324 – THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE
MODULE 1 – GOALS AND STANDARDS OF THE
TEACHING OF SCIENCE
Science teaching is a complex activity that lies
at the heart of the vision of science education presented
in the Standards. The teaching standards provide criteria
for making judgments about progress toward the vision;
they describe what teachers of science at all grade
levels should understand and be able to do.
To highlight the importance of teachers in
science education, these standards are presented first.
However, to attain the vision of science education
described in the Standards, change is needed in the
entire system. Teachers are central to education, but
they must not be placed in the position of being solely
responsible for reform. Teachers will need to work within
a collegial, organizational, and policy context that is
supportive of good science teaching. In addition,
students must accept and share responsibility for their
own learning.
Lesson 1 – Main Goal of Science Teaching
National Curriculum Framework (NCF-2005)
proposed five guiding principles for curriculum
development:
i) connecting knowledge to life outside the
school;
ii) ensuring that learning shifts away from rote
methods;
iii) enriching the curriculum so that it goes
beyond textbooks;
iv) making examinations more flexible and
integrating them with classroom life; and
v) nurturing an overriding identity informed by
caring concerns within the democratic polity of the
country.
The entire teaching-learning process at school
level revolves around these five guiding principles. NCF
emphasized that “teaching of science should be recast
so that it enables children to examine and analyze
everyday experiences. Concerns and issues pertaining
to the environment should be emphasized in every
subject and through a wide range of activities involving
outdoor project work. Some of the information and
understanding flowing from such projects could
contribute to the elaboration of a publicly accessible,
transparent database on India’s environment, which
would in turn become a most valuable educational
resource. If well planned, many of these learner projects
could lead to knowledge generation.”
It means, science teaching should be organized
around learners’ experiences and opportunities should
be provided to learners to explore science around them.
This marks a clear shift from classroom and laboratory
centered science pedagogy. Integration in science
teaching-learning is very important and scientific
knowledge should not be compartmentalized in subject
domains like physics, chemistry, biology, environmental
science up to secondary level.
NCF-2005 and Position Paper of National Focus
Group on Teaching of Science (2006) have proposed 6
criteria for validity of a science curriculum i.e., cognitive,
content, process, historical, environmental and ethical.
On this basis, following general aims of science
education have been conceptualized:
Science education should enable the learner to:
• know the facts and principles of science and its
applications, consistent with the stage of cognitive
development,
• acquire the skills and understand the methods and
processes that lead to generation and validation of
scientific knowledge,
• develop a historical and developmental perspective of
science and to enable her to view science as a social
enterprise,
• relate to the environment (natural environment, artifacts
and people), local as well as global, and appreciate the
issues at the interface of science, technology and
society,
• acquire the requisite theoretical knowledge and
practical technological skills to enter the world of work,
• nurture the natural curiosity, aesthetic sense and
creativity in science and Science Teaching-Learning
technology,
• imbibe the values of honesty, integrity, cooperation,
concern for life and preservation of environment, and
• cultivate ‘scientific temper’-objectivity, critical thinking
and freedom from fear and prejudice.
If you will analyze these aims in order to understand the
nature of science teaching learning at school level, you
will find that:
These aims are suggesting organization of
science curriculum at different levels keeping in mind the
cognitive levels of learners. There is an emphasis on
linkage of scientific knowledge with society i.e., scientific
knowledge should be a part of society and also verified
and authenticated by the learners themselves. It focuses
on development of scientific process skills along with
nurturing natural curiosity and aesthetic sense. Along
with development of scientific attitude, equal focus is on
development of universal values.
Lesson 2 – Learning Area Standard for Science
Teaching
In the vision of science education portrayed by
the Standards, effective teachers of science create an
environment in which they and students work together
as active learners. While students are engaged in
learning about the natural world and the scientific
principles needed to understand it, teachers are working
with their colleagues to expand their knowledge about
science teaching. To teach science as portrayed by the
Standards, teachers must have theoretical and practical
knowledge and abilities about science, learning, and
science teaching.

The standards for science teaching are grounded in
five assumptions:
1. The vision of science education described by
the Standards requires changes throughout the entire
system.
2. What students learn is greatly influenced by
how they are taught.
3. The actions of teachers are deeply influenced
by their perceptions of science as an enterprise and as a
subject to be taught and learned.
4. Student understanding is actively constructed
through individual and social processes.
5. Actions of teachers are deeply influenced by
their understanding of and relationships with students.
The vision of science education described by the
standards requires changes throughout the entire
system.
The educational system must act to sustain
effective teaching. The routines, rewards, structures, and
expectations of the system must endorse the vision of
science teaching portrayed by the Standards. Teachers
must be provided with resources, time, and opportunities
to make change as described in the program and system
standards. They must work within a framework that
encourages their efforts.
The changes required in the educational system
to support quality science teaching are major ones. Each
component of the system will change at a different pace,
and most changes will be incremental. Nonetheless,
changes in teaching must begin before all of the
systemic problems are solved.
What students learn is greatly influenced by how
they are taught.
The decisions about content and activities that
teachers make, their interactions with students, the
selection of assessments, the habits of mind that teacher.
Teachers must have theoretical and practical
knowledge and abilities about science, learning, and
science teaching.
Demonstrate and nurture among their students,
and the attitudes conveyed wittingly and unwittingly all
affect the knowledge, understanding, abilities, and
attitudes that students develop.
The actions of teachers are deeply influenced by
their perceptions of science as an enterprise and as
a subject to be taught and learned.
All teachers of science have implicit and explicit
beliefs about science, learning, and teaching. Teachers
can be effective guides for students learning science
only if they have the opportunity to examine their own
beliefs, as well as to develop an understanding of the
tenets on which the Standards are based.
Student understanding is actively constructed
through individual and social processes.
In the same way that scientists develop their knowledge
and understanding as they seek answers to questions
about the natural world, students develop an
understanding of the natural world when they are
actively engaged in scientific inquiry—alone and with
others.
Actions of teachers are deeply influenced by their
understanding of and relationships with students.
The standards for science teaching require
building strong, sustained relationships with students.
These relationships are grounded in knowledge and
awareness of the similarities and differences in students'
backgrounds, experiences, and current views of science.
The diversity of today's student population and the
commitment to science education for all requires a firm
belief that all students can learn science.
Lesson 3 – Scientific Attitudes and Values in Science
Teaching
Why attitudes are important?
These attitudes are mainly a measure of your
expressed preferences and feelings towards science,
and for this reason, it is necessary to consider their
importance and significance. They influence motivation
and interests, and, therefore, in the behavior. They also
influence the transcendental decision of studying
science in all level of education and can help to develop
their confidence in dealing with science in terms of
curiosity and systematic inquiry that may foster the
development of children character. Because children’s
interest in science is so vital for active science learning,
we must pay special attention in developing then. When
children reach the post-primary school, they will have
experienced six years of primary schooling and by this
stage will have developed their attitudes to science.
What attitudes?
Attitudes related to science in the school belong
to two main groups: a) scientific attitudes and b) positive
attitudes towards science.
Scientific Attitudes
Scientific attitudes are a mixture of the
willingness to know and apply a scientific approach to
face any task of problem-solving with respect for logic
and critical thinking. These attitudes include curiosity,
honesty in the recording and validation of data, flexibility,
persistence, open-mindedness, willingness to tolerate
uncertainty, and an acceptance of the provisional nature
of scientific explanation. These are the features that
characterize scientific thinking.
Positive Attitudes Towards Science
An early categorization of affective behaviors towards
science is:
 ❖ Acceptance of scientific enquiry as a way of
thought;
❖ Adoption of ‘scientific attitudes’;
❖ Enjoyment of science learning experiences;
❖ Interests in science and science-related
activities; and

The following are examples of indicators of

Scientific Attitudes
1. ATTITUDE: WILLINGNESS TO COLLECT AND USE
EVIDENCE. INDICATORS:
❖ Reporting what happened, even if this
conflicted with expectations
❖ Querying and checking parts of the evidence
which do not fit into the pattern of other findings
❖ Querying an interpretation or conclusion for
which there is insufficient evidence
❖ Setting out to collect further evidence before
accepting a conclusion
❖ Treating every conclusion as being open to
challenge by further evidence

2. ATTITUDE: WILLINGNESS TO CHANGE IDEAS IN

THE LIGHT OF EVIDENCE (Flexibility combined with
open-mindedness) INDICATORS:
❖ Being prepared to change an existing idea
when there is convincing evidence against it
❖ Spontaneously seeking alternative ideas
rather than accepting the first one which fits the
evidence
❖ Relinquishing an existing idea after
considering evidence
❖ Realizing that it is necessary to change ideas
when different ones make better sense of the evidence

3. ATTITUDE: WILLINGNESS TO REVIEW

PROCEDURES (Critical Reflection) INDICATORS:
❖ Willingness to review what they have done to
consider how to improve
❖ Considering alternative procedures to those
used
❖ Considering the points in favor and against
how an investigation was carried out
❖ Spontaneously reflecting on how the
procedures might improve
❖ Considering alternative procedures at the
planning stage and reviewing those chosen during an
investigation, not just at the end.
MODULE 2 – OBJECTIVE-RELATED PRINCIPLES OF
TEACHING
The objectives must be clear to students. They
ALL must know WHAT they are learning and WHY they
are doing it. They also need to see the point of the
objectives in the bigger picture; that is, how they relate to
the last lesson’s learning, the course they are following
and the big overall goal. This means that you can’t
simply write the objectives on the board and hope that
the students copy them down. It implies that you have
fully explained them in context; the students have
engaged with them and can explain them to any
observer.
The objectives and outcomes must be
differentiated for the individual student. All the learners
should be able to see where they are and what they
need to do to get to the next level. This should link into
subject standards and progression where possible. It is
crucial to have high expectations of what can be
achieved and engage the students with that belief.
SUCCESS CRITERIA for achieving the
outcomes need to be negotiated with the students for
optimum engagement to enable them to be clear about
what it will look like and feel like and sound like when
they have made that progress.
WHAT ARE LEARNING OBJECTIVES?
A learning objective should describe what
students should know or be able to do at the end of the
course that they couldn’t do before.
What is a Learning Objective? Whys should we use
learning objectives?
Learning objectives should be brief, clear,
specific statements of what learners will be able to do at
the end of a lesson as a result of the activities, teaching
and learning that has taken place. They are sometimes
called learning outcomes. The Learning objective or
objectives that you use can be based on three areas of
learning: knowledge, skills and attitudes. Learning
objectives define learning outcomes and focus teaching.
They help to clarify, organize and prioritize learning.
They help you and your students evaluate progress and
encourage them to take responsibility for their learning.
What is the difference between an aim and a learning
objective?
A lesson aim is a very general statement of what
the overall goal is in a lesson – the intention behind the
teaching. The lesson objective/objectives are the
measurable stages that a learner will go through and
need to achieve in order to achieve the overall goal.
Aims are like strategy, objectives are like tactics.
How do you write aims and learning objectives?
As part of your planning, you need to decide
what your students need to be able to DO after they
have learned something that you have taught. Beginning
your planning with the learning objectives will also help
you ensure that your tasks and activities are appropriate
and will help your students achieve their objectives.
A learning objective must not include the phrases 'to
know' or 'to understand' but instead active verbs such as
'state', 'explain', 'outline', 'list' or 'describe'. Avoid using
verbs that are difficult to measure objectively. The
following verbs are difficult to assess and measure and
therefore should be used with caution:
▪ Know, comprehend, understand, appreciate,
familiarize, study, be aware, become acquainted with,
gain knowledge of, cover, learn, realize.
Know and understand do not specify any overt 'doing'
and although knowing and understanding underpin
learning, objectives are always written using active doing
verbs. They are statements of what you want your
learners to do and should:
▪ Be stated clearly
▪ define or describe an action
▪ Are *measurable, in terms of time, space,
amount, and/or frequency.
▪ Be differentiated
Examples of Measurable Action Words
Explain Demonstrate Analyze Formulate Discuss
Compare Differentiate Describe Name Assess
Evaluate Identify Design Define List
How can I differentiate my learning objectives and
make them more demanding and make sure that
they are challenging?
You can make your learning objectives difficult,
demanding or challenging by changing the active verb
that you use (see detailed table below) to a more
complex, involve higher order thinking; or you can add
specific conditions or limits.
Putting the Theory into Practice
The following lists and tables contain examples
of active verbs which describe the sorts of things you
want your students to be able to do and may help you to
write useful learning objectives.
Set 1: Based on the ‘3 areas if teaching’
Knowledge
analyze arrange calculate circle cite
classify compare contrast compare define
describe diagram differentiat group identify choose, demonstrate,
e ‘To use information to determine, develop,
interpret itemize label list match solve problems, transfer establish, produce, relate,
name outline plan record revise abstract or theoretical report, select, show, use,
select solve state tabulate give ideas to actual situations, try, diagram, perform,
example
identifying connections make a chart, put into
s
evaluate recognize and relationships and action, build, report,
how they apply’ employ, relate, draw,
Skills construct, adapt, apply,
adjust assemble chart collect use sequence, carry out,
draw employ establish illustrate imitate solve, prepare, operate,
interact locate maintain measure modify generalize, plan, repair,
operate organize rearrange return set-up explain, predict, instruct,
practice manipulate master fit perform compute, use, implement,
demonstrat solve
e Analysis Analyze, study, combine,
separate, categorize,
Attitudes ‘To take information detect, examine, inspect,
accept adopt advocate approve assess apart, identifying discriminate, take apart,
challenge characteriz choose criticize defend
components, determining generalize, scrutinize,
e
evaluate formulate judge justify manage
arrangement, logic and estimate, compare,
model persuade recommen resolve select semantics’ observe, detect, classify,
d discover, explore,
specify value re-assure empathiz distinguish, catalogue,
e investigate, breakdown,
order, determine,
Set 2: Based on increasing level of difficulty and differentiate, dissect,
challenge (Blooms Taxonomy) contrast, examine,
Emphasis – link to Relevant Action Verbs interpret, identify, dissect,
Blooms Taxonomy to use in your lesson characterize, correlate,
objectives: diagram, illustrate, infer,
Knowledge Tell, uncover, show, limit, outline, point out,
state, define, name, write, prioritize, relate,
‘To find or remember recall, recognize, list, separate, subdivide.
information memorizing label, reproduce, identify, Synthesis Write, plan, integrate,
information’ acquire, distinguish, formulate, propose,
state, order, locate, ‘To create new ideas or specify, produce,
repeat, count, describe, things, combining organize, theorize,
enumerate, find, match, information to form a design, build,
read, recite, record, unique product, requiring systematize, combine,
select, sequence, state, of creativity and summarize, restate,
view originality’ argue, hypothesize,
Comprehension Comprehend, appreciate, predict, create, invent,
select, indicate, illustrate, produce, modify, extend,
‘To understand the represent, formulate, design, formulate,
information and restate in explain, classify, develop, build, compile,
your own words, translate, extrapolate, discuss, derive, relate,
paraphrasing, convert, interpret, generalize, conclude,
summarizing, translating’ abstract, transform, combine, précis, discuss,
select, indicate, relate, integrate, conclude,
experiment, simple adapt, categorize,
comparisons, compose, construct,
demonstrate, explain, create, design, generate,
reword, discuss, cite, incorporate, integrate,
conclude, describe, modify, organize,
discuss, estimate, perform, propose,
generalize, give reinforce, reorganize,
examples, locate, make rewrite, structure
sense of, paraphrase, Evaluation Evaluate, interpret,
predict, report, restate, decide, solve, rate,
review, summarize, trace ‘To make judgements appraise, verify, assess,
Apply/Application Assess, change, chart, about knowledge, to test, judge, rank,
make decisions and measure, appraise,
supporting views, select, check, evaluate,
requires understanding of determine, support, More examples of Learning Outcomes
values. ’ defend, weigh, judge, Good learning outcomes are focused on what the
justify, attach, criticize, learner will know or be able to do by the end of a defined
weigh up, argue, choose, period of time and indicate how that knowledge or skill
compare and contrast, will be demonstrated.
conclude, critique,
defend, predict, prioritize, • Upon completing this assignment, students will be able
prove, reframe to provide accurate diagrams of cells and be able to
classify cells from microscopic images.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY with actual teaching and • By the end of this course, students will be able to
learning ideas and strategies: identify and develop data collection instruments and
measures for planning and conducting sociological
research.
• By the end of this workshop, participants will be able to
identify and classify their spending habits and prepare a
personal budget.

One unit of instruction – whether a course, assignment,

or workshop – might have multiple learning outcomes
that span a range level of learning as described by
Bloom’s Taxonomy and indicated by relevant, active
verbs.

By the end of this course, students will be able to:

• predict the appearance and motion of visible celestial
objects
• formulate scientific questions about the motion of
visible celestial objects
• plan ways to model and/or simulate an answer to the
questions chosen
• select and integrate information from various sources,
including electronic and print resources, community
resources, and personally collected data, to answer the
questions chosen
Writing Learning Objectives correctly – checklist:
• communicate scientific ideas, procedures, results, and
• Does the learning objective reflect a step in achieving
conclusions using appropriate SI units, language, and
an overall lesson aim?
formats.
• Do your lesson activities ensure that students will
• describe, evaluate, and communicate the impact of
achieve their objective and your overall aim?
research and other accomplishments in space
• Is the learning objective measurable?
technology on our understanding of scientific theories
• Is the learning objective student-centered?
and principles and on other fields of endeavor [Adapted
• Have you used effective, action verb that targets the
from http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~astro/SNC1D.htm]
desired level of performance?
Learning outcomes can address content, skills, and
Differentiating your learning objectives:
long-term attitudes or values.

Content
• By the end of this course, students will be able to
categorize macroeconomic policies according to the
economic theories from which they emerge.
• By the end of this unit, students will be able to describe
the characteristics of the three main types of geologic
faults (dip-slip, transform, and oblique) and explain the
different types of motion associated with each.

Skills
• By the end of this course, students will be able to ask
questions concerning language usage with confidence
and seek effective help from reference sources.
• By the end of this course, students will be able to
analyze qualitative and quantitative data, and explain
how evidence gathered supports or refutes an initial
hypothesis.

Values
• By the end of this course, students will be able to work
cooperatively in a small group environment.
• By the end of this course, students will be able to
identify their own position on the political spectrum.

Learning outcomes should use specific language, and

should clearly indicate expectations for student
performance.
Vague outcome More precise outcome
By the end of this course, By the end of this course,
students will have added students will be able to:
to their understanding of • describe the research
the complete research process in social
process. interventions
• evaluate critically the
quality of research by
others
• formulate research
questions designed to
test, refine, and build
theories
• identify and
demonstrate facility in
research designs and
data collection strategies
that are most appropriate
to a
particular research
project
• formulate a complete
and logical plan for data
analysis that will
adequately answer the
research questions and
probe alternative
explanations
• interpret research
findings and draw
appropriate conclusions
By the end of this course,
students will have a
deeper appreciation of By the end of this course,
literature and literary students will be able to:
movements in general. • identify and describe the
major literary movements
of the 20th century
• perform close readings
of literary texts
• evaluate a literary work
based on selected and
articulated standards
MODULE 3 – DETERMINING APPROPRIATE
CONTENT
MANAGING CONTENT
For most teachers and instructors, content remains a
key focus. Content includes facts, ideas, principles,
evidence, and descriptions of processes or procedures.
A great deal of time is spent on discussing what content
should be included in the curriculum, what needs to be
covered in a course or a program, what content sources
such as text-books students should access, and so on.
Teachers and instructors often feel pressured to cover
the whole curriculum in the time available. In particular,
lecturing or face-to-face classes remain a prime means
for organizing and delivering content.
The case for balancing content with skills development
was made several times through the book, but issues
around content remain critically important in teaching. In
particular, instructors need to ask themselves these two
questions: „What specific content will add value to the
overall goals of this course or program? What content
would be nice for students to cover, but could be
avoided if necessary? ‟
Goals for Content
Instructors in education tend to take content for
granted – this is what we teach. However, it is important,
when designing teaching for a digital age, to be clear in
our goals for teaching content.
Why do we require students to know facts, ideas,
principles, evidence, and descriptions of processes or
procedures? Is learning specific content a goal in itself,
or is it a means to an end? For instance, is there an
intrinsic value in knowing the periodic table, or the dates
of battles, or are they means to an end, such as
designing experiments or understanding why French is
an official language in Canada?
The question is important, because in a digital
age, some would argue that learning or memorizing
content becomes less important or even irrelevant when
it is easy just to look up facts or definitions or equations.
Cognitivists will argue that content needs to be framed or
put in context for it to have meaning. Does content need
to be learned solely to enable us to do things, such as
solve problems, or make decisions, and do we need only
to draw on content as and when needed, as it is now so
easy to access?
Probably more important than the teacher or
instructor being clear on why content is being taught is
for the students to understand this. One way of stating
this is to ask: what value is added to the overall goals of
this course or program by teaching this specific content?
Do students need to memorize this content, or know
where to find it, and when it is important to use it? This
means of course having very clear goals for the course
or program as a whole.
Quantity and Depth
In many contexts, instructors have little choice
over content. External bodies, such as accreditation
agencies, state or provincial governments, or
professional licensing boards, may well dictate what
content a particular course or program needs to cover.
However, the rapid growth of scientific and technological
knowledge increasingly challenges the idea of a fixed
body of content that students must learn. Engineering
and medical programs struggle to cover even in six or
eight years of formal education all the knowledge that
professionals need to know to practice effectively.
Professionals will need to go on learning well past
graduation if they are to keep up with new developments
in the field.
In particular, covering content quickly or
overloading students with content are not effective
teaching strategies, because even working harder all
waking hours will not enable students in these subject
domains to master all the information they need in their
professions. Specialization has been a traditional way of
handling the growth of knowledge, but that does not help
in dealing with complex problems or issues in the real
world, which often require inter-disciplinary and broader
based approaches. Thus, instructors need to develop
strategies that enable students to cope with the massive
and growing amounts of knowledge in their field.
One way to handle the problem of knowledge
explosion is to focus on the development of skills, such
as knowledge management, problem-solving and
decision-making. However, these skills are not content-
free. In order to solve problems or make decisions, you
need access to facts, principles, ideas, concepts and
data. To manage knowledge, you need to know what
content is important and why, where to find it, and how
to evaluate it. In particular there may be core or basic
knowledge or content that needs to be mastered for
many if not most of their professional activities. One
teaching skill then will be the ability to differentiate
between essential and desirable areas of content, and to
ensure that whatever is done to develop skills, in the
process core content is covered.
Sources
Another critical decision for teachers in a digital
age is where students should source or find content. In
medieval times, books were scarce, and the library was
an essential source of content not only for students but
also for professors. Professors had to select, mediate
and filter content because the sources of content were
extremely scarce. We are not in that situation today.
Content is literally everywhere: on the Internet, in social
media, on mass media, in libraries and books, as well as
in the lecture theatre.
Often, a great deal of time is spent in
departmental or program meetings on discussing what
textbooks or articles students should be required to read.
Part of the reason for selecting or limiting content is to
limit the cost to students, as well as the need to focus on
a limited range of material within a course or program.
But today, content is increasingly open, free and
available on demand over the Internet. Most students
will need to continue learning after graduation. They will
increasingly
resort to digital media for their sources of knowledge.
Therefore, when deciding on content we should be
considering:
(a) to what extent does the instructor need to
choose the content for a program (other than a broad set
of curriculum topics) and to what extent should students
be free to choose both content and the source of that
content?
(b) to what extent does the instructor need to
deliver content themselves, such as through a lecture or
PowerPoint slides, when content is so freely available
elsewhere? What is the added value you are providing
by delivering the content yourself? Could your time be
better used in other ways?
(c) to what extent do we need to provide criteria
or guidelines to students for choosing and using openly
accessible content, and what is the best way to do that?
When answering such questions, we should also be
asking whether our decisions will help students manage
content better themselves after graduating.
Structure
One of the most critical supports those teachers and
instructor provide is to structure the sequence and inter-
relationship of different content elements. I include within
structure:
 the selection and sequencing of content,
 developing a particular focus or approach to
specific content areas,
 helping students with the analysis,
interpretation or application of content
 integrating and relating different content areas.
Traditionally, content has been structured by
breaking a course into a number of topic-related classes
delivered in a particular sequence, and within the
classes, by instructors „framing‟ and interpreting content.
However, new technologies provide alternative means to
structure content. Learning management systems such
as Blackboard or Moodle enable instructors to select and
sequence content material, which students can access
anywhere, at any time – and in any order. The
availability of a wide range of content over the Internet,
and the ability to collect and sort content through blogs,
wikis, and e-portfolios, enable students increasingly to
impose their own structures on content.
Students need some form of structure within
content areas, partly because some things need to be
learned in „the right order‟, partly because without
structure content becomes a jumble of unrelated topics,
and partly because students can’t know or work out what
is important and what is not within a total content domain,
at least until they have started studying it. Novice
students in particular need to know what they must study
each week. There is a good deal of research evidence to
suggest that novice students benefit a great deal from
tightly structured, sequential approaches to content, but
as they become more knowledgeable or experienced in
the domain, they seek to develop their own approaches
to the selection, ordering and interpretation of content.
Therefore, in deciding on the structure of the content in a
course or program instructors need to ask:
(a) how much structure should I provide in
managing content, and how much should I leave to the
students?
(b) how do new technologies affect the way I
should structure the content? Will they enable me to
provide more flexible structures that will suit a diverse
range of student needs?
Similarly, when answering these questions, we should
ask how important it is for students themselves to be
able to structure content, and whether our answers to
the two questions above will further help them to do this.
Learner Activities
Lastly, what activities do we need to ask students to do
to help them learn content? To answer this question will
mean returning to the goals for learning content and the
overall goals of the course:
 if memorization is important, then automated
tests such as computer-marked assignments with
correct answers being provided can be used;
 if the aim is to enable students to draw on
content such as facts, principles, data or evidence to
construct an argument, to solve equations, or to design
an experiment, then opportunities for practicing such
skills will be needed;
 if the aim is to help students to manage
knowledge, then we may need to set tasks that require
them to select, evaluate, analyze and apply content.
 We shall see that technology enables us to
widen considerably the range of activities that students
can use to master content, but these need to be related
to the learning goals set for the course of program.
Without a planned set of activities, though, content may
just enter the brain one day and leave it the next.
Even or especially in a digital age, content, in
terms of things to know, remains critically important, but
in a digital age the role of content is subtly changing, in
some ways becoming a means to other ends, such as
skills development, rather than an end in itself. Because
of the rapid growth in knowledge in nearly all subject
areas, being clear about the role and purpose of content
in a course, and communicating that effectively to
students, becomes particularly important.
SEVEN CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF
SUBJECT MATTER OR CONTENT
The micro curriculum employs the seven criteria for the
selection of subject matter below. For the macro
curriculum, the subjects needed for the curricular
program or course comprise the content.
Another criterion is the usefulness of the content
or subject matter. Students think that a subject matter or
some subjects are not necessary to them. They view it
as useless. As a result, they do not study.
Here are the questions that students often ask:
 Will I need the subject in my job?
 Will it give meaning to my life?
 Will it develop my potentials?
 Will it solve my problem?
 Will it be part of the test?
 Will I have a passing mark if I learn it?
Students only value the subject matter or content if it is
useful to them.
6. LEARNABILITY
The subject matter or content must be within the
schema of the learners. It should be within their
experiences. Teachers should apply theories in the
psychology of learning to know how subjects are
presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize
students‟ learning capacity.

1. SELF-SUFFICIENCY 7. FEASIBILITY
To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency Feasibility means the full implementation of the
most economically is the central guiding principle of subject matter. It should consider the school’s real
subject matter or content selection. Although the situation, the government, and society in general.
economy of learning implies less teaching effort and less Students must learn within the allowable time and the
use of educational resources, students gain more results. use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that
They can cope up with the learning outcomes effectively. is impossible to finish.
This criterion means that students should be For example, you have only one week left to
given a chance to experiment, observe, and do field finish the unit, but the activities may take a month for the
study. This system allows them to learn independently. students to complete. Thus, this requirement is not
feasible.
2. SIGNIFICANCE
The subject matter or content is significant if it is
selected and organized to develop learning activities,
skills, processes, and attitudes. It also develops the
three domains of learning, namely the cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor skills, and considers the
learners‟ cultural aspects.
Particularly, if your students come from different
cultural backgrounds and races, the subject matter must
be culture-sensitive.

3. VALIDITY
Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject
matter or content you selected. Make sure that the topics
are not obsolete.

4. INTEREST
This criterion is valid to the learner-centered
curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter is
interesting, thus makes it meaningful to them.
However, if the curriculum is subject-centered,
teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing
schedule religiously and only teach what is in the book.
This approach explains why many students fail in the
subject.

5. UTILITY
MODULE 4 - SELECTION AND USE OF g. There is a need to summarize or review the
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS experience. Prepare measures that can assess their
gains based on the objectives.
There is no drab lesson if appropriate media is used in
its presentation. Properly selected and used, its impact
on the attention, sustained interest, participation of
students has long been recognized to a point that this
wide collection of teaching tools earned the title
“substrategies”. It is not surprising to see these materials,
devices and instruments accumulated in every teacher’s
storehouse. Of late, more teaching technologies such as
recordings, projectors and computers, CD-ROMS,
videos have been available in some schools.

For optimum learning, let us observe the following

general principles in the use of instructional
materials (IMs).
1. All instructional materials are aids to instruction.
They do not replace the teacher.

2. Choose the instructional material that best suits

your instructional objectives.
Decide what you want to accomplish and then
employ the tools that are most likely to achieve results.
Do not let the media that is available to you determine
how or what you will teach. Instructional objectives serve
as the basis in the selection of instructional material and
not instructional material that is available that determines
an instructional objective.

3. If possible, use a variety of tools.

Using videos, computers, overheads and the
chalkboard riot only keeps students’ interest but also
responds to the needs of those who receive information
in different ways.

4. Check out your instructional material before class

starts to be sure it is working properly.
Nothing is more frustrating to you or to the
students in the process of instruction than to find that the
overhead projector, for instance, does not work in the
process of instruction.

5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide

on the use of media given below:
a. Learn how to use the instructional material.
Before using it, make sure you know how to manipulate
it to obtain the desired product. Listen to the record or
view the film ahead. Check the correct size and
complete parts of real objects, photographs or models to
be presented.
b. Prepare introductory remarks, questions or
initial comments you may need.
c. Provide a conducive environment. Arrange
the chairs, tables and equipment, and materials. Provide
sufficient lighting and ventilation.
d. Explain the objectives of the lesson.
e. Stress what is to be watched or listened to
carefully.
f. State what they will be expected to do with the
information they will learn. Discussion or a test may
follow.
MODULE 5 - THEORIES, GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND
METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE
Learning is defined as a process that brings together
personal and environmental experiences and influences
for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge,
skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views.
Learning theories develop hypotheses that describe how
this process takes place. The scientific study of learning
started in earnest at the dawn of the 20th century. The
major concepts and theories of learning include
behaviourist theories, cognitive psychology,
constructivism, social constructivism, experiential
learning, multiple intelligence, and situated learning
theory and community of practice.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist perspectives of learning
originated in the early 1900s, and became dominant in
early 20th century. The basic idea of behaviourism is
that learning consists of a change in behaviour due to
the acquisition, reinforcement and application of
associations between stimuli from the environment and
observable responses of the individual. Behaviourists
are interested in measurable changes in behaviour.
Thorndike, one major behaviourist theorist, put forward
that (1) a response to a stimulus is reinforced when
followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a
response to a stimulus becomes stronger by exercise
and repetition. This view of learning is akin to the “drill-
and-practice” programmes. Skinner, another influential
behaviourist, proposed his variant of behaviourism called
“operant conditioning”. In his view, rewarding the right
parts of the more complex behaviour reinforces it, and
encourages its recurrence. Therefore, reinforces control
the occurrence of the desired partial behaviours.
Learning is understood as the step-by-step or
successive approximation of the intended partial
behaviours through the use of reward and punishment.
The best known application of Skinner’s theory is
“programmed instruction” whereby the right sequence of
the partial behaviours to be learned is specified by
elaborated task analysis.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology was initiated in the late
1950s, and contributed to the move away from
behaviourism. People are no longer viewed as
collections of responses to external stimuli, as
understood by behaviourists, but information processors.
Cognitive psychology paid attention to complex mental
phenomena, ignored by behaviourists, and was
influenced by the emergence of the computer as an
information-processing device, which became analogous
to the human mind. In cognitive psychology, learning is
understood as the acquisition of knowledge: the learner
is an information-processor who absorbs information,
undertakes cognitive operations on it, and stocks it in
memory. Therefore, its preferred methods of instruction
are lecturing and reading textbooks; and, at its most
extreme, the learner is a passive recipient of knowledge
by the teacher.
Constructivism
Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s,
giving rise to the idea that learners are not passive
recipients of information, but that they actively construct
their knowledge in interaction with the environment and
through the reorganization of their mental structures.
Learners are therefore viewed as sense-makers, not
simply recording given information but interpreting it.
This view of learning led to the shift from the
“knowledge-acquisition” to “knowledge-construction”
metaphor. The growing evidence in support of the
constructive nature of learning was also in line with and
backed by the earlier work of influential theorists such as
Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. While there are
different versions of constructivism, what is found in
common is the learner-centred approach whereby the
teacher becomes a cognitive guide of learner’s learning
and not a knowledge transmitter.
Social learning theory
A well-known social learning theory has been
developed by Albert Bandura, who works within both
cognitive and behavioural frameworks that embrace
attention, memory and motivation. His theory of learning
suggests that people learn within a social context, and
that learning is facilitated through concepts such as
modeling, observational learning and imitation. Bandura
put forward “reciprocal determininsm” that holds the view
that a person’s behavior, environment and personal
qualities all reciprocally influence each others. He
argues that children learn from observing others as well
as from “model” behaviour, which are processes
involving attention, retention, reproduction and
motivation. The importance of positive role modeling on
learning is well documented.
Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of
learning was further changed by the rise of the
perspective of “situated cognition and learning” that
emphasized the significant role of context, particularly
social interaction. Criticism against the information-
processing constructivist approach to cognition and
learning became stronger as the pioneer work of
Vygotsky as well as anthropological and ethnographic
research by scholars like Rogoff and Lave came to the
fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism
was that the information-processing constructivism saw
cognition and learning as processes occurring within the
mind in isolation from the surrounding and interaction
with it. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and
independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In the
new view, cognition and learning are understood as
interactions between the individual and a situation;
knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of
the activity, context and culture in which it is formed and
utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor for learning
as “participation” and “social negotiation”.
Experiential learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and
constructivist theories of learning, but situate experience
at the core of the learning process. They aim to
understand the manners in which experiences – whether
first or second hand – motivate learners and promote
their learning. Therefore, learning is about meaningful
experiences – in everyday life – that lead to a change in
an individual’s knowledge and behaviours. Carl Rogers
is an influential proponent of these theories, suggesting
that experiential learning is “self-initiated learning” as
people have a natural inclination to learn; and that they
learn when they are fully involved in the learning process.
Rogers put forward the following insight: (1) “learning
can only be facilitated: we cannot teach another person
directly”, (2) “learners become more rigid under threat”,
(3) “significant learning occurs in an environment where
threat to the learner is reduced to a minimum”, (4)
“learning is most likely to occur and to last when it is self-
initiated” (Office of Learning and Teaching, 2005, p. 9).
He supports a dynamic, continuous process of change
where new learning results in and affects learning
environments. This dynamic process of change is often
considered in literatures on organizational learning.
Multiple intelligences
Challenging the assumption in many of the
learning theories that learning is a universal human
process that all individuals experience according to the
same principles, Howard Gardner elaborated his theory
of ‘multiple intelligences’ in 1983. His theory also
challenges the understanding of intelligence as
dominated by a single general ability. Gardner argues
that every person’s level of intelligence actually consists
of many distinct “intelligences”. These intelligences
include: (1) logical-mathematical, (2) linguistic, (3) spatial,
(4) musical, (5) bodily-kinesthetic, (6) interpersonal, and
(7) intrapersonal. Although his work is speculative, his
theory is appreciated by teachers in broadening their
conceptual framework beyond the traditional confines of
skilling, curriculum and testing. The recognition of
multiple intelligences, for Gardner, is a means to
achieving educational goals rather than an educational
goal in and of itself.
Situated learning theory and community of practice
“Situated learning theory” and “community of
practice” draw many of the ideas of the learning theories
considered above. They are developed by Jean Lave
and Etienne Wenger. Situated learning theory
recognizes that there is no learning which is not situated,
and emphasizes the relational and negotiated character
of knowledge and learning as well as the engaged
nature of learning activity for the individuals involved.
According to the theory, it is within communities that
learning occurs most effectively. Interactions taking
place within a community of practice – e.g. cooperation,
problem solving, building trust, understanding and
relations – have the potential to foster community social
capital that enhances the community members’
wellbeing. Thomas Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that
learning is most effective when it takes place in
communities. He argues that academic and social
outcomes will improve only when classrooms become
learning communities, and teaching becomes learner-
centered. Communities of practice are of course not
confined to schools but cover other settings such as
workplace and organizations.
21st century learning or skills
Exploration of 21st century learning or skills has
emerged from the concern about transforming the goals
and daily practice of learning to meet the new demands
of the 21st century, which is characterized as
knowledge- and technologically driven. The current
discussion about 21st century skills leads classrooms
and other learning environments to encourage the
development of core subject knowledge as well as new
media literacies, critical and systems thinking,
interpersonal and self-directional skills. For example, the
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21) defines the
following as key: core subjects (e.g. English, math,
geography, history, civics) and 21st century themes
(global awareness, civic literacy, health literacy,
environmental literacy, financial, business and
entrepreneurial literacy); learning and innovation skills
(creativity and innovation, critical thinking and problem
solving, communication and collaboration); information,
media and technology skills (e.g. ICT literacy, media
literacy); and life and career skills (flexibility and
adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-
cultural skills, productivity and accountability, leadership
and responsibility). One main learning method that
supports the learning of such skills and knowledge is
group learning or thematic projects, which involves an
inquiry-based collaborative work that addresses real-
world issues and questions.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING SCIENCE
Foster curiosity
Student’s enthusiasm and curiosity for science is
promoted at every opportunity.
Prioritize practical
Student led practical ‘hands on’ science learning is
carefully planned for and maximised, giving a real life
context where possible.
Have fun
Science should be engaging and fun

Promote talk and deeper thinking

Weekly ‘Bright Ideas Time’ is used as an effective tool to
promote questioning and generation of ideas.

Go outside
The outside area and locality are utilised to provide
regular outdoor learning experiences.

Be scientific
Correct (age-appropriate) scientific vocabulary is
confidently used and modelled by the teacher.

Students learn about modern day and historical famous

scientists.

Inspire
Students get to meet real scientists and engineers to
see how STEM subjects are used in the work place with
the aim of inspiring the next generation and raising
aspirations for future STEM careers.
MODULE 6 - ASSESSMENT IN SCIENCE TEACHING
ASSESSMENT IN SCIENCE TEACHING
Classroom assessment is an integral part of
science instruction. Assessment is the “systematic
process of gathering information about what a student
knows, is able to do, and is learning to do”. The primary
purpose of classroom assessment is not to evaluate and
classify student performance, but to inform teaching and
improve learning, and to monitor student progress in
achieving learning outcomes at the end of a grade or
course of study.
Classroom assessment is broadly defined as
any activity or experience that provides information
about student learning. Teachers learn about student
progress not only through formal tests, examinations,
and projects, but also through moment-by-moment
observation of students in action. They often conduct
assessment through instructional activities.
Much of students’ learning is internal. To assess
students’ science knowledge, skills and strategies, and
attitudes, teachers require a variety of tools and
approaches.They ask questions, observe students
engaged in a variety of learning activities and processes,
and examine student work in progress. They also
engage students in peer-assessment and self-
assessment activities. The information that teachers and
students gain from assessment activities informs and
shapes what happens in the classroom; assessment
always implies that some action will follow.
Planning for Assessment
Since assessment is an integral part of
instruction, teachers should plan it at the beginning of a
unit of study. They select assessment purposes,
approaches, and tools in conjunction with their choice of
instructional strategies.
In developing assessment tasks and methods, teachers
determine:
• what they are assessing
• why they are assessing
• how the assessment information will be used
• who willreceive the assessment information
• what assessment activities or tasks will allow students
to demonstrate their learning in authentic ways
Characteristics of Effective Assessment
Effective assessment assists learning. It helps focus
effort on implementing strategies to facilitate learning
both inside and outside the classroom. In high school
years science, as in other subject areas, effective
assessment is:
• congruent with instruction, and integral to it
• based on authentic tasks and meaningful
science-learning processes and contexts
• multi-dimensional, and uses a wide range of
tools and methods
• based on criteria that students know and
understand, appealing to their strengths
• a collaborative process involving students
• focused on what students have learned and
can do
• ongoing and continuous
These seven characteristics of effective assessment
are discussed in the following section.
Effective Assessment Is Congruent with Instruction and
Integral to It
Assessment requires teachers to always be aware of the
questions: “What do I want my students to learn?” and
“What can they do to show they have learned it?”
How teachers assess depends on what they are
assessing—whether they are assessing declarative
knowledge, procedural knowledge, or attitudes and
habits of mind.
• Declarative knowledge: Declarative knowledge is the
most straightforward dimension of learning to measure
using traditional tools—if teachers wish to measure fact-
based recall. The purpose of fostering scientific literacy,
however, is not met if students simply memorize the
declarative knowledge related to science; what is more
important is whether students understand and are able
to apply this knowledge. For example, it is more
important that they understand the purposes and effects
of biodiversity, that they respond to and interpret what
biodiversity means for them personally and
environmentally, and that they use terminology with ease
to enrich their own writing, and represent—rather than
reproduce—a definition of biodiversity. The challenge
teachers face is to design tools that test the application
of declarative knowledge.
• Procedural knowledge: Tools that are designed to
test declarative knowledge cannot effectively assess
skills, strategies, and processes. For example, rather
than trying to infer student processes by looking at final
products, teachers assess procedural knowledge by
observing students in action, by discussing their
strategies with them in conferences and interviews, and
by gathering data from student reflections such as
journals.
• Attitudes and habits of mind: Attitudes and habits of
mind cannot be assessed directly. They are implicit in
what students do and say.
Assessment tools typically describe the behaviors that
reflect the attitudes and habits of literate individuals.
They identify the attitudes and habits of mind that
enhance science-related language learning and use, and
provide students with the means to reflect on their own
internal processes. For example, rather than assigning
global marks for class participation, teachers assess
learning outcomes related to students’ effective
contributions to large and small groups.
Effective Assessment Is Based on Authentic Tasks
and Meaningful Science Learning Processes and
Contexts
Assessment tasks in science should be authentic and
meaningful—tasks worth mastering for their own sake
rather than tasks designed simply to demonstrate
student proficiency for teachers and others. Through
assessment, teachers discover whether students can
use knowledge, processes, and resources effectively to
achieve worthwhile purposes. Therefore, teachers
design tasks that replicate the context in which
knowledge will be applied in the world beyond the
classroom.
For example, authentic science writing tasks employ the
forms used by a wide range of people (e.g., journalists,
filmmakers, poets, novelists, publicists, speakers,
technical writers, engineers, and academics). As often
as possible, students write, speak, or represent their
ideas for real audiences and for real purposes. In
developing assessment tasks, teachers may consider
providing students with the resources people use when
performing the same tasks in real-life situations related
to issues in science.
Authentic assessment tasks are not only tests of the
information students possess, but also of the way their
understanding of a subject has deepened, and of their
ability to apply learning. They demonstrate to students
the relevance and importance of learning. Performance-
based tests are also a way of consolidating student
learning. The perennial problem teachers have with
“teaching to the test” is of less concern if tests are
authentic assessments of student knowledge, skills and
strategies, and attitudes.
Effective Assessment Is Multi-dimensional and Uses
a Wide Range of Tools and Methods
Assessment in science must recognize the complexity
and holistic nature of learning for scientific literacy. To
compile a complete profile of each student’s progress,
teachers gather data using many different means over
numerous occasions.
Student profiles may involve both students and teachers
in data gathering and assessment. The following chart
identifies areas for assessment and some suggested
assessment instruments, tools, and methods.
Effective Assessment Is Based on Criteria That
Students Know and Understand, Appealing to Their
Strengths
Assessment criteria must be clearly established and
made explicit to students before an assignment or test
so students can focus their efforts. In addition, whenever
possible, students need to be involved in developing
assessment criteria. Appendix 5 describes a process for
creating assessment rubrics in collaboration with
students.
Students should also understand clearly what successful
accomplishment of each proposed task looks like.
Models of student work from previous years and other
exemplars assist students in developing personal
learning goals.
Each assessment task should test only those learning
outcomes that have been identified to students. This
means, for example, that laboratory skills tests need to
be devised and marked to gather information about
students’ laboratory skills, not their ability to express
ideas effectively in writing a laboratory report.
Effective Assessment Is a Collaborative Process
Involving Students
The ultimate purpose of assessment is to enable
students to assess themselves. The gradual increase of
student responsibility for assessment is aimed at
developing students’ autonomy as lifelong learners.
Assessment should decrease, rather than foster,
students’ dependence on teachers’ comments for
direction in learning and on marks for validation of their
accomplishments. Assessment enhances students’
metacognition. It helps them make judgments about their
own learning, and provides them with information for
goal setting and self-monitoring.
Teachers increase students’ responsibility for
assessment by:
• requiring students to select the products and
performances to demonstrate their learning
• involving students in developing assessment criteria
whenever possible (This clarifies the goals of a particular
assignment and provides students with the vocabulary to
discuss their own work.)
• involving students in peer assessment, informally
through peer conferences and formally through using
checklists
• having students use tools for reflection and self-
assessment at every opportunity (e.g., self-assessment
checklists, journals, identification and selection of goals,
and self- assessment of portfolio items)
• establishing a protocol for students who wish to
challenge a teacherassigned mark (Formal appeals are
valuable exercises in persuasive writing, and provide
opportunities for students to examine their performance
in light of the assessment criteria.)
Effective Assessment Focuses on What Students
Have Learned and Can Do
Assessment must be equitable; it must offer
opportunities for success to every student. Effective
assessment demonstrates the knowledge, skills and
attitudes, and strategies of each student and the
progress the student is making, rather than simply
identifying deficits in learning.
To assess what students have learned and can do,
teachers need to use a variety of strategies and
approaches, such as the following:
• Use a wide range of instruments to assess the multi-
dimensional expressions of each student’s learning,
avoiding reliance upon rote recall.
• Provide students with opportunities to learn from
feedback and to refine their work, recognizing that not
every assignment will be successful nor will it become
part of a summative evaluation.
• Examine several pieces of student work in assessing
any particular learning outcome to ensure that data
collected are valid bases for making generalizations
about student learning.
• Develop complete student profiles by using information
from both learning outcome- referenced assessment,
which compares a student’s performance to
predetermined criteria, and self-referenced assessment,
which compares a student’s performance to her or his
prior performance.
• Avoid using assessment for purposes of discipline or
classroom control. Ryan, Connell, and Deci (1985) found
that assessment that is perceived as a tool for controlling
student behaviour, meting out rewards and punishments
rather than providing feedback on student learning,
reduces student motivation.
Students are sometimes assigned a mark of
zero for incomplete work. Averaging a zero into the
student’s mark, however, means the mark no longer
communicates accurate information about the student’s
achievement of science learning outcomes. Unfinished
assignments signal personal or motivational problems
that need to be addressed in appropriate and alternative
ways.
• Allow students, when appropriate and possible, to
choose how they will demonstrate their competence.
• Use assessment tools appropriate for assessing
individual and unique products, processes, and
performances.
Effective Assessment Is Ongoing and Continuous
Assessment that is woven into daily instruction
offers students frequent opportunities to gain feedback,
to modify their learning approaches and methods, and to
observe their progress. Teachers provide informal
assessment by questioning students and offering
comments. They also conduct formal assessments at
various stages of a project or unit of study. Continuous
assessment provides ongoing opportunities for teachers
to review and revise instruction, content, process
emphases, and learning resources.
Managing Classroom Assessment
Assessment is one of the greatest challenges
science teachers face. The practices that make science
classrooms vital and effective—promoting student
choice, assessing processes, and assessing the
subjective aspect of learning—make assessment a
complex matter.
Systems and supports that may assist teachers in
managing assessment include
• dispensing with ineffectual means of assessment
• using time savers
• sharing the load
• taking advantage of technology
• establishing systems of recording assessment
information
These suggestions are discussed in the following section.
Dispensing with Ineffectual Means of Assessment
Teachers need to question the efficacy, for example, of
writing lengthy commentaries on summative assessment
of student projects. Detailed comments are best:
• provided as formative assessment, when students can
make immediate use of the feedback
• shared orally in conferences, which provide
opportunities for student-teacher discussion The time
spent in assessment needs to be learning time, both for
teacher and student.
Using Time Savers
Many effective assessment tools are time savers.
Developing checklists and rubrics is timeconsuming;
however, well-written rubrics may eliminate the need to
write extensive comments, and may mean that student
performances can be assessed largely during class time.
Some of the assessment tools in the professional
literature related to science assessment may also be
useful.
Sharing the Load
While the ultimate responsibility for assessment rests
with the teacher, student self- assessment also provides
a wealth of information. Collaborating with students to
generate assessment criteria is part of effective
instruction (see Appendix 5). Senior 2 students may
develop checklists and keep copies of their own learning
goals in an assessment binder for periodic conferences.
Students may be willing to contribute work samples to be
used as models with other classes.
Collaborating with other teachers in creating assessment
tools saves time and provides opportunities to discuss
assessment criteria.
Taking Advantage of Technology
Electronic tools (e.g., audiotapes, videotapes, and
computer software) can assist teachers in making and
recording observations. Word processors allow teachers
to save, modify, and reuse taskspecific checklists and
rubrics.
Establishing Systems for Recording Assessment
Information
Collecting data from student observations is especially
challenging for Senior Years teachers, who may teach
several classes of students in a given semester or term.
Teachers may want to identify a group of students in
each class for observation each week. Binders, card files,
and electronic databases are useful for record keeping,
as are self-stick notes recording brief observations on
student files, which can later be transformed into
anecdotal reports.
Changing Emphases in Assessment of Student keeping, however, observations and conversations can
Learning* easily be forgotten. Making brief notes on index cards,
The National Science Education Standards envision self-stick notes, or grids, as well as keeping checklists,
change throughout the system. The assessment helps teachers maintain records of continuous progress
standards encompass the following changes in and achievement.
emphases:
• Interviews
LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON — Interviews allow teachers to assess an individual’s
understanding and achievement of the prescribed
Assessing what is easily Assessing what is most highly student learning outcome(s). Interviews provide students
measured valued with opportunities to model and explain their
Assessing discrete knowledge Assessing rich, well-structured understandings. Interviews may be both formal and
knowledge informal. Posing science-related questions during
planned interviews enables teachers to focus on
Assessing scientific knowledge Assessing scientific individual student skills and attitudes. Students reveal
understanding and reasoning
their thinking processes and use of skills when they are
Assessing to learn what students Assessing to learn what students questioned about how they solved problems or
do not know do understand answered science questions. Using a prepared set of
questions ensures that all interviews follow a similar
Assessing only achievement Assessing achievement and
opportunity to learn structure. It is important to keep a record of student
responses and/or understandings.
End of unit or term assessments Students engaged in ongoing
by teachers assessment of their work and that • Group/Peer Assessment
of others — Group assessment gives students opportunities to
Development of external Teachers involved in the assess how well they work within a group. Peer
assessments by measurement development of external assessment gives them opportunities to reflect on one
experts alone assessments another’s work, according to clearly established criteria.
During the peer assessment process, students reflect on
their own understanding in order to assess the
Formative and Summative
performanceofanother student.
Assessment Assessment can be formative or summative.
• Formative assessment is based on data collected
• Self-Assessment
before an instructional sequence is completed. Its
— Self-assessment is vital to all learning and, therefore,
purpose is to improve instruction and learning by
integral to the assessment process. Each student should
— providing students and teachers with
be encouraged to assess her or his own work. Students
information about students’ progress in accomplishing
apply known criteria and expectations to their work and
prescribed learning outcomes
reflect on results to determine their progress toward the
— evaluating the effectiveness of instructional
mastery of a prescribed learning outcome. Participation
programming content, methods, sequence, and pace
in setting self-assessment criteria and expectations
helps students to see themselves as scientists and
• Summative assessment (evaluation) is based on an
problem solvers. It is important that teachers model the
interpretation of the assessment information collected. It
self-assessment process before expecting students to
helps determine the extent of each student’s
assess themselves.
achievement of prescribed learning outcomes.
Evaluation should be based on a variety of assessment
• Performance Assessment/Student Demonstration
information. Summative assessment is used primarily to
— Performance tasks provide students with
— measure student achievement
opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge, thinking
— report to parent(s) or guardian(s), students,
processes, and skill development. The tasks require the
and other stakeholders
application of knowledge and skills related to a group of
— measure the effectiveness of instructional
student learning outcomes. Performance-based tests do
programming
not test the information that students possess, but the
way their understanding of a subject has been deepened,
The same strategy can be used both for formative and
and their ability to apply their learning in a simulated
summative assessment, depending on the purpose of
performance. A scoring rubric that includes a scale for
the assessment.
the performance of the task helps organize and interpret
evidence. Rubrics allow for a continuum of performance
Suggested assessment strategies that can be used in
levels associated with the task being assessed.
the science classroom are discussed in detail in the
following section:
• Science Journal Entries
• Observation
— Science journal writing provides opportunities for
— Observation of students is an integral part of the
students to reflect on their learning and to demonstrate
assessment process. It is most effective when focused
their understanding using pictures, labeled drawings,
on skills, concepts, and attitudes. Without record
and words. They can be powerful tools of formative
assessment, allowing teachers to gauge a student’s
depth of understanding. In this document, direct
questions/scenarios frame the science journal
suggestions.

• Rubrics/Checklists
— Rubrics and checklists are tools that identify the
criteria upon which student processes, performances, or
products will be assessed. They also describe the
qualities of work at various levels of proficiency for each
criterion. Rubrics and checklists may be developed in
collaboration with students.

• Visual Displays
— When students or student groups prepare visual
displays, they are involved in processing information and
producing a knowledge framework. The completed
poster, concept map, diagram, model, etc., is the
product with which teachers can determine what their
students are thinking.

• Laboratory Report
— Laboratory reports allow teachers to gauge the ability
of students to observe, record, and interpret
experimental results. These tools can aid teachers in
determining how well students understand the content.

• Pencil-and-Paper Tasks
— Quizzes can be used as discrete assessment tools,
and tests can be larger assessment experiences. These
written tasks may include items such as multiple choice
questions, completion of a drawing or labeled diagram,
problem solving, or longanswer questions. Ensure that
both restricted and extended, expository responses are
included in these assessment devices.

• Research Report/Presentation
— Research projects allow students to achieve the
learning outcomes in individual ways. Assessment
should be built into the project at every stage, from
planning, to researching, to presenting the finished
product.

The foregoing assessment suggestions are not meant to

be limiting. Teachers are strongly encouraged to develop
their own assessment for Senior Years science based
on their students’ learning requirements and the
prescribed student learning outcomes.
MODULE 7 - MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
THROUGH LESSON PLANNING
• 4A Lesson Plan (Activity-Analysis-Abstraction-
DEFINITION OF LESSON PLAN Assessment)

An order to understand what a lesson plan is, it • 5E Lesson Plan (Engagement-Exploration-

is important to fully understand the concept of a lesson. Explanation-Elaboration-Evaluation)
A lesson is a single activity or a series of activities
designed by the teacher so as to achieve one or more • 7E Lesson Plan (Elicit-Engage-Explore-Explain-
instructional objectives determined, or desired in Elaborate-Evaluate-Extend)
promoting positive change in the learner. A lesson is
thus a period of instruction or contact between the
teacher and the learners which is totally devoted to a
prior identified, specified and single limited title, skill,
content or idea.

Lesson planning is the activity which the teacher

performs before the actual lesson takes place. A lesson
plan is a detailed description of the instructional
strategies and learning activities to be performed during
the teaching/learning process. This important
preparation involves the following:

• Identification of learning as well as teaching

objectives, activities and tasks to be undertaken by both
the learners and the instructor.

• Sequencing of these activities and tasks.

• Determining appropriate instruction aids,

methods and references.

• Deciding the proper organisation and or

management of the learning resource available,
environment and activities.

• Determining evaluation process i.e. how the

learner shall be deemed to have acquired the desired
chance of behaviour or mastery of content and/or skills.

The importance of a lesson plan is that it enables the

teacher to read ahead in order to enrich the content area
and skill to be taught, to have confidence during the
actual teaching/learning process and to logically present
the content standards for effective learning.

Types of Lesson Plan:

• Daily Lesson Plan

• Weekly Lesson Plan

• Unit Lesson Plan

• Topic/Subject Lesson Plan

• eLesson Plan
WAVES AND
OPTICS
SCI322 – WAVES AND OPTICS

MODULE 1 – WAVE MOTION

The study of Waves and Optics has never
been challenging and interesting for it reveals vast
information about the different laws, principles and
concepts that govern the nature and characteristics of
waves. This includes the motions of the different forms
of waves that interact with us in our everyday living.
This module requires you to fully understand each
concept that will help in applying the laws and
principles in real-life situations. The learnings that
emanate from this module can develop your
appreciation of the benefits these things can give to us
and aid you in taking control as well as responsibility
for these things. PARTS OF MECHANICAL WAVES

Lesson 1 – Mechanical Waves

Mechanical Waves
Mechanical Waves are waves which
propagate through a material medium (solid, liquid, or
gas) at a wave speed which depends on the elastic
and inertial properties of that medium. There are two
basic types of wave motion for mechanical waves: (1)
longitudinal waves and (2) transverse waves.

1.Longitudinal Waves Wave Crest: The highest part of a wave.

In a longitudinal wave the particle
displacement is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation. The animation at right shows a one-
dimensional longitudinal plane wave propagating down
a tube. The particles do not move down the tube with
the wave; they simply oscillate back and forth about
their individual equilibrium positions. Pick a single
particle and watch its motion. The wave is seen as the
motion of the compressed region (ie, it is a pressure
wave), which moves from left to right.
The P waves (Primary waves) in an earthquake are
examples of Longitudinal waves. The P waves travel
with the fastest velocity and are the first to arrive.
2. Transverse Waves
In a transverse wave the particle displacement
is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
The particles do not move along with the wave; they
simply oscillate up and down about their individual
equilibrium positions as the wave passes by. Pick a
single particle and watch its motion.
The S waves (Secondary waves) in an earthquake are
examples of Transverse waves. S waves propagate
with a velocity slower than P waves, arriving several
seconds later.
Wave Trough: The lowest part of a wave.
Wave Height: The vertical distance between the wave
trough and the wave crest.
Wave Length: The distance between two consecutive
wave crests or between two consecutive wave troughs.
Wave Amplitude: The height apart from each other of
crest and trough.
Lesson 2 – Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction of
Waves
All waves behave in certain characteristic ways. They
can undergo refraction, reflection, and diffraction.
These basic properties define the behavior of a wave –
anything that reflects, refracts, diffracts is labelled a
wave.
The wave doesn't just stop when it reaches the
end of the medium. Rather, a wave will undergo
certain behaviors when it encounters the end of the
medium. Specifically, there will be some reflection off
the boundary and some transmission into the new
medium. But what if the wave is traveling in a two-
dimensional medium such as a water wave traveling
through ocean water? Or what if the wave is traveling
in a threedimensional medium such as a sound wave
or a light wave traveling through air? What types of
behaviors can be expected of such two- and three-
dimensional waves?

The study of waves in two dimensions is often

done using a ripple tank. A ripple tank is a large glass-
bottomed tank of water that is used to study the
behavior of water waves. A light typically shines upon
the water from above and illuminates a white sheet of
paper placed directly below the tank. A portion of light
is absorbed by the water as it passes through the tank.
A crest of water will absorb lighter than a trough. So,
the bright spots represent wave troughs and the dark
spots represent wave crests. As the water waves
move through the ripple tank, the dark and bright spots
move as well. As the waves encounter obstacles in
their path, their behavior can be observed by watching
the movement of the dark and bright spots on the
sheet of paper. Ripple tank demonstrations are
commonly done in a Physics class in order to discuss
the principles underlying the reflection, refraction, and
diffraction of waves.
Reflection of Waves
If a linear object attached to an oscillator bob
back and forth within the water, it becomes a source of
straight waves. These straight waves have alternating
crests and troughs. As viewed on the sheet of paper
below the tank, the crests are the dark lines stretching
across the paper and the troughs are the bright lines.
These waves will travel through the water until they
encounter an obstacle - such as the wall of the tank or
an object placed within the water.
The diagram depicts a series of straight waves
approaching a long barrier extending at an angle
across the tank of water. The direction that these
wavefronts (straight-line crests) are traveling through
the water is represented by the blue arrow. The blue
arrow is called a ray and is drawn perpendicular to the
wavefronts. Upon reaching the barrier placed within
the water, these waves bounce off the water and head
in a different direction.
The diagram shows the reflected wavefronts and the
reflected ray. Regardless of the angle at which the
wavefronts approach the barrier, one general law of
reflection holds true: the waves will always reflect in
such a way that the angle at which they approach the
barrier equals the angle at which they reflect off the
barrier. This is known as the law of reflection.
Refraction of Waves
Reflection involves a change in direction of
waves when they bounce off a barrier. Refraction of
waves involves a change in the direction of waves as
they pass from one medium to another. Refraction, or
the bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied
by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. It
was mentioned that the speed of a wave is dependent
upon the properties of the medium through which the
waves travel. So, if the medium (and its properties) is
changed, the speed of the waves is changed. The
most significant property of water that would affect the
speed of waves traveling on its surface is the depth of
the water. Water waves travel fastest when the
medium is the deepest. Thus, if water waves are
passing from deep water into shallow water, they will
slow down. This decrease in speed will also be
accompanied by a decrease in wavelength. So as
water waves are transmitted from deep water into
shallow water, the speed decreases, the wavelength
decreases, and the direction changes.
This boundary behavior of water waves can be
observed in a ripple tank if the tank is partitioned into a
deep and a shallow section. If a pane of glass is
placed in the bottom of the tank, one part of the tank
will be deep and the other part of the tank will be
shallow. Waves traveling from the deep end to the
shallow end can be seen to refract (i.e., bend),
decrease wavelength (the wavefronts get closer
together), and slow down (they take a longer time to
travel the same distance). When traveling from deep
water to shallow water, the waves are seen to bend in
such a manner that they seem to be traveling more
perpendicular to the surface. If traveling from shallow
water to deep water, the waves bend in the opposite
direction.
Diffraction of Waves
Reflection involves a change in direction of
waves when they bounce off a barrier; refraction of
waves involves a change in the direction of waves as
they pass from one medium to another; and diffraction
involves a change in direction of waves as they pass
through an opening or around a barrier in their path.
Water waves have the ability to travel around corners,
around obstacles and through openings. This ability is
most obvious for water waves with longer wavelengths.
Diffraction can be demonstrated by placing small
barriers and obstacles in a ripple tank and observing
the path of the water waves as they encounter the
obstacles. The waves are seen to pass around the
barrier into the regions behind it; subsequently the
water behind the barrier is disturbed. The amount of
diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases
with increasing wavelength and decreases with
decreasing wavelength. In fact, when the wavelength
of the waves is smaller than the obstacle, no
noticeable diffraction occurs.
 Diffraction of water waves is observed in a
harbor as waves bend around small boats and are
found to disturb the water behind them. The same
waves however are unable to diffract around larger
boats since their wavelength is smaller than the boat.
Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we
notice sound diffracting around corners, allowing us to
hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent
rooms. Many forest-dwelling birds take advantage of
the diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound waves.
Owls for instance are able to communicate across long
distances due to the fact that their longwavelength
hoots are able to diffract around forest trees and carry
farther than the short-wavelength tweets of songbirds.
Diffraction is observed of light waves but only when the
waves encounter obstacles with extremely small
wavelengths (such as particles suspended in our
atmosphere).
Reflection, refraction and diffraction are all
boundary behaviors of waves associated with the
bending of the path of a wave. The bending of the path
is an observable behavior when the medium is a two-
or threedimensional medium. Reflection occurs when
there is a bouncing off of a barrier. Reflection of waves
off straight barriers follows the law of reflection.
Reflection of waves off parabolic barriers results in the
convergence of the waves at a focal point. Refraction
is the change in direction of waves that occurs when
waves travel from one medium to another. Refraction
is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed
change. Diffraction is the bending of waves around
obstacles and openings. The amount of diffraction
increases with increasing wavelength.
Lesson 3 – Superposition, Interference, and Standing
Waves
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAe3lkYNKt8
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
The phenomena of the light which undergoes
refraction and reflection can be explained by the two
theories of light, they are the corpuscular and the wave
theory of light. But some of the phenomena such as
interference and diffraction can only be explained by
the wave theory of light.
We know that two or more wave motions travel
in space at the same time, sometimes these two wave
motions combine and some physical effects take place.
Interference is one such physical effect when two or
more waves cross each other in the same medium,
they both interfere and an accident takes place this
accident is known as the interference of waves.
Interference is the combined effect of the disturbance
caused by each individual wave at the same place and
at same time. This effect can be understood from the
principle of superposition of waves.
-is a special case of superposition of waves
which originate from different sources but have the
same amplitude and same frequency.
Principle of Superposition of Waves
Example:
When we drop a pin a tank, we see some
circular waves when another pin is dropped, we see
some more waves. These waves travel in the same in
the same tank and at one time or another they
superimpose on each other. The resultant wave would
have an amplitude which is sum of the displacement
due to the individual waves.
- the principle of superposition, when two or more
travel through the same medium simultaneously, the
resultant displacement at any point is the vector sum
of the displacement due to the individual waves.
the pin is dropped in a ripple tank with two pins if the
first wave (Y1) is the displacement caused at a point
due to the first source and the second wave is the
displacement caused by the second source (Y2).
Then the overall displacement are at the point of the
interference would be given by r = y1 + y2. When both
sources have the same amplitude, the y1 and y2
would be equal to Y, when y1 is due the crest or
trough and y2 is also due the crest or trough the
resultant would the maximum.
And when y1 is due to a crest and y2 is due to a
trough or vice-versa, the displacement would be
minimum when maximum displacement takes place is
called constructive superposition. And when
minimum displacement takes place is called
destructive superposition.
In destructive displacement, a maximum displacement
curve is produced thus, when constructive
displacement occurs the phase difference between the
waves would be zero or a multiple of 2, when minimum
displacement occurs waves superimpose destructively,
the phase difference of the waves would be an odd
integer multiple interference of waves. When
superposition of waves occurs, they can be destructive
or constructive this physical effort observed as a result
of the superposition of waves is called interference.
- the interference of waves, is the physical effect of
the superposition of waves from the source vibrating
with the same frequency and amplitude. The physical
effect is in form of vibrations in the amplitude of
resultant wave in a given portion of the medium.
MODULE 2
Lesson 1 – Velocity and Propagation of Sound
Introduction to Speed of Sound Propagation
We hear various types of sounds every
second. It can be from the instruments, the sound of
thunder, and the list goes on and on. But what is
sound? How does it take place? How is the sound
created? How does the sound propagation take place?
Here you have the notes prepared along with
sound definition, characteristic of sound, speed of
sound, factors that affect the sound, and more.
What is Sound?
In simple words, the sound is nothing but a
form of energy just like heat, electricity, etc. Consider
an example of a source of the sound, such as a bell.
Whenever we strike a bell, it creates a sound. What
accompanies the sound is the vibration, which causes
to and from motion of the object’s body.
Sound is the vibration that transmits through mediums
like solid, liquid and gas by the alternate contraction
and expansion of the medium in the form of an
acoustic wave.
Characteristics of Sound
The pictorial representation of sound is in the
form of continuous peaks and valleys. The distance
covered between two continuous peaks or troughs is
called the wavelength of the wave. The frequency of
sound is defined as the number of cycles covered per
unit of time. It is measured in Hertz.
What is the Speed of Sound?
It is defined as the dynamic propagation of
waves taking place through different mediums. The
speed of sound varies depending on the medium
through which it propagates. When talking about
sound speed, we refer to the speed of the sound
waves when travelling in an elastic medium.
The Speed of Sound in Air
The speed of a sound wave in air depends
upon the properties of the air, mostly the temperature,
and to a lesser degree, the humidity. Humidity is the
result of water vapor being present in air. Like any
liquid, water has a tendency to evaporate. As it does,
particles of gaseous water become mixed in the air.
This additional matter will affect the mass density of
the air (an inertial property). The temperature will affect
the strength of the particle interactions (an elastic
property). At normal atmospheric pressure, the
temperature dependence of the speed of a sound
wave through dry air is approximated by the following
equation:
where T is the temperature of the air in degrees
Celsius. Using this equation to determine the speed of
a sound wave in air at a temperature of 20 degrees
Celsius yields the following solution.
Factors Affecting The Speed of Sound
The factors on which the speed the sound majorly
depends are:
 The Density of Medium: Sound requires a
medium to travel. The density of the medium is among
the factors which affect the speed of sound. The higher
the density, the faster the sound travels through the
medium. And, on the other hand, the lower the density,
the slower the speed of propagation of sound. This
means that the speed of sound in different mediums
varies directly with the density of the medium.
 The Temperature of The Medium: Higher
the temperature, the higher is the speed of sound in
the medium.
Speed of Sound in Different Media
Sound can travel through different mediums, and here
is how it propagates through them:
 Speed of Sound in Solid
The sound travels in solids through the
collision between different molecules and particles.
Solids have a higher density in comparison to other
mediums, making the speed of sound high. In solids,
the speed of sound is approximately 6000 m/s.
 Speed of Sound in Liquid
The density of liquids is lower than solids and
higher than gases. This leads to the speed of sound in
liquids lying between the speed of solids and gases.
 Speed of Sound in Gases
The speed of sound in gases is irrespective of
the medium. This is because of the uniformity in the
density of gas irrespective of its type.
 Speed of Sound in a Vacuum
Sound doesn't travel through a vacuum,
making its speed zero. This happens because of the
absence of particles in a vacuum. No propagation of
sound waves take place in a vacuum.
Lesson 2 – Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction of
Sound
Lesson 3 – Characteristics of Sound
Characteristics of Sound
Sound travels in the form of a wave. Waves are
characterized by three basic quantities. They are
frequency, speed, and amplitude. Two of the main
characteristics of sound are pitch and loudness, which
in turn are determined by the frequency and amplitude
of the wave, respectively. Therefore, to understand
what pitch and loudness mean, we will first need to
study the characteristics of waves. We will use the
example of oscillations of a simple pendulum to
explain the terms amplitude and frequency. Although a it. The loudness of a sound also depends on the
simple quantity of air that is made to vibrate. Loudness of
pendulum does not produce sound waves that we can sound is measured in decibel (dB) unit.
hear, this example will help us observe oscillations and
understand the terms involved. The diagram of a
simple pendulum is given in figure. It consists of a Sound dB Loudness
small ball (called the bob) attached to a string, which is
fixed at one end. Rocket and take 200 Dangerously
off loud
Amplitude: If we pull the bob sideways and leave it, it
will oscillate back and forth for some time and then Aircraft engine 100-200 Painfully loud
come to a stop. The position where it comes to a stop
is called the mean position (position A in figure). The Pneumatic drill 100 Very loud
maximum displacement of the bob from the mean
position during oscillation is called the amplitude of the Heavy traffic 90 Very loud
oscillation. In figure, the maximum displacement
occurs when the bob is at positions B and C. Loud music 90 Very loud

Time period: When the bob moves from one position Ordinary 40-60 Moderate
and comes back to the same position (moving in the conversation
same direction), it is said to complete one oscillation.
For example, in figure, if the bob starts from A, goes to Whisper 20 Faint
C, then to B, and then back to A, we say one
oscillation is complete (look at the arrows in figure). Rustling of 10 Very faint
The time taken to complete one oscillation is called the leaves
time period of the oscillation. It is measured in seconds.

Frequency: The number of oscillations per second is

called the frequency of oscillation. For example, if the PITCH
bob of the pendulum in figure moves five times through  The shrillness of a sound is called its pitch. The pitch
point B in a second, its frequency is 5 per second. The of a sound depends upon its frequency. Higher the
SI unit of frequency ‘per second’ is called hertz (Hz) in frequency of a sound, higher is its pitch.
honour of the German physicist, Heinrich R. Hertz.  The voice of a child or a woman has higher
When we say that a vibrating body has a time period t, frequency than the voice of a man.
we mean that it completes one oscillation in t seconds.  The faster is the vibration of the source object, higher
Thus, in 1 second it will complete 1/t oscillations, which is the frequency and therefore higher is the pitch.
is its frequency.  Higher pitch of any sound corresponds to larger
number of compressions and rarefactions passing a
Frequency and pitch: Sound waves are produced
point per unit time.
due to the to and from oscillation of particles in a
 The stretched membrane of a tabla or mridangam
medium. If an object oscillates 80 times per second, it
produces sound of a higher frequency (or of higher
is said to have a frequency of 80 Hz. Frequency is
pitch).
considered an
important characteristic of a sound wave because
different frequencies sound different to us. You might
have noticed the difference between the shrill voice of
a child and the deep voice of a man. The shrillness of
the sound produced is determined by the frequency of
the vibrating body. Shrillness is also explained using a
term called pitch. Higher the frequency of the vibrating
body, the higher will be its pitch. A high-pitched sound
appears shrill, and a low- pitched sound appears deep
or gruff to our ears.

Amplitude and loudness: The amplitude of the

vibrating body producing the sound determines the
loudness of the sound. If the amplitude is higher, the
sound produced is louder. QUALITY
 Quality of a sound is also called timbre. The quality
of sound is the characteristic which enable us to
LOUDNESS
distinguish between the sounds produced by different
Loudness of a sound depends on the
sources.
amplitude of the vibration producing that sound.
 The more pleasant sound is said to be of rich quality.
Greater is the amplitude of vibration, louder is the
sound produced by  A sound of single frequency (called pure sound) is
called a tone.
 A tuning fork produces the sound of a single
frequency. The sound which is a mixture of several
frequencies is called an impure sound (or note) is
pleasant to listen.
 Different instruments, depending on their shape and
size, produce different number of harmonics of
different relative loudness. As a result, the sound
produced by an instrument can be distinguished from
that produced by other instruments.
MODULE 5
Lesson 1 - Reflection of Light by Plane Mirror
What is Reflection of Light?
When the light ray falling from the object on the
surface bounces back are known as reflected rays and
this phenomenon is known as a reflection of light.
What are Laws of Reflection?
The laws of reflection are divided into two main points
and they are:
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.
• The incident ray, reflected ray, and the
normal at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.
At point a, a wave front is generated due to the
secondary source on ray 2. At the same time, other
wave fronts are generated at points c and b. Since
wave fronts at points, a and b are generated at the
same time ac = cb. Thus, the triangle acb is isosceles
and the angles θ1= θ2
Note that θ1 is the angle of incidence and θ2 is the
angle of reflection.
Thus, Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Below is the image formed by the plane mirror.

What is Reflection on a Plane Mirror?

When the light rays which gets stroked on the
flat mirror and gets reflected back. According to laws of
reflection, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle
of incidence. The image is obtained behind the plane
which is present in the mirror. This process of
obtaining a mirror image which virtual and erect is
Difference Between Real Image and Virtual Image
known as a reflection on a plane mirror.
A real image and a virtual image are different forms of
image. The main difference between real and virtual
Characteristics of Image formed by Plane Mirror
images lies in the way in which they are produced. A
Following are the characteristics of image formed by
real image is formed when rays converge, whereas a
plane mirror:
virtual image occurs where rays only appear to diverge.
• The image obtained by the plane mirror is
Let us look at more differences between real images
always erect and virtual.
and virtual images.
• The image size and the size of the object,
both are equal.
• The distance between the image obtained is
as the distance at which the object is placed.
• Laterally inverted images are obtained.

Types of Reflection
Following are the three types of reflection of light:
• Mirror reflection
• Specular reflection
• Diffuse reflection

Image Formed by the Plane Mirror
Consider the light rays 1, 2 and 3 shown by
solid lines. The wave fronts which are perpendicular to
these light rays are shown by the thin lines. The
secondary wave fronts generated are the circular
fronts described.
To obtain a real image the light source and the screen
must be placed on the same plane. Real images are
obtained using a converging lens or a concave mirror.
The size of the real image depends upon the
placement of the object.
 Difference Between Real Image and Virtual Image Lesson 2 - Reflection of Light by Thin Spherical Mirrors
Curved mirrors come in two basic types: those that
Real Image Virtual Image converge parallel incident rays of light and those that
diverge parallel incident rays of light.
Real images are inverted Virtual images are erect

Convex lenses form a real
image
Real images are formed
on the screen
Concave lenses form a
virtual image
Virtual images appear to
be on the lens or the
mirror itself
One of the easiest shapes to analyze is the spherical
mirror. Typically such a mirror is not a complete sphere,
but a spherical cap — a piece sliced from a larger
imaginary sphere with a single cut. As far as optical
instruments go, most spherical mirrors are spherical
caps.

Real images are formed Convex mirror form a Start by tracing a line from the center of curvature of
by a concave mirror virtual image the sphere through the geometric center of the
spherical cap. Extend it to infinity in both directions.
Real images are formed Virtual images are formed This imaginary line is called the principal axis or optical
due to the actual due to the imaginary axis of the mirror. Any line through the center of
curvature of a sphere is an axis of symmetry for the
intersection of light rays intersection of light rays
sphere, but only one of these is a line of symmetry for
the spherical cap. The adjective "principal" is used
A virtual image is an upright image that is achieved because its the most important of all possible axes.
where the rays seem to diverge. A virtual image is Compare this with the principal of a school, who is in
produced with the help of a diverging lens or a convex essence the most important or principal teacher. The
mirror. A virtual image is found by tracing real rays that point where the principal axis pierces the mirror is
emerge from an optical device backward to perceived called the pole of the mirror. Compare this with the
or apparent origins of ray divergences. Because the poles of the Earth, the place where the imaginary axis
rays never really converge, a virtual image cannot be of rotation pierces the literal surface of the spherical
projected onto a screen. Earth.

Therefore, we can say that the difference between real
and virtual images is that the real image can be
obtained on the screen whereas the virtual image
cannot be obtained on the screen.
Imagine a set of rays parallel to the principal axis
incident on a spherical mirror (paraxial rays as they are
sometimes called). Let's start with a mirror curved like
the one shown below — one where the reflecting
surface is on the "inside", like looking into a spoon held
correctly for eating, a concave mirror.

Rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a concave

mirror will appear to converge on a point in front of the
mirror somewhere between the mirror's pole and its
center of curvature. That makes this a converging
mirror and the point where the rays converge is called
the focal point or focus. Focus was originally a Latin
word meaning hearth or fireplace — poetically, the
place in a house where the people converge or,
analagously, the place in an optical system where the
rays converge. With a little bit of geometry it's possible
to show that the focus lies approximately midway
between the center and pole.

Positions in the space around a spherical mirror are

described using the principal axis like the axis of a
coordinate system. The pole serves as the origin.
Locations in front of a spherical mirror (or a plane
mirror, for that matter) are assigned positive coordinate
values. Those behind, negative. The distance from the
pole to the center of curvature is called (no surprise, I
hope) the radius of curvature (r). The distance from the
pole to the focal point is called the focal length (f). The
focal length of a spherical mirror is
then approximately half its radius of curvature.
numerical information, it is necessary to use the Mirror
Equation and the Magnification Equation. The mirror
equation expresses the quantitative relationship
between the object distance (do), the image distance
(di), and the focal length (f). The equation is stated as
follows:

Now, imagine a mirror with the opposite curvature —

one where the reflecting surface is on the "outside",
like looking into a spoon that's been flipped upside
The magnification equation relates the ratio of the
down from its useful orientation, a convex mirror. Let's
image distance and object distance to the ratio of the
shine paraxial rays onto this mirror and see what
image height (hi) and object height (ho). The
happens.
magnification equation is stated as follows:

These two equations can be combined to yield

information about the image distance and image height
if the object distance, object height, and focal length
are known.

As a demonstration of the effectiveness of the

Convex mirrors are diverging mirrors. Instead
of converging onto a point in front of the mirror, here
rays of light parallel to the principal axis appear
to diverge from a point behind the mirror. We'll also
call this location the focal point or focus of the mirror
even though its disagrees with the original concept of
the focus as a place where things meet up. "In convex
house, people go away from hearth".
mirror equation and magnification equation, consider
the following example problem and its solution.
Example Problem #1
A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7
cm from a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2
cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.

Locations in front of a diverging mirror have positive Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification
position values, since points in front of any mirror are of the known information.
always positive. The distance from the pole to the
ho = 4.0 cm
center of curvature is still the radius of curvature (r) but
now its negative. The distance from the pole to the do = 45.7 cm
focus is still the focal length (f), but now it's also
negative. With two sign switches, the rule that focal f = 15.2 cm
length is half the radius of curvature is still true in the
same approximate way as before.
Next identify the unknown quantities that you wish to
solve for.
Lesson 3 - Mirror Equation
di = ???
The Mirror Equation - Concave Mirrors
hi = ???
Ray diagrams can be used to determine the
image location, size, orientation and type of image
formed of objects when placed at a given location in
To determine the image distance, the mirror equation
front of a concave mirror. The use of these diagrams
must be used. The following lines represent the
was demonstrated earlier in Lesson 3. Ray diagrams
solution to the image distance; substitutions and
provide useful information about object-image
algebraic steps are shown.
relationships, yet fail to provide the information in a
quantitative form. While a ray diagram may help one
determine the approximate location and size of the
image, it will not provide numerical information about
image distance and object size. To obtain this type of
The numerical values in the solution above were
rounded when written down, yet unrounded numbers
were used in all calculations. The final answer is
rounded to the third significant digit.

To determine the image height, the magnification

equation is needed. Since three of the four quantities
in the equation (disregarding the M) are known, the
fourth quantity can be calculated. The solution is
shown below.

The negative values for image height indicate

that the image is an inverted image. As is often the
case in physics, a negative or positive sign in front of
the numerical value for a physical quantity represents
information about direction. In the case of the image
height, a negative value always indicates an inverted
image.

From the calculations in this problem it can be

concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object is placed 45.7
cm from a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2

cm, then the image will be inverted, 1.99-cm tall and

located 22.8 cm from the mirror. The results of this
calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier
in this lesson. In this case, the object is located beyond
the center of curvature (which would be two focal
lengths from the mirror), and the image is located
between the center of curvature and the focal point.
This falls into the category of Case 1 : The object is
located beyond C.
METEOROLOGY
SCI314 – METEOROLOGY
Module 1 – Introduction to Meteorology
It has always been a great challenge in human
race on Earth to understand and explain events that
have been taking place within the enormity of our thin
atmosphere. We struggle to use the knowledge we
gained from observing these phenomenal events in
controlling whatever lie ahead of us. This module will
take you beyond the portal of experience in
understanding the nature of atmospheric events such
as weather and climate. The learnings that emanate
from this module will aid you in appreciating importance
of our atmosphere to all beings and in taking our part as
stewards of our very own planet Earth.
To avoid confusion, all observation times refer
to a single reference time, which is that kept at the
Greenwich, England Observatory and is abbreviated
UTC (from “coordinated universal time”) or simply Z. In
July, local time in Chicago and Evansville is five hours
earlier than UTC. Therefore, the 5:00 P.M. central time
observations are 10:00 P.M. UTC. Actually, UTC times
are given not in terms of A.M. and P.M. but in terms of
a 24-hour clock, thus, 10:00 P.M. becomes 22:00 UTC,
or simple 22 Z.
2. Observing Clouds and Visibility

Lesson 1 – Weather Observations and Instruments

In meteorology, the word observation often

refers to a rather specific set of measurements that
together define the state of the atmosphere at some
time and place.

You may be familiar with many of the

components of the standard meteorological observation
from watching weather forecasts on television, hearing
from radio or reading them in the newspaper. In many
localities, human observer continues to play a crucial
role in the collection of weather data. By going outside,
observing the weather and making careful reports, you
can learn a great deal about the atmosphere. I
encourage you to get in the habit of making
observations yourself. Notice the clouds, the
temperature and the wind whenever you are outside. Cloud Cover
The air is as much a part of your surroundings as the As you can see from Table 1.1, the Chicago
clothes you wear and the ground you walk on. cloud cover was reported to be 8/8, which means that
the sky was completely cloudy, the meteorological term
Let’s take table 1.1 below as our example in discussing for which is overcast. In Evansville, the sky cover was
the components of weather observation as well as the 3/8, the general term for scattered. Scattered clouds
instruments used in the process. correspond to a sky cover between 1/8 and 4/8. Other
terms are broken, which means coverage of 5/8 to 7/8,
and clear, which means 0/8 of cloud coverage. (Note
that the term clear refers only to cloud cover, not to the
clarity of the air. Refer to table 1.2 on the right.)

1. Observation Times
A few minutes before each hour, observers at
thousands of weather stations throughout the world
make, record, and disseminate hourly weather
observations.as meteorological observations are
exchanged among stations in many different time
zones, time reported in forms such as “5:00 P.M.”
become a problem: 5:00 P.M. in Chicago is 6:00 P.M. in
New York and 3:00 P.M. in Los Angeles. Cloud Types
For the moment, let’s have few of cloud types
illustrated. Cloud genera are not distinct entities like
genera and species of living things. Instead, a variety of
hybrid cloud forms, such as stratocumulus and
cirrocumulus, often occurs.
The reported height of a cloud is that of the
cloud’s base above the ground (not sea level). An
observer measures cloud heights in any of a number of
ways shown in figure 1.2 below. Note that distinctly
different cloud types prevail at the two locations. The
Chicago observer measured the height of the overcast
stratus cloud deck to be considerably lower than that
reported by the observer at Evansville for the scattered
cumulus cloud there.
Four methods of determining the heights of
cloud bases. (A) Airplane pilots often report the height
of cloud bases as they ascend or descend through
them. (B) Helium-filled balloons rise at nearly constant
rates; by timing the interval between balloon release
and its disappearance into the cloud, the height of the
base can be calculated. (C) The ceilometer reflects light
off the cloud and determines cloud height by measuring
time elapsed from transmission to reception. (D) An
experienced observer can estimate cloud heights fairly
accurately.
Visibility
The prevailing visibility is a measure of the
atmosphere’s horizontal clarity. Specifically, it is the
farthest distance you can see throughout at least half of
the horizon. For many people, the difficult part of making
a visibility measurement is finding a location affording
an unobstructed view to the horizon. If the visibility is
less than 7 miles, the observer must report the
restriction (snow, rain, haze, etc.) as some form of
“present weather”.
The reported visibility of 7 miles at both Chicago
and Evansville in Table 1.1 was considered
unrestricted. Thus, the visibility values show no
significant difference between the two weather reports.
Visibility is a crucially
variable for aircraft taking off and
landing. At many airport weather
stations, instruments called
transmissometers measure
visibility along runways. A
transmissometer fundamentally
is a combination of light source
and receiver. The receiver
measures the fraction of light that
arrives from the source compared to the intensity
emitted and translates that fraction into visibility units, in
miles or kilometers.
3. Observing Present Weather and Precipitation
Present Weather
The Chicago reported “increasing or thickening
clouds” for present weather. Present weather is a
description of (generally) visible events occurring in the
atmosphere; loosely, present weather describes “what
is doing outside.” The observer chooses a descriptor
from the list of choices shown at figure 1.5. This process
removes much of the subjectivity in reporting present
weather. Present weather encompasses phenomena
such as rain, thunder, and haze but not descriptors such
as “hot, “windy,” and so on, because the latter be
measured quantitatively with instruments and are
reported elsewhere in the weather observation.
The “sky unchanged” report for Evansville
means that no precipitation was falling, no phenomena
such as lightning, fog, or haze were observed, and the
extent of cloud cover was much the way it had been
over the past three hours.
Quantity of Precipitation
Precipitation amount is the depth of water in
any of its forms (rain, snow, etc.) that has fallen over a
given period; it is measured with a rain gauge or a snow
gauge. The six- and 24-hour total listed for Chicago and
Evansville in table 1.1 cover the periods ending at 00 Z
on July 15 (7:00 P.M. on July 14). In theory, a tin can is
a suitable rain gauge. In practice, however, it is useful
to funnel the collected water into a narrow gauge,
because most precipitation amounts are small.
Therefore, rain from a wider area is funneled into the
container, making the water column deeper and thus
easier to measure. Then the measuring gauge is
adjusted to compensate for the extra rain collected by
the funnel.
Location is a critical issue for a precipitation
gauge. Nearby trees or buildings can block precipitation
from reaching the gauge or cause local wind currents
that can affect the amount collected.
4. Observing Wind However, the wind directions at the two locations are
diametrically opposed.
Wind Speed
Wind is nothing more than air in motion.
Although you cannot see the wind directly, it is easy
enough to observe its impact on objects it encounters.
Then you can use the adaptation of the Beaufort wind
scale in table 1.3 to translate your observation into an
estimate of wind speed. With practice, a person can
become an accurate estimator of wind speed using the
Beaufort scale. Beaufort (pronounced “bow-fort” as in
bow-tie) was a nineteenth century British naval officer
who developed a method of estimating wind speed
according to the appearance of the ocean surface
(wave heights, etc.). In Beaufort’s time, shipping ran on
wind power, so maritime wind data were of crucial
importance. The original scale has been expanded to
include effects observed on land.
Wind speed is measured and reported in units
called knots. A knot is defined as 1 nautical mile per
hour. A nautical mile is about 15% (800 feet) longer than
the 5280-foot statute mile; therefore, the 10-knot wind
speed reported in Chicago is equivalent to 11.5 mph.
Notice that, as with visibility and present weather, wind
speed data at the two stations are quite similar.

5. Observing Temperature and Humidity

An observant, trained person could proceed
this far through a weather observation with no
measuring equipment beyond a tin can, funnel and ruler
for measuring rainfall. From this point on, however,
special instruments are required: the human body
simply is not a very sensitive instrument for making
unassisted estimates of the air’s temperature, its
humidity and especially pressure. We need to extend
our senses through the use of instruments to make
reliable observations of these elements.

Wind Direction
You can observe the wind direction simply by
standing in an open area and turning slowly until you
feel the wind blowing directly on your face. The direction
you are facing is the wind direction. Note that the
direction is reported as that from which the wind is °C = 5/9(°F – 32) = K – 273
blowing. Thus, the report of a north wind means it is °F = 9/5°C + 32
coming from the north and moving toward the south. K = °C + 273
Terms such as northerly and easterly also mean that the
wind is coming from those directions. Temperature
The anemometer and wind vane measure For now, we define temperature simply as the
wind speed and direction, respectively. Sometimes the degree of hotness or coldness of some objects, as
two instruments are combined into a single device. Note measured on a thermometer scale. As in measuring
that wind speed is one of the few weather elements for rainfall, the thermometer’s location is more important
which the Chicago and Evansville observers recorded than its type: thermometers exposed to direct sunlight
nearly identical values (10 and 11 knots, respectively). or placed on the ground on hot blacktop, for example
can register extraordinary and meaningless
temperature as far as the atmosphere is concerned.
 Therefore, the thermometer is installed in a
well-ventilated shelter 1.5 meters (5 feet) above the
ground. Three different thermometer scales are used in
meteorology and are illustrated in figure 1.7: Fahrenheit,
Celsius and Kelvin. We need concern ourselves with
only the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales for the moment.
Humidity
The term humidity refers to the atmosphere’s
water vapor content. Water vapor is water in its gas
phase and as such is invisible. Let’s discuss the two
variables of humidity.
a. dewpoint - dewpoint temperature, is the
temperature at which water vapor begins to condense
into dew (or fog) if the air were cooled but otherwise
unchanged. Comparing the dewpoint temperatures at
the two stations: 70°F in Evansville, 59°F in Chicago, a
higher dewpoint temperature means a greater amount
of water vapor present in a given amount of air. Thus,
more water vapor is present in the Evansville air than in
Chicago’s.
From another point of view, the
Chicago air can be considered more humid than
Evansville’s. Notice that in Chicago, the difference
between temperature and dewpoint (the temperature-
dewpoint spread”) is only 2°F (61°F to 59°F), compared
to a 21°F spread (91°F to 70°F) in Evansville. Thus, in
Chicago, a much smaller temperature drop would be
required to initiate the condensation of water vapor as
dew or fog than in Evansville.
b. relative humidity – is a term that reflects the
significance of the temperature-dewpoint spread. We
will define more precisely the term on the later
discussion. For now, think of relative humidity as an
index whose value decreases as the temperature-
dewpoint increases. In Chicago, with a 2-degree
temperature-dewpoint spread, has a higher relative
humidity (93%) than does Evansville (21-degree spread
and relative humidity of 50%).
6. Observing Air Pressure
Our difficulties in sensing values of temperature or
humidity unaided by instruments are minor compared to
the problem of sensing air pressure. For now, we simply
state that air pressure is the force exerted by the air on
a given area. Air pushes on everything it comes in
contact with but particularly, for purposes of this course,
on other air. Variations in air pressure from place to
place, as illustrated in figure 1.9 may set the air in
motion. We recognize that motion as wind!
Air in the region indicated is subject to a greater
pressure force from the high pressure in the west than
from the lower pressure to the east. In response to the
unequal pressure forces, the air will begin moving
eastward.
Air pressure is
measured using barometer, an
instrument that extends the
observer’s senses into the world
of air pressure. The two basic
kinds of barometer are shown in
figure 1.10. Units of air pressure
measurements are numerous.
They include inches of mercury,
millimeters, millibars, and
Pascals. We will be using
millibar units in this chapter.
Typical air pressure values near
sea level are slightly over 1000 millibars.
It is standard practice to adjust the measured
surface air pressure to eliminate effects of different
statin altitudes. Such adjusted pressures are called
“sea-level pressures.” Unless explicitly stated
otherwise, stations’ surface air pressures (including
those at Chicago and Evansville in this example) are
sea-level values.
Lesson 2 – Weather Observation in Time and Space
The Context in Time
Table 2.1A provides us with information about
conditions at Chicago and Evansville for the six one-
hour periods leading up to and following the 5 P.M. (22
Z) data presented in table 1.1. From this table, you can
see that the weather contrasts between the two stations
persisted for at least 12 hours. On the other hand, notice
that the average July data, presented in table 2.1B,
indicate that long-term average conditions at the two
locales are very similar. This line of inquiry has
narrowed our search. We know that whatever caused
the disparity maintained its influence for a number of
hours but then began to relinquish its hold.
Table 2.1A and 2.1B offer a good chance to
define and distinguish between two terms we will use
throughout this course: weather and climate. The
information in table 2.1A is considered weather data:
weather is defined as the condition of the atmosphere,
as described by its temperature, pressure, humidity,
clouds, wind, precipitation, and so on, generally at a
given place or region and at a given time. Thus,
Chicago’s 3:00 P.M. dewpoint temperature, Evansville’s
5:00 P.M. sky condition, and the contrasts in air
temperature between the two stations all describe
weather conditions.

On the other hand, the information from table 2.1 B that
Chicago’s July average dewpoint temperature is 66°F
and July precipitation in Evansville averages 0.37
inches less than at Chicago are examples of climate
data. Climate is the long term condition of the
atmosphere in a region, as described by the sum of all
weather events affecting the region over an extended
period of time (typically, many years). A region’s climate
is described by averages, such as those in table 2.1B,
as well as extremes, such as the highest temperature
ever recorded in Evansville (which happened to be
108°F, recorded in July 1936).
The Context in Space
What is the spatial context for the weather
observations at the two cities? Did other observers near
Chicago report conditions like the Chicago data? Is
Evansville’s observation representative of conditions
over a larger area? An answer of no to either question
would suggest that that location’s weather subject to
strong local influences. Figure 2.1, which illustrates
temperatures recorded at a number of sites at 22 Z,
reveals that similar temperatures tended to occur near
one another, forming regions like values. At this time,
Chicago lay in a very different temperature zone from
Evansville.
The patterns revealed in figure 2.1 do not
“explain temperature differences between Chicago and
Evansville. They do inform us of the spatial extent of the
temperature differences, however. The knowledge that
the Chicago-Evansville temperature differences are
part of a larger pattern suggests that differences in
cloud cover, wind direction and so forth also may be part
of larger patterns. We will make that assumption and
hypothesize that the temperature and other patterns are
components of a single, large-scale weather system
that was causing the differences between Chicago’s
and Evansville’s weather. To test this hypothesis,
however, we need to acquaint you with some weather
plotting techniques.
A Mapping Aid: The Plotting Model
It would be useful to see the complete 22 Z
weather reports for each observing station, not just
temperatures. However, if we proceeded by listing the
reports next to each station, as we did in table 1.1, very
few stations’ data would fit. Furthermore, a map should
be visual aid, whereas a list of data is not. We need a
more concise and visual way to represent each station’s
report. The symbols in the lower left corner of figure 2.2
show Chicago’s 22 Z weather, plotted according to
station plotting model used to display observed
weather. (This model is simplified). The circle at the
center locates the station on the map and indicates the
total amount of cloud cover according to the system
shown in figure 2.2. The arrow shows wind speed,
rounded off to the nearest 5 knots (5 knots for a short
feather, 10 knots for a long feather) and wind direction
(the arrow travels with the wind, feathers at the back).
Each of the other variables has a particular position in
which it is plotted. Thus, temperature always appears
above and left of the cloud circle, air pressure above
and right. Because temperature is always plotted in the
same position, it is necessary to label it as temperature
or to specify its units. This procedure reduces clutter on
the plotted map.
(A) Station plot for Chicago’s 22 Z weather. The long
bar below the cloud circle signifies status clouds. The
short vertical mark at the cloud circle’s top is the present
weather symbol for “increasing clouds.” Other symbols
should be clear from the text and from comparison with
the data in table 1.1. (B) Some symbols used in the
station plotting model. Other symbols also found in
figure 1.5.
Air pressure data are plotted without the
leading 9 or 10 and without the decimal point. Thus,
pressure of 1029.7 millibars is plotted as 297; 987.6 mb
would be plotted as 876. By comparing with data at
other stations in the vicinity, you can tell whether a given
plotted pressure is missing a leading 9 or 10. This will
become second nature once you have studied a
number of weather maps in detail. Most sea-level
pressure measurements are within 10 to 20 millibars of
1000 millibars; therefore, in reconstructing the original
pressure value, affix whichever value (9 or 10) gives a
pressure closest to 1000 mb. Thus, 923 would decode
to 992.3 mb – not 1092.3, which would be a world
record. More specifically, you can usually assume that
for plotted values in range 000 to 500, a leading 10 has
been omitted, and for values from 500 through 999, a
leading 9 has been omitted.
Notice that figure 2.2 gives symbols for plotting
the three-hour pressure tendency. The pressure
tendency is the amount and nature of the change in air
pressure over the past three hours; tendency of + 14/
means that the air pressure has risen 1.4 millibars over
the past three hours and the rise has been a steady one.
Pressure tendency information is particularly useful for
determining how pressure systems are changing and
moving.
Weather Map Patterns on July 14, 1992
Now that you are familiar with the standard
plotting model, we can consider our hypothesis: that the
weather differences from Chicago to Evansville arise
from the presence of a large-scale weather system
passing through the Midwest. Let’s evaluate using the
figure 2.3.
Station plots of weather conditions at 22 Z on July 14.
Note that tendency for high temperatures to occur at
stations with southwest winds and low temperatures
where winds are northeast and skies are overcast.
Patterns of Clouds, Precipitation and Air Pressure
Study figure 2.3 for a moment, looking for
patterns in other weather elements besides
temperature. You may notice that cloudiness is
concentrated in broad zone running from west to east
across the map. In contrast, locations in the northwest
and south sections of the map are reporting nearly clear
skies. Chicago lies in the cloudy band while Evansville
in the partly sunny southern zone. Note also that
precipitation, in the form of showers and thunderstorms
(shown by the and symbols), is falling in the cloudy
region, particularly in Illinois and Indiana.
If you examine the values of air pressure, you
find a pattern that correlates with those of cloud cover
and precipitation: higher pressures are reported in the
relatively clear skies to the northwest and south,
especially the southeast; lower pressures occur along
the cloudy zone. Two observers in central Illinois, in the
region of greatest shower activity, reported the very
lowest pressure, 1006.6 millibars (066 on the map).
The Air Pressure Patterns in More Detail
Let’s examine the pressure patterns shown in figure 2.4.
The center of lowest pressure is labeled with a large L
and is referred to informally as a “low.” A second,
smaller low lies over western New York and is similarly
labeled. The two regions of high pressure (“highs”) are
labeled with an H. These features as you probably have
assumed, are the familiar “highs” and “lows” of the daily
weather map. In addition, the pattern of isobars in figure
2.4 makes the pressure pattern more evident. Isobars
are lines of equal air pressure. Each isobar represents
the locations of some particular value of air pressure
reduced to sea level. On one side of the isobar,
pressure is higher; on the other side, it is lower.
The surface weather map, showing high and low
pressure centers and isobars. The isobar pattern makes
evident the low’s elongation in the northeast-southwest
direction.
For example, follow the isobar labeled 1008
that encircles the Illinois low in figure 2.4. Notice it
passes directly through two stations reporting air
pressures of exactly 1008.0 millibars (080 on the map).
Within the loop formed by the isobar, air pressures all
are lower than 1008.0 millibars; outside of the loop, all
are higher. Similarly, the 1010.0 isobar defines locations
having a pressure of 1010.0 millibars. Within the isobar
loop, pressures are lower than 1010.0; outside the loop,
they are higher.
Note that the northeast-southwest orientation of
the low pressure region and the presence of the two
highs are all much more obvious in figure 2.4 than in
figure 2.3. Isobar patterns provide the meteorologist a
way of seeing the field of air pressure at a glance,
instead of interpreting numerical values plotted at each
station. Let’s examine the wind flow. Remember that the
plotted wind arrows point with the wind into each
station’s cloud circle, with the feathers at the rear of the
arrow. Notice that north of the low pressure region the
wind is mainly from the northeast, while south of the
lows it tends to come from the southwest. This pattern
results in a counterclockwise flow of air around the lows.
On the other hand, the wind flow tends to be clockwise
around the high pressure center in the northwest corner
of the map.
 Close inspection of the wind flow reveals that at
most stations, it is not simply parallel to the isobars but
tends to cross them as well, from higher toward lower
pressure. The overall patterns in figure 2.4 is one in
which winds tend to spiral clockwise and outward from
centers of high pressure but counterclockwise and
somewhat inward toward low pressure centers. (You
will see in later lessons that these rotations are reversed
in the Southern Hemisphere; winds blow clockwise and
inward around lows, counterclockwise and outward
around highs.)
Thus, the underlying assumption for our
hypothesis seems true: a number of weather variables
are organized into large-scale patterns. Therefore, we
now consider the hypothesis itself: that the patterns,
and therefore the Chicago-Evansville weather
differences, are caused by a passing weather system.
Evaluating the Weather System Hypothesis
The hypothesis we made that Chicago-
Evansville weather differences are the result of patterns
created by a transient, large-scale weather system, we
recognize there is a great deal of evidence in its favor.
Chicago lies just to the North of a low pressure center,
which is bringing that city north winds, clouds, and
therefore low temperatures. Evansville lies southeast of
the low and as a result is experiencing south winds,
clear skies typical of the high to its east, and a very
warm (91°) temperature. The presence of only
scattered clouds at Evansville, which is not far from the
low pressure center, is somewhat inconsistent with the
present hypothesis, but in all, you have made good
progress in understanding the July 14 weather
differences. Although we will need to look further before
accepting the hypothesis, there is no reason to reject it
at this point.
Lesson 3 – Basic Models of High and Low Pressure
System
Standing on the ground and looking up, you are
looking through the atmosphere. It might not look like
anything is there, especially if there are no clouds in the
sky. But what you don’t see is air – lots of it. We live at
the bottom of the atmosphere, and the weight of all the
air above us is called air pressure. Above every square
inch on the surface of the Earth is 14.7 pounds of air.
That means air exerts 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi)
of pressure at Earth’s surface. High in the atmosphere,
air pressure decreases. With fewer air molecules
above, there is less pressure from the weight of the air
above.
Pressure varies from day to day at the Earth’s
surface - the bottom of the atmosphere. This is, in part,
because the Earth is not equally heated by the Sun.
Areas where the air is warmed often have lower
pressure because the warm air rises. These areas are
called low pressure systems. Places where the air
pressure is high, are called high pressure systems.
A low pressure system has lower pressure at its
center than the areas around it. Winds blow towards the
low pressure, and the air rises in the atmosphere where
they meet. As the air rises, the water vapor within it
condenses, forming clouds and often precipitation.
Because of Earth’s spin and the Coriolis Effect, winds
of a low pressure system swirl counterclockwise north
of the equator and clockwise south of the equator. This
is called cyclonic flow. On weather maps, a low
pressure system is labeled with red L.
A high pressure system has higher pressure at its
center than the areas around it. Winds blow away from
high pressure. Swirling in the opposite direction from a
low pressure system, the winds of a high pressure
system rotate clockwise north of the equator and
counterclockwise south of the equator. This is called
anticyclonic flow. Air from higher in the atmosphere
sinks down to fill the space left as air is blown outward.
On a weather map, you may notice a blue H, denoting
the location of a high pressure system.
How do we know what the pressure is? How do
we know how it changes over time? Today, electronic
sensors in weather stations measure air pressure.
These sensors are able to make continuous
measurements of pressure over time. In the past,
barometers were used and measured how much air
pushed on a fluid, such as mercury. Historically,
measurements of air pressure were described as
“inches of mercury.” Today, meteorologists use
millibars (mb) to describe air pressure.

Air pressure depends on temperature and density.

When you inflate a balloon, the air molecules
inside the balloon get packed more closely together
than air molecules outside the balloon. This means the
density of air is high inside the balloon. When the
density of air is high, the air pressure is high. The
pressure of the air pushes on the balloon from the
inside, causing it to inflate. If you heat the balloon, the
air pressure gets even higher. Air pressure depends on
the temperature of the air and the density of the air
molecules.

Atmospheric scientists use math equations to

describe how pressure, temperature, density, and
volume are related to each other. They call these
equations the Ideal Gas Law. In this law, temperature is
measured in Kelvin.

This law helps us explain how weather works,

such as what happens in the atmosphere to create
warm and cold fronts and storms, such as
thunderstorms. For example, if air pressure increases,
the temperature must increase. If air pressure
decreases, the temperature decreases. It also explains
why air gets colder at higher altitudes, where pressure
is lower.
MODULE 2 – THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Lesson 1 – Properties of Matter
Properties of Matter
A. LARGE-SCALE PROPERTIES
1. Mass
It is a measure of an object’s resistance to a
change in motion.
The more massive the object, the harder it is
to alter its course.
It is an innate property of an object and is
constant regardless of the object’s location.
Measured in units of grams (g) or kilograms
(kg)
Weight is a force. It is measure of earth’s gravitational
pull on an object and depends on both the object’s mass
and strength of gravity. Thus, if gravity changes, your
weight changes. On the moon, your gravitational force
on you and therefore your weight, is only one-sixth as
much as on earth, your mass is the same in both places,
however.
2. Volume
It is simply a measure of the amount of space
occupied by an object.
The fact the matter occupies volume means that you
cannot put two objects in the same space.
In Meteorology, volume is given in units of cubic
meters (m3) or cubic centimeters (cm3).
3. Density
It is the amount of mass contained in a given volume.
Since every physical object has mass and volume, it
also has certain density which is its mass divided by its
volume.
In formula form, ρ = M/V, where density is
represented by ρ (Greek letter rho), and M and V are
mass and volume, respectively. Units of density are
grams per cubic centimeter (g.cm-3), kilograms per
cubic meter (kg.m-3).
B. ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF MATTER
1. Atoms and Elements
An atom is composed of a nucleus consisting of two
types of particles:
o Protons – carries a positive electric charge
o Neutron – has no charge at all
Electrons are far less massive than nuclear particles
and they carry an electric charge equal in magnitude to
that of the proton but opposite in sign: a negative
charge.
An element is matter composed of atoms containing
a given number of protons in their nuclei.
The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus is known
as its atomic number.
The number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus
is called the atomic mas number.
An isotope of a given element is a form of that
element composed of atoms all possessing the same
atomic mass number.
Most atoms are stable in the sense that their nuclear
makeup does not change.
Atoms of certain isotopes, however, may change
spontaneously into different substances, a process
called radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay often is accompanied by the
release of high-energy radiation.
2. Molecules, Compounds and Mixtures
The bonding of two or more atoms forms a molecule.
The substance formed by a single kind of molecule is
called a compound.
Diatomic and triatomic molecules are composed of
two and three atoms, respectively.
Most oxygen atoms in the lower atmosphere are
diatomic, thus, they are O2 molecules. The same is true
of nitrogen (N2).
A mixture is a collection of different atoms, molecules
and/or larger particles in physical proximity to each
other but not bound chemically. Air is a mixture,
consisting of molecules of many different substances.
3. Air as a Mixture
Suppose you could count and catalog a sample
of 1 million air particles. Despite the large number of
particles involved, physically the sample would be a
very small one: if you lined up those 1 million molecules
in single file, they would form a line just one- tenth of a
millimeter long, roughly the thickness of one page of a
book.
Lesson 2 – Molecules in Motion
A.
B.
Fig. 2.1 (A) Left unperturbed, the densest objects will
settle to the bottom of the chamber, leaving lighter (less
dense) ones above. (B) If the atmosphere settled out
according to the density of its component gases, it
would look like this. What problems does this suggest?
Figure 2.1A shows a mixture of materials of differing
densities. From everyday experience you know that
such mixtures tend to “settle out,” with the densest
particles falling and accumulating at the bottom. Air,
however, which as you have seen is composed of
particles of different densities, doesn’t seem to settle out
in this fashion.
Consider how you might keep the material in figure 2.1A
mixed: perhaps by shaking vigorously. As long as the
particles are moving fast enough, they do not settle out
but remain more or less evenly distributed throughout
the container. Could this explanation apply to the air as
well? That is, could the air particles be moving
sufficiently rapidly to keep themselves from settling out?
In fact, molecules of air do move at tremendous speeds,
often faster than the speed of sound, which is
approximately 350 meters (115 feet) per second.
Furthermore, this motion is neither smooth nor
organized but occurs in random directions. A typical
molecule collides with neighbors many millions of times
per second, changing direction and speed with each
collision. Such vigorous collisional activity ensures that
the different molecules remain well mixed.
The portrayal of air as an assembly of innumerably tiny
particles in constant and rapid collisional motion is
commonly a starting assumption of a theory known as
the kinetic theory of gases. (The word kinetic means,
“pertaining to motion.”) Kinetic theory is central to
understanding the atmosphere’s behavior; therefore,
we shall develop this important theory further.
Kinetic Theory and Temperature
What causes air molecules to move so rapidly?
Consider the everyday observation that heating water
to a boil causes the water to move vigorously, while
freezing it seems to stop all visible motion. Guessing
that the air might respond similarly to temperature
differences, you might hypothesize that adding heat to
a gas sample increases molecular motion: the more
heat added, the faster air molecules move. To test this
hypothesis, examine the data given in table 2.1.
Is the hypothesis confirmed? How, if at all, does
the average molecular motion vary with temperature?
Does the speed at a particular temperature vary in any
systematic way with the gas molecules’ molecular
mass?
Inspection should tell you that the hypothesis is
indeed confirmed: the speed does vary with
temperature and hotter gas molecules move faster, on
the average. Notice also that at a given temperature,
less massive molecules have greater mean speeds.
Kinetic theory and Kinetic Energy
All moving objects, from the molecules in table
2.1 to a runaway train, are said to possess energy by
virtue of their motion. What is energy? Consider these
examples:
1) You apply a force to your smartphone or
laptop, pushing it away from you across the table (not
so far you can’t keep reading, though);
2) A runaway train plows into an abandoned
hay wagon, moving it down the track.
In each case, a force (a push) has been applied to an
object, causing it to move. The product of the force
applied in the direction the object moved times the
distance it moved in response is a quantity known in
physics as work. Thus, you did a certain amount of work
in pushing the phone or laptop away from you, and the
train did work in pushing the hay wagon down the track.
Now here is where energy enters the picture.
Whenever work is done, energy is used to accomplish
the work. Without applying energy, you will not be able
to shove your phone or laptop away nor is the train
going to move the wagon. Energy is defined not by what
it is by the work it can do: energy is the property that
enables objects to do work. (Remember, we are
speaking of work in the scientific sense.)
To be able to do work, energy may need to be
converted from one form to another. The chemical
energy contained in gasoline cannot directly perform
work on a car without first being converted to thermal
energy in the engine’s cylinders, which is then
transformed to a force on the cylinders that move the
vehicle. Energy of motion is known as kinetic energy
(KE).
Let’s consider the kinetic energy associated
with the random motions of air molecules. Table 2.1
implies that air molecules move at great speeds, which
means that they must possess considerable kinetic
energy and that molecules’ speeds increase with
temperature. Since the molecules’ kinetic energy
depends on speed and their speed depends on their
temperature, then the molecules’ kinetic energy must
depend on their temperature. (If A depends on B and B
depends on C, then A depends on C.) This dependency
of kinetic energy on temperature is actually used to
define temperature in reference to kinetic energy:
temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the molecules of a substance.
The kinetic energy of all random molecular
motion in a substance is called thermal energy: thermal
in the sense that molecules’ kinetic energy depends on
their temperature. Thermal energy is just a special term
for a particular form of kinetic energy. The major
difference between temperature and thermal energy is
that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of each molecule while thermal energy is the
total kinetic energy of all molecules in the substance.
Thus, a hot drink has a higher temperature than water
in a swimming pool: the average kinetic energy of the
hot molecules is greater than that of the molecules in
the pool. However, there are vastly more molecules of
pool water than of drink molecules, so the pool contains
far more thermal energy than the drink.
Heat is a transfer of energy between objects of
different temperatures. Heat is often used incorrectly as
a synonym for temperature. Heat also is used as a
synonym for thermal energy. Remember that thermal
energy is the kinetic energy of an object’s molecules,
whereas heat is the transfer of a certain amount of that
energy to objects of different temperatures.
Phases of Matter
Everyday matter exists in three phases: as
solid, as liquids and as gases. Molecular motions within
them differ from one another in important ways.
Consider the water molecules in figure 2.2. In solid
phase, the molecules move only by vibrating “in place”;
they are not free to move about with respect to each
other. An input of energy causes the molecules to move
more vigorously and freely – while still remaining “in
contact” with each other – a process we identify with
melting or changing phase to liquid. Further energy
input frees the molecules from each other entirely,
allowing them to expand indefinitely, their volume
constrained only by the dimensions of their container.
This change of phase is known as evaporation and
represents the transition from liquid to gas phase. The
reverse process, the transition from gas to liquid phase
is called condensation.
Fig. 2.3 Phases and phase changes.
Figure 2.3 summarizes various phase changes. Note
that matter may change directly from solid to gas, a
process known as sublimation, and may change from
gas directly to solid, which is known as deposition. The
appearance and subsequent disappearance of frost on
a windowpane on a very cold morning provides an
example of deposition followed by sublimation. If the
temperature remains below freezing, then the water
skips the liquid phase as it passes from water vapor to
solid frost and then, later, back again to water vapor.
Kinetic Theory and Air Pressure
Fig. 2.4 Impacts of particles create pressure forces.
A force is a push or a pull. A persistent force may result
from a continuous push or pull as in figure 2.4A or from
the collective effect of a great many impacts, as in figure
2.4B. Now, suppose the tennis balls in figure 2.4B are
replaced by countless numbers of air molecules moving
at the speed of sound; also cover the tennis racket with
something more resistant to air, as in figure 2.4C. the
collective impacts of millions and millions of air
molecules striking the tennis racket cover creates a
sizable force on each square inch of the racket cover.
The average force on each square inch is just the
quotient of the total force divided by the number of
square inches and is known as the pressure. Since the
pressure in this case is caused by the air, it is called air
pressure.
Thus, air pressure can be explained in terms of
the kinetic theory of gases; rapidly moving air molecules
exert a pressure on any object with which they collide.
The amount of pressure the air exerts under normal
circumstances may surprise you. Near sea level, in a
typical weather system with barometer readings of
around 1000 millibars, the pressure amounts to roughly
14 pounds per square inch.
If you assume that the tennis racket covers in
figure 2.4 has a surface area of about 200 square
inches, the total force comes to 200 x 14 pounds of force
or a total of 2800 pounds of force due to air pressure!
What keeps the racket from flying off at the speed of
sound, pushed away by all that air pressure? Only the
fact that the other side of the cover is experiencing the
same amount of force in the opposite direction.
Because air molecules move randomly in all directions,
the pressure they exert is virtually the same on each
side of the racket. The two forces are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction, so their effects
cancel out and no motion occurs.
Pressure, Temperature and Density
Consider the tennis ball model of pressure in
figure 2.4 once more. If you hit the racket with twice as
many tennis balls in the same amount of time, it is
evident you will double the pressure on the racket. The
same reasoning applies at the molecular level; all other
things being equal, doubling the density of gas
molecules results in a doubling of the number of impacts
and therefore a doubling of the gas pressure.
Suppose you increase the speed at which the
incoming tennis balls hit the racket. How will that affect
the pressure? To what would this correspond at the
molecular level? You should recognize that increasing
the tennis balls’ speed (which is analogous to increasing
the temperature of a gas) would increase the force on
the racket (analogous to an increase of gas pressure).
The Gas Law
Kinetic theory provides a model for visualizing
and understanding the behavior of molecules making up
a gas, through the concepts of temperature, pressure
and density. These three variables are known as the
variables of state, because they define the state or basic
properties, of a gas. The theory implies certain
relationships among these variables of state. For
example:
If density is unchanged, then increasing the
temperature implies that the molecules move more
rapidly, thereby increasing the pressure.
Increasing density without altering the
temperature increases the number of molecular
impacts, thereby also increasing the pressure. These
relations are summarized in a formula known as the gas
law (sometimes referred to as the ideal law, or the
equation of state): for a given sample of gas,
pressure = constant x density x temperature.
In mathematical shorthand, the gas law is written
P = R ρ T,
where P is pressure, R is a constant, T is the
temperature in Kelvin, and ρ (the Greek letter rho) is the
density. The “constant” in the formula,
is a constant for a particular gas sample but
may vary from sample to sample,
for monatomic gas (a gas composed of single
atoms), the constant’s value is different from that for
diatomic gas, and so on.
also depends, as you might expect, on the
units chosen for the variables of state.
if you are measuring pressure in millibars, the
constant will have to be a different value in order for the
formula to work than if your pressure is measured in
pounds per square inch.
In fact, the “constant” is the gas law’s most
challenging concept; otherwise, the expression is quite
straightforward.
For application of gas law, consider the
demonstration in figure 2.5. the air molecules in the
pressure cooker move more rapidly as they become
hotter, according to kinetic theory. Their faster
movement means they collide with greater force; thus,
the pressure also increases as a result of the heating.
The gas law says the same thing: a rise in temperature
means the right side of the equation is larger; to
balance, the left side must increase by the same
amount if the density remains constant. Thus, the
pressure must rise in reaction to the temperature
increase.
Fig. 2.5 As the temperature rises, the pressure must rise
to match it. Density does not change at first, because
the mass of the air and the volume of the container
remain constant.
In a real pressure cooker, the air density does not
remain constant. You add water to the pot before you
seal it and some of this water evaporates as it is heated.
This water vapor adds molecules to the air in the
cooker, causing the air’s density to increase, as well as
its temperature. Both density and temperature,
therefore, act to increase the air pressure in the cooker.
Eventually, the pressure force may be great enough to
lift the weight that covers the valve, causing a small
amount of hot air to escape with a hissing sound. As the
air escapes, the air density in the cooker decreases; the
pressure, therefore, falls as you can see from the gas
law. The weight clinks back down onto the valve, and
temperature and pressure begin to increase once again.
At high temperatures, the nearly constant hissing of
escaping air and clinking of the valve’s weight provide a
commentary of the gas law in action.
Of course, the atmosphere is not a closed
container like the pressure cooker. We could simulate
actual atmospheric conditions more realistically by
redoing the demonstration with the pressure cooker’s
top removed. This case is considerably more complex,
as now the air’s volume and density, as well as its
temperature and pressure, are all free to change.
Lesson 3 – The Upper Atmosphere
• Atmosphere – The mixture of gases, water droplets,
and solid particles above the earth’s surface
• Weather – Short-term atmospheric phenomena
lasting from hours up to about a week (e.g.
thunderstorms, hurricanes, periods of high winds,
drizzle)
• Climate – Long-term atmospheric conditions lasting
from weeks to years (e.g. average yearly Lubbock
precipitation, global warming)
• Meteorology – The study of weather
• Climatology – The study of climate
• How high is the atmosphere?
• No defined top
• 99.99997% of atmosphere is below 100 km
(60 mi)
• Weather occurs in lowest 11 km (7 mi)
• Atmospheric depth is very thin relative to
earth’s horizontal distances
The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Earth’s early atmosphere contained mostly hydrogen
and helium
• Two hypotheses exist that explain the dispersion of
this early atmosphere
1) The gases escaped to space by overcoming
gravity with large enough escape velocities
2) Collisions between earth and other large
bodies launched the early atmosphere to space
• A modern atmosphere began to form through
outgassing by volcanic eruptions, and possibly through
collisions of comets with earth (Both supplying mostly
carbon dioxide and water vapor)
• Water vapor condensed and precipitated to form
oceans
• Carbon dioxide lost to oceans
• Oxygen released first through primitive oceanic
bacteria, later through plants (protected by ozone layer)
• Plants further reduced carbon dioxide
• Nitrogen slowly increased over long periods of time
through outgassing
Composition of the Modern Atmosphere
• The atmosphere today contains:
• Gases (permanent and variable)
• Water droplets (clouds and precipitation)
• Microscopic solid particles (aerosols)
The Permanent Gases
• Permanent gases form a constant proportion of the
atmosphere, and have long residence times (thousands
to millions of years)

The Variable Gases
• Variable gases vary in atmospheric concentration in
both time and space
Layering the Atmosphere Based on Temperature
• 4 layers identified by similar temperature rates of
change with height
Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Located at about 0-11km (0-7.0 mi)
• Practically all weather occurs in the
troposphere
• Temperature generally decreases with height
(environmental lapse rate, typical value = 6.5oC/km)
• Top of troposphere is called the tropopause
• Contains 80% of atmospheric mass
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Depth varies with latitude and season
Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer above the
troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Ozone layer is located in stratosphere
• Temperature increases with height (inversion)
– due to O3 absorption of UV
• Located from about 11-50 km
• Top of stratosphere is called the stratopause
• Contains about 19.9% of atmospheric mass
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer above the
troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Only weather in stratosphere are overshooting
thunderstorm tops
Mesosphere and Thermosphere
• The mesosphere (3rd layer up) and the thermosphere
(4th layer up) contain only 0.1% of atmospheric mass
• Mesosphere located from about 50-80km
• Temperature decreases with height in the
mesosphere
• Thermosphere located above 80km
• Temperature increases with height in the
thermosphere
Characterizing the Atmosphere Based on Electrical
Properties
• The ionosphere is an atmospheric layer located from
the upper mesosphere into the thermosphere
• The ionosphere contains electrically charged
particles called ions due to UV radiation
• The ionosphere affects AM radio waves,
absorbing them in the day and reflecting them at night
• The ionosphere creates the northern lights
(aurora borealis) and the southern lights (aurora
australis) through interactions between the sun’s rays
and earth’s magnetic field.
MODULE 5 – THE WEATHER FORECASTS
Lesson 1 – Forces Acting on the Atmosphere
Wind is the movement of air relative to the
Earth’s surface. As with all moving things, it is caused
by a force acting on it. Force is a pull or push that
changes the resting state, motion, or direction of an
object. Force can also cause objects to accelerate.
Human skin can sense wind when an uncountable
number of molecules collide with us as they flow along
in the air, and sense the pressure changes in the air
flow.
Main forces
There are five forces that influence the speed or
direction of horizontal winds.
1. Pressure gradient force
2. Advection
3. Centrifugal force
4. Coriolis force
5. Turbulent drag
Pressure Gradient Force
A pressure gradient (PG) is a change in
pressure over a distance. The pressure gradient can be
calculated simply as the change in pressure divided by
the distance over which that change occurs. The size
or strength of the pressure gradient determines the size
or strength of the force that results from it. The pressure
gradient force (PGF) is a force from high to low pressure
over a distance. Without differences in pressure, there
would be no wind because there would be nothing to
accelerate airflow.
Advection
While advection is included in the list of forces,
it is actually not a true force. Still, advection can result
in a change of wind speed in some locations. Wind
moving through a point carries specific momentum,
which is defined as momentum per unit mass.
Momentum is mass times velocity. Specific momentum
then is simply equal to the velocity or wind speed.
Therefore, as wind moves by a point, the wind can move
or advect variations in winds to the fixed location.
Centrifugal Force
The centrifugal force is an apparent force that
includes the effects of inertia for winds moving along a
curved path. The directionality of the centrifugal force
points outward from the center of the curve. The
centrifugal force is the opposite of the centripetal force.
As we know, inertia is the physical tendency to remain
unchanged. Therefore inertia causes an air parcel to
“want” to move along a straight line. Turning the air
parcel along a curved path requires a centripetal force
that pulls inward to the center of rotation. As a result, a
net imbalance of other forces occurs.
You have felt the centrifugal force many times in your
life. The centrifugal force is easily felt as you travel in a
moving vehicle around a corner. The force that you feel
pulling you outwards is the centrifugal force.
Coriolis Force
The Coriolis force (CF) is another apparent
force that occurs due to the rotation of Earth. The
Coriolis force is a deflecting force. It acts only on objects
already in motion. Therefore it cannot create wind, but
it can change the wind direction by deflecting it. The
Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the direction of
motion, but whether the Coriolis force acts 90° to the
right or left of the motion vector depends on the
hemisphere on Earth. In the Northern Hemisphere, the
Coriolis force acts 90° to the right of the motion vector
while in the Southern Hemisphere, the force acts 90° to
the left of the motion vector.
We can also see that the Coriolis force is strongly
dependent on the speed of the object. If we assume the
“object” is actually wind, stronger winds will be more
strongly deflected by the Coriolis force.
Turbulent Drag
Turbulent drag occurs when Earth’s surface or
objects on it cause resistance to airflow and reduce the
wind speed. Any object on Earth’s surface can cause
drag, such as grass, trees, and buildings, which block
and decelerate wind. The bottom layer of the
troposphere around 0.3 to 3 km thick is called the
atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). Turbulence in the
ABL mixes the extremely slow movement of air near the
surface with the faster movement of air in the ABL and
slows the wind speed in the entire ABL.
Lesson 2 – Vertical Motion and Movement of Pressure
Centers
Another important aspect of the airflow around
High and Low pressure centers is the vertical movement
of the air, usually occurring at much lower speed than
horizontal wind. At Low pressure centers, air rises. At
High pressure centers, air sinks toward the surface.
Look at the Low pressure center. Air spirals in toward
the center at the surface and then rises. As air rises, it
cools, clouds form, and rain is possible. This diagram
generally describes all low pressure systems, including
thunderstorms, hurricanes, and midlatitude cyclones.
The opposite occurs at High pressure ridges, where air
sinks toward the surface and flows outward from the
center. When air sinks, few clouds form and clear skies
prevail. The Hawaiian Islands lie in an area usually
dominated by High pressure and thus skies are
generally clear with only scattered clouds.

At surface Highs, also called ridges, wind

spirals slightly outward, away from the center. This
outward flowing air at the surface pulls the overlying air
downward causing descending, or sinking, motion near
High centers. The opposite is true of Low pressure
areas, also called troughs. Wind spirals slightly inward
toward the center at the surface and then vents upward,
producing ascending, or rising, motion.
Pressure systems with rising and sinking air
can form in response to surface temperature. Over
warm surface areas, the air heats, expands, and rises.
This process can initiate a Low pressure trough. The
opposite is trough of Highs. Over cold surfaces the air
cools, contracts, and draws overlying air downward to
form a High pressure ridge. Over land areas this
relationship is especially obvious. Midlatitude
continental areas, such as central Asia and North
America, become very cold in winter. The cold
contracting air can raise barometric pressure to 1050
mb or more and produce the very strong Highs that
dominate winter weather in these areas. The opposite
is true in summer when surface warming causes air to
expand and form Low pressure centers. Over Asia, the
seasonal reversal of surface temperature and pressure
drives the monsoon wind system.
Lesson 3 – Air Masses, Fronts and Cyclones
Air Masses
An air mass is a large body of air whose
physical properties especially temperature and
moisture content are relatively uniform horizontally.
Regions, where homogeneous air masses tend to be
created, are known as source regions.
Some of the well-known source regions are
sub-tropical and tropical oceans, i.e., lowlatitude
deserts like the Sahara in the summer and the
continental interiors' especially those of North America
and Eurasia in the winter. An air mass is said to be cold
when it is colder than the surface over which it rests or
is moving. An air mass is said to be warm when it is
warmer than the surface over which it rests or is moving.
On the basis of the nature of the source region,
air masses may broadly be grouped under two
categories-tropical and polar. Since source regions may
either be oceans or continents, further sub-divisions
introduce four secondary types-maritime tropical,
continental tropical, maritime polar, and continental
polar.

Surface temperature does not always Air-mass Abbreviation Where it Characteristic

determine the overlying air pressure, however. The Name forms weather
Hawaiian High pressure system for example, commonly Maritime mP Cold Cool Humid
Polar Ocean
present northeast of the Islands, is caused by the Maritime mT Warm Warm Humid
overall circulation of the atmosphere. Tropical Ocean
Continental cP Cold Cool and Dry
Polar Land
Continental cT Warm Warm and Dry
Tropical Land
Continental cA Extreme Very Cold and
Arctic North Very Dry

Characteristics of Air Mass

A. Vertical Motion over Surface High Pressure
B. Vertical Motion over Surface Low Pressure
The diagrams above summarize vertical motion of air
over surface pressure systems and typical sky
conditions for each.
It must be large. A typical air mass is more than
1600 kilometres across and several kilometres deep. At
any given altitude in the air mass, its physical
characteristics primarily temperature, humidity, and
stability are relatively homogeneous. It must be distinct
from the surrounding air, and when it moves, it must
retain its original characteristics and not be torn apart
by differences in airflow.
Origin
 Most air masses, then, form most commonly in
areas with anticyclonic conditions. The formation of air
masses is normally associated with what are called
source regions. Such regions must be extensive,
physically uniform, and associated with air that is
stationary or anticyclonic.
Classification
Air masses are classified on the basis of the
source region. The latitude of the source region
correlates directly with the temperature of the air
mass.The nature of the surface strongly influences the
humidity content of the air mass. If the air mass
develops over a continental surface, it is likely to be dry;
if it originates over an ocean, it is usually moist.
Fronts
When unlike air masses meet, they do not mix readily;
instead, a boundary zone called a front develops
between them.
A cold front forms where an advancing cold air mass
meets warmer air, while a warm front forms where an
advancing warm air mass meets colder air. The front
advances in the direction dictated by the movement of
the more active air mass. Regardless of which air mass
is advancing, it is always the warmer air that rises over
the cooler.
Warm Front: Warm air is more active and pushes the
cold air.
Cold Front: Cold air pushing and trying to occupy the
space of warm air.
Frontogenesis: The process by which two air masses
of different physical characteristics are brought
together, thus setting in motion for the formation of the
temperate cyclone.
Frontolysis: The gradual dissipation of the frontal zone
is called frontolysis.
Cyclone
In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular
fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth.
This is usually characterized by inward spiralling winds
that rotate anti-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Extra-Tropical Cyclones or Temperate cyclone
These cyclones occur beyond the tropics in the
mid and high latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere,
warm air from the south and cold air from the north
meets to create Polar front. As the pressure drops along
the front, cold air moves towards the south and warm
air move northwards setting in motion an anticlockwise
cyclonic circulation. These moving cyclones produce
cloudiness and precipitation and also bring about
changes in temperature and air pressure. Most of these
cyclones form at a wave like a twist or perturbation on
these fronts. It is also referred to as a low or a
depression since cyclones are shown as a low-pressure
area enclosed by a number of isobars circular or
elliptical in shape. They cover a large area and can
originate over land as well as sea. The general direction
of movement of temperate cyclones is from west to
east.
Tropical cyclones
These violent storms originate in the vast
expanses of warm tropical oceans. Thereafter it moves
over the coastal area bringing about the large-scale
destruction caused by violent winds, heavy rainfall and
storm surge. Tropical cyclone develops and intensify
under favourable conditions when certain pre-requisites
are fulfilled: It requires large sea surface with
temperature more than 26 C. Presence of Coriolis force
to provide the initial torque. Therefore cyclones do not
form near the equator (about 5 latitude on either side).
Small variations in the vertical wind speed. A pre-
existing weak-low pressure area or lowlevel cyclonic
circulation. The energy for the development of the
intense vertical storm is provided by condensation
process in the towering cumulonimbus clouds,
surrounding the centre of the storm. It further
strengthens with a continuous supply of moisture from
the sea. It weakens over the land surface as moisture
supply is cut-off. Place where tropical cyclones cross
the coasts are called the landfall of the cyclone. The
innermost or central portion of a mature tropical cyclone
is called the 'eye'. It is a region of calm and subsiding
air. Surrounding the eye is the eyewall, where there is a
strong spiralling ascent of air to a greater height up to
18 km or more. This is a region of high speed wind up
to 250 km/hr, torrential rains etc.
The eye and eyewall together constitute the
core of the cyclones. Tropical cyclones are known by
different names in tropical regions. They are known as
cyclone in the Indian Ocean, Hurricane in the Atlantic,
Typhoon in western Pacific and S. China Sea and
WillyWillies in Australia.
Lesson 4 – Weather Forecasting
Weather forecasting, the prediction of the weather
through application of the principles of physics,
supplemented by a variety of statistical and empirical
techniques. In addition to predictions of atmospheric
phenomena themselves, weather forecasting includes
predictions of changes on Earth’s surface caused by
atmospheric conditions— e.g., snow and ice cover,
storm tides, and floods.
Measurements and Ideas as the Basis for Weather
Prediction
The observations of few other scientific
enterprises are as vital or affect as many people as
those related to weather forecasting. From the days
when early humans ventured from caves and other
natural shelters, perceptive individuals in all likelihood
became leaders by being able to detect nature’s signs
of impending snow, rain, or wind, indeed of any change
in weather. With such information they must have
enjoyed greater success in the search for food and
safety, the major objectives of that time.
In a sense, weather forecasting is still carried
out in basically the same way as it was by the earliest
humans—namely, by making observations and
predicting changes. The modern tools used to measure
temperature, pressure, wind, and humidity in the 21st
century would certainly amaze them, and the results
obviously are better. Yet, even the most sophisticated
numerically calculated forecast made on a
supercomputer requires a set of measurements of the
condition of the atmosphere—an initial picture of
temperature, wind, and other basic elements,
somewhat comparable to that formed by our forebears
when they looked out of their cave dwellings. The
primeval approach entailed insights based on the
accumulated experience of the perceptive observer,
while the modern technique consists of solving
equations. Although seemingly quite different, there are
underlying similarities between both practices. In each
case the forecaster asks “What is?” in the sense of
“What kind of weather prevails today?” and then seeks
to determine how it will change in order to extrapolate
what it will be.
Because observations are so critical to weather
prediction, an account of meteorological measurements
and weather forecasting is a story in which ideas and
technology are closely intertwined, with creative
thinkers drawing new insights from available
observations and pointing to the need for new or better
measurements, and technology providing the means for
making new observations and for processing the data
derived from measurements. The basis for weather
prediction started with the theories of the ancient Greek
philosophers and continued with Renaissance
scientists, the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th
centuries, and the theoretical models of 20th- and
21stcentury atmospheric scientists and meteorologists.
Likewise, it tells of the development of the “synoptic”
idea—that of characterizing the weather over a large
region at exactly the same time in order to organize
information about prevailing conditions. In synoptic
meteorology, simultaneous observations for a specific
time are plotted on a map for a broad area whereby a
general view of the weather in that region is gained.
(The term synoptic is derived from the Greek word
meaning “general or comprehensive view.”) The so-
called synoptic weather map came to be the principal
tool of 19th-century meteorologists and continues to be
used today in weather stations and on television
weather reports around the world.
History of Weather Forecasting
Early measurements and Ideas
The Greek philosophers had much to say about
meteorology, and many who subsequently engaged in
weather forecasting no doubt made use of their ideas.
Unfortunately, they probably made many bad forecasts,
because Aristotle, who was the most influential, did not
believe that wind is air in motion. He did believe,
however, that west winds are cold because they blow
from the sunset.
The scientific study of meteorology did not
develop until measuring instruments became available.
Its beginning is commonly associated with the invention
of the mercury barometer by Evangelista Torricelli, an
Italian physicist-mathematician, in the mid-17th century
and the nearly concurrent development of a reliable
thermometer. (Galileo had constructed an elementary
form of gas thermometer in 1607, but it was defective;
the efforts of many others finally resulted in a
reasonably accurate liquid-in-glass device.)
A succession of notable achievements by
chemists and physicists of the 17th and 18th centuries
contributed significantly to meteorological research.
The formulation of the laws of gas pressure,
temperature, and density by Robert Boyle and Jacques-
Alexandre-César Charles, the development of calculus
by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the
development of the law of partial pressures of mixed
gases by John Dalton, and the formulation of the
doctrine of latent heat (i.e., heat release by
condensation or freezing) by Joseph Black are just a
few of the major scientific breakthroughs of the period
that made it possible to measure and better understand
theretofore unknown aspects of the atmosphere and its
behaviour. During the 19th century, all of these brilliant
ideas began to produce results in terms of useful
weather forecasts.
The Emergence of Synoptic Forecasting Methods
Analysis of synoptic weather reports
An observant person who has learned nature’s
signs can interpret the appearance of the sky, the wind,
and other local effects and “foretell the weather.” A
scientist can use instruments at one location to do so
even more effectively. The modern approach to weather
forecasting, however, can only be realized when many
such observations are exchanged quickly by experts at
various weather stations and entered on a synoptic
weather map to depict the patterns of pressure, wind,
temperature, clouds, and precipitation at a specific time.
Such a rapid exchange of weather data became
feasible with the development of the electric telegraph
in 1837 by Samuel F.B. Morse of the United States. By
1849 Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution in
Washington, D.C., was plotting daily weather maps
based on telegraphic reports, and in 1869 Cleveland
Abbe at the Cincinnati Observatory began to provide
regular weather forecasts using data received
telegraphically.
Synoptic weather maps resolved one of the
great controversies of meteorology—namely, the rotary
storm dispute. By the early decades of the 19th century,
it was known that storms were associated with low
barometric readings, but the relation of the winds to
lowpressure systems, called cyclones, remained
unrecognized. William Redfield, a selftaught
meteorologist from Middletown, Conn., noticed the
pattern of fallen trees after a New England hurricane The proliferation of weather-station networks
and suggested in 1831 that the wind flow was a rotary linked by telegraphy made synoptic forecasting a reality
counterclockwise circulation around the centre of lowest by the close of the 19th century. Yet, the daily weather
pressure. The American meteorologist James P. Espy forecasts generated left much to be desired. Many
subsequently proposed in his Philosophy of Storms errors occurred as predictions were largely based on
(1841) that air would flow toward the regions of lowest the experience that each individual forecaster had
pressure and then would be forced upward, causing accumulated over several years of practice, vaguely
clouds and precipitation. Both Redfield and Espy proved formulated rules of thumb (e.g., of how pressure
to be right. The air does spin around the cyclone, as systems move from one region to another), and
Redfield believed, while the layers close to the ground associations that were poorly understood, if at all.
flow inward and upward as well. The net result is a
rotational wind circulation that is slightly modified at
Earth’s surface to produce inflow toward the storm
centre, just as Espy had proposed. Further, the inflow is
associated with clouds and precipitation in regions of
low pressure, though that is not the only cause of clouds
there.

In Europe the writings of Heinrich Dove, a Polish

scientist who directed the Prussian Meteorological
Institute, greatly influenced views concerning wind
behaviour in storms.

Unlike the Americans, Dove did not focus on the pattern

of the winds around the storm but rather on how the
wind should change at one place as a storm passed. It
was many years before his followers understood the
complexity of the possible changes.

Establishment of Weather-Station Networks and

Services
Routine production of synoptic weather maps
became possible after networks of stations were
organized to take measurements and report them to
some type of central observatory. As early as 1814,
U.S. Army Medical Corps personnel were ordered to
record weather data at their posts; this activity was
subsequently expanded and made more systematic.
Actual weather-station networks were established in the
United States by New York University, the Franklin
Institute, and the Smithsonian Institution during the
early decades of the 19th century.

In Britain, James Glaisher organized a similar network,

as did Christophorus H.D. Buys Ballot in the
Netherlands. Other such networks of weather stations
were developed near Vienna, Paris, and St. Petersburg.

It was not long before national meteorological

services were established on the Continent and in the
United Kingdom. The first national weather service in
the United States commenced operations in 1871, with
responsibility assigned to the U.S. Army Signal Corps.
The original purpose of the service was to provide storm
warnings for the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and for the
Great Lakes. Within the next few decades, national
meteorological services were established in such
countries as Japan, India, and Brazil. The importance of
international cooperation in weather prognostication
was recognized by the directors of such national
services. By 1880 they had formed the International
Meteorological Organization (IMO).
ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY
SCI312 – ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY force, magnetic susceptibility, and numerous others. An
analysis will often require a combination of methods:
MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL qualitative for separating desired constituents from a
CHEMISTRY sample and quantitative for measuring the amounts
present.
Lesson 1 – Introduction and Tools used in Analytical
Chemistry Qualitative analysis is what.
Quantitative analysis is how much.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical chemistry is the science of
obtaining, processing, and communicating information
about the composition and structure of matter. In other
words, it is the art and science of determining what
matter is and how much of it exists.
Analytical chemistry involves the application of
a range of techniques and methodologies to obtain and
assess qualitative, quantitative and structural
information on the nature of matter. It is subdivided into
two major branches: Qualitative chemistry and
Quantitative chemistry
●Qualitative analysis is the identification of elements,
species and/or compounds present in a sample.
● Quantitative analysis is the determination of the
absolute or relative amounts of elements, species or
compounds present in a sample.
● An element, species or compound that is the subject
of analysis is known as an analyte.
● The remainder of the material or sample of which the
analyte(s) form(s) a part is known as the matrix.

The gathering and interpretation of qualitative,

quantitative and structural information is essential to
many aspects of human endeavor, both terrestrial and
extra-terrestrial. The maintenance of, and improvement
in, the quality of life throughout the world, and the
management of resources rely heavily on the
information provided by chemical analysis.
Manufacturing industries use analytical data to
monitor the quality of raw materials, intermediates and
finished products. Progress and research in many areas
is dependent on establishing the chemical composition
of man-made or natural materials, and the monitoring of
toxic substances in the environment is of ever
increasing importance. Studies of biological and other
complex systems are supported by the collection of
large amounts of analytical data.
Our main focus though is quantitative analysis,
the obtaining of quantitative data. A variety of methods
is employed for quantitative analyses, which for
convenience may be broadly classified as chemical or
physical, depending upon which properties are utilized.
Chemical methods depend upon such reactions as
precipitation, neutralization, oxidation, or, in general,
the formation of a new compound. The major types of
strictly chemical methods are known as gravimetric
analysis and volumetric, or titrimetric analysis.
Physical methods involve the measurement of
some physical property such as density, refractive
index, absorption or polarization of light, electromotive
• An analysis involves several steps and operations
which depend on: the particular problem, your
expertise, the apparatus or equipment available.
• The analyst should be involved in every step.
Define the Problem
Factors
• What is the problem – what needs to be found?
Qualitative and/or quantitative?
• What will the information be used for? Who will use
it?
• When will it be needed?
• How accurate and precise does it have to be?
• What is the budget?
• The analyst (the problem solver) should consult with
the client to plan a useful and efficient analysis,
including how to obtain a useful sample.
Select a Method
Factors
• Sample type
• Size of sample
• Sample preparation needed
• Concentration and range (sensitively needed)
• Selectively needed (interferences)
• Accuracy/precision needed
• Tools/Instruments available
• Expertise/experience
• Cost
• Speed
• Does it needed to be automatic?
• Are methods available in the chemical literature?
• Are standard methods available?

Obtain a Representative Sample

Factors
• Sample type/homogeneity/size
• Sampling statistics/errors

Prepare the Sample for Analysis

Factors
• Solid, liquid, or gas?
• Dissolve
• Ash or digest?
• Chemical separation or masking of interferences
needed?
• Need to concentrate the analyte?
• Need to change (derivatize) the analyte for
detection?
• Need to adjust solution conditions (pH, add
reagents)?

Perform Any Necessary Chemical Separations

• Distillation
• Precipitation
• Solvent extraction
• Solid Phase extraction
• Chromatography (may be done as part of the • Different methods provide a range of precision,
measurement step) sensitivity, selectivity, and speed capabilities.
• Electrophoresis (may be done as part of the
measurement step)

Perform the Measurement

Factors
• Calibration
• Validation/controls/blanks
• Replicates

Calculate the Results and Report

• Statistical analysis (reliability)
• Report results with limitations/accuracy information

• The sample size dictates what measurement

techniques can be used.
BASIC TOOLS AND OPERATIONS • Electronic balances operate on the principle of emf
A. LAB NOTEBOOK compensation – the compensation current to bring the
Your Critical Record pan back to its original position is proportional to the
Why must all data be recorded in INK when they are sample weight.
collected?
Saving Time: don’t have to reorganize and rewrite OTHERTOOLS/LAB apparatus:
data; more organized and prepared to carry out the
analysis
Immediate record:
detect possible errors in measurements and
calculations
data will not be lost or transferred incorrectly
Legal records

• Weighing bottles are used for drying sample.

Hygroscopic samples are weighed by difference,
keeping the bottle capped except when removing the
sample.
• A weighing dish or boat is used for direct weighing of
samples.

B. ANALYTICAL BALANCE
The basic tool in all quantitative analyses is the
analytical balance, used for the accurate weighing of
samples and precipitates.

• Modern balances are electronic. They still compare

one mass against another since they are calibrated with
known mass. Common balances are sensitive to 0.1
mg.
• Volumetric flasks are calibrated to contain an accurate
volume. See the inside back cover of the text for
tolerances of Class A volumetric glassware.
• Volumetric pipets accurately deliver a fixed volume.
A small volume remains in the tip.

Electronic analytical balance.

• Measuring pipets are straight-bore pipets marked at

different volumes.
They are less accurate than volumetric pipets.
• These syringe pipets can reproducibly deliver a
selected volume.
They come in fixed and variable volumes.
The plastic tips are disposable.
 • Use to ignite samples at high temperatures, e.g., to dry
ash organic matter.
• Used to dry samples before weighing.
Usually 110̊ C used.
• A fume hood is “dirty” since it draws in laboratory air.
A laminar flow hood filters air (0.3 µm HEPA filter) and
flows it out into the room.
Use it as a workstation for trace analysis.

• Position the black field just below the meniscus.

Avoid parallax error by reading at eye level.
• A 50-mL burette is marked in 0.1 mL increments.
You interpolate to 0.01 mL, good to about ±0.02 mL.
Two readings are taken for every volume measurement.
• Place the flask on a white background.
Place the buret tip in the neck of the flask while your
swirl.
• Use a desiccator to cool a dried or ignited sample.
Cool a red hot vessel before placing in the desiccator.
Do not stopper a hot weighing bottle (creates a partial • Use these for quantitative transfer of precipitates and
vacuum on cooling). solutions, and for washing precipitates.
• CaCl2 is commonly used. • Use for filtering non-gelatinous precipitates.
It needs periodic replacement when wet or caked.

• These are ash less filter papers.
They are ignited away after collection of the precipitate.
Use for gelatinous precipitates.
• This provides a good seal and prevents air bubbles
from being drawn in.
Suction from the weight of the water in the stem
increases the filtration rate.
Let the precipitation settle in the beaker before
beginning filtration.
• Decant the solution by pouring down the stirring rod.
After decanting the mother liquor, add wash water to the
precipitation and decant again, repeating 2-3 times.
Then wash the precipitation into the filter.
• Heat or ignite the crucible to a constant weight (to 0.3-
0.4 mg) before adding the filtered precipitate.
Fold the filter paper over the precipitation.
Drive off moisture at low heat. The gradually increase
heat till the paper begins to char.
After the paper is gone, ignite the precipitate.
• Obtaining a representative sample is the first step of
an analysis.
The gross is several small portions of the sample.
This is reduced to provide a laboratory sample.
An aliquot of this sample is taken for the analysis
sample.
Lesson 2 – Basic Operations and SI Units
Selecting or developing and validating
appropriate methods of analysis to provide reliable data
in a variety of contexts are the principal problems faced
by analytical chemists. And in order ensure validity of
any data collected by experimentation, an analyst
should start with knowing the basics.
Measuring Volume
The precise measurement of volume is as
important to many analytical methods as the precise
measurement of mass.
Units of Volume
The unit of volume is the liter (L), defined as one
cubic decimeter. The milliliter (mL) is one one-
thousandth of a liter (0.001 L) and is used when the liter
represents an inconveniently large volume unit. The
microliter(µL) is 10-6 L or 10-3 mL.
The Effect of Temperature on Volume
Measurements
The volume occupied by a given mass of liquid
varies with temperature, as does the device that holds
the liquid during measurement. Most volumetric
measuring devices are made of glass, which fortunately
has a small coefficient of expansion.
The coefficient of expansion for dilute aqueous
solutions (approximately 0.025%/°C) is such that a 5°C
change has a measurable effect on the reliability of
ordinary volumetric measurements.
Example problem:
A 40.00-mL sample is taken from an aqueous solution
at 5°C. What volume does it occupy at 20°C?
Solution:
V 20° =
V 5° +0.00025 (20-5)(40.00) = 40.00 + 0.15 = 40.15 mL
Volume may be measured reliably with a pipet, a buret,
or a volumetric flask.
Measuring an Aliquot
An aliquot is a measured fraction of the volume
of a liquid sample.
PREPARING SOLUTIONS
Preparing a solution of known concentration is
perhaps the most common activity in any analytical lab.
The method for measuring out the solute and solvent
depend on the desired concentration units, and how
exact the solution’s concentration needs to be known.
Pipets and volumetric flasks are used when a solution’s
concentration must be exact; graduated cylinders,
beakers, and reagent bottles suffice when
concentrations need only be approximate. There are
two methods for preparing solutions that is described in
this module.
A. Preparing Stock Solutions. A stock solution is
prepared by weighing out an appropriate portion of a
pure solid or by measuring out an appropriate volume
of a pure liquid and diluting to a known volume. Exactly
how this is done depends on the required concentration
units. For example, to prepare a solution with a desired
molarity you would weigh out an appropriate mass of
the reagent, dissolve it in a portion of solvent, and bring
to the desired volume. To prepare a solution where the
solute’s concentration is given as a volume percent, you
would measure out an appropriate volume of solute and
add sufficient solvent to obtain the desired total volume.
STOCK SOLUTION – A solution of known
concentration from which other solutions are prepared.
Example problem:
Describe how you would prepare the following three
solutions: (a) 500 mL of approximately 0.20 M NaOH
using solid NaOH; (b)1 L of 150.0ppm Cu2+ using Cu
metal; and(c)2 Lof 4% v/v aceticacidusing concentrated
glacial acetic acid.
Solution:
(a) Since the concentration only needs to be known to
two significant figures, the mass of NaOH and volume
of solution do not need to be measured exactly. The
desired mass of NaOH is:
To prepare the solution we place 4.0 g of
NaOH, weighed to the nearest tenth of a gram, in a
bottle or beaker and add approximately 500 mL of
water.
(b) Since the concentration of Cu2+ needs to be exact,
the mass of Cu metal and the final solution volume must
be measured exactly. The desired mass of Cu metal is:
To prepare the solution we measure out exactly
0.1500 g of Cu into a small beaker. To dissolve the Cu
we add a small portion of concentrated HNO3 and
gently heat until it completely dissolves. The resulting
solution is poured into a 1-L volumetric flask. The
beaker is rinsed repeatedly with small portions of water,
which are added to the volumetric flask. This process,
which is called a quantitative transfer, ensures that the
Cu2+ is completely transferred to the volumetric flask.
Finally, additional water is added to the volumetric
flask’s calibration mark.
Quantitative transfer
The process of moving a sample from one
container to another in a manner that ensures all
material is transferred.
(b) The concentration of this solution is only
approximate, so volumes do not need to be measured
exactly. The necessary volume of glacial acetic acid is:
To prepare the solution we use a graduated
cylinder to transfer 80 mL of glacial acetic acid to a
container that holds approximately 2.0 L, and we then
add sufficient water to bring the solution to the desired
volume.
B. Preparing Solutions by Dilution. Solutions with
small concentrations are often prepared by diluting a
more concentrated stock solution. A known volume of
the stock solution is transferred to a new container and
brought to a new volume. Since the total amount of
solute is the same before and after dilution, we know
that Co x Vo = Cd x Vd
Where Co is the concentration of the stock
solution, Vo is the volume of the stock solution being
diluted, Cd is the concentration of the dilute solution,
and Vd is the volume of the dilute solution. Again, the
type of glassware used to measure Vo and Vd depends
on how exact the solution’s concentration must be
known.
Example problem:
A laboratory procedure calls for 250 mL of an
approximately 0.10 M solution of NH3. Describe how
you would prepare this solution using a stock solution of
concentrated NH3 (14.8M).
Solution:
Substituting known volumes in equation 1.1
14.8 M x Vo = 0.10 M x 0.25 L
And solving for Vo gives 1.69x10–3L, or 1.7mL
Since we are trying to make a solution that is
approximately 0.10 M NH3, we can measure the
appropriate amount of concentrated NH3 using a
graduated cylinder, transfer the NH3 to a volumetric
flask, and add sufficient water to bring the total solution
volume to approximately 250 mL.
REVIEW ON SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Significant Figures are the number of digits that
express the result to the true measured precision. That
is, significant figures indicate how accurately
measurements have been made.
Rules in significant figure:
1. All non-zero digits are significant. All zeroes between
non-zero digits are significant.
2. Zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant.
Zeros between significant figures are also significant.
3. Zeros at the beginning of a number are not
significant.
4. Zeros to the left of non-zero are not significant but are Rounding up the nines.
used to indicate the position of the decimal point. Observed values should be rounded off to the number
5. Significant figures apply only to measured values. of digits that most accurately conveys the uncertainty in
the measurement.
Example problem:
Example problem:
No. No. of SF Rule
Suppose that an object is found to have a weight of 3.98
1. 13 2
± 0.05 g. This would place its true weight somewhere in
2. 1004 4
the range of 3.93 g to 4.03 g. Rounded-off to 4.0 g.
3. 295.00 5 Rounding off the results of calculations
4. 0.023 or 2
2.33x10-2
5. 1200 2
Calculator Result
Rounding to the Correct Number of Significant
Figures
The purpose in rounding off is to avoid
expressing a value to a greater degree of precision than
is consistent with the uncertainty in the measurement.
Rounded off:
Rules for rounding off numeric values
1.6
• The most significant digit is the leftmost digit (not
counting any leading zeros which function only as
Remarks:
placeholders and are never significant digits.)
Rounding to two significant figures yields an
• If you are rounding off to n significant digits, then the
implied uncertainty of 1/16 or 6%, three times greater
least significant digit is the nth digit from the most
than that in the least precisely known factor. This is a
significant digit. The least significant digit can be a zero.
good illustration of how rounding can lead to the loss
• The first non-significant digit is the n+1th digit.
of information.
Rules for Rounding numbers to the correct number
of significant figures.
Your calculator is of course correct as far as the pure
• If the first non-significant digit is less than 5, then the
numbers go, but you would be wrong to write down
least significant digit remains unchanged.
“1.57676 cm2” as the answer. Two possible options for
• If the first non-significant digit is greater than 5, the
rounding off the calculator answer are shown below:
least significant digit is increased by 1.
• If the first non-significant digit is 5, the least significant
digit can either be incremented or left unchanged (see Rounded value Precision
below!) * 1.58 1 part in 158, or 0.6%
• All non-significant digits are removed.
1.6 1 part in 16, or 6%
*Students are sometimes told to increment the least
significant digit by 1 if it is odd, and to leave it
unchanged if it is even. It is clear that neither option is entirely satisfactory;
rounding to 3 significant digits leaves the answer too
Examples of rounding-off: precisely specified, whereas following the rule and
Number to Result Comment rounding to 2 digits has the effect of throwing away
round/ sig some precision. In this case, it could be argued that
digits rounding to three digits is justified because the implied
34.126 / 3 34.2 First non-significant digit relative uncertainty in the answer, 0.6%, is more
(1) is less than 5, so consistent with those of the two factors.
number is simply
truncated, Some simple rules that govern Significant Figures
6.252 / 2 6.2 or 6.3 First n0on-significanr in calculations:
digit 5, so least 1. In multiplication and division, an answer contains no
significant digit can either more significant figures than the least number of
be left unchanged or significant figures used in the operation.
incremented.
39.99 / 3 40.0 Crossing “decimal Example.
boundary”, so all What is the area of a rectangle 1.23 cm wide and 12.34
numbers change. cm long?
85,382 / 3 85,400 The two zeros are just A= l x w = 12.34 cm (1.23 cm) = 15.2 cm2
placeholders. (Calculator result=15.1782)
0.04957 / 3 0.0496 The two leading zeros
are not significant digits. 2. In addition and subtraction, the last digit retained in
the sum or difference is determined by the position of
the first doubtful digit.
 The more significant figures in a measurement, the
more sophisticated the means of measurement.

PPT

INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Analytical chemistry is a measurement science

consisting of a set of powerful ideas and methods that
are useful in all fields of science and medicine.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS VS. QUANTITATIVE

When handling significant figures in calculations,
two rules are applied:
1. Multiplication and division -- round the final result to
the least number of significant figures of any one term
2. Addition and subtraction -- round the final result to the
least number of decimal places, regardless of the
significant figures of any one term
Example:
a. 1.074 x 0.983 = 1.055742 ~ 1.06 (final answer)
4 SF 3 SF 3 SF ~ means equal to
ANALYSIS
• Qualitative analysis reveals the identity of the
elements and compounds in a sample.
• Quantitative analysis indicates the amount of each
substance in a sample.
THE ROLE OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
• Analytical chemistry is applied throughout industry,
medicine, and all the sciences.
• Quantitative analytical measurements also play a vital
role in chemistry, biochemistry, biology, geology,
physics, and the other sciences.
• Many scientists devote much time in the laboratory
gathering quantitative information about systems that
are important and interesting to them.

Note: 0.983 contains the least number of significant

figures. The final answer was rounded off to 3 significant
figures.

b. 40.1 x 0.1633 = 0.032650229 ~ 0.0327

200.56

Note: 40.1 contains the least number of significant

figures. The final answer was rounded off to 3 significant
figures

c. 45.785 + 34.6 + 0.09658 = 80.48158 ~ 80.5

Note: 34.6 contains the least number of significant

figures. The final answer was rounded off to 3 significant
figures

Scientific notation is the most reliable way of The relationship between analytical chemistry,
expressing a number to a given number of significant other branches of chemistry, and the other sciences.
figures. In scientific notation, the power of ten is The central location of analytical chemistry in the
insignificant. For instance, if one wishes to express the diagram signifies its importance and the breadth of its
number 2000 to varying degrees of certainty: interactions with many other disciplines.
3000 3 x 103 is expressed to one
significant figure CLASSIFYING QUANTITATIVE ANALYTICAL
3000 3.0 x 103 is expressed to two METHODS
significant figure • The results of a typical quantitative analysis are
3000 3.00 x 103 is expressed to three computed from two measurements:
significant figure 1. One is the mass or the volume of sample to
3000 3 is expressed to four be analyzed.
3.000 x 10
significant figure 2. The second is the measurement of some
quantity that is proportional to the amount of analyte in
the sample, such as mass, volume, intensity of light, or • The complexity of the sample and the number of
electrical charge. components in the sample always influence the choice
of method to some degree.
• We classify analytical methods according to the nature
of this final measurement. ACQUIRING THE SAMPLE
• Sampling involves obtaining a small mass of a material
1. Gravimetric methods determine the mass of whose composition accurately represents the bulk of
the analyte or some compound chemically related to it. the material being sampled.
2. Volumetric methods determine the volume of • Sampling is frequently the most difficult step in an
a solution containing sufficient reagent to react analysis and the source of greatest error. The final
completely with the analyte. results of an analysis will never be any more reliable
3. Electroanalytical methods involve the than the reliability of the sampling step.
measurement of such electrical properties as voltage, • A material is heterogeneous if its constituent parts can
current, resistance, and quantity of electrical charge. be distinguished visually or with the aid of a microscope.
4. Spectroscopic methods are based on • An assay is the process of determining how much of a
measurement of the interaction between given sample is the material indicated by its name.
electromagnetic radiation and analyte atoms or • We analyze samples and we determine substances.
molecules or on the production of such radiation by
analytes. PROCESSING THE SAMPLE
• Under certain circumstances, no sample processing is
• Miscellaneous methods: required prior to the measurement step.
 mass-to-charge ratio • Under most circumstances, we must process the
 rate of radioactive decay sample in any of a variety of different ways.
 heat of reaction • The first step in processing the sample is often the
 rate of reaction preparation of a laboratory sample.
 sample thermal conductivity
 optical activity • Preparing a Laboratory Sample
 refractive index - A solid sample is ground to decrease particle
size, mixed to ensure homogeneity, and stored for
FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING THE STEPS IN A various lengths of time before analysis begins.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS - Because any loss or gain of water changes the
chemical composition of solids, it is a good idea to dry
samples just before starting an analysis.
- Alternatively, the moisture content of the
sample can be determined at the time of the analysis in
a separate analytical procedure.
- Liquid samples are subject to solvent
evaporation.
- If the analyte is a gas dissolved in a liquid,
analyte must be kept inside a second sealed container
to prevent contamination by atmospheric gases.
- Extraordinary measures, including sample
manipulation and measurement in an inert atmosphere,
may be required to preserve the integrity of the sample.

• Defining Replicate Samples

Flow diagram showing the steps in a
- Replicate samples, or replicates, are portions
quantitative analysis. There are a number of possible
of a material of approximately the same size that are
paths through the steps in a quantitative analysis. In the
carried through an analytical procedure at the same
simplest example represented by the central vertical
time and in the same way.
pathway, we select a method, acquire and process the
- Replication improves the quality of the results
sample, dissolve the sample in a suitable solvent,
and provides a measure of their reliability.
measure a property of the analyte, calculate the results,
- Quantitative measurements on replicates are
and estimate the reliability of the results. Depending on
usually averaged, and various statistical tests are
the complexity of the sample and the chosen method,
performed on the results to establish their reliability.
various other pathways may be necessary.
• Preparing Solutions: Physical and Chemical Changes
PICKING A METHOD
- Ideally, the solvent should dissolve the entire
• One of the first questions to be considered in the
sample, including the analyte, rapidly and completely.
selection process is the level of accuracy required.
- The sample may require heating with aqueous
• A second consideration related to economic factors is
solutions of strong acids, strong bases, oxidizing
the number of samples to be analyzed.
agents, reducing agents, or some combination of such
reagents.
- It may be necessary to ignite the sample in air
or oxygen or perform a high-temperature fusion of the
sample in the presence of various fluxes.

ELIMINATING INTERFERENCES
• Few chemical or physical properties of importance in
chemical analysis are unique to a single chemical
species.
• Species other than the analyte that affect the final
measurement are called interferences, or interferents.
• An interference is a species that causes an error in an
analysis by enhancing or attenuating (making smaller)
the quantity being measured.
• Techniques or reactions that work for only one analyte
are said to be specific. Techniques or reactions that
apply for only a few analytes are selective. Feedback system flow diagram. The desired
• The matrix, or sample matrix, is all of the components state is determined, the actual state of the system is
in the sample containing an analyte. measured, and the two states are compared. The
difference between the two states is used to change a
REMAIN STEPS OF A TYPICAL QUANTITATIVE controllable quantity that results in a change in the state
ANALYSIS of the system. Quantitative measurements are again
• Calibration and Measurement performed on the system, and the comparison is
- Ideally, the measurement of the property is repeated. The new difference between the desired state
directly proportional to the concentration. and the actual state is again used to change the state
cA kX of the system if necessary. The process provides
continuous monitoring and feedback to maintain the
- where k is a proportionality constant.
controllable quantity, and thus the actual state, at the
proper level. The text describes the monitoring and
• Calculating Results
control of blood glucose as an example of a feedback
- Computing analyte concentrations are based
control system.
on the raw experimental data collected in the
measurement step, the characteristics of the
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (The Art and Science of
measurement instruments, and the stoichiometry of the
Chemical Analysis)
analytical reaction.
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• Evaluating Results by Estimating Their Reliability
- Analytical results are incomplete without an Chemical analysis includes any aspect of the chemical
characterization of a sample material.
estimate of their reliability.

AN INTEGRAL ROLE FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS: ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS “Science of Chemical Measurements”
• Chemical analysis is the measurement element in all
AREAS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND QUESTIONS
of these examples and in many other cases.
THEY ANSWER
• The process of continuous measurement and control
• Quantitation:
is often referred to as a feedback system, and the cycle
- How much of substance X is in the sample?
of measurement, comparison, and control is called a
• Detection:
feedback loop.
- Does the sample contain substance X?
• Identification:
- What is the identity of the substance in the
sample?
• Separation:
- How can the species of interest be separated
from the sample matrix for better quantitation and
identification?

CHEMICAL ANALYST
Analyst:
- Applies known measurement techniques to well
defined compositional or characterization questions.
- Research Analytical Chemist
Senior Analyst:
- Develops new measurement methods on existing
principles to solve new analysis problems.

Research Analytical Chemist:

- Creates and /or investigates novel techniques or
principles for chemical measurements.; or
- Conducts fundamental studies of chemical/physical
phenomena underlying chemical measurements.

ANALYTICAL SCIENCE
- Analytical Chemistry provides the methods and tools
needed for insight into our material world…for
answering four basic questions about a material
sample?
What? Where? How much? What arrangement,
structure or form?
Fresenius’ J. Anal. Chem. 343 (1992):812-813
• An analysis involves several steps and operations
which depend on:
- the particular problem
- your expertise
- the apparatus or equipment available.
• The analyst should be involved in every step.
TRAINING OF CHEMICAL ANALYSTS
(ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS)
• Training focuses on principles and techniques for
solving measurement problems, but
• Chemical analysts interface multiple disciplines to the
solution of chemical measurement problems
- Physical-, organic-, inorganic-, bio-chem-,
physics, math, biology, electronic, computers
Training Focuses on
- Underlying principles of chemical measurements
(integrating all chemistry fields, math, physics, biology,
electronics, and computers).
- Developing proficiency with quantitative analysis
laboratory procedures
- Exposure to role of chemical analysis in a broad range
of modern science.

Chemical Analysis Affects many Fields

• Physical-, Organic-, Chemistry:
- “Theory guides but Experiment decides”
• Biotechnology:
- Distinguishing isomers with differing
bioactivities.
- Biosenors
• Materials Science:
• Different methods provide a range of precision, - High-temperature superconductors
sensitivity, selectivity, and speed capabilities. • Manufacturing:
- Quality control of packaged foods
specifications
• Forensics:
- Chemical features for criminal evidence

ROLE OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY IN MODERN

SCIENCE
• The sample size dictates what measurement • Case Study 1.
techniques can be used. • Nuclear Waste Disposal
- Nuclear Power Plants
- Nuclear Reactors
- Weapons Processing
- Weapons Disposal

Nuclear Waste Disposal Case Study

• One Disposal Plan:
- seal waste in corrosion-resistant containers
- bury 1000’s of feet underground (rocky strata above Nuclear Waste Disposal Case Study
water table) Analytical Chemistry Issues:
- Must remain contained for> 20,000 years • What species to be measured?
• Technical Problems: Metal Package Corrosion: • What precision is required?
- M + water, oxygen, oxidizers M ions + products • What measurement technique?
• What are the sources of error?

Example: CO3= Analysis

Species? CO3=, HCO3-, H2CO3?
Precision? +/- (0.1%, 0.01%, 10%)
Technique?
• +/- 1-2% Ion Chromatography
• +/- 0.1% Acid-Base Titration
• Repository above water table, but some water present Error Sources?
• Model exists for chemical reactions, rates, and time- • Acid-Base (Other Bases Interfer)
dependent dispersion of products and waste. Predicted • Ion Chromatography (pH –
containment time depends on very accurate Dependent Results)
measurements of microscopic corrosion processes
over short periods (weeks, months) What Carbonate Species?
CO3= + H2O  HCO3- + OH-
• Corrosion Model: HCO3- + H2O  H2CO3 + OH-
M + H2O, SO42-, O2  M+ + OH- , H2 H2CO3  CO2(g) + H2O
CO3=, H+, F-, Cl-,  MXn+ : Temperature, Pressure Dependence
NO2-, NO3-, S=,etc.MYm+, MZj + Prod.
• If Need [CO3=] only
• What Do We Need to Know? - Specify pH, Temperature, Pressure
- Laboratory Simulation Studies - Use Technique Selective for CO3=
- Water Composition at site before container placement. - (Ion Chromatography)
- Water Composition after exposure to container
- Time dependence (rate of product growth over • If Need S [CO3=] + [HCO3-] + [H2CO3]
weeks/months) - Remove Interferences
- Small changes must be measured very - Acid-Base Titration
precisely
What carbonate species is present as a function of
pH?

• Other Chemical Measurements:

Chromium: Cr2+, Cr3+, Cr2O7=, CrO4=, etc.

What does the Analytical Chemist need to know to

solve these problems?
• Measurement Techniques Available
- Titrations, Optical Spectroscopy,
Chromatography; etc.
• Strengths/Weaknesses of Techniques Measuring the Amount of Analyte
- Accuracy, Precision, Interferences, Range, - Spectrophotometer: Highly colored complex of arsenic
Detection Limits, etc. was found to absorb light at a wavelength of 535 nm.

• Underlying Chemistry/Physics of the Sample Conc. Absorbance

Material ppm
- Solution Chemistry (Acid/Base) 0 0
- Solids Homogeneity, Structure 5 0.16
10 0.28
• Error Analysis 15 0.41
- Sources 20 0.595
- Solutions 25 0.7

Example: deer 1 0.61

DEER KILL deer 2 0.43
Case Study # 2: Deer Kill
Problem: Dead whitetail deer near pond in the Land Absorbance vs Concentration
Between the Lakes State Park in south central
y = 0.0282x + 0.005

Absorbance
Kentucky. 0.8
R² = 0.9961
- Chemist state veterinary diagnostic
0.6
laboratory helped find the cause
0.4
Site Investigation: 0.2
- Careful visual observation of a two-acre area around 0
the site: 0 10 Conc., ppm20 30
• Observation: grass around nearby power-
poles was wilted and discolored.
• Speculation: Herbicide used on grass.
• Ingredient: Arsenic in a variety of forms Calculate the Concentration
CH3AsO(OH)2 very soluble in water. • ppm = (Absorbance -.005)/0.0282
• Deer 1: (0.61 - 0.005)/0.0282 = 22 ppm
Select Method • Deer 2: (0.43 -0.005)/0.0282 = 15 ppm
- Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) • Arsenic in the kidney tissue of animals is toxic at levels
- Distillation of arsenic as arsine which is then above about 10 ppm.
determined by colorimetric measurements. • Grass Samples showed about 600 ppm arsenic.

Representative Sample Reliability of the Data

- Dissect both deer. Removed kidneys for analysis. - The data from these experiments could be analyzed
- Laboratory Sample. Preparation using the statistical methods we will describe in Section
- Cut kidney into pieces and blend in a high speed 3.
blender to homogenize the sample.

Defining Replicate Samples WHERE DO WE BEGIN

- Three 10-g samples of the homogenized tissue were • Review of Basic Tools and Operations of Analytical
placed in porcelain curcibles and dry ashed. Dry ashing Chemistry
serves to free the analyte from organic material and - The Laboratory Notebook
convert the arsenic present to As2O5. Samples of the - Analytical Balances, Volumetric Glassware
discolored grass were treated in a similar manner. - Laboratory Safety
• Error Analysis
Dissolving the Samples - Concepts
- The dry solid in each of the sample crucibles was - Terminology
dissolved in dilute HCl, which converted the As 2O5 to - Evaluation of Data
soluble H3AsO4. - Experimental Design
• Review of Solution Chemistry
Eliminating Interferences - Units
• Reactions to Eliminate Interferences: - Concentration Calculations
H3AsO4 + SnCl2 + 2HCl --> H3AsO3 + SnCl2 + H2O - Stoichiometry
H3AsO3 + 3Zn + 6HCl --> AsH3(g) + 3ZnCl2 + 3H2O - Balanced Chemical Reactions
• Bubble gas into collectors with silver
diethyldithiocarbamate to form a colored complex
compound shown below.
MODULE 2 – INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY

Lesson 1 – The Qualitative Chemistry and its many

applications

QUALITATIVE CHEMISTRY
Flame Test
Flame tests are used to identify the presence of
a relatively small number of metal ions in a compound.
Not all metal ions give flame colors. For Group
1 compounds, flame tests are usually by far the easiest
way of identifying which metal you have got. For other
metals, there are usually other easy methods that are
more reliable - but the flame test can give a useful hint
as to where to look.

The Origin of Flame Colors

If you excite an atom or an ion by very strong
heating, electrons can be promoted from their normal
unexcited state into higher orbitals. As they fall back
down to lower levels (either in one go or in several
steps), energy is released as light. Each of these jumps
involves a specific amount of energy being released as
light energy, and each corresponds to a particular
wavelength (or frequency). As a result of all these
jumps, a spectrum of lines will be produced, some of
which will be in the visible part of the spectrum. The
color you see will be a combination of all these
Group 1: Insoluble Chlorides
individual colors.
Most metal chloride salts are soluble in water;
only Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+ form chlorides that precipitate
In the case of sodium (or other metal) ions, the jumps
from water. Thus the first step in a qualitative analysis
involve very high energies and these result in lines in
is to add about 6 M HCl, thereby causing AgCl, PbCl2,
the UV part of the spectrum which your eyes can't see.
and/or Hg2Cl2 to precipitate. If no precipitate forms, then
The jumps that you can see in flame tests come from
these cations are not present in significant amounts.
electrons falling from a higher to a lower level in the
The precipitate can be collected by filtration or
metal atoms. So if, for example, you put sodium
centrifugation.
chloride which contains sodium ions, into a flame,
where do the atoms come from? In the hot flame, some
Group 2: Acid-Insoluble Sulfides
of the sodium ions regain their electrons to form neutral
Next, the acidic solution is saturated with H2S
sodium atoms again. A sodium atom in an unexcited
gas. Only those metal ions that form very insoluble
state has the structure 1s22s22p63s1, but within the
sulfides, such as As3+, Bi3+, Cd2+, Cu2+, Hg2+, Sb3+, and
flame there will be all sorts of excited states of the
Sn2+, precipitate as their sulfide salts under these acidic
electrons. Sodium's familiar bright orange-yellow flame
conditions. All others, such as Fe2+ and Zn2+, remain in
color results from promoted electrons falling back from
solution. Once again, the precipitates are collected by
the 3p1 level to their normal 3s1 level.
filtration or centrifugation.
Analysis of Cations
The composition of relatively complex mixtures Group 3: Base-Insoluble Sulfides (and Hydroxides)
Ammonia or NaOH is now added to the solution
of metal ions can be determined using qualitative
until it is basic, and then (NH4)2S is added. This
analysis, a procedure for discovering the identity of
treatment removes any remaining cations that form
metal ions present in the mixture (rather than insoluble hydroxides or sulfides. The divalent metal ions
quantitative information about their amounts). The Co2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, and Zn2+ precipitate as their
procedure used to separate and identify more than 20 sulfides, and the trivalent metal ions Al 3+ and
common metal cations from a single solution Cr3+ precipitate as their hydroxides: Al(OH) 3 and
consists of selectively precipitating only a few kinds of Cr(OH)3. If the mixture contains Fe3+, sulfide reduces
metal ions at a time under given sets of conditions. the cation to Fe2+, which precipitates as FeS.
Consecutive precipitation steps become progressively
less selective until almost all of the metal ions are Group 4: Insoluble Carbonates or Phosphates
precipitated, as illustrated in the Figure below The next metal ions to be removed from
solution are those that form insoluble carbonates and
phosphates. When Na2CO3 is added to the basic
solution that remains after the precipitated metal ions
are removed, insoluble carbonates precipitate and are
collected. Alternatively, adding (NH4)2HPO4 causes the
same metal ions to precipitate as insoluble phosphates.
Group 5: Alkali Metals
At this point, we have removed all the metal
ions that form water-insoluble chlorides, sulfides,
carbonates, or phosphates. The only common ions that
might remain are any alkali metals (Li +, Na+, K+, Rb+,
and Cs+) and ammonium (NH4+). We now take a second
sample from the original solution and add a small
amount of NaOH to neutralize the ammonium ion and
produce NH3. (We cannot use the same sample we
used for the first four groups because we added
ammonium to that sample in earlier steps.) Any
ammonia produced can be detected by either its odor
or a litmus paper test. A flame test on another original
sample is used to detect sodium, which produces a
characteristic bright yellow color. The other alkali metal
ions also give characteristic colors in flame tests, which
allows them to be identified if only one is present.

Metal ions that precipitate together are separated by

various additional techniques, such as forming complex
ions, changing the pH of the solution, or increasing the
temperature to re-dissolve some of the solids. For
example, the precipitated metal chlorides of group 1
cations, containing Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+, are all quite
insoluble in water. Because PbCl 2 is much more soluble
in hot water than are the other two chloride salts,
however, adding water to the precipitate and heating the
resulting slurry will dissolve any PbCl 2 present. Isolating
the solution and adding a small amount of
Na2CrO4 solution to it will produce a bright yellow
precipitate of PbCrO4 if Pb2+ were in the original
sample.
Lesson 2 – Techniques in Semi-Micro Analysis
Performing qualitative analysis properly
When a small amount of requires a knowledge of certain basic laboratory
Na2CrO4 solution is added to a techniques. In order to speed up procedures, all
sample containing Pb2+ ions in techniques will be on a semi-micro scale. This scale
water, a bright yellow precipitate of involves volumes of 12 mL of solutions and adding
PbCrO4 forms. reagents dropwise with eye droppers.

Qualitative analysis is used to identify and separate

cations and anions in a sample substance. Unlike
ANION ANALYSIS
quantitative analysis, which seeks to determine the
Anion analysis may simply identify
quality or amount of sample, qualitative analysis is a
which anions are present in a sample
descriptive form of analysis.
(qualitative analysis) or also determine the quantity
of anions present (quantitative analysis).
In an educational setting, the concentrations of
Analysis of anions can also be done by two-
the ions to be identified are approximately 0.01 M in an
dimensional ion chromatography. Traditional wet
aqueous solution. The “semi-micro” level of quantitative
chemistry uses colorimetric methods to identify and
analysis employs methods used to detect 1.00-2.00 mg
quantify the anion composition. Modern separation
of an ion in 5 mL of solution.
techniques, such as anion exchange chromatography
or ion chromatography (IC) for anions, not only
Manipulation in Semi-Micro Analysis
separate the anions present in the samples, but also
• Precipitation
quantify each individual anion, providing analytical
• Centrifuge
results for multiple anions in a single run in 10–30
• Removal and Supernatant Liquid
minutes.
• Transferring of Precipitates
• Heating a Solution
• Evaporation
Instruments and Apparatus
TYPES OF GLASSWARE
1. Borosilicate glass (Pyrex and Kimax) is used for
heating and sterilization purposes, characterized by a
high degree of thermal resistance.
2. Boron-free glassware/soft glass is high resistance
to alkaline less thermal resistant.
3. Corex (Corning) special alumina-silicate glass that
has been strengthened chemically and thermally.
4. Flint glass made up of soda-line glass and poor
resistance to high temperatures.
5. Vycor can be heated to 900 degrees and used for
extremely high temperature.
TYPES OF PLASTIC WARE
1. Polyolefin (Polyethylene/Polypropylene) resistant
to acids, alkalis, and salt solutions.
2. Polycarbonate it has a strength that can be used for
centrifuge tubes, its chemical resistance is less than
polyolefin.
3. Fluorocarbon resins (Teflon) chemically inert and
used for temperature from -270 to +255 degree Celsius.
Provide non-wettable surface, used for stir bars and
tubing.
COMMON LABORATORY GLASSWARES
• Test tube – or sample tube is a common laboratory
glassware, used to mix a sample of chemical or
specimen.
• Pipettes – is either glass or plastics usually open at
both ends, used to transfer amounts of liquid from one
container to another, and used for limited volumes
between 1 and 100 milliliters.
PIPET CLASSIFICATION:
A. Calibration marks/design
- To deliver (TD) – it delivers the exact amount
it holds into a container
- To contain (TC) – it holds the particular
volume but does nor dispense the exact volume.
B. Drainage characteristics
- Blowout (TC) – it has a continuous frosted ring
(colored rings) on top of the pipet; exact volume is
obtained when the last drop is blown out.
- Self-draining (TD) – absence of etched rings
(frosted); liquid can drain by gravity.
C. Types
- Transfer
- Volumetric pipet – for non-viscous
fluid; self-draining; small amount left in the tip should be
blown out. Used to deliver a single specific volume of
liquid.
- Ostwald Folin – for viscous fluid; with
etched rings. Bulb closer to the delivery tip. These are
blown out pipets.
- Van Slyke Pipets – have bulb situated
in between the mouthpiece and the delivery tip.
- Pasteur pipets – transfer fluid without
consideration of a specific volume.
- Graduated or measuring pipet
- Serological pipet – with graduations
up to the tip; blowout pipet
- Mohr Model – without graduations to
the tip; calibrated between 2 marks; self-draining pipet
- Micropipettes – for quantities less than 2 mL;
to contain pipets
AUTOMATIC PIPETS
- Handheld – uses disposable tips and the
technologist performs aspiration and dispensing
- Automated
Types:
- Air Displacement Pipet – relies on
piston for suction creation to draw the sample into a
disposable tip. Which the piston does not come in
contact with the liquid.
- Positive Displacement Pipet –
operates by moving the piston in the pipet tip or Barret,
piston touches the sample. It does not require a different
tip for each use.
- Dispenser/Diluter Pipet – obtains
liquid from a common reservoir and dispensed
repeatedly. It combines sampling and dispensing
functions.
• Petri Dish – Shallow cylindrical containers with fitted
lids that are designed for microbiology or cell culture
use. They can be disposable or reusable, with reusable
types able to withstand repeated sterilization
procedures.
• Beakers – glass beakers can be heated to much
higher temperatures than the plastic counterparts, while
offering higher clarity for content visibility and
measuring.
• Flasks
- Erlenmeyer Flask – known as conical or
titration flasks; suitable for boiling liquid
- Volumetric flasks – known as measuring or
graduated flasks; they are calibrated to contain a
precise volume at a certain temperature and used for
precise dilutions or preparations of standard solutions.
- Florence Flask – known as boiling flask;
designed for uniform heating, boiling, distillation, ease
of swirling, often made borosilicate glass to resist high
temperatures and for chemical resistance.
• Stirring Rod – or glass rod, used to mix chemicals,
decanting supernatants
• Graduated Cylinder – known as measuring cylinder
or mixing cylinder; used to measure the volume of a
liquid
• Vials – used for general collection, storage,
transportation of samples.
MODULE 3 – REVIEW ON EXPRESSING
QUANTITIES AND CONCENTRATIONS
Lesson 1 – Review: Chemical Stoichiometry
Fundamental Units of Measure
Measurements usually consist of a unit and a
number expressing the quantity of that unit.
Unfortunately, many different units may be used to
express the same physical measurement. For example,
the mass of a sample weighing 1.5 g also may be
expressed as 0.0033 lb or 0.053 oz. For consistency,
and to avoid confusion, scientists use a common set of
fundamental units, several of which are listed in the
Table below. These units are called SI units after the
Système International d’Unités. Other measurements
are defined using these fundamental SI units.
Molecules and Chemical Formulas
Several elements are found in nature in
molecular form—two or more of the same type of atom
bound together. For example, most of the oxygen in air
consists of molecules that contain two oxygen atoms.
We represent this molecular oxygen by the chemical
formula O2 (read “oh two”). The subscript tells us that
two oxygen atoms are present in each molecule. A
molecule made up of two atoms is called
a diatomic molecule.
The elements that normally occur as diatomic
molecules are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the
halogens. Compounds composed of molecules contain
more than one type of atom and are called molecular
compounds. A molecule of the compound methane, for
example, consists of one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms and is therefore represented by the
chemical formula CH4.
Formula and Molecular Weights
Example 2-1:
What is the molecular weight of potassium
permanganate?
Given:
KMnO4
Solution:
MW = 39.098 (1) + 54.938(1) + 16(4)
= 158.036 g/mol.
Calculating Formula Weights
Percentage Composition from Chemical Formulas THE MOLE CONCEPTS
A mole is defined as :1 Mole = 6.022045 x10 23
Particles or Molecules or Atoms (Avogadro’s number).

For example,
if 1 atom of Na weighs 22.99 amu, then 1 mole
(6.022045 x10 23) of Na weighs 22.99 grams.

The mole and atomic weight are closely related

concepts, since the atomic weight of a given element is
the average weight of its atoms.
The mole can also be defined as equal to the
mass divided the molecular weight.
n = m/ MW

where: n = no. of moles;

m = mass;
MW = molecular weight

Example 2-5:
HOW MANY MOLES OF ATOMS DOES 245.5 g OF
IRON METAL CONTAINS?
GIVEN:
Mass of Fe = 245.5 g:
Calculating Percentage Composition AW or MW of Fe = 55.845 amu or g /mol
1 mole Fe = 55.845 g of Fe

Required: moles of Fe

Converting Grams to Moles

Example 2-4:
Calculate the per cent composition of C7H5 (NO2)3
Reqd.: % COMPOSITION OF EACH ELEMENT

MW = 227.138 g/mol

C= 7 (12.011) = 84.077 g/mol

% C= (84.077g/mol /227.138g/mol) x 100% = 37 %

H= 5 (1.008) = 5.04 g/mol

% H= (5.04 g/mol /227.138g/mol) x 100% = 2.22%

N= 3 (14.007) = 42.021 g/mol

% N= (42.021g/mol/227.138g/mol) x 100% = 18.50%

O= 6 (16) = 96 g/mol
% O= (96g/mol/227.138g/mol) x 100% = 42.27%

Total:100%
Converting Moles to Grams Calculating Molarity

Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume

Concentrations of Solutions
Using Molarity to Calculate Grams of Solute
See the ff video:
https://youtu.be/o_iETsDSvkg ;
https://youtu.be/sWfn8hbXRp8 ;
Dilution
See also this video:
https://youtu.be/QYK3Aj-IUIs ;
https://youtu.be/MG86IFZi_XM
Lesson 2 – Principles of Statistics in Representing Data
Analysis
In order to ensure validity of any data collected
by experimentation, an analyst should start with
knowing the basics, this includes conversion of units
and basic statistics.
Uncertainty in Measurement
Two kinds of numbers are encountered in
scientific work: exact numbers (those whose values are
known exactly) and inexact numbers (those whose
values have some uncertainty). For example, there are
exactly 12 eggs in a dozen, exactly 1000 g in a kilogram,
and exactly 2.54 cm in an inch. The number 1 in any
conversion factor, such as 1 m = 100 cm or 1 kg =
2.2046 lb, is an exact number.
Numbers obtained by measurement are always
inexact. The equipment used to measure quantities
always has inherent limitations (equipment errors), and
there are differences in how different people make the
same measurement (human errors).
Remember: Uncertainties always exist in measured
quantities.
We observe that the uncertainty inherent in all
measured quantities is expressed by the number of
significant figures used to report the quantity. Significant
figures are also used to express the uncertainty
associated with calculations involving measured
quantities.
Precision and Accuracy
The terms precision and accuracy are often
used in discussing the uncertainties of measured
values. Precision is a measure of how closely
individual measurements agree with one another.
Accuracy refers to how closely individual
measurements agree with the correct, or “true,” value.
The dart analogy in Figure 2.1 illustrates the difference
between these two concepts.
 In the laboratory we often perform several IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN QUANTITATIVE
“trials” of an experiment and average the results. The CHEMISTRY
precision of the measurements is often expressed in
terms of the standard deviation, which reflects how
much the individual measurements differ from the
average.
We gain confidence in our measurements if we
obtain nearly the same value each time—that is, when
the standard deviation is small. Figure 2.1 reminds us,
however, that precise measurements can be
inaccurate.

Figure 2.1 Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy

WAYS OF EXPRESSING ACCURACY

;

EVALUATING ANALYTICAL DATA
Measures of Central Tendency
Precision
Precision is a measure of the spread of data
about a central value and may be expressed as the
range, the standard deviation, or the variance.
Precision is commonly divided into two categories:
repeatability and reproducibility. Repeatability is the
precision obtained when all measurements are made by
the same analyst during a single period of laboratory
work, using the same solutions and equipment.
Reproducibility, on the other hand, is the precision
obtained under any other set of conditions, including
that between analysts, or between laboratory sessions
for a single analyst.
Measures of Spread
OR another way to express is this: Standard
Deviation of a Finite Set of Experimental Data, as
MODULE 4 – GRAVIMETRIC METHODS OF using the chemical energy of combustion to convert C
ANALYSIS to CO2.

Lesson 1 – Types of Gravimetric methods 4. Particulate gravimetry

Gravimetric. It is unquestionably the oldest
analytical technique. When you step on a scale after
exercising you are making, in a sense, a gravimetric
determination of your mass.
Gravimetric methods are quantitative methods that
are based on determining the mass of a pure compound
to which the analyte is chemically related. Measuring
mass is the most fundamental of all analytical
measurements. Gravimetric Analysis – one of the most
accurate and precise methods of macro-quantitative
analysis.
Since weighing may be carried out readily and
accurately in almost all laboratories, gravimetry is often
used as a reference method. Analysis of major
components of metal samples such as steel, and of
minerals and soils may be carried out by gravimetric
methods, but they often involve lengthy separations and
are time consuming.
Gravimetric methods of analysis are based on
mass measurements with an analytical balance, an
instrument that yields highly accurate and precise data.
In fact, if you perform a gravimetric determination in
your laboratory, you may make some of the most
accurate and precise measurements of your life.
A gravimetric method in which the mass of a
particulate analyte is determined following its
separation from its matrix. In particulate gravimetry,
the analyte is determined following its removal from the
sample matrix by filtration or extraction. The
determination of suspended solids is one example of
particulate gravimetry.
Two other types of analytical methods are based on
mass. In gravimetric titrimetry, the mass of a reagent
of known concentration required to react completely
with the analyte provides the information needed to
determine the analyte concentration. Atomic mass
spectrometry uses a mass spectrometer to separate
the gaseous ions formed from the elements making up
a sample of matter. The concentration of the resulting
ions is then determined by measuring the electrical
current produced when they fall on the surface of an ion
detector.

Types of Gravimetric Methods

1. Precipitation gravimetry.
A gravimetric method in which the signal is the
mass of a precipitate. In precipitation gravimetry, the
analyte is separated from a solution of the sample as a
precipitate. This precipitate is then filtered, washed free
of impurities, converted to a product of known
composition by suitable heat treatment, and weighed.

2. Electrogravimetry.
A gravimetric method in which the signal is the
mass of an electrodeposit on the cathode or anode in
an electrochemical cell. In electrogravimetry the analyte
is deposited as a solid film on one electrode in an
electrochemical cell. The mass of this product then
provides a measure of the analyte concentration. The
oxidation of Pb2+, and its deposition as PbO2 on a Pt
anode is one example of electrogravimetry. Reduction
also may be used in electrogravimetry. The
electrodeposition of Cu on a Pt cathode, for example,
provides a direct analysis for Cu2+.

3. Volatilization gravimetry
A gravimetric method in which the loss of a
volatile species gives rise to the signal. When thermal
or chemical energy is used to remove a volatile species,
we call the method volatilization gravimetry. In this
method, the analyte is separated from other
constituents of a sample by converting it to a gas of
known chemical composition. The mass of the gas then
serves as a measure of the analyte concentration. For
example, in determining the moisture content of food,
thermal energy vaporizes the H2O. The amount of
carbon in an organic compound may be determined by
Further points to remember about doing
precipitation:
 Precipitation Techniques
-Add precipitating reagent to sample solution
-Reacts with analyte to form insoluble material
-Precipitate has known composition or can be
converted to known composition
 Precipitate handling involves
-Quantitative collection (no losses)
-Isolation of pure product
 Measure mass of precipitate
 Calculation of original analyte content
(concentration)
Properties of Precipitates and Precipitating
Reagents
Ideally, a gravimetric precipitating agent should react
specifically or at least selectively with the analyte.
Specific reagents, which are rare, react only with a
single chemical species. Selective reagents, which are
more common, react with a limited number of species.
In addition to specificity and selectivity, the ideal
precipitating reagent would react with the analyte to give
a product that is:
1. easily filtered and washed free of contaminants;
2. of sufficiently low solubility that no significant loss of
the analyte occurs during filtration and washing;
3. unreactive with constituents of the atmosphere;
4. of known chemical composition after it is dried or, if
necessary, ignited
Particle Size and Filterability of Precipitates
Precipitates consisting of large particles are
generally desirable for gravimetric work because these
particles are easy to filter and wash free of impurities. In
addition, precipitates of this type are usually purer than
are precipitates made up of fine particles.
Mechanism of Precipitate Formation
Precipitates form in two ways: by nucleation
and by particle growth. The particle size of a freshly
formed precipitate is determined by the mechanism that
predominates.
In nucleation, a few ions, atoms, or molecules
(perhaps as few as four or five) come together to form
a stable solid. Often, these nuclei form on the surface of
suspended solid contaminants, such as dust particles.
Further precipitation then is governed by the
competition between additional nucleation and growth
of existing nuclei (particle growth). If nucleation
predominates, a precipitate containing a large number
of small particles results, and if growth predominates, a
smaller number of larger particles is produced.
Nucleation is a process in which a minimum number
of atoms, ions, or molecules join together to give a
stable solid.
Coprecipitation
When otherwise soluble compounds are
removed from solution during precipitate formation, we
refer to the process as coprecipitation. Contamination
of a precipitate by a second substance whose solubility
product has been exceeded is not coprecipitation.
There are four types of coprecipitation: surface
adsorption, mixed-crystal formation, occlusion, and
mechanical entrapment. Surface adsorption and
mixed-crystal formation are equilibrium processes, and
occlusion and mechanical entrapment arise from the
kinetics of crystal growth.
Filtering the Precipitate
After precipitation and digestion are complete,
the precipitate is separated from solution by filtration
using either filter paper or a filtering crucible. The most
common filtering medium is cellulose-based filter paper,
which is classified according to its filtering speed, its
size, and its ash content on ignition. Filtering speed is a
function of the paper’s pore size, which determines the
particle sizes retained by the filter. Filter paper is rated
as fast (retains particles > 20–25 µm), medium fast
(retains particles > 16 µm), medium (retains particles >
8 µm), and slow (retains particles > 2–3 µm).
The proper choice of filtering speed is
important. If the filtering speed is too fast, the precipitate
may pass through the filter paper resulting in a loss of
precipitate. On the other hand, the filter paper can
become clogged when using a filter paper that is too
slow.
Drying and Ignition of Precipitates
Drying can be done in stages. To remove water,
the filtered solid in its container is placed in a
desiccator and left for a few hours. A vacuum
desiccator is even more efficient for removing solvents
at low temperature. Heating in ovens, furnaces or
directly with burners will raise the temperature to
remove materials or to decompose the precipitate to a
more stable form. The gravimetric precipitate is heated
until its mass becomes constant. Heating removes the
solvent and any volatile species carried down with the
precipitate. Some precipitates are also ignited to
decompose the solid and form a compound of known
composition. This new compound is often called the
weighing form. The temperature required to produce a
suitable weighing form varies from precipitate to
precipitate.
Weighing
Modern balances can readily weigh samples directly,
and masses from several grams down to a few
micrograms can be weighed accurately and quickly. It
is important that the conditions are the same for the
initial weighing (crucible, filter paper) as for the final
weighing. Temperature is especially important and hot
samples should never be placed directly onto a balance
pan.
Watch the Video:
https://youtu.be/ESBNdoAq4po (talks more about precipitate
details)
Lesson 2 – Gravimetric Applications
Calculation of Results from Gravimetric Data:
Quantitative Applications
The following sample problems will show the general
application of precipitation gravimetry to the analysis of
inorganic and organic compounds.
 EXAMPLE 3-2
An iron ore was analyzed by dissolving a
1.1324-g sample in concentrated HCl. The resulting
solution was diluted with water, and the iron(III) was
precipitated as the hydrous oxide Fe 2O3 · xH2O by the
addition of NH3. After filtration and washing, the residue
EXAMPLE 3-1 was ignited at a high temperature to give 0.5394 g of
pure Fe2O3 (159.69 g/mol). Calculate (a) the % Fe
The calcium in a 200.0-mL sample of a natural
(55.847 g/mol) and (b) the % Fe 3O4 (231.54 g/mol) in
water was determined by precipitating the cation as
the sample.
CaC2O4. The precipitate was filtered, washed, and
ignited in a crucible with an empty mass of 26.6002 g.
Solution
The mass of the crucible plus CaO (56.077 g/mol) was
Given: m of sample = 1.1324 g;
26.7134 g. Calculate the concentration of Ca (40.078
m of pure Fe2O3 = 0.5394 g
g/mol) in water in units of grams per 100 mL of the
water.
Required: (a) % Fe (b) % Fe3O4
Solution
Given: volume of sample = 200.0 mL;
mass(m) of empty crucible = 26.6002 g;
m of crucible + CaO = 26.7134 g

Required: concentration of Ca per g per 100 Ml

Or
 EXAMPLE 3-4 (a sample problem using
volatilization gravimetry)

Or

Example 3.3:

EXAMPLE 3-5 (a sample problem of particulate

gravimetry)
EXAMPLE 3-6
A 0.2356-g sample containing only NaCl (58.44 g/mol)
and BaCl2 (208.23 g/mol) yielded 0.4637 g of dried
AgCl (143.32 g/mol). Calculate the percent of each
halogen compound in the sample.

Solution

Applications of Gravimetric Methods

Gravimetric methods do not require a
calibration or standardization step (as do all other
analytical procedures except coulometry) because the
results are calculated directly from the experimental
data and atomic masses. Thus, when only one or two
samples are to be analyzed, a gravimetric procedure
may be the method of choice because it requires less
time and effort than a procedure that requires
preparation of standards and calibration. Thus it has
applications in the industry.

Gravimetric methods have been developed

for most inorganic anions and cations (mostly using
precipitation gravimetry), as well as for such neutral
species as water, sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and
iodine. A variety of organic substances can also be
determined gravimetrically. Examples include lactose in
milk products, salicylates in drug preparations,
phenolphthalein in laxatives, nicotine in pesticides,
cholesterol in cereals, and benzaldehyde in almond
extracts. Indeed, gravimetric methods are among the
most widely applicable of all analytical procedures.

Furthermore, particulate gravimetry is commonly

encountered in the environmental analysis of water, air, and soil
samples. The analysis for suspended solids in water samples, for
example, is accomplished by filtering an appropriate volume of a well-
mixed sample through a glass fiber filter and drying the filter to
constant weight at 103–105 °C. Microbiological testing of water also
is accomplished by particulate gravimetry. For example, in the
analysis for coliform bacteria an appropriate volume of sample is
passed through a sterilized 0.45- m membrane filter. The filter is then
placed on a sterilized absorbent pad saturated with a culturing
medium and incubated for 22–24 h at 35 ±0.5 °C. Coliform bacteria
are identified by the presence of individual bacterial colonies that form
during the incubation period. As with qualitative applications of
precipitation gravimetry, the signal in this case is a visual observation
rather than a measurement of mass.

Determining the inorganic ash content of

organic materials, such as polymers and paper, is an
example of a direct volatilization gravimetric analysis.
The sample is weighed, placed in an appropriate
crucible, and the organic material is carefully removed
by combustion. The crucible containing the residue is
then heated to a constant weight using either a burner
or an oven.

Another example of volatilization gravimetry is

the determination of dissolved solids in water and
wastewater. In this method a sample of the water is
transferred to a weighed dish and dried to a constant
weight at either 103–105 °C, or at 180 °C.

Volatilization gravimetry is also used to

determine biomass in water and wastewater. Biomass
is a water quality index, providing an indication of the
total mass of organisms contained within a sample of
water. A known volume of the sample is passed through
a preweighed 0.45-µm membrane filter or a glass-fiber
filter and dried at 105 °C for 24 h. The residue’s mass
provides a direct measure of biomass.

The determination of silicon is commonly

encountered in metallurgical and mining laboratories
responsible for the analysis of ores, slags, and alloys. The
volatilization gravimetric method, which is appropriate for
samples containing high concentrations of silicon.

The most important application of volatilization

gravimetry to the analysis of organic materials is an
elemental analysis. When burned in a stream of pure
O2, many elements, such as carbon and hydrogen, are
released as gaseous combustion products, such as
CO2 and H2O. The combustion products are passed
through preweighed tubes containing appropriate
absorbents. The increase in the mass of these tubes
provides a direct indication of the mass percent of
carbon and hydrogen in the organic material.

* Boldface type indicates that gravimetric analysis is the

preferred method for the element or ion. The weighed
form is indicated in parentheses.

† A dagger indicates that the gravimetric method is

seldom used.
An underscore indicates the most reliable
gravimetric method.
TITRATION OR TITRIMETRY
A technique for determining the concentration
of a solution by measuring the volume of one solution
needed to completely react with another solution.
Titration process involves addition of solution of known
concentration from burette to the measured volume of
analyte.

Principle of Titration
It is based on the complete chemical reaction
between the analyte and the reagent (titrant) of known
concentration.
Analyte + Tritant → Product

Analyte – the solution of unknown concentration but

known volume.
Titrant – the solution of known concentration

Standard solution – solution of known concentration

Types of Standard solution:

• Primary Standard – has certain properties:
Ex: Na2CO3, KHP
a. Extremely pure
b. Highly stable
c. Can be weighed easily

• Secondary Standard – has certain properties:

Ex: NaOH, HCl
a. less pure than primary standard
b. less stable than primary standard
c. cannot be weighed easily
 CELL AND
MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
SCI311 – CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 6. Organ – collection of tissues that structurally form a
functional unit specialized to perform a particular
INTRODUCTION function
- human organs composed of:
LIFE - thyroid
- the condition that distinguishes animals and plants - lungs
from inorganic matter, including the capacity for growth, - liver
reproduction, function activity, and continual change - intestines
preceding death. - bladder
- living things - kidneys
- stomach
PROPERTIES OF LIFE - heart
- growth and development - brain
- reproduction
- response to the environment 7. Organ System – group of organs that work together
- energy processes to perform one or more functions
- regulation - the 11 organ systems:
- order - integumentary system
- evolutionary adaptation - skeletal system
- muscular system
LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION - lymphatic system
1. Atoms – smallest - respiratory system
- living and non-living - digestive system
- nervous system
Example: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and etc. - endocrine system
- cardiovascular system
- Atom structure: - urinary system
- electron - reproductive system
- protons
- neutrons 8. Organism – an individual form of life that is capable
of growing and reproducing, and have one or more
2. Molecules – a chemical structure consisting of two cells.
or more atoms
Example: animals, plants, bacterium
Example: Chlorophyll – a pigment molecule that is
responsible in making the leaves of the plant green 9. Population – it consists of all individuals of a species
living within a specific area
3. Organelles – mini organs
- specialized structures that perform 10. Community – the entire array of organisms
various jobs inside cells inhabiting a particular ecosystem

Example: Nucleus – controls the activities of the cells. 11. Ecosystem – a geographic area where plants,
animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and
4. Cell – smallest unit of life landscape, work together to form a bubble of life
- makes up all living organisms - ecosystems contain biotic parts as
- Cell structure: well as abiotic factors
- lysosome - terrestrial or aquatic
- nucleus
- nucleolus 12. Biosphere – ecospheres
- mitochondrion - it is the worldwide sum of all
- Golgi apparatus ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on
- centriole earth
- cell membrane - composed of:
- ribosomes - atmosphere – air
- cytoplasm - hydrosphere – water
- vacuole - lithosphere – earth
- rough endoplasmic reticulum

5. Tissue – a group of cells that have similar structure Lesson 3 – Microscope and Laboratory Safety
and that function together as a unit
- four main tissue types: Microscopes are tools used to enlarge images
- epithelial of small objects so as they can be visualized. The
- connective discovery of microscope has opened up a whole new
- muscular dimension in science, by using Microscopes scientists
- nervous were able to discover the existence of the
microorganisms, study the structure of cells, and see
the smallest parts of plants and animals.
There are many types of microscopes but let us
discuss the most commonly used microscope. The
compound light microscope is an instrument containing
two lenses, which magnifies, and a variety of knobs to
resolve (focus) the picture. Because it uses more than
one lens, it is sometimes called the compound
microscope in addition to being referred to as being a
light microscope.
PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE
• Eyepiece (Ocular lens) – It is where you view the
image from, with your eyes. It has two eyepiece lenses
at the top of the microscope which focuses the image
from the objective lenses.
• Objective lenses which are made up of glass lenses,
which make a clear image clear from the specimen.
a.) low power objective – the shortest cylinder
or tube with a large lens opening, large lenses and lower
magnification. Used to observe the general view of the
specimen as well as to locate various parts of the
specimen under study.
b.) high power objective – the longer cylinder
or tube with smaller lens opening, smaller lenses and
higher magnification. Used to observe the details of
parts of the specimen but very much enlarged.
c.) oil immersion objective – the longest
cylinder or tube with a very small lens opening, very
small lenses and very high magnification. Used to
observe fine details of specific parts and at a very much
higher magnification. To use this objective, a drop of
cedar oil is placed on the slide with the specimen and
the objective must be lowered such that its front lens
touches the oil; this eliminates refraction of light.
• Two focusing knobs: ensure the production of a
sharp image with clarity. They are found on the
microscopes’ arm, which can move the stage or the
nosepiece to focus on the image.
a) fine adjustment knob – the upper larger
pair which is used for initial focusing by raising or
lowering the body tube with the scanner or the lower
portion objective in position.
b) coarse adjustment knob – a lower-smaller
pair which is used for final viewing and adjustments at
different depths, with the higher objectives in position.
• The stage: is found just below the objectives and this
is where the specimen is placed, allowing movement of
the specimen around for better viewing with the flexible
knobs and it is where the light is focused on.
• The condenser: It is mounted below the stage which
focuses a beam of light onto the specimen. It can be
fixed or movable, to adjust the quality of light, but this
entirely depends on the microscope.
• Base: Supports the whole microscope
Note: Never use the coarse adjustment when focusing
the with the high powered objective. Use only fine
adjustment knob.
• The arm: a sturdy metallic backbone of the
microscope, used to carry and move the microscope
from one place to another. It also holds the microscope
base which is the stand of the microscope. The arm and
the base hold all the microscopic parts.
• Light illuminator or a mirror: found at the base or on
the microscope’s nosepiece.
• Nosepiece: used to move round to any position
depending on the objective lens to focus on the image.
It holds two to five objective lenses with different
magnifying powers.
• Aperture diaphragm (contrast): It controls the
diameter of the beam of light that passes through the
condenser. When the condenser is almost closed, the
light comes through to the center of the condenser
creating high contrast and when the condenser is widely
open, the image is very bright with very low contrast.
Magnification of Microscope
• The objective lenses are the main lenses used for
focusing the image, on the condenser. This produces
an enlarged clear image that is then magnified again by
the eyepiece to form the primary image that is seen by
the eyes.
• During imaging, the objective lenses remain parfocal
in that, even when the objective lens has changed the
image still remains focused. The image seen at the
eyepiece is the enlarged clear image of the specimen,
known as the virtual image.
• The magnification of the image is determined by the
magnification of the objective against the magnification
of the eyepiece lens. To calculate the magnification:
Total Magnification power = Magnification of the
objective lens x Magnification of the eyepiece
BASIC CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY
PART1
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
CHEMICAL BONDS
ACID, BASE, AND pH
ELEMENTS NEEDED BY LIVING ORGANISMS
WATER
ATOMS vs MOLECULES
- two or more atoms are called Molecules
CHEMICAL BOND
- responsible for connecting the atoms to create and for
us to have a molecule
Why Chemical bond is important?
With the use of chemical bond, we can create
chemical compounds and also called as temporary
connections. Temporary connections because we can
detach the atoms to form other molecules. If we can
create atoms out from the chemical bond, we can
destroy it by breaking the bond.
Types of Chemical Bonds:
• Covalent Bond
• Ionic Bond
• Hydrogen Bond Four emergent properties of water that contribute to
Earth’s suitability as an environment for life:
Covalent Ionic Bond Hydrogen • Cohesive behavior
Bond Bond - hydrogen bonds cause them to cohere
- it allows the transpiration in plants moving
• holds atom • loss and gain • interaction water against gravity
within an • based on involving a - it allows some animals (water striders) to walk
individual attractive hydrogen atom over the surface of ponds
molecular electrostatic located • Ability to moderate temperature
together. forces between between a pair - hydrogen bonds between polar water
• Formed by two ions of of other atoms molecules cause water to resist change
sharing of opposite charge having a high - high specific heat
electrons • the larger the affinity for - absorbed or lost for 1g of substance
• gain stability difference in electrons to change its temperature by 1̊ C
electronegativity • bond is - high heat vaporization
between atoms weaker than an - quantity of heat a liquid must absorb
the grater ionic ionic bond or for 1g to be converted from the liquid to gas
character of covalent bond. - latent heat of fusion
interaction - heat required for an object to go from
the solid state to the liquid state, or vice versa
- produces stable environment
ELEMENTS NEEDED BY LIVING ORGANISMS • Expansion upon freezing
- ice floats on liquid water
The most frequent occurring chemical elements in - water is one of the few substances
living things: that are less dense as a solid than liquid
• Carbon – most common biomolecules components - the denser it becomes, the more it expands
found in carbon dioxide, carbohydrates, based products - at 0̊ C, the molecules become lockers into a
of living organisms crystalline lattice, each water molecule hydrogen-
• Hydrogen – basic component of water bonded to four partners
• Oxygen – vital in metabolism of different organisms or - hydrogen bonds keep the molecules far
oxidizing enough apart to make ice about 10% less dense than
- component of carbohydrates and water liquid water at 4̊ C
• Nitrogen – basic component of protein • Versatility as a solvent
- water = the universal solvent
Other elements that are essential to living - because its polar molecules are
organisms: attached to charged and polar substances capable of
• Sulfur – essential elements in variable group of some forming hydrogen bonds
amino acids: - hydrophilic substances have an affinity for
- Methionine water
- Cysteine - ionic and polar substances
- Homocysteine - dissolving or mixing of substances
- Taurine - hydrophobic substances do not have an
• Calcium – important in bones, teeth, shells, and nerve affinity for water
functions - substances that are nonionic and
• Phosphorus – essential elements in nucleotides nonpolar actually seem to repel water
- ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
- energy carrying molecules ACIDIC AND BASIC CONDITIONS AFFECT LIVING
• Iron – important in heme group ORGANISMS
- precursor in hemoglobin (oxygen
transport molecule) ACID BASE
• Sodium – important ion in neuromembrane potential
- required for nerve impulse • it has a pH of less than • it has a pH of greater
transmission 7 than 7
• blue litmus paper to red • red litmus paper to blue
WATER • sour taste • bitter
- the molecule that supports life • corrosive • taste and slippery or
- composed of two hydrogen atoms joined to the oxygen • example: slimy to touch
atom by single covalent - sulfuric acid • example:
- formed by hydrogen bond (H2SO4), which are used - ammonia
- the unequal sharing of electrons & V-like shape makes in the manufacture of (NH3), which is used as a
it a polar molecular plastic, paint, cleaning agent
- meaning that its overall charge is unevenly photographic film, and - sodium
distributed fertilizers bicarbonate (NaHCO3),
- acetic acid which is used in antacids
(CH3COOH), which is and baking powder.
used in making vinegar
Why is it important to identify if a substance is
acidic or basic?
To know how substance to be used.
pH (potential of hydrogen)
- used to measure the acidity or basicity of a solution
- solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic
- acidic solutions contain more hydrogen ions
(H+)
- solutions with pH greater than 7 are basic
- basic solutions contain more hydroxide ions
(OH-)
0-6 – Increasingly Acidic [H+] > [OH-]
7 – Neutral [H+] = [OH-]
8-14 – Increasingly basic [H+] < [OH-]
- it is fundamental basis of structures and function of
life
- 50% of the dry weight of every cell
- monomer: amino acids
- polymer: polypeptide
- do most of the work in cells and are required for the
structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues
and organs.
Protein structure and function:
- amino acids link together to form a polypeptide
- about 20 amino acids are found in nature
- a protein is built from one or more polypeptides
- formed by RNA
Amino acid → peptide → protein

pH scale Types of Proteins and its Function

0 Type Examples Functions
1 – battery acid Digestive Amylase, lipase, Help in digestion of
2 – gastric juice, lemon juice Enzymes pepsin, trypsin food by catabolizing
3 – vinegar, wine, cola nutrients into
4 – tomato juice, beer monomeric units
5 – black coffee Transport Hemoglobin, Carry substances in
6 – urine, saliva albumin the blood or lymph
7 – pure water, human blood, tears throughout the body
8 – seawater Structural Actin, tubulin, Construct different
9 keratin structures, like the
10 cytoskeleton
11 – milk of magnesia Hormones Insulin, thyroxine Coordinate the
12 – household ammonia activity of different
13 – household bleach body systems
14 – oven cleaner Defense immunoglobulins Protect the body
from foreign
pathogens
PART 2 Contractile Actin, myosin Effect muscle
MACROMOLECULES contraction
PROTEIN Storage Legume storage Provide
BUILDING BLOCKS OF PROTEIN proteins, egg nourishment in
white (albumin) early development
MACROMOLECULES of the embryo and
Example: insulin the seedling
- very large molecule
- composed of thousands of covalently bonded atoms AMINO ACIDS
- it determines the properties of cells - contains both a carboxylic group and an amino group
- amino acids that have an amino group bonded
Building Blocks: directly to the alpha-carbon are referred to as alpha
• carbohydrates – monosaccharides amino acids.
• proteins – amino acids - every alpha amino acid has:
• lipids – fatty acids and glycerol - a carbon atom, called an alpha carbon, which
• Nucleic acids – nucleotides is bonded to a carboxylic acid (-COOH group), amino (-
NH2 group), hydrogen atom, & R group that is unique
[cont.] for every amino acid
- (aka organic molecules or biomolecules)
- small molecules that join together are monomers R
- monomers are the links in a chain
- when monomers join together they for long polymers
- polymers are chains of monomers
HOOC C NH2
Example:
Monomers – glucose molecule
Multiple glucose molecule (polymers) – starch
| - ‘R’ group varies for every amino acid
PROTEINS C – alpha carbon (Ca)
- one of the most abundant organic molecules of living NH2 – amino acid
systems (essential) HOOC – carboxylic acid group
MODULE 2

THE CELL TYPES OF EUKARYOTIC CELL

CELL THEORY Organelles
- living organisms are made up of cells - mini organs
• By Schleiden and Schwann - organelles do the work of cells
- which was later modified by Rudolf Virchow - each structure has a job to do
- keep the cell alive
• 3 Principles:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more PARTS OF ANIMAL AND PLANT CELL
cells.
2. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit off
living organisms.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Level of Biological Organization:

- atoms
- molecule
- cell
- tissue
- organ
- body system
- organism
- population
- community
- ecosystem
- biosphere Cell Membrane

TYPES OF CELL

Parts:
EUKARYOTE PROKARYOTE
• Membrane- • Ribosomes • Nucleoid
enclosed nucleus • Cell • Capsule
• Nucleolus membrane (some
• Mitochondrion prokaryotes)
• flagellum Function:
• Cell wall (in - separates cell from outside
some - controls what enters and leaves cell
eukaryotes) - recognize signals from other cells
• Pilus - allows communication between cells
Structure:
PROKARYOTIC CELL - double layer of fat
- prokaryotes - phospholipid bilayer
- primitive cells, because their parts are not fully
developed
- do not have true nucleus and membrane bound
organelles
- but it has nucleoid
- examples:
Bacteria (Lactobacillus acidophilus)
Cyanobacteria (Blur-green algae)
Archaea (Crenarchaeota)

EUKARYOTIC CELL
Cytoplasm
- contain membrane bound nucleus and other - jelly-like material holding organelles in place
organelles
- present in higher forms of organisms Lysosome
- protist
Function:
- fungi
- digest food
- animals
- used to make energy
- more advance cells than prokaryotic, which makes it
- clean up and recycle
more complex cell
Structure:
- membrane sac of digestive enzymes
Flow:
Small food particle > digesting food > lysosomes > - some free in cytoplasm
digesting broken organelles - some attached to ER
Mitochondria Endoplasmic Reticulum

Function:
- work on proteins
- helps complete the proteins after
ribosome builds them
- makes membranes
Structure:
- rough ER
- ribosomes attached
- work on proteins
- smooth ER
Function: - makes membranes
- make ATP energy from cellular respiration
- sugar + O2 > ATP Golgi Apparatus
- fuels the work of life
Structure:
- double membrane
- outer – smooth
- inner – folder

Cristae – space between membranes

Matrix – the part enclosed by the inner membrane

Nucleus

Function:
- finishes, sorts, labels, and ships proteins
- like UPS headquarters
- shipping & receiving
department
- ships in vesicles
Structure:
- membrane sacs

Vacuoles
Function:
- control center of cell
- protects DNA
- instructions for building proteins
Structure:
- nuclear membrane
- nucleolus
- ribosome factory
- chromosomes
- DNA

Ribosomes
Function: • vacuole filled with digestive enzymes
- protein factories • plant cell vacuole is bigger than animal cell
- read instructions to build proteins from DNA • rare in animal cell but common in plant cell
Structure:
 Plasmodesmata – holes act to filter the nutrients and
waste substances that pass in and out of cells
Function: Chloroplast
- moving material around cell - oval structures
- food storage - where photosynthesis occurs
Structure:
- membrane sac Stroma – where the stacks of thykaloid
Thykaloid – contains chlorophyll
ORGANELLE PRESENT

Lesson 3 – Cell Division

The life of a cell begins when a parent cell

divides to produce new cell. In unicellular organisms,
cell division is the means of reproduction; in multicellular
organisms, it is the means of tissue growth and
maintenance until it matures and divides to produce
another generation of cells. The life of a cell from
beginning to its end to produce new generation of cell is
called the cell cycle (Figure 1).

THE CELL CYCLE

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take place
uninterrupted between cell divisions, and new cycles of
DNA synthesis can begin before previous cycles have
Distinct organelles in animal cells:
finished. In contrast, eukaryotes duplicate their DNA
exactly once during a discrete period between cell
Centrioles
divisions. This period is called the S (for synthetic)
Function:
phase. It is preceded by a period
- help coordinate cell division
Fill in the Venn Diagram on what are the differences and
- only in animal cells
similarities of mitosis and meiosis. Write the similarities
Structure:
of each cell division in the middle of the Venn Diagram.
- one pair in each cell
called G1 (meaning “first gap”) and followed by a period
called G2, during which nuclear DNA synthesis does not
Flagella
occur.

Function:
- for motility
Structure:
- tail like structures that project from the cell
body

Cilia Figure 1. Simple Diagram on Cell Cycle (photo source:

Function:
- for motility
Structure:
- hair like structures that arise from the cell’s
body
- commonly found in epithelial cells
Distinct organelles in plant cells:
Cell wall
- structure made of cellulose fibers
- located outside the cell membrane
- prevents overexpansion of cell
quizlet.com)
CELL DIVISION IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS
The growth and division of different cells in
multicellular organisms have similar basic mechanisms.
Survival of the eukaryotes depends upon interactions
between many cell types, and it is essential that a
balanced distribution of types be maintained. This is
achieved by the highly regulated process of cell
proliferation through mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the distribution of chromosomes
between two daughter cells and the cytokinesis is the
partitioning of the cytoplasm between two daughter Cell division occurs, followed by a second
cells. It can be divided into five phases (Figure 2). In division (Meiosis II) that resembles mitosis more closely
prophase the mitotic spindle forms and the in that it separates the two chromatids of each
chromosomes condense. In prometaphase the nuclear remaining chromosome. When meiosis is complete,
envelope breaks down (in many but not all eukaryotes) each mature gamete receives only one copy of each
and the chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle. Both DNA instead of the two copies (Fig. 3). Thus, the
chromatids of each chromosome attach to the spindle process produces four daughter cells that are haploid,
at a specialized chromosomal region called the which means they contain half the number of
kinetochore. In metaphase the condensed chromosomes of the diploid parent cell.
chromosomes align in a plane across the equator of the
mitotic spindle. Anaphase follows as the separated
chromatids move abruptly toward opposite spindle
poles. Finally, in telophase a new nuclear envelope
forms around each set of unraveling chromatids. An
essential feature of mitosis is the attachment of the
chromatids to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle. This
ensures that each of the daughter cells will receive a
complete set of chromosomes. The mitotic spindle is
composed of microtubules, each of which is a tubular
assembly of molecules of the protein tubulin.

Figure 3. Illustration on Meiosis (photo source:

Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.)

Meiosis produce genetic variability among

daughter cells. Meiosis generates genetic variability in
two important ways in Genetic recombination: (1)
Figure 2. Illustration on Mitosis (photo source:
Random assortment of paternal and maternal
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.)
chromosomes – the arrangement of each pair of
synapsed homologs on the metaphase-1 spindle is
Meiosis
random. (2) Crossing-over – the exchange of genetic
Meiosis begins with a parent cell that is diploid,
material between non-sister chromatids in Prophase 1.
meaning it has two copies of each chromosome. It
occurs during the formation of the reproductive cells, or
Moreover, genetic variability further increases
gametes (e.g. ova, sperm, and pollen) of sexually
in sexually reproducing organism during fertilization,
reproducing organisms. Gametes begin as germ cells,
where gametes fused (zygote) with both maternally and
which, like other types of cells, have two copies of each
paternally derived genetic information, so the resulting
DNA in their nuclei.
offspring will inherit genes from both parents.
The chromosomes composed of these two matching
Recombination also occurs in prokaryotic cells,
DNAs from both maternal and paternal source are
and it has been especially well characterized in E. coli.
called homologous chromosomes.
Although bacteria do not undergo meiosis, they do
engage in a type of sexual reproduction called
The parent cell undergoes one round of DNA
conjugation, during which genetic material is transferred
replication followed by two separate cycles of nuclear
from one bacterium to another.
division. During DNA replication, each chromosome
duplicates into two attached chromatids. The
CELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTIC CELLS
homologous chromosomes are then separated to
Asexual reproduction in most prokaryotes and free-
opposite poles of the meiotic spindle by microtubules
living species usually involves nuclear division and the
similar to those of the mitotic spindle during the
division of the cell into two identical daughter cells of
anaphase. At this stage, there is a crucial difference of
equal size by binary fission (Figure 4).
meiosis from the mitosis. In meiosis the two chromatids
making up each chromosome remain together, so that
whole chromosomes are separated from their
homologous partners (Meiosis I).

Figure 4. Illustration on the cell division in prokaryotic
cells (photo source: Socratic.com)
Cytokinesis
The final phase of cell division is cytokinesis,
the division of the cytoplasm. This is another process in
which animal and plant cells differ. In animal cells
cytokinesis is achieved through the constriction of the
cell by a ring of contractile microfilaments consisting of
actin and myosin, the proteins involved in muscle
contraction and other forms of cell movement. In plant
cells the cytoplasm is divided by the formation of a new
cell wall, called the cell plate, between the two daughter
cells (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Cytokinesis in Plants and animals (photo
source: PNGkit.com)
Lesson 3 – Osmosis and Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of
higher concentration to lower concentration. On the
other hand, osmosis is the movement of solvent
particles across a semipermeable membrane from a
dilute solution into a concentrated solution. The solvent
moves to dilute the concentrated solution and equalize
the concentration on both sides of the membrane. Both
diffusion and osmosis are passive transport processes,
which means they do not require any input of extra
energy to occur. However, diffusion can occur in any
mixture, including one that includes a semipermeable
membrane, while osmosis always occurs across a
semipermeable membrane.
Between the cells and its environment, water
diffuses out through the permeable membrane of a cell
if the solution outside has a higher solute concentration
(hypertonic) than the cytosol (Figure 1). But if the cell
has a lower solute concentration (hypotonic) the water
enters the cell. If the concentrations are equal (isotonic),
no net osmosis occurs. Cell survival depends on
balancing water uptake and loss. Cells lacking walls (as
in animals and some protists) are isotonic with their
environments or have adaptations for osmoregulation.
Plants, prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists have
relatively inelastic cell walls, so the cells don’t burst in a
hypotonic environment.
Figure 1. Diffusion of solutes across membranes
(Reece et al, 2010)
In a type of passive transport called facilitated
diffusion, a transport protein speeds the movement of
water or a solute across a membrane down its
concentration gradient. There are two types of transport
protein, these are channel proteins and carrier proteins
(Figure 2). Channel proteins simply provide corridors
that allow specific molecules or ions to cross the
membrane. Ion channels, some of which are gated
channels, facilitate the diffusion of ions across a
membrane. While carrier proteins can undergo changes
in shape that translocate bound solutes across the
membrane.
Figure 2. Types of Transport Protein (Reece et al,
2010)
YouTube Link:
Human body is a product of different chemical reactions
and processes.
Anselme Payen – French Chemist, 1833
- first discovered the vital force that
drove reactions and named it “Enzyme”.
ENZYME
- substances, proteins, or in some cases ribonucleic
acid (RNA), that speed up a biochemical reaction by
modifying specific substances called substrates.
- supremely selective in who they bond and modify,
hence their “specificity”
- mode of action
How does a tiny enzyme speed up a chemical
reaction?
Enzymes perform this critical task by lowering a
reaction’s activation energy, the amount of energy
needed for the reaction to begin. Enzymes bind to their
substrates, hold them in such that chemical bond-
breaking and bond-forming processes take place more
easily.
• Enzymes have a specific place in them called “Active
Site”, where the substrate binds and real time action
takes place.
- Active Site has a specific size, shape, and
chemical behavior rendered to it by specific
arrangement of amino acids.
- amino acids allows an enzyme’s
active site to only unique to a particular substrate.
- many enzymes consist of a non-protein part
called “cofactor”
- cofactors may be:
Cations: positively charged metal ions
(activators), bound temporarily to the active site to
“activate” the enzyme
Organic molecules: vitamins or vitamin
products (coenzymes), that join enzyme-substrate
complex temporarily
Prosthetic groups: permanently
enzyme bound; many enzymes only perform their
catalytic role when associated a coenzyme; an in
activated enzyme (protein) along with its coenzyme
(non-protein) makes up a system called holoenzyme;
To add complexity, scientists termed this inactivated
enzyme as apoenzyme:
Holoenzyme = Apoenzyme + Coenzyme
MODELS OF ENZYME ACTION:
LOCK AND KEY HYPOTHESIS
- Simplest model to represent how an enzyme works.
- The substrate simply fits into the active site to form a
reaction intermediate.
- just like the key fits in its specific lock. The
shape isn’t change either the structure of substrate
absolutely compliments the structure of the enzyme, like
puzzle pieces.
INDUCED FIT HYPOTHESIS
- the enzyme, upon binding of substrate changes shape
- the matching between an enzyme’s active site
and the substrate is not just like two puzzle pieces fitting
together, rather the enzyme changes shape and binds
to its substrate even more tightly
- the fine-tuning of the enzyme to “fit” the substrate is
called induced fit
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON ENZYME
FUNCTION
- Active site are very sensitive, they sense even the
slightest change in the environment and respond
accordingly
Factors that affect the active site and
consequently enzyme function include:
- temperature – the suitable temperature for
enzymes to function properly is 37 degrees Celsius
- increasing or decreasing
temperature above it, affect chemical bonds in the
active site, making them less suited to bind substrates
- higher temp. denature
enzymes.
- pH – amino acids present in the active site are
acidic or basic
- fluctuation in pH can affect these amino
acids making it hard for substrates to bind
- extreme pH values can denature
enzymes
ENZYME CONCENTRATION
- Increasing enzyme concentration will increase the rate
of reaction, as more enzymes will be available to bind
with substrates.
- However, after a certain concentration, any increased
will have no effect on the rate of reaction
SUBSTRATE REACTION
- Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate
of reaction, because more substrate molecules will be
colliding with enzyme molecules, so more product will
be formed.
- This effect is valid up to a certain
concentration
INHIBITION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY
- some evil substances, called “inhibitors”, reduce or
even stop the activity of enzymes in biochemical
reactions; they either block or distort the active site, thus
inhibiting the reaction.
2 types of inhibitors:
- Competitive inhibitors – occupy the active site
and prevent a substance molecule from binding to the
enzyme
- Non-competitive inhibitors – attach to parts of
the enzyme, other than the active site to distort the
shape of an enzyme
ENZYMES AND THE REACTIONS THEY CATALYZE
Enzymes – make reactions go faster by lowering their
activation energy
- named for their reactions, which convenient
because it makes it a lot easier to remember
Example:
DNA Replication – acts on DNA and specifically makes
polymers of DNA
1ST Step of Glycolysis:
Glucose + ATP > Glucose-6-P+ADP – reaction between
glucose and ATP to form glucose-6-phosphate and
ADP called hexokinase
TYPES (GROUP) OF ENZYMES
1. Transferase – its basic reaction, are ones where you
move some functional group, X, from molecules B to
molecules A.
A + BX > AX + B
Ex: [met-ala-leu + lys (tRNA) > met-ala-leu-lys + tRNA]
>>> A refers to amino acids chain, B refers to our tRNA,
and X refers to this lysine residue, transferred from B to
A. So this reaction is being catalyzed by an enzyme
called peptidyl transferase.
example:
During protein translation, where amino acids
bound to tRNA molecules are transferred over to the
growing polypeptide chain.
Peptidyl transferase – transferase involved in making
peptides.
2. Ligase – catalyzes reaction between two molecules,
A and B, that are combining to form a complex between
the two.
A + B > AB
>>> A and B represent the two separated DNA
polymers, which are being joined to form a single
strand. So this reaction is being catalyzed by an enzyme
called DNA ligase
example:
Occurs during DNA replication, where two
strands of DNA are being joined together.
DNA ligase – a ligase that works on DNA strands.
3. Oxidoreductase – it includes two different types of
reactions.
A + B: ↔ A: + B
Ex: [pyruvate + NADH ↔ Lactic Acid + NAD+]
>>> these reactions involve transferring electrons from
either molecule B to molecule A or from molecule A to
molecules B.
>>>An oxidase is directly involved in oxidizing or taking
electrons away from a molecule, while a reductase is
involved in reducing or giving electrons to a molecule.
These enzymes oxidoreductases together because
they can catalyze both the forward and reverse
reactions, why it used equilibrium arrows instead of just
a normal single-headed arrow.
example:
Occurs during lactic acid fermentation, where
electrons are either passed from NADH to pyruvate or
from lactic acid to NAD. This reaction is catalyzed by an
enzyme called lactate dehydrogenase.
Lactate dehydrogenase – to remove a hydride or
remove electrons from a molecules of lactic acid
(dehydrogenase – refers to the removal of a hydride
functional group; removal of electrons, since hydrides
are basically just hydrogen atoms with two electrons on
instead of one.)
4. Isomerase – enzymes in this group are involved in
reaction where a molecule, like molecule A is being
converted to one of its isomers.
A>B
Ex: [Glucose-6-P > Fructose-6-P]
example:
the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to
fructose-6-phosphate, which is one of the step of
glycolysis. This reaction is being catalyzed by an
enzyme called phosphoglucose isomerase.
Phosphoglucose isomerase – creates isomers of
glucose molecules that are phosphorylated.
5. Hydrolase – uses water to cleave a molecule, like
molecule A, into two other molecules, B and C.

A + H20 > B + C
Ex: [lys-ala + H20 > lys + Ala]

example:
Occur to peptide bonds. This lysine-alanine
dipeptide, it could be reacted with water to form two
individual amino acids that no longer bound. This
hydrolysis reaction can be catalyzed by a class of
enzymes called serine hydrolases, or serine proteases.

Serine Hydrolases – or serine proteases, they are

hydrolases that uses a serine residue as the key
catalytic amino acid that is responsible for breaking the
peptide bond

6. Lyase – the dissociation of a molecule, like molecule

A, into molecule B and C, without using water like
hydrolases would, and without using oxidation or
reduction like an oxidoreductase would.

A>B+C
Ex: [argininosuccinate > arginine + succinate]

example:
the cleavage of argininosuccinate into arginine
and succinate. This reaction takes place during the urea
cycle. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme called
argininosuccinate lyase.

Argininosuccinate Lyase – it is a lyase that catalyzes the

breakdown of an argininosuccinate molecule.
- It is important to recognize it
since lyases do not use water or oxidation to break a
bond, they need to generate either a double bond
between two atoms or a ring structure in a molecule in
order to work.
RESPIRATION
- Glycolysis
- Krebs Cycle
- Electron Transport Chain Reaction
- Oxidative Phosphorylation
Cellular Respiration
Respiration breaks this fuel down, generating ATP:
• Catabolic pathways – metabolic pathways that
release stored energy by breaking down complex
molecules; electron transfer plays major role.
• Fermentation – is a partial degradation of sugars or
other organic fuel that occurs without the use of oxygen.
• Aerobic respiration – oxygen is consumed as a
reactant along with the organic fuel
• Anaerobic respiration – harvests chemical energy
without oxygen.
Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP +
heat)
Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction
The loss of electrons from one substance is called
OXIDATION, and the addition of electrons to another
substance is known as REDUCTION.
Glycolysis
- occurs in the cytosol
- begins the degradation process by breaking glucose
into two molecules of a compound called pyruvate
Oxidative Phosphorylation
- the energy released at each step of the chain is stored
in a form the mitochondrion (or prokaryotic cell) can use
to make ATP from ADP. It is powered by the redox
reactions of the electron transport chain.- is made up of
two closely connected components: the electron
transport chain and chemiosmosis.
Substrate-level Phosphorylation
- occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group
from a substrate molecule to ADP, rather than adding
an inorganic phosphate to ADP as in oxidative
phosphorylation.
Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing
glucose to pyruvate
- The word glycolysis means “sugar splitting”. Glucose,
a six-carbon sugar, is split into two three-carbon sugars.
These smaller sugars are then oxidized and their
remaining atoms rearranged to form two molecules of
pyruvate. (Pyruvate is the ionized form of pyruvic acid).
Oxidation of Pyruvate Acetyl | CoA
1. Pyruvates carboxyl group (—COO), which is already
fully oxidized and thus has little chemical energy, is
removed and given off as a molecule of CO2. (This is
the first step in which CO2 is released during
respiration.)
2. The remaining two-carbon fragment is oxidized,
forming acetate (CH3COO, the ionized form of acetic
acid). The extracted electrons are transferred to NAD,
storing energy in the form of NADH.
3. Finally, coenzyme A (CoA), a sulfur containing
compound derived from a B vitamin, is attached via its
sulfur atom to the acetate, forming acetyl CoA, which
has a high potential energy; in other words, the reaction
of acetyl CoA to yield lower-energy products
is highly exergonic.

Krebs Cycle
- Also known as Citric acid or Tricarboxylic acid cycle
- Is the cycle of chemical reactions that are the major
source of energy in living organisms.
- function: to produce energy, stored and transported as
ATP or GTP
Chemical scheme of Krebs Cycle
1. The two-carbon acetyl CoA is combined with a four-
carbon oxaloacetic acid and hydrolyzed to produce a
six-carbon compound called citric acid or citrate.
2. Citrate is then converted into isocitrate, a six-carbon
isomer of citrate by dehydrating and then hydrating the
molecule to reshuffle its structure.
3. Isocitrate is oxidized and decarboxylation occurs with
a carbon dioxide molecule released. The coenzyme
NAD¬+ is reduced to form another dinucleotide, NADH.
With the removal of the carbon molecule, the five-
carbon molecule α-ketoglutarate is produced.
4. The α-ketoglutarate molecule is oxidized, NAD+ is
reduced to form NADH and another carbon molecule is
released. The four-carbon molecule produced
combines with Coenzyme A, forming the unstable
succinyl CoA compound.
5. A phosphate group replaces the Coenzyme A in
succinyl CoA, which is then transferred to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) to form ATP. The transference
of the phosphate groups occurs between GDP
(guanosine diphosphate) to form GTP (guanosine
triphosphate) in some cells. The four- carbon molecule
that remains is called succinate.
The remaining steps of the Krebs cycle regenerate
oxaloacetic acid from succinate:
1. Succinate is oxidized to form the four-carbon
molecule called fumarate. The electron carrier FAD
(flavin adenine dinucleotide), is reduced to FADH2 by
the transference of two hydrogen atoms.
2. Fumarate is converted into the four-carbon molecule
called malate by the addition of a water molecule.
3. The original reactant oxaloacetic acid is regenerated
by the oxidation of malate. The coenzyme NAD
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is reduced to
NADH by the transference of one hydrogen atom.
Electron Transport Chain
- final components of aerobic respiration
Steps of Cellular Respiration:
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron Transport
- it is a series of redox reactions that resemble a relay
race
NAD & FAD + electrons & hydrogen = NADH & FADH2
- Electrons are passed rapidly from one component to
the next to the endpoint of the chain, where the
electrons reduce molecular oxygen, producing water.
- The ETC is an aggregation of four complexes (labeled
I, II, III, IV), together with associated mobile electron
carriers. The ETC proteins in a general order are
complex I, complex II, coenzyme Q, complex III,
cytochrome C, and complex IV.
Oxidative Phosphorylation Light-Dependent Reaction
- is made up of two closely connected components: the
electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

• Delivery of electron by NADH and FADH2

- Reduced electron carriers (NADH and
FADH2) from other steps of cellular respiration transfer
their electrons to molecules near the beginning of the
transport chain.

• Electron transfer and proton pumping

- As electrons are passed down the chain, they
move from a higher to a lower energy level, releasing
energy.

• Splitting of oxygen to form water

Step 1: Excitation of Photosystems by Light Energy
- At the end of the electron transport chain,
Step 2: Reduction of NADP+
electrons are transferred to molecular oxygen, which Step 3: Production of ATP via an ETC
splits in half and takes up H+ to form water.
Reaction of the Calvin Cycle
• Gradient – driven synthesis of ATP The Calvin cycle reactions can be divided into four main
- As H+ ions flow their gradient and back into steps:
the matrix, they pass through an enzyme called ATP - Carbon Fixation
synthase, which harnesses the flow of protons to - Reduction
synthesize ATP. - Carbohydrate formation
- Regeneration of the starting molecule.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Light dependent reaction
- Light independent reaction

Photosynthesis
- a process of converting light energy to chemical
energy
- nourishes the living things on Earth directly or
indirectly
- performed by all plants, algae and some bacteria
- occurs in two main phases:
- Light-Dependent Reactions
- Light-Independent Reactions

Chloroplasts
- Plant organelle where photosynthesis process takes
place.
- Present in the cells of all green tissues of plants and
algae but also can be found in photosynthetic tissues
that do not appear green.
 - a higher organism has - each organism has only
about thousands of one genome
genes
- variations of gene - horizontal gene transfer
named alleles can be and duplication cause
naturally selected. large variation in the
genome.

CHROMOSOMES GENE
- most condensed - a locus on
structure of a DNA chromosomes
molecule with proteins
- always composed of - composed of either
DNA DNA or RNA
- Mutations are relatively - Mutations are small and
large since they occur in occur either in DNA
homologous replication or
recombination consequence DNA
damage.
- Mutations lead to - Mutations include point
chromosomal mutations and frameshift
Light-dependent Reaction abnormalities such as mutations insertions and
- occur inside the thylakoids duplication, deletion. deletion
- Products: Oxygen gas, ATP, and NADPH Rearrangement and
- Reactants: Water (H20), NADP+, and ADP + inversion of genes
Phosphate

Light-independent Reaction
- Known as Calvin Cycle is also called “dark reaction” Structure of DNA
as it happens without the assistance of light energy - DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
- occur in the stroma of chloroplast - passed down from parents to their offspring
- Products: sugar such as glucose, NADP+, and ATP +
phosphate 1. DNA consists of two strands that form a double
- Reactants: carbon dioxide (CO2), ATP, and NADPH helix structure.
- Double helix
- Nitrogenous bases
GENES, GENOMICS, AND CHROMOSOMES
- Structure of DNA 2. Each of the two strands is made of phosphate
- Sequencing genomes group, sugar molecule called deoxyribose and a
nitrogen base.
THE CENTRAL DOGMA
- DNA to RNA to Protein

Genes, Genomics, and Chromosomes

Genes – contain the code for a specific protein in the
body

Genomics – is the study of a person’s genes (the

genome), including interactions of those genes
• Nucleotides
Chromosomes – are structures within cells that contain - a sugar molecule
a person’s genes. - phosphate group
- nitrogenous base

GENE GENOME
- part of a DNA molecule - is the total DNA in a cell
- hereditary element of - all set of nuclear DNA
genetic information
- encodes protein - encodes both proteins
synthesis and regulatory elements
for protein synthesis
- length is about a few - length od the genome of - adenine (A)
hundreds of bases a higher organism about - cytosine (C)
billion base pairs - guanine (G)
- thymine (T)
3. The sequences of nitrogenous bases are The Central Dogma
complementary.

- The sequence of nitrogenous bases matches up in a

particular way with the sequence on the other strand.

4. Specific sequences of nitrogenous bases are - Process of converting DNA instructions into a
called genes. functional product.
- It was first proposed by Francis Crick in 1958.
- Explains how genetic information travels from DNA to
RNA to create a functional product, a protein.
- Proposes that DNA contains all of the information
required to produce all of our proteins.
- The process that converts DNA information to a
functional product is called gene expression.

- DNA contains the information necessary for encoding

proteins, although it does not produce proteins directly.
- sequences of nitrogenous bases are called genes - RNA carries the information from the DNA and
- mRNA molecules transcribed from genes are transforms that information into proteins that perform
translated into proteins later. most cellular functions.

Genome Sequencing DNA Replication

- Genome sequencing is figuring out the order of DNA - It is the process by which a double-stranded DNA
nucleotides, or bases, in a genome molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA
- The human genome is made up of over 3 billion of molecules.
these genetic letters. - Whenever a cell divides, the two new daughter cells
- Often compared to "decoding" but a sequence is still must contain the same genetic information, or DNA, as
very much in code. the parent cell.
Approaches on how to sequence a genome: TRANSCRIPTION (DNA-TO-RNA)
- Clone-by-Clone Method
- A process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to
- Whole-Genome Shotgun Method
mRNA.
a. Clone-by-Clone Method - The process relies on Watson-Crick base pairing, and
- useful for sequencing genomes of higher the resultant single strand of RNA is the reverse-
vertebrates that contain repetitive sequences complement of the original DNA sequence.
- is reliable but slow, and the mapping step can - The pre-messenger RNA is then "edited" to produce
be especially time-consuming. the desired mRNA molecule in a process called RNA
splicing.
b. Whole-Genome Shotgun Method - Can involve multiple RNA polymerases
- useful for smaller genomes
- is potentially very fast, but it can be extremely Transcription occurs in the three steps:
difficult to put together so many tiny pieces of sequence - Initiation
all at once. - Elongation
- Termination
Genome Sequencing
Advantages Limitations
- - Obtaining scientific - Psychological impact
information with potential - Privacy
medical implications - Test failure
- Cascade testing to - Clinical validity and
other family members utility
- Information of value to - Interpretation
future generations in a
client's family
- Psychological benefit
The Role of RNA Polymerase - DNA Replication is a crucial process and pone mistake
can lead to serious complications, therefore, no
mistakes or mutations should be introduced. After this
process, the cell can proceed to cell division.

- RNA Polymerase is an enzyme that synthesizes RNA
molecules from a template of DNA through a process
called transcription.
TRANSLATION
- Process by which mRNA directs protein synthesis with
assistance of tRNA is called translation.
- As mRNA passes through the ribosome, each codon
interacts with anticodon of a specific transfer RNA
(tRNA) molecule by Watson-Crick base pairing.
Translation also occurs in three steps:
- Initiation
- Elongation
- Termination
DNA Repair
- DNA polymerase proofread each nucleotide against its
template.
- Nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA, can be
damaged; mismatched, resulting in mutations.
- Each nucleotide contains a base, and the enzyme
DNA polymerase is supposed to bring in the correct
partner to pair during DNA replication.
- If only one base is damaged, it can usually be repaired
using a technique known as Base Excision Repair.
Nucleotide Excision Repair
- Another enzyme comes in to trim around the site and
replace the nucleotides after one enzyme snips out the
damaged base.
- Sometimes cause to adjacent nucleotides to stick
together, distorting the double helix shape of DNA.
- This type of damage necessities a more complex
procedure
Gene Regulation
Gene Expression
- the process of controlling which genes in a cell’s DNA
are expressed.
- used to make a functional product such as a protein

How do cells “decide” which genes to turn on?

- cells do not make decisions in the sense that you or I
would. Instead, they have molecular pathways that
convert information.

Differential Gene Expression

- is the expression of different genes by cells with the
same genome

Process of Gene Expression in Eukaryotic Cell

- highlights the key stages in the expression of a protein-
coding gene
- Regulation at this stage often occurs in response to
signals coming from outside the cell.
DNA REPLICATION - In all organism, a common control point for gene
- Replication and repair expression is at transcription.
*For this reason, the term gene expression is often
GENE REGULATION equated with transcription for both bacteria and
- Regulating Gene Expression in Eukaryotes eukaryotes.

DNA Replication REGULATION OF CHROMATIN STRUCTURE

- It is the process by which double stranded DNA
molecules is copied to produce two identical DNA
molecules.
Alternative models in DNA replication:
- Semiconservative model
- Conservative model
- Dispersive model
*Semiconservative model follows the DNA Replication
• Chromatin – the highly ordered packaging of DNA
and histones
• The structural organization of chromatin helps regulate
gene expression in several ways.
CHEMICAL MODIFICATIONS
• Histones Modifications
- There is abundant evidence that chemical
modifications to histones, play a direct role in the
regulation of gene transcription.
- These histone tails are accessible to various
modifying enzymes.
• Histone Acetylation
- Chromatin has a looser structure
- increases transcription
- this achieved by the addition of acetyl groups
*As a result, transcription proteins have easier
access to genes in an acetylated region.
(a) Histone tails protrude outward from a nucleosome.
The amino acids in the N-terminal tails are accessible
for chemical modification.
(b) Acetylation of histone tails promotes loose chromatin
structure that permits transcription. A region of
chromatin in which nucleosomes are unacetylated
forma a compact structure (left) in which the DNA is not
transcribed. When nucleosome is highly acetylated
(right), the chromatin becomes less compact, and the
DNA id accessible for transcription.
• DNA Methylation
- DNA methylation occurs in most plants,
animals, and fungi.
- the addition of methyl group to a certain
nitrogenous bases
- causes to wrap them up more on histones
tightly
- decreases access for transcription
- essential for cell differentiation and embryonic
development
Epigenetic Inheritance
- Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not
directly involving the nucleotide sequence
- Agouti mice epigenetic inheritance
REGULATION OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
- Gene expression via increasing or decreasing the size
of a DNA region.
- The transcription machinery is less able to bind to
them.
- The beginning of transcription is the next important
step in the regulation of gene expression.
The roles of Transcription Factors
- The initiate transcription, eukaryotic RNA polymerase
requires the assistance of transcription factors.
- Some transcription factors, such as those are essential
for the transcription of all protein-coding genes;
therefore, they are often called general transcription
factors.
- Enhancers and Specific Transcriptions Factors
Combinatorial Control of Gene Activation
- In Eukaryotes, regulation of gene expression by
transcription factors is said to be combinatorial.
- It requires the coordinated interactions of multiple
proteins.
Coordinately Controlled Genes in Eukaryotes
- are often clustered into an operon
- thus, the genes are expressed together, and the
encoded protein are produced concurrently.
Nuclear Architecture and Gene Expression
- The old view that the nuclear contents are like a bowl
of amorphous chromosomal spaghetti is giving way to a
new model of a nucleus with a defined architecture and
regulated movements of chromatin.
Mechanisms of Post-Transcriptional Regulation
- Transcription alone does not constitute gene
expression.
- The expression of a protein-coding gene is ultimately
measured by the amount of functional protein a cell
makes.
- Happens between the synthesis of the RNA transcript
and the activity of the protein in the cell.
RNA Processing
- provide several opportunities for regulating gene
expression that are not available in prokaryotes.
mRNA Degradation
- the life span of mRNA molecules in the cytoplasm is
important
- bacteria can change their patterns of protein synthesis
so quickly (environmental changes)
- in contrast, mRNAs in multicellular eukaryotes typically
survive for hours, days, or even weeks.
Initiation of Translation
- translation presents another opportunity for regulating
gene expression.
- such regulation occurs most commonly at the initiation
stage.
- at the appropriate time during embryonic development,
however, a cytoplasmic enzyme adds more adenine (A)
nucleotides, prompting translation to begin.
Protein Processing and Degradation
- final opportunities for controlling gene expression
occur after translation
- eukaryotic polypeptides must be processed to yield
functional protein molecules.
- in addition, any proteins undergo chemical
modifications that make them functional.
Regulatory proteins
- are commonly activated or inactivated by the
reversible addition of phosphate groups
- proteins destined for the surface of animal cells.
Cell-surface proteins
- must also be transported to target destinations in the
cell in order to function
- regulation might occur at any of the steps (modifying
or transporting a protein).
TRANSCRIPTION & TRANSLATION
- Structure of Transcription Factors
- Transcriptional Activation
- Translation and post translation control
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TRANSCRIPTION AND
TRANSLATION
• Gene – provide the instructions for making specific
proteins but does NOT build a protein directly.
2 STAGES OF GENE EXPRESSION: Transcriptional Activation (Transactivation)

TRANSCRIPTION TRANSCRIPTION
- is the synthesis of RNA using the information of DNA - is the process where a gene’s DNA sequence is
copied (transcribed) into and RNA molecule.

TRANSLATION
- is the synthesis of polypeptide using the information in
TRANSCIPTIONAL ACTIVATOR
the mRNA.
- is a protein (transcription factor) that increases
transcription of a gene or set of genes.

Structure of Transcription Factors

Transcription Factors
- help turn specific genes “on” or “off”
- promoting – activators
- blocking – repressors
- binding sites: enhancers and silencers
- allow cells to perform logic operations

- Transcription factors are proteins that regulate the

transcription of genes.

- are considered to have positive control over gene

expression, as they function to promote gene
transcription.

- Transcription factors bind to either enhancer or

promoter regions of DNA adjacent to the genes that
they regulate.
- in some cases, activators are required for the The Discovery of Viruses:
transcription of genes to occur.
Tobacco Mosaic Virus

Translation control & post-translation control of gene

expression

TRANSLATIONAL CONTROL
• Translation – during protein synthesis, translation is
the process of translating the sequence of a messenger
RNA molecule into a sequence of amino acids.
1. Extracted sap from tobacco plant with
• Translational control – switches translation on and tobacco mosaic disease.
off. 2. Passed sap through a porcelain filter known
to trap bacteria.
TRANSLATIONAL CONTROL 3. Rubbed filtered sap on healthy tobacco plant.
↓ TSL 4. Healthy plants became infected.
a. Degrade mRNA
b. Inhibitory proteins bind to mRNA Adolf Mayer (1883) – German scientist
 x bind to ribosome - Discovery: Tobacco Mosaic Disease could be
↑ TSL transferred between plant.
c. Activate initiation factors
 mRNA binds to ribosome
Dmitry Ivanovsky (1892) – Russian Biologist
- by phosphorylation
by protein kinases - Discovery: Pathogen is non-bacterial and can
↑ cAMP pass through fine filters.

POST-TRANSLATIONAL CONTROL Martinus Beijerinck – Dutch Botanist

DNA → mRNA → PROTEIN - Discovery: Independently replicated
although translation is the last step of the central dogma Ivanovsky’s experiments
which involves DNA turning into RNA turning into - Coined term “virus”
protein there are additional modifications that can occur
and these are called post-translational modifications. Wendell Stanley (1935) – American scientist
- Crystallized the infectious particle, now known
Types of post translational control
as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).
• Glycosylation – addition of an oligosaccharide
termed ‘glycan’
• Lipidation – covalent binding of a lipid group to a
protein STRUCTURE OF VIRUS
• Phosphorylation – addition of a phosphate group - 20 nm in diameter
• Acetylation – addition of acetyl group in a protein - consisting of nucleic acid enclosed in a protein coat
• Trimming – removal of the part of protein - Shapes: rod-shaped, almost spherical, or complex.
- The type of their nucleic acid contains their genetic
Hence, the key is to understand how the modifications information (DNA or RNA).
to these proteins influence the diversity of things that
can be expressed from our genetic code. • Viral Genomes
- consist of DNA or RNA

- can be singular stranded or double stranded, linear or

VIRUS circular.
CANCER Smallest viruses: four genes in their genome
Largest viruses: several hundred to a
VIRUS thousand.
-Latin origin “Poison"
Bacterial genome: 200 to a few thousands
-an infectious particle with a genetic material core,
genes.
either DNA or RNA.
-It lacks structures and metabolic processes.
*Coronavirus (COVID-19)- contain single stranded
RNA.
• Capsids • Endocytosis
- The protein shell enclosing the viral genome. - by fusion of the viral envelope with the plasma
- built from a large number of protein subunits called membrane.
capsomers.

THE TRANSMISSION OF VIRUSES

• Touch
• Respiratory droplets
• Direct contact
• Bodily fluids
• Envelopes • Contaminated food or water
- Derived from the membranes of the host cell. • Animals or Insects
- Contains host cell’s: • Around childbirth
• Phospholipids
• Membrane proteins EXAMPLES OF VIRAL DISEASES
- and also contain • COVID-19
• Proteins • Ebola
• Glycoproteins of viral origin • HIV
• SARS
VIRUSES REPLICATE ONLY IN HOST CELLS • Dengue fever
- Viruses lack metabolic enzymes and equipment for • Chickenpox
making proteins, such as ribosomes.
- Host range – infect cells of only a limited number of TREATMENT
host species. • Antibiotics
- Viruses usually identify host cells by a “lock-and-key” - These medications do not kill the virus, but they do
Broad Host range: slow or stop it from spreading.
- West Nile virus
- Equine encephalitis virus • Antivirals medication:
Narrow Host range: - HIV, HSV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C,
- Measles influenza, shingles, and chickenpox
infections.
GENERAL FEATURES OF VIRAL REPLICATIVE Ex. Tamiflu (Antivirals drug) for
CYCLES treating Influenza.
- A viral infection begins when a virus binds to a host
cell and the viral genome makes its way inside. • Vaccine
- Vaccination can be an effective way of preventing
Mechanism of genome entry: viruses from causing disease.
• T-even phages - It contains an inactivated form of the virus.
-uses their tail apparatus to inject DNA into a bacterium. - It contains a live attenuated virus, as in
immunization for polio.
- It teaches the body to make proteins that fight
a specific virus, such as SARS-CoV-2.
- The vaccine does not contain the real virus but
teaches the body to fight the actual virus.

CANCER
- a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow
uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body.
- Cancer is a genetic disease
- caused by changes to genes that control the
way our cells function, especially how they grow and
divide.
HOW DOES CANCER DEVELOP?
• Cancer develops when the body's normal control
mechanism stops working. Old cells do not die and
instead grow out of control, forming new, abnormal
cells. These extra cells may form a mass of tissue,
called a tumor.
2. Sarcoma
- form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat,
blood vessels, lymph vessels, and fibrous tissue (such
as tendons and ligaments).
- Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone.
- Causes: Inherited, chemical exposure, radiation.

Two heritable properties: 3. Leukemia

- They reproduce without following the normal - Cancer of blood cells
restraints on cell growth and division. - Large numbers of abnormal white blood cells
- Cells divide and colonize territories normally (leukemia cells and leukemic blast cells) build up in the
reserved for other cells. blood and bone marrow
- Causes: Mutation, chemical exposure, radiation.
• Neoplasm is an abnormal growth of aberrant cells that
gives rise to a tumor. 4. Lymphoma
- Begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells).
Two types of tumors: - These are disease-fighting white blood cells that are
- Benign tumors part of the immune system.
- Malignant tumors - Abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph nodes and
lymph vessels, as well as in other organs of the body.

5. Multiple Myeloma
- begins in plasma cells
- Myeloma cells (abnormal plasma cells) – form in bone
marrow and form tumors in bones all through the body.
- Multiple myeloma is also called plasma cell myeloma
and Kahler disease.

6. Melanoma
- Develops in melanocytes, which are specialized cells
• Genetic changes that can cause cancer can happen that make melanin.
because: - Most melanomas form on the skin, but melanomas can
- of errors that occur as cells divide. also form in other pigmented tissues, such as the eye.
- of damage to DNA caused by harmful - Primary cause: UV radiation
substances (tobacco smoke and UV rays)
- Inherited from our parents. 7. Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors
- tumor first formed in the central nervous system.
- Astrocytic tumor begins in star-shaped brain cells
TYPES OF GENES THAT CAUSE CANCER called astrocytes
1. Proto-oncogenes – involved in normal cell growth - Brain tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant
and division. (cancer).
2. Tumor suppressor genes – involved in controlling
cell growth and division TYPES OF CANCER TREATMENT
3. DNA repair genes – involved in fixing damaged DNA • Biomarker Testing
• Chemotherapy
HOW CANCER SPREADS? • Hormone Therapy
• Metastasis • Immunotherapy
- Spread from the place where it first formed to another • Radiation Therapy
place in the body. • Stem Cell Transplant
- Stage IV or advanced cancer • Surgery
- Liver • Targeted Therapy
- Brain
- Bone
- Lung

TYPES OF CANCER
1. Carcinomas
- most common type of cancer.
- Nonmelanoma skin cancer
- formed by epithelial cells, which are the cells that cover
the inside and outside surfaces of the body.
- Primary cause: UV radiations
BIOLOGICAL
CHEMISTRY
SCI223 – BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY
Chapter 1 – Introduction: Scope of Biochemistry
BIOCHEMISTRY
• Branch of life science which deals with the study of
chemical reactions that occur in living cells and
organisms.
• Life is a chemical process involving thousands of
different reactions occurring in an organized manner.
These are called metabolic reactions.
• Carl Neuberg
• German Chemist; first introduced the term
Biochemistry in 1903.
• It takes into account the studies related to the
nature of the chemical constituents of living matter, their
transformations in biological systems and the energy
changes associated with these transformations.
• Biochemistry may thus be treated as a discipline in
which biological phenomena are analyzed in terms of
chemistry.
BIOCHEMISTRY is THE CHEMISTRY of LIVING
SYSTEMS
Living Systems:
1. Complicated and Highly Organized
2. Each part has a function
3. Function is related to structure
4. Must extract energy from the environment
5. Have the ability to replicate itself
6. Have the ability to adapt to change
• Biochemistry obeys the same general rules as all other
chemical systems.
• Biochemical are like organic Chemicals.
• Biochemistry deals with the structure and function of
bio-molecules.
Chemicals of Living Systems:
• Alcohols
• Ethers
• Acids
• Esters
• Amides
• Anhydrides
• Thiols
• Phosphates
Examples of Structure – Function Relationships:
1. Amino acids are joined to form proteins and these
proteins fold up to form functional enzymes (enzymes =
bio-catalysts). (What is a catalyst? A substance which
accelerates a chemical reaction.)
2. Nucleotides are joined to form RNA and DNA.
These polymers are the information molecules of living
systems and maintain the genetic heritage of
organisms.
BRANCHES OF BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry for the same reason, has been
variously named as Biological Chemistry or Chemical
Biology.
Modern Biochemistry has two branches:
1. Descriptive Biochemistry – deals with the
qualitative and quantitative characterization of the
various cell components.
2. Dynamic Biochemistry – deals with the elucidation
of the nature and the mechanism of the reactions
involving these cell components.
New disciplines emerged from Biochemistry:
• Enzymology – study of enzymes
• Endocrinology – study of hormones
• Clinical Biochemistry – study of diseases
• Molecular Biochemistry – study of biomolecules and
their functions
Along with these branches certain other
specialties have also come up such as – Agricultural
Biochemistry, Pharmacological Biochemistry, etc.
Biochemistry has many very practical applications:
 In medicine and health care (development of
new drugs, etc.)
 In agriculture (breeding of improved crops for
feeding people)
 In chemical industries (improvements in
synthesis of feedstock)
Chapter 2 – Chemical Properties of Water
Our globe is covered over by 70 percent of
seawater. In addition, water forms an important part of
our atmosphere as vapor, water droplets and ice
crystals. A large part of the mass of most organisms is
water. Water is not only important as an internal
constituent of organisms but also one of the
environmental factors affecting them. In human tissues
the percentage of water ranges from 20% in bones to
85% in brain cells; about 70% of our total body weight
is water. As a major component of living systems, it
interacts with many biomolecules since it is also a
solvent for most biological reactions and a reactant or
product in many chemical reactions.
WATER
Must understand water and its properties. Why?
- Macromolecular components (i.e. proteins) assume
shapes in response to water.
- Most metabolic machinery operates in an aqueous
environment.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. POLARITY
• Covalent bonds (electron pair is shared) between
oxygen and hydrogen atoms with a bond angle of
o
104.5 .
• Oxygen atom is more electronegative that hydrogen
atom --> electrons spend more time around oxygen
atom than hydrogen atom --> result is a POLAR
covalent bond.
• Creates a permanent dipole in the molecule.
• Can determine relative solubility of molecules “like
dissolves like”.
2. HYDROGEN BONDS
• Due to polar covalent bonds --> attraction of water
molecules for each other.
• Creates hydrogen bonds = attraction of one slightly
positive hydrogen atom of one water molecule and one
slightly negative oxygen atom of another water
molecule.
• The length of the bond is about twice that of a covalent
bond.
• Each water molecule can form hydrogen bonds with
four other water molecules.
• Weaker than covalent bonds (about 25x weaker).
• Hydrogen bonds give water a high melting point.
• Density of water decreases as it cools --> water
expands as it freezes--> ice results from an open lattice
of water molecules --> less dense, but more ordered.
• Hydrogen bonds contribute to water’s high specific
heat (amount of heat needed to raise the temperature
of 1 gm of a substance 1oC) – due to the fact that
hydrogen bonds must be broken to increase the kinetic
energy (motion of molecules) and temperature of a
substance --> temperature fluctuation is minimal.
• Water has a high heat of vaporization – large
amount of heat is needed to evaporate water because
hydrogen bonds must be broken to change water from
liquid to gaseous state.
3. UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
• Water can interact with and dissolve other polar
compounds and those that ionize (electrolytes) because
they are hydrophilic.
• Do so by aligning themselves around the electrolytes
to form solvation spheres – shell of water molecules
around each ion.
• Solubility of organic molecules in water depends on
polarity and the ability to form hydrogen bonds with
water.
• Functional groups on molecules that confer solubility:
- carboxylates
- protonated amines
- amino
- hydroxyl
- carbonyl
• As the number of polar groups increases in a
molecule, so does its solubility in water.
4. HYDROPHOBIC INTERACTIONS
• Nonpolar molecules are not soluble in water because
water molecules interact with each other rather than
nonpolar molecules --> nonpolar molecules are
excluded and associate with each other (known as the
hydrophobic effect).
• Nonpolar molecules are hydrophobic.
• Molecules such as detergents or surfactants are
amphipathic (have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
portions to the molecule).
• Usually have a hydrophobic chain of 12 carbon atoms
plus an ionic or polar end.
• Soaps are alkali metal salts of long chain fatty acids -
type of detergent.
e.g. sodium palmitate
e.g. sodium dodecyl sulfate (synthetic
detergent)
• All form micelles (spheres in which hydrophilic heads
are hydrated and hydrophobic tails face inward.
• Contain 80-100 detergent molecules.
• Used to trap grease and oils inside to remove them.
5. OTHER NONCOVALENT INTERACTIONS IN
BIOMOLECULES
There are four major noncovalent forces involved in
the structure and function of biomolecules:
• Hydrogen bonds
- More important when they occur between and
within molecules --> stabilize structures such as
proteins and nucleic acids.
• Hydrophobic interactions
- Very weak.
- Important in protein shape and membrane
structure.
• Charge-charge interactions or electrostatic
interactions (ionic bonds)
- Occur between two oppositely charged
particles.
- Strongest noncovalent force that occurs over
greater distances.
- Can be weakened significantly by water
molecules (can interfere with bonding).
• van der Waals forces
- Occurs between neutral atoms.
- Can be attractive or repulsive, depending
upon the distance of the two atoms.
- Much weaker than hydrogen bonds.
- The actual distance between atoms is the
distance at which maximal attraction occurs.
- Distances vary depending upon individual
atoms.
6. NUCLEOPHILIC NATURE OF WATER
• Chemicals that are electron-rich (nucleophiles) seek
electron-deficient chemicals (electrophiles).
• Nucleophiles are negatively charged or have unshared
pairs of electrons --> attack electrophiles during
substitution or addition reactions.
Examples of nucleophiles: oxygen, nitrogen,
sulfur, carbon, water (weak).
• Important in condensation reactions, where hydrolysis • The stronger the acid, the greater the tendency to lose
reactions are favored. that proton.
e.g. protein ------> amino acids • The equilibrium constant for this reaction is defined as
• In the cell, these reactions actually only occur in the the acid dissociation constant or Ka.
presence of hydrolases.
• Condensation reactions usually use ATP and exclude Ka = [H+] [conjugate base or A-]
[HA]
water to make the reactions more favorable.
pKa = -logKa similar to pH
7. IONIZATION OF WATER
• Pure water ionizes slightly can act as an acid (proton
• The pKa is a measure of acid strength. The more
donor) or base (proton acceptor).
+ - strongly dissociated the acid, the lower the pKa, the
2H2O ---> H3O + OH , but usually written stronger the acid.
+ -
H2O ---> H + OH Hence,
+ -
Ka = [H ] [A ]
• Equilibrium constant for water: [HA]
+ - -16 o
Keq = [H ][OH ] = 1.8 x 10 M at 25 C
[H2O] log Ka = log [H+] [A-]
[HA]
if [H20] is 55.5 M --> 1 liter of H2O is 1000 g
1 mole of H2O is 18 g log Ka = log [H+] + log [A-]
[HA]
• Can rearrange equation to the following:
-16
1.8 x 10 M(55.5 M) = [H+][OH-]
-14 2 -log[H+]= -log Ka + log [A] ----
1.0 x 10 M = [H+][OH-] Henderson-Hasselbach equation
[HA]
• At equilibrium, [H+] = [OH-], so
-14 2 2 • H-H equation defined the pH of a solution in terms of
1.0 x 10 M = [H+] pKa and log of conjugate base and weak acid
-7 +
concentrations.
1.0 x 10 = [H ]
Therefore, if [A-] = [HA], then
8. pH Scale
pH = - log [H+], so at equilibrium pH = pKa + log 1
-7
pH = -log (1.0 x 10 ) pH = pKa

=7 • The pKa values of weak acids are determined by

titration. Can calculate the pH of a solution as
increasing amounts of base are added.
• pH <7 is acidic, pH > 7 is basic or alkaline
+
• 1 change in pH units equals a 10-fold change in [H ] e.g. acetic acid titration curve
OH-
CH3COOH ---------> CH3COO- + H2O
ACID DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS OF WEAK
ACIDS
• This is the sum of two reactions that are occurring:
• A strong acid or base is one that completely
dissociates in water.
H2O --------> H+ + OH-
+ -
e.g. HCl ---> H + Cl
CH3COOH ----> CH3COO- + H+
• A weak acid or base is one that does not; some
proportion of the acid or base is dissociated, but the rest
is intact. • When add OH- to solution, will combine with free H+ -
• A weak acid or base can be described by the following --> H2O (pH rises as [H+] falls).
equation: • When this happens, CH3COOH immediately
dissociates to satisfy its equilibrium constant (law of
• weak acid (H) > H+ + A- conjugate acid-base pair mass action).
HA • As add more OH-, increase ionization of CH3COOH.
proton donor conjugate base (conjugate acid) • At the midpoint, 1/2 of CH3COOH has been ionized
and [CH3COOH] = [CH3COO-].
• Each acid has a characteristic tendency to lose its
proton in solution. • As you continue to add more OH-, have a greater
amount of ionized form compared to weak acid. atom. The hydrogen atom is formally bonded to the
• Finally reach a point where all the weak acid has been donor atom, D, but it also interacts favorably with the
ionized. acceptor atom, A.
• This titration is completely reversible.
• This titration curve shows that a weak acid and its 3. The strongest H-bonds are linear
anion can act as a buffer at or around the pKa.  Hydrogen bonds are directional, with the
• Important in cells where pH is critical. strongest bonds formed when the –D––
• Can also use this principle to determine whether amino H•••A– atoms are arranged linearly. The
acids are charged or not at different pHs or just histogram below shows the distribution of
physiological pH. hydrogen bond angles in crystal structures
• Can use the H-H equation to calculate pH of a solution of small molecules.
knowing the information in Table 2.4 (pKa values) and
the ratios of the second term (don’t need to know actual
concentrations, just ratio).
• If [A-] > [HA], then the pH of the solution is greater than
pKa of the acid.
• If [A-] < [HA], then the pH of the solution is less than
the pKa of the acid.

BUFFERS
• Solutions that prevent changes in pH when bases or
acids are added.
• Consist of a weak acid and its conjugate base.
• Work best at + 1 pH unit from pK a --> maximal
buffering capacity. O–––H covalent bond ~460 kJ mol–1
O• • • H hydrogen bond ~20 kJ mol–1
Excellent example:
Blood plasma-carbon dioxide- carbonic acid-
bicarbonate buffer system 4. Water molecules are highly polarized

CO2 + H2O ----> H2CO3 -------> HCO3- + H+

• If [H+] increases (pH falls), momentary increase in

[H2CO3], and equation goes to the left.
• Excess CO2 is expired (increased respiration) to re-
establish equilibrium.
• Occurs in hypovolemia, diabetes, and cardiac arrest.
• If [H+] falls (pH increases), H2CO3 will dissociate to
release bicarbonate ion and hydrogen ion. This results
in a fall in CO2 levels in the blood. As a result, breathing
slows.
• Occurs in vomiting, hyperventilation (coming at
equation from left).
(Cont.) WATER
1. Water: the weird solvent
 water is the biological solvent for most
molecules
 in order to understand the chemical properties
of biological molecules, we first need to
understand the chemistry of water
Lone electron pairs on oxygen
5. H-bonds account for high melting/boiling point
of water
The nearly tetrahedral arrangement of H atoms
and the two lone electron pairs on the O atom
enables each water molecule in the solid state (ice)
to form up to four H-bonds with neighboring water
molecules. In the liquid state these H-bonds still
form, but they are transient (lifetime < 1 ns), with H-
bonds continuously being broken and reformed.
The large amount of thermal energy required to
break up these H-bonds accounts for the
anomalously high melting point and boiling point of
water.

2. water has anomalously high melting point,

boiling point, surface tension
 this is because water can form hydrogen
bonds

A hydrogen bond occurs whenever two

electronegative atoms compete for the same hydrogen

6. Dissolution of polar molecules in water
 Polar compounds with electronegative
atoms can form H-bonds with water
 Dissolution of NaCl in water
Water dissolves salts by forming a shell of
interacting water molecules around the
ions. This weakens electrostatic
interactions between the ions and
counteracts their tendency to form a crystal
lattice. Dissolution of the salt is
accompanied by a large increase in entropy
as the individual ions become more mobile.
The change in free energy of the system is
overall very negative (DG = DH – TDS) and
hence dissolution of the salt is
thermodynamically highly favored.
7. Hydrophilic versus hydrophobic
 Compounds that dissolve easily in water
are said to be hydrophilic (from the Greek
“water-loving”).
 Nonpolar compounds that do not readily
dissolve in water are said to be
hydrophobic (“water-hating”).
8. The hydrophobic effect
 When a nonpolar molecule is inserted into
water, the normal network of hydrogen-bonded
water molecules is disrupted. The water tries to
“bury” the hydrophobic molecule by building a
highly structured “cage” of water molecules
around it. This is thermo-dynamically
unfavorable as it decreases the entropy of the
water molecules. Thus, the nonpolar molecules
tend to stick together to minimize the amount of
“structured” water required to bury them. This is
called the hydrophobic effect.
Chapter 4 – Proteins
Proteins can be classified as either:
1. Globular – spherical; water-soluble molecules with a
hydrophobic interior and hydrophobic surface; have
mostly functional roles in the cell,
e.g. enzymes
2. Fibrous – made into threads or cables with repeating
units; water-insoluble molecules that provide
mechanical or structural support,
e.g.  keratin and collagen
PROTEIN STRUCTURE
There are four levels of protein structure:
1. Primary – linear sequence of amino acids
2. Secondary – regular patterns formed by primary
structure folding
3. Tertiary – completely folded polypeptide with one or
more domains
4. Quaternary – association of multiple polypeptides;
not found in all proteins
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
Peptide group - bond plus 4 groups
Bond between carbonyl carbon and nitrogen
shorter than normal, but longer than C=N bonds --->
partial double bond character ---> no free rotation
around bond ---> bond is planar.
• Peptide group can exist in cis or trans conformation
--> nearly all in trans because of steric hinderance.
• There is rotation around N-C bond ( phi) and C-C
bond ( psi). Figure 4.8 shows how bond angles are
measured.
• Conformation of peptide group can be described by
and
• Only certain angles are permitted. Are shown in a
Ramachandran plot ---> also shows recognizable
conformations. (Figure 4-9)
SECONDARY STRUCTURE
There are two common types of secondary
structure:
1. -helix
 • Most common.
• Can be described by pitch (distance for 1
turn of helix) and rise (distance/a.a. residue).
• Can be right or left-handed, but all right-
handed.
 Pitch = 0.54 nm ---> 3.6 a.a.
Rise = 0.15 nm
• Main chain is core, with R-groups sticking
out.
• Stabilized by H-bonds between carbonyl
oxygen and amide hydrogen 4 residues toward C-
terminus.
• Some a.a. residues commonly found in -
helices (alanine), whereas some a.a. destabilize helix
(e.g. glycine; lots of rotation).
• Can have variation called 310 helix (right
handed) - carbonyl oxygen H-bonds with amide
hydrogen 3 residues towards C-terminus ---> tighter
ring structure with 10 atoms rather than 13, 3
residues/turn and longer pitch --> less stable, but
usually only a few residues in length.
2) -structures
• -strands (almost fully extended  helix) and
-sheets (multiple  strands in sheets or layers)
• Stabilized by H-bonds between carbonyl
oxygen and amide hydrogens on adjacent ß strands.
• Can be arranged in either parallel (same N-C
direction) or anti-parallel.
• R-groups alternately point above and below
plane when viewed in 3-D (Figure 4-16).
• Globular proteins contain regions of ß
structure.
Loops and Turns (non-repetitive regions)
• Cause directional change in the polypeptide
backbone.
• Bond angles are constrained, so that only certain
directional changes are permitted.
• Loops are often hydrophilic residues found on protein
surfaces, where they H-bond with water molecules.
• Loops with about 5 a.a. residues are called turns.
• Most common type of tight turn is a  turn, which
connects different antiparallel  strands.
• There are other types of turns and all hydrogen bond
with other portions of the protein to stabilize secondary
structure.
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
• Results from the folding of a polypeptide into a closely
packed three-dimensional structure.
• Amino acids that are far apart in the primary structure
are brought together to have side chain interactions.
• Tertiary structure is stabilized primarily by noncovalent
interactions, mostly hydrophobic effects.
• Disulfide bridges also contribute to tertiary structure.
Motifs (super secondary structures)
• Combinations of  helices strands, and loops.
• Often have a particular function, such as a protein
binding site.
Different types include:
1. helix-loop-helix – found in calcium-binding proteins
2. coiled coil – leucine zipper in transcription proteins
3. helix bundle
4.  unit
5. hairpin – connecting two antiparallel  strands
6.  meander – connecting multiple  strands
7. Greek key –  sheet with four antiparallel  strands
8.  sandwich –  strands stacked on top of one another
Domains
• Composed of several independently folded compact
units.
• May be a combination of motifs
• Each domain contains various elements of secondary
structure.
• Domains are usually connected by loops, but bound to
each other through R-group interactions.
QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
• Refers to the organization and arrangement of
subunits, which consists of a single polypeptide chain.
• Subunits may be identical or different.
• Weak noncovalent bonds hold polypeptide chains
together.
• Often hydrophobic effects but electrostatic bonds are
important in aligning individual subunits.
PROTEIN FOLDING AND STABILITY
• Once a polypeptide is made, it then folds into its
characteristic three-dimensional shape.
• As the protein folds, initial interactions then initiate
further interactions –called the cooperativity of folding.
• Folding occurs in less than a second.
• Protein folding and stabilization depend upon
noncovalent forces, including the hydrophobic effect,
hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, and
charge-charge interactions.
• Although individually weak, collectively they are
strong.
- The weakness gives the protein flexibility to
change conformations.
- Once in place, the collective effect keeps the
protein in its proper shape.
• No actual protein folding pathway is known, however,
the structure of some intermediates has been
described.
- It appears that hydrophobic effects are very
important initially, such that the protein “collapses” onto
itself.
- Then some parts of secondary structure begin
to form.
- Then motifs form, followed by the stable,
completely folded protein.
The Hydrophobic Effect
• Proteins are more stable when their hydrophobic R-
groups are in the interior of a protein and away from
water.
• Nonpolar side chains then interact with each other.
• Polar side chains remain in contact with water on the
protein surface.
Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonds in a helices, b sheets and turns form
first as a protein folds  defined regions of secondary
structure.
• Many hydrogen bonds ultimately form between
polypeptide backbone and water, between backbone
and R-groups, between R-groups, and between R-
groups and water.
• Those hydrogen bonds within interior of protein are
more stable than those on the surface because these
bonds do not then compete with water molecules.
Van der Waals Interactions and Charge-Charge
Interactions
• Van der Waals contacts between nonpolar side chains
are also important.
• Charge-charge interactions contribute minimally to
protein stability because most ionic bonds are
found on the surface of a protein.
Chaperones
• Protein folding does not involve a random search for
the proper conformation.
• Secondly, the final shape of a protein is dependent
upon its primary structure.
• Small proteins can fold properly in vitro, but larger
ones need the help of molecular chaperones.
• Chaperones are proteins that assist with protein
folding by binding to proteins before they are completely
folded.
• They prevent the formation of incorrectly folded
intermediates that may trap a polypeptide into an
improper form.
• They also bind to protein subunits and prevent them
from aggregating and precipitating before then are
assembled into a multi-subunit protein.
• Most chaperones are heat-shock proteins. Originally
found when cells were subjected to temperature stress,
which tends to make proteins denature.
• The major heat-shock protein is HSP-70, present in all
eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
- Most highly conserved protein known 
indicates the very important role of HSP-70 in
folding.
• Chaperones usually bind to the hydrophobic portions
of a protein and prevent them from interacting with
water or at least coming into contact with water
molecules.
HOW PROTEIN STRUCTURE IS RELATED TO
FUNCTION
COLLAGEN
• Major component of connective tissue of vertebrates.
• Consists of three left-handed helical chains coiled
around each other in a right-handed supercoil.
• Each helix has 3 amino acids per turn and a pitch of
0.94 nm  more extended than an a-helix.
• Stability of the collagen helix is achieved via interchain
hydrogen bonds.
• Helical regions consist of the amino acids –Gly-X-Y,
where X is usually proline and Y is usually
hydroxyproline.
• For each –Gly-X-Y triplet, one hydrogen bond forms
between the amide hydrogen atom of glycine in one
chain and the carbonyl oxygen of an adjacent chain.
• There are no intrachain hydrogen bonds.
• Hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine are made from
proline and lysine after the protein has been
synthesized, i.e. an enzyme does the hydroxylation.
• In mammals, vitamin C is necessary for adequate
hydroxylation.
• People who suffer from scurvy lack sufficient amounts
of vitamin C in their diet.
- Develop skin lesions, fragile blood vessels
(susceptible to bruising), loose teeth, and bleeding
gums.
• Collagen triple helices are arranged in a staggered
fashion to give rise to very strong fibers.
• There are some covalent cross-links between the side
chains of some lysine and hydroxylysine residues to
form Schiff bases between carbonyl groups and
amines.
MYOGLOBIN AND HEMOGLOBIN
• Vertebrates must supply and deliver a constant
amount of oxygen to tissues for aerobic respiration.
This is done in two ways:
1) development of circulatory system that delivers
oxygen to cells
2) use of oxygen-carrying molecules to overcome
oxygen’s low solubility in water
e.g. myoglobin and hemoglobin
• The ability of myoglobin or hemoglobin to bind oxygen
depends upon a heme group (prosthetic group).
• Heme consists of an organic part (protoporphyrin) and
iron atom.
• Iron atom in center can form 6 bonds: 4 with nitrogens
from protoporphyrin and 2 on either side of plane.
• Iron atom can be in ferrous (+2) or ferric (+3) state -->
ferrohemoglobin and ferromyoglobin and
ferrihemoglobin and ferrimyoglobin. Only +2 state can
bind oxygen.
• Myoglobin structure determined with x-ray
crystallography in mid-1950’s.
Molecule has several important features:
1. extremely compact
2. 75% of structure in a-helix (8 helices, named A, B, C,
...H).
3. 4 of helices are terminated by proline residue
4. main-chain peptide groups are planar
5) little empty space inside molecule; interior consists
almost entirely of nonpolar residues; amino acids that
are amphipathic oriented so that hydrophilic portions
face exterior; only polar amino acids in interior are 2
histidines, which are part of binding site.
• Heme group located in crevice in myoglobin molecule.
• Iron atom is bonded to histidine in F8 (histidine); the
oxygen-binding site on iron is located on other side of
heme plane (E7).
• Binding of oxygen to heme must occur in a bent, end-
on orientation.
• If only a small portion of the protein binds oxygen, why
have the rest of the protein?
- Heme exposed to oxygen by itself rapidly
oxidizes to +3, which cannot bind oxygen.
• Heme is much less susceptible to oxidation because
not only allows heme to bind oxygen, but it is a
reversible process.
Carbon monoxide is a poison because it combines with
ferromyoglobin and ferrohemoglobin to block oxygen
transport.
• CO’s binding affinity is about 200x stronger than that
for oxygen.
• If allow CO to interact with isolated iron porphyrins, the
iron, carbon, and oxygen atoms are in a linear array.
• If allow CO to interact with myoglobin or hemoglobin,
CO axis is bent, as in oxygen binding because of steric
hinderance from His E7 --> greatly weakens the
interaction of CO with the heme.
Biological significance?
CO is produced within cells in the breakdown of
heme --> about 1% of binding sites on hemoglobin and
myoglobin are blocked by CO.
If affinity was close to that of isolated iron
porphyrins --> massive poisoning.
Bottom line: function of a prosthetic group is
modulated by its polypeptide environment.
• Hemoglobin consists of 4 polypeptide chains, 2 of one
type, 2 of another ( 2, 2), held together by noncovalent
bonds.
• Each polypeptide contains a heme group and oxygen
binding site.
• Embryos and fetuses have zeta chains ( ) and epsilon
( ) chains; zeta is replaced by alpha ( ),
epsilon chains are replaced with gamma ( ), then beta
( ) chains.
• The three-dimensional structures of myoglobin and 
and  chains of hemoglobins are very similar -->
myoglobin resembles a chains of hemoglobin.
• Odd because amino acid sequence is not very similar
--> different amino acid sequences can specify similar
3-D structures.
• Those amino acids found to be invariant (do not
change) are those directly bonded to heme iron or hold
helices together.
• The nonpolar character of interior of molecule is
conserved --> important in binding heme group and
stabilizing 3-D structure of each subunit.
Hemoglobin is more intricate than myoglobin:
1. transports protons, carbon dioxide, and oxygen
2. is an allosteric protein
3. binding of oxygen to hemoglobin is cooperative
4. affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is pH dependent;
same true for CO2
5. hemoglobin also regulated by 2,3-
bisphosphoglycerate (BPG).
If look at oxygen dissociation curves for myoglobin
and hemoglobin, find many differences:
1. saturation of myoglobin is higher at all oxygen
pressures than hemoglobin --> myoglobin has higher
affinity for oxygen than does hemoglobin P50 for
myoglobin is 1 torr; P50 for hemoglobin is 26 torr.
2. oxygen dissociation curve of myoglobin is hyperbolic;
that of hemoglobin is sigmoidal --> binding of oxygen to
hemoglobin is cooperative (seen in Hill plot)
Biological significance of cooperativity?
Enables hemoglobin to deliver nearly twice as
much oxygen under typical physiological conditions as
it would if binding sites were independent.
Effects of pH on Oxygen Binding
Decreases in pH shift oxygen dissociation
curve to the right --> hemoglobin affinity for oxygen is
decreased.
Effects of CO2 on Oxygen Binding
• Increases in carbon dioxide concentration lower
hemoglobin’s affinity.
• Both of these actually promote the release of oxygen
from oxyhemoglobin.
• All of these effects are known as the Bohr effect.
Effect of BPG
• Lowers oxygen affinity of hemoglobin by a factor of 26
--> hemoglobin unloads more of its oxygen at the tissue
level.
• BPG works by binding to deoxyhemoglobin, but not
oxyhemoglobin.
Differences between fetal and adult hemoglobin:
• Hemoglobin F (22) vs. hemoglobin A (22)
• Fetal hemoglobin has higher affinity for oxygen than
does hemoglobin A --> optimizes transfer of oxygen
from maternal to fetal circulation.
• Also, hemoglobin F binds BPG less strongly than does
hemoglobin A --> higher oxygen affinity, but in the
absence of BPG, fetal hemoglobin actually has lower
affinity for oxygen than does adult hemoglobin.
Structural Basis of Allosteric Effects
• The allosteric properties of hemoglobin arise from
interactions between its subunits.
• The functional unit of hemoglobin is a tetramer with 2
alpha and 2 beta chains.
The structures of oxyhemoglobin and
deoxyhemoglobin are very different.
1) oxygenated molecule more compact
2) binding of oxygen to hemoglobin results in a large
structural change at two of the four contact points (12
and 21)
3) the 11 pair rotate relative to other pair of protein
chains
• The 1 2 contact region is designed to act as a switch
between two alternative structures.
• All mutations in the interface diminish oxygen binding;
mutations elsewhere do not.
• Oxyhemoglobin is R form; deoxyhemoglobin is T form
(lower affinity)
• In deoxyhemoglobin the iron atom is out of porphyrin
plane toward proximal histidine (F8) --> heme group is
domed-shaped toward His F8.
• Binding of oxygen to iron atom moves iron atom into
porphyrin plane --> heme becomes more planar.
• Proximal histidine is pulled along with iron atom and
becomes less tilted --> shifts F helix ---> --> transmitted
to subunit interfaces, where they break interchain salt
links ---> R form
How does BPG lower oxygen affinity of
hemoglobin?
• Only one molecule of BPG is bound --> binds to
symmetry axis of hemoglobin molecule in central
cavity.
• This binding site contains 8 positively charged
residues: amino group, His 2, Lys 82, His 143 of each
beta chain.
• BPG has 4 negative charges.
• When oxygen binds to hemoglobin, the shift in
conformation causes the central cavity to become too
small --> BPG is expelled.
• BPG stabilizes deoxyhemoglobin structure by cross-
linking chains --> shift equilibrium toward T form.
How does CO2 lower oxygen affinity
hemoglobin?
• CO2 is transported as bicarbonate in RBCs
IUBMB classifies enzymes based upon the class of
organic chemical reaction catalyzed:
1) oxidoreductase - catalyze redox reactions
dehydrogenases, oxidases, peroxidases, reductases
2) transferases - catalyze group transfer reactions;
often require coenzymes
3) hydrolases - catalyze hydrolysis reactions
4) lyases - lysis of substrate; produce contains double
bond
5) isomerases - catalyze structural changes;
isomerization
6) ligases - ligation or joining of two substrates with
input of energy, usually from ATP hydrolysis; often
called synthetases or synthases
Enzyme kinetics:
A mathematical and graphical study of the rates of
enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
k
S -----------> P
k
A + B ---> C
of
The velocity of this reaction can be summarized by the
following equation:

- + v = k[S] or v = k[A][B]
CO2 + H20 HCO3 + H
This reaction is considered a first order reaction,
+
• Much of the H is taken up by deoxyhemoglobin in the determined by the sum of the exponents in the rate
Bohr effect equation --> number of molecules reacting.
• Remainder is bound to hemoglobin as carbamate
There are also bimolecular reactions, which involve
- + two substrates; good example of group transfer
R-NH2 + CO2 R-NH-C-O + H
reactions.
• Carbamate forms salt bridges that stabilize T form -->
lowers affinity S1 + S2 ---> P1 + P2

• Uptake of H+ helps buffer pH of metabolically active v = k[S1] [S2] first order for each reactant;
cells, but also must raise the pKs of some of the but second order overall
amino acids
For enzyme-catalyzed reactions:
• The only a.a. affected is His 146, which acquires a
+
greater affinity for H because local environment E + S -----> ES -----> E + P
(location of Asp 94) becomes more negatively
charged. The rate or velocity is dependent upon both [enzyme]
and [substrate].

In reality, enzyme-catalyzed reactions are not that

simple:
Chapter 5 – Properties of Enzymes k1 kcat
E+S ES E+ P
Characteristics of enzymes: k-1
1) biological catalysts
2) not consumed during a chemical reaction k1 and k-1 govern the rates of association and
3) speed up reactions from 1000 - 1017, with a mean dissociation of ES
increase in rate of 00,000 kcat is the turnover number or catalytic constant
4) exhibit stereo specificity --> act on a single
stereoisomer of a substrate VES = k1[E][S]
5) exhibit reaction specificity --> no waste or side VE+S = k-1[ES]
reactions VE+P = kcat[ES]

Nomenclature Usually an enzyme’s velocity is measured under initial

• Typically add “-ase” to name of substrate conditions of [S] and [P].
e.g. lactase breaks down lactose (dissacharide of
glucose and galactose) These same reactions can be described graphically:
 Done by transformation of the date by taking the
velocity reciprocal of both sides of the equation ---> double
reciprocal plot or Lineweaver-Burke plot.

[S] Vo = Vmax[S]
Km + [S]
 At low [S], vo increases as [S] increases.
 At high [S], enzymes become saturated with 1 Km 1 1
substrates, and the reaction is independent of Vo = Vmax [S] + Vmax
[S] --> display saturation kinetics.
y=mx+b
Vmax = kcat[ES]

or because the [S] is irrelevant at high [S] Alterations in enzyme activity:

Enzyme inhibition
Vmax = kcat [E] • Molecule that binds to enzyme and interferes
with its activity to prevent either:
The graph is a graph of a hyperbola, and the equation 1) formation of ES complex E + I ---> EI
for a hyperbola is 2) breakdown of ES --> E + P ES + I ---> ESI

y= ax • Used to regulate metabolism.

b+x where a is the asymptote
b is value at a/2
Substituting our equation parameters,
Vo = Vmax[S]
Km + [S] Michaelis-Menten equation
Different enzymes reach Vmax at different [S] because
enzymes differ in their affinity for the substrate or Km.
1) The greater the tendency for an enzyme and
substrate to form an ES, the higher the enzyme’s affinity
for the substrate ---> lower Km.
2) At a given [S], the more enzyme will be in ES
for an enzyme with a higher affinity
i.e. the greater the affinity, the lower the
[S] needed to saturate the enzyme or to reach Vmax.
Enzyme-substrate affinity and reaction kinetics are
closely associated
[S] at which vo=1/2Vmax = Km
• Many drugs act by enzyme inhibition.
• These molecules can be:
1) irreversible - bind to enzymes by
covalent means and modify enzyme
2) reversible - noncovalent binding to
enzyme
There are three types of reversible inhibition:
1) competitive
• Competes with substrate for active site of
enzyme.
• Both substrate and competitive inhibitor bind
to active site.
• These inhibitors are often substrate analogs
(similar in structure substrate), but still no product is
formed.
• Can be overcome by addition of more
substrate (overwhelm inhibitor; a numbers game).
e.g. malonate inhibition of succinate
dehydrogenase
succinate ----------------------> fumarate

Km is a measure of enzyme affinity FAD FADH2

succinate malonate
Km = k-1
k1 e.g. AZT inhibition of HIV reverse transcriptase
reflection of association and dissociation of ES actual substrate is dTTP (deoxythymidine triphosphate)

 a small Km (high affinity) favors E + S ----> ES • Can be represented by the following equation:
 a large Km (low affinity) favors ES -----> E + S
 meaning that the lower the Km, the less E+S ES E+P
substrate is needed to saturate the enzyme. +
I
We would like numbers of Vmax and Km for a means of
comparison among enzymes.

It is difficult to estimate Vmax and Km from a typical graph EI

of [substrate] vs. velocity.
• Graphical representation of competitive
These two parameters are used to describe the inhibitors:
efficiency of enzymes; must be an easier method for
measuring these parameters.
 • affects Km (increases Km --> decreases
affinity; need more substrate to reach half-saturation of
enzyme)
• Vmax unaffected
2) uncompetitive inhibitor
• Typically seen in multisubstrate reactions
(here, there is a decrease in product formation because
the second substrate cannot bind).
• Inhibitor binds to ES, but not enzyme.
E+S ES E+P
+ - Assumes 1 binding site/subunit for
I each ligand.
ESI
Graphical representation of uncompetitive
inhibitors:
Lineweaver-Burke plot:
• both Km and Vmax are lowered, usually the same
amount
• ratio Km/Vmax unchanged --> no change in slope
3) pure noncompetitive inhibitor
• Can bind to enzyme and ES complex equally.
• Does not bind to same site as substrate and
is not a substrate analog.
• Cannot be overcome by increases in
[substrate].
e.g. lead, mercury, silver, heavy metals
Lineweaver-Burke plot:
• No effect on Km, because those enzyme molecules
unaffected have normal affinity.
• Vmax is lowered.
Regulation of Enzyme Activity
There are many ways to regulate enzyme activity at
different levels:
1) regulation of rate of synthesis or degradation
• Is fairly slow (several hours), so is really too
slow to be effective in eucaryotic cells.
• Need something that can occur in seconds or
less.
• Usually done through regulatory enzymes and
occur in metabolic pathways early or at first committed
step:
A + B --> C --> D --> E -->F --> P feedback inhibition
G ---> H
• Result is to conserve material and energy by
preventing accumulation of intermediates.
2) allosteric regulation
• Done through allosteric sites or regulatory
sites on enzymes - site other than active site where
inhibitor or activator can bind.
• Properties of allosteric enzymes:
1) sensitive to metabolic inhibitors and
activators
2) binding is noncovalent; not
chemically altered by enzyme
3) regulatory enzymes possess
quaternary structure - individual polypeptide chains may
or may not be identical
4) enzyme has at least one substrate
that gives sigmoidal curve due to positive cooperativity
because of multiple substrate binding sites.
• Theories of allosteric regulation:
1) concerted theory or symmetry-
driven theory
- Enzyme can assume either R or T
conformation.
- Assumes that all subunits are in R or
T state, and all switch at same time when the first
substrate is bound.
2) sequential theory
- Ligand introduces a change in the
tertiary structure of a subunit.
- Only that subunit is converted to R
conformation.
3) covalent modification
• Usually requires one enzyme to activate
enzyme and another to inactivate.
• Most common modification is phosphorylation
of serine residues on interconvertible enzyme (the one
that does the activating).
e.g. pyruvate dehydrogenase
Chapter 9 – Lipids and Membranes
Lipids are water-insoluble that are either hydrophobic
(nonpolar) or amphipathic (polar and nonpolar regions).
There are many types of lipids:
1) fatty acids
• The simplest with structural formula of R-
COOH where R = hydrocarbon chain.
• They differ from each other by the length of
the tail, degree of unsaturation, and position of double
bonds.
• pKa of -COOH is 4.5-5.0 --> ionized at
physiological pH.
• If there is no double bond, the fatty acid is
saturated.
• If there is at least one double bond, the fatty
acid is unsaturated.
• Monounsaturated fatty acids contain 1 double
bond; polyunsaturated fatty acids have >2 double
bonds.
• IUPAC nomenclature = n represents where
double bond occurs as you count from the carboxyl end
(see Table 9.1).
Examples:
-enoate One double bond
-dienoate 2 “
-trienoate 3 “
-tetraenoate 4 “
 • Can also use a colon separating 2 numbers,
where the first number represents the number of carbon
atoms and the second number indicates the location of
the double bonds.
e.g. linoleate 18:2 9,12 orcis,cis 9,12octadecadienoate
• Physical properties differ between saturated
and unsaturated fatty acids.
Saturated = solid at RT; often animal
source; e.g. lard
Unsaturated = liquid at RT; plant
source; e.g. vegetable oil
• The length of the hydrocarbon tails influences
the melting point.
• As the length of tails increases, melting points
increases due to number of van der Waals interactions.
• Also affecting the melting point is the degree
of unsaturation.
• As the degree of unsaturation increases, fatty
acids become more fluid--> melting point decreases
(kinks in tails decrease number of van der Waals
interactions).
• Fatty acids are also an important sources of
energy.
9 kcal/g vs. 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates
and proteins.
2) triacylglycerols
• Also called triglycerides
• Made of 3 fatty acyl residues esterified to
glycerol.
• Very hydrophobic, neutral in charge ---> can
be stored in anhydrous form.
• Long chain, saturated triacylglycerols are solid
at RT (fats).
• Shorter chain, unsaturated triacylglycerols are
liquid at RT (oils).
• Lipids in our diet are usually ingested as
triacylglycerols and broken down by lipases to release
fatty acids from their glycerol backbones.
• Also occurs in the presence of detergents
called bile salts.
• Form micelles around fatty acids that
allow them to be absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells.
• Transported through the body as
lipoproteins.
3) glycerophospholipids
• Main components of cell membranes.
• Are amphipathic and form bilayers
• All use glycerol 3-phosphate as backbone.
• Simplest is phosphatidate = 2 fatty acyl groups
esterified to glycerol 3-phosphate.
• Often, phosphate is esterified to another
alcohol to form...
• phosphatidylethanolamine
• phosphatidylserine
• phosphatidylcholine
• Enzymes called phospholipases break down
biological membranes.
• A-1 = hydrolysis of ester bond at C-1.
• A-2 = hydrolysis of ester bond at C-2;
found in pancreatic juice.
• C = hydrolysis of P-O bond between
glycerol and phosphate to create phosphatidate.
• D = same
4) sphingolipids
• Second most important membrane
constituent.
• Very abundant in mammalian CNS.
• Backbone is sphingosine (unbranched 18
carbon alcohol with 1 trans C=C between C-4 and C-5),
NH3+ group at C-2, hydroxyl groups at C-1 and C-3.
• Ceramides are intermediates of sphingolipid
synthesis.
• There are three families of sphingolipids:
1. sphingomyelin - phosphocholine
attached to C-1 hydroxyl group of ceramide; present in
the myelin sheaths around some peripheral nerves.
2. cerebrosides - glycosphingolipid;
has 1 monosaccharide (galactose) attached by -
glycosidic linkage to C-1 of ceramide; most common is
galactocerebroside, which is abundant in nervous
tissue.
3. gangliosides - glycosphingolipid
containing N-acetylneuraminic acid; present on all cell
surfaces.
• Hydrocarbon tails embedded in membrane
with oligosaccharides facing extracellularly.
• Probably used as cell surface markers, e.g.
ABO blood group antigens.
• Inherited defects in ganglioside metabolism --
> diseases, such as Tay-Sachs disease.
5) steroids
• Called isoprenoids because their structure is
similar to isoprene.
• Have 4 fused rings: 3 6-membered rings (A,
B, C) and 1 5-membered ring (D).
• Cholesterol is an important component of cell
membranes of animals, but rare in plants and absent in
prokaryotes.
• Also have mammalian steroid hormones
(estrogen, androgens) and bile salts.
• Differ in length of side chain at C-17, number
and location of methyl groups, double bonds, etc.
• Cholesterol’s role in membranes is to broaden
the phase transition of cell membranes ---> increases
membrane fluidity because cholesterol disrupts packing
of fatty acyl chains.
6) other lipids not found in membranes
• waxes - nonpolar esters of long chain fatty acids and
alcohols
- very water insoluble
- high melting point --> solid at outdoor/RT.
Roles: protective coatings of leaves, fruits, fur, feathers,
exoskeletons.
• eicosanoids - 20 carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids
 e.g. prostaglandins - affect smooth muscle -->
cause constriction; bronchial constriction of asthmatics;
uterine contraction during labor
• limonene - smell of lemons
• bactoprenol - involved in cell wall synthesis
• juvenile hormone I - larval development of insects
Biological Membranes
• Central transport of ions and molecules into and out of
the cell.
• Generate proton gradients for ATP production by
oxidative phosphorylation.
• Receptors bind extracellular signals and transduce the
signal to cell interior.
• Structure:
• Glycerophospholipids and glycosphingolipids
form bilayers.
• Noncovalent interactions hold lipids together.
• 5-6 nm thick and made of 2 leaflets to form a
lipid bilayer driven by hydrophobic effects.
• About 40% lipid and 50% proteins by mass,
with about 10% carbohydrates.
• Protein and lipid composition varies among
membranes but all have same basic structure --> Singer
and Nicholson fluid mosaic model in 1972.
MEMBRANE FLUIDITY:
• Lipids can undergo lateral diffusion; can move about 2
m/sec.
• Can undergo transverse diffusion (one leaflet to
another) but very rare.
• Membrane has an asymmetrical lipid distribution that
is maintained by flippases or translocases that are ATP-
driven.
• In 1970, Frye and Edidin demonstrated that proteins
are also capable of diffusion by using heterocaryons,
but occurs at a rate that is 100-500 times slower than
lipids.
• Most membrane protein diffusion is limited by
aggregation or attachment to cytoskeleton.
• Can examine distribution of membrane proteins by
freeze-fracture electron microscopy.
• Membrane fluidity is dependent upon the flexibility of
fatty acyl chains.
• Fully extended saturated fatty acyl chains
show maximum van der Waals interactions.
• When heated, the chains become disordered
--> less interactions --> membrane
“shrinks” in size due to less extension of tails --
> due to rotation around C-C bond.
• For lipids with unsaturated acyl chains, kink
disrupts ordered packing and increases membrane
fluidity --> decreases phase transition temperature
(becomes more fluid at lower temperature).
• Some organisms can alter their membrane
fluidity by adjusting the ratio of unsaturated to
saturated fatty acids.
e.g. bacteria grown at low temperature
increase the proportion of unsaturated fatty acyl groups.
e.g. warm-blooded animals have less
variability in that ratio because of the lack of
temperature fluctuations.
exception: reindeer leg has increased number of fatty
acyl groups as get closer to hoof --> membrane can
remain more fluid at lower temperatures.
• Cholesterol also affects membrane fluidity.
• Accounts for 20-25% of lipid mass of
membrane.
• Broadens the phase-transition temperature.
• Intercalation of cholesterol between
membrane lipids restricts mobility of fatty acyl chains --
-> fluidity decreases.
• Helps maintain constant membrane fluidity
despite changes in temperature and degree of fatty acid
saturation.
Chapter 10 – Introduction to Metabolism
METABOLISM – sum total of all chemical reactions in
living cells
• catabolic reactions – degrade
macromolecules and other molecules to release energy
• anabolic reactions – used to synthesize
macromolecules for cell growth, repair, and
reproduction.
Can divide metabolism into 4 groups:
carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, nucleotides.
• within each group are a set of pathways
• arbitrarily set start and end points for ease of learning
and reference
• pathways can take different forms:
1) linear – product of one reaction is substrate
for another
e.g. glycolysis
2) cyclic – regeneration of intermediates
e.g. Krebs cycle
3) spiral – same set of enzymes is used
repeatedly
e.g. fatty acid synthesis, -oxidation
• each pathway may have branch points for metabolites
to enter or leave
Why have metabolic reactions with so many steps?
1) energy input and output can be controlled
- energy transfer occurs in discrete steps as it
transferred to acceptors a little at a time
2) enzymes can catalyze only a single step of a pathway
3) provides opportunities to establish control points,
which are essential for cell function
Methods of Metabolic Pathway Regulation:
1) feedback inhibition
• product of pathway controls its own rate of
synthesis
• occurs in the first committed step
 E1 E2 E3 • when G = -, reaction is spontaneous, and no
A -----> B -----> C -----> D energy input is needed
• when G = +, must supply energy from
• advantage is obvious --> prevention of outside
intermediate accumulation • when G = 0, reaction is at equilibrium

2) feed forward activation (positive feedback)
• metabolite produced early in pathway
activates an enzyme later in pathway
• also prevents accumulation of intermediates
E1 E2 E3 E4
A -----> B -----> C -----> D -----> E
3) allosteric activators and inhibitors
4) covalent modification
• addition of phosphoryl groups via protein
kinases
• removal of phosphoryl groups via
phosphatases
MAJOR CATABOLIC PATHWAYS
• begins with extracellular digestion of polymers
(exogenous)
• amylase in mouth and intestine work on starch
• protein digestion starts in stomach and finished via
pancreatic proteases and intestinal peptidases
• lipid digestion - triacylglycerols hydrolyzed to fatty
acids by phospholipases
• absorption occurs in intestine ---> blood ---> body
• can also have endogenous sources, such as glycogen
and triacylglycerols
• catabolism yields 3 possible compounds:
1) acetyl CoA
2) nucleoside triphosphates
3) reduced coenzymes
• starts with glycolysis (glucose catabolism), citric acid
cycle, polysaccharide mobilization, oxidative
phosphorylation
• nucleotides are metabolized for excretion, not energy
production
Thermodynamics and Metabolism
• used to understand equilibrium and flux (flow of
material through a metabolic pathway) in metabolism
• metabolic pathways are not at equilibrium, but at
steady state (e.g. leaky bucket)
• free energy change (G) is a measure of energy
available to proceed in a chemical reaction
G = Gproducts - Greactants
Go’ = standard free energy change of a biochemical
reaction at standard conditions (pH 7.0; 25oC; 1M
concentration of solute)
• Go’ of a reaction is related to Keq (equilibrium constant
of a reaction)
A + B ---> C + D
Grxn = (GC + GD) -(GA -GB)
Keq=[C][D]
[A][B]
Go’ = -2.303 RTlog Keq or Go’ = -RT ln Keq
-1 -1
R = gas constant 8.315 JK mol
• under ideal conditions (standard conditions):
• if Keq > 1, Go’ is negative and reaction will proceed
to equilibrium
• if Keq = 1, Go’ =0 and reaction is at equilibrium
• if Keq <1, Go’ is positive
• G and Go’ are related by the following equation:
G = Go’ + RT ln Q Q = [C][D]
[A][B]
R= 8.315JK-1mol-1
T = 298oK (25oC)
• free energy change is a measure of how far from
equilibrium the system is poised
• G, not Go’ determines spontaneity of a reaction and
its direction
• means that some reactions have a -G even if under
standard conditions they have a +Go’.
• happens if Q is small or [A][B] >>[C][D]
Still find reactions that have a Go’ that is positive and
still part of a metabolic pathway
How can these reactions with Go’ be made to go
forward?
1) have other than “standard” concentrations
2) thermodynamic coupling
Go’ can be summed for a series of reactions

• at equilibrium, G = 0, no free energy available e.g. want A -----> C

• would like G to be as small as possible (i.e. negative) A -----> B + C Go’ = +5 kcal/mol
• free energy change of a chemical reaction is B -----> D Go’ = -8 kcal/mol
expressed in terms of changes in heat content A -----> D + C Go’ = -3 kcal/mol
(enthalpy) and randomness (entropy)
• To make C from A is thermodynamically unfavorable,
G = H - TS but if coupled to B, then becomes favorable.
 H = change in enthalpy
T = temperature in o Kelvin 3) couple reaction to ATP hydrolysis
S = change in entropy • very common
ATP -----> ADP + Pi Go’= -30 kJmol-1
ATP -----> AMP + PPi Go’= -32kJmol-1
 AMP ----> adenosine + Pi Go’ = -14 kJmol-1 NADP+ -----> NADPH pentose phosphate
pathway
• also works with other nucleoside FMNH2 -----> FMN ETS electron carrier
triphosphates, such as UTP, GTP, and GTP FADH2 -----> FAD ETS coenzyme
• ADP and AMP are often allosteric modulators
of some catabolic reactions
• ATP not effective in the role of allosteric
modulator because its concentration is kept relatively Chapter 12 – Gluconeogenesis, the Pentose Phosphate
constant in the cell Pathway and Glycogen Metabolism
• cells typically maintain [ATP] of 2-10 mM,
[ADP] <1 mM, and [AMP] <<1 Mm GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
• Glycogen stored in muscle and liver cells.
• the metabolic role of ATP to above problem: • Important in maintaining blood glucose levels.
A -----> B + C Go’ = +5 kcal/mol • Glycogen structure:  1,4 glycosidic linkages with 
ATP -----> ADP + Pi Go’ = -7.3 kcal/mol 1,6 branches.
A + ATP------> B + C + ADP +Pi Go’ = -2.3 kcal/mol • Branches give multiple free ends for quicker
breakdown or for more places to add additional units.

There are several types of group transfer reactions Glycogen Degradation

that involve ATP:
1) phosphoryl group transfer
• some metabolites have high phosphoryl group
transfer potential (ability to transfer phosphoryl groups)
- e.g. phosphoenolpyruvate ( Go’ = -62
-1
kJmol ) transfer of phosphoryl group to ADP to form
pyruvate; reaction is metabolically irreversible (Q is far
from Keq)
- e.g. phosphagens, such as
phosphocreatine and phosphoarginine – found in
animal muscle cells
- phosphocreatine acts as storage of
phosphoryl group by the following reaction:
creatine kinase
phosphocreatine + ADP -------------> creatine + ATP
- phosphoarginine used in molluscs
and arthropods
2) nucleotidyl-group transfer
• e.g. synthesis of acetyl CoA - AMP is
transferred to nucleophilic carboxylate group of acetate
--> acetyl group is transferred to sulfur atom of CoA
acetyl CoA
synthetase
ATP + acetate + CoA -----------> AMP + acetyl CoA
3) thioesters
• usually make ATP equivalents
succinyl CoA + GDP + Pi -> succinate + GTP + HS-CoA
• Glucose residues of starch and glycogen released
through enzymes called starch phosphorylases and
glycogen phosphorylases.
• Catalyze phosphorolosis:
polysaccharide +Pi ---> polysaccharide(n-1) + glucose 1-
phosphate
• Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) is prosthetic group in active
site of enzyme; serves as a proton donor in active site.
• Allosterically inhibited by high [ATP] and high [glucose
6-phosphate].
• Allosterically activated by high [AMP].
• Sequentially removes glucose residues from
nonreducing ends of glycogen, but stops 4 glucose
residues from branch point --> leaves a limit dextran.
• Limit dextran further degraded by glycogen-
debranching enzyme (glucanotransferase activity)
which relocated the chain to a free hydroxyl end.
• Amylo-1,6-glucosidase activity of debranching
enzyme removes remaining residues of chain.
• This leaves substrate for glycogen phosphorylase.
• Each glucose molecule released from glycogen by
debranching enzyme will yield 3 ATPs in glycolysis.
• Each glucose molecule released by glycogen
phosphorylase will yield 2 ATPs in glycolysis.
• Why?
- ATP not needed in first step because glucose
1-phosphate already formed.
Phosphoglucomutase
glucose 1-phosphate --------------> glucose 6-phosphate

Reduced Coenzymes 1. In liver, kidney, pancreas, small intestine,

• Another class of energy-rich molecules.
• Energy can be donated in oxidation-reduction glucose 6-phosphatase
reactions glucose 6-phosphate --------------------------> glucose + Pi

Ared + Box -----> Aox + Bred Glycogen Synthesis

• Not reverse of glycogen degradation because different
• Electrons are transferred to oxidizing agents NAD+ or enzymes are used.
FAD. • About 2/3 of glucose ingested during a meal is
converted to glycogen.
NADH ---> NAD+ ATP production in • First step is the first step of glycolysis:
mitochondria
 hexokinase
glucose --------------> glucose 6-phosphate
• There are three enzyme-catalyzed reactions:
Phosphoglucomutase
glucose 6-phosphate --------------> glucose 1-phosphate
glucose 1-phosphate ---------------> UDP-glucose
(activated form of glucose)
glycogen synthase
UDP-glucose ----------------------> glycogen
• Glycogen synthase cannot initiate glycogen synthesis;
requires preexisting primer of glycogen consisting of 4-
8 glucose residues with  (1,4) linkage.
• Protein called glycogenin serves as anchor; also
adds 7-8 glucose residues.
• Addition of branches by branching enzyme (amylo-
(1,4 --> 1,6)-transglycosylase).
• Takes terminal 6 glucose residues from nonreducing
end and attaches it via (1,6) linkage at least 4
glucose units away from nearest branch.
REGULATION OF GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
Mobilization and synthesis of glycogen under hormonal
control.
Three hormones involved:
1) insulin
• 51 a.a. protein made by  cells of pancreas.
• Secreted when [glucose] high --> increases
rate of glucose transport into muscle and fat via GLUT4
glucose transporters.
• Stimulates glycogen synthesis in liver.
2) glucagon
• 29 a.a. protein secreted by  cells of
pancreas.
• Operational under low [glucose].
• Restores blood sugar levels by stimulating
glycogen degradation.
3) epinephrine
• Stimulates glycogen mobilization to glucose 1-
phosphate --> glucose 6-phosphate.
• Increases rate of glycolysis in muscle and the
amount of glucose in bloodstream.
• Occurs in response to fight-or-flight response.
• Binds to -adrenergic receptors in liver and
muscle and 1 receptor in liver cells.
• Binding of epinephrine or glucagon to 
receptors activate adenylate cyclase, which is a
membrane-traversing enzyme that converts ATP -->
cAMP --> activates protein kinase A.
• Binding of epinephrine to 1 receptors activate
IP3 pathway --> protein kinase C --> phosphorylation of
insulin receptors -> insulin cannot bind.
Regulation of glycogen phosphorylase and
glycogen synthase
• Reciprocal regulation.
• Glycogen synthase -P --> inactive form (b).
• Glycogen Phosphorylase-P ---> active (a).
• When blood glucose is low, protein kinase A activated
through hormonal action of glucagon --> glycogen
synthase inactivated and phosphorylase kinase
activated --> activates glycogen phosphorylase -->
glycogen degradation occurs.
• Phosphorylase kinase also activated by increased
[Ca2+] during muscle contraction.
• To reverse the same pathway involves protein
phosphatases, which remove phosphate groups from
proteins --> dephosphorylates phosphorylase kinase
and glycogen phosphorylase (both inactivated), but
dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase activates this
enzyme.
• Protein phosphatase-1 activated by insulin -->
dephosphorylates glycogen synthase --> glycogen
synthesis occurs.
• In liver, glycogen phosphorylase an inhibits
phosphatase-1 --> no glycogen synthesis can occur.
• Glucose binding to protein phosphatase-1 activated
protein phosphatase-1 --> it dephosphorylates glycogen
phosphorylase --> inactivated --> no glycogen
degradation.
• Protein phosphatase-1 can also dephosphorylate
glycogen synthase --> active.
GLUCONEOGENESIS
• Synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources.
• Major precursors are lactate and alanine in the liver
and kidney.
• lactate – active skeletal muscles
• glycerol – lipid catabolism
• amino acids – diet and protein catabolism
• Used to maintain blood glucose levels when glycogen
supplies are low or depleted.
• Major site of occurrence is the liver, but also occurs in
kidney.
• Designed to make sure blood glucose levels are high
enough to meet the demands of brain and muscle
(cannot do gluconeogenesis).
• NOT the reverse of glycolysis. Why?
• PFK, PK, and hexokinase catalyze metabolically
irreversible steps.
• Solution: by-pass these steps, but use all the other
enzymes.
1) pyruvate ---> phosphoenolpyruvate
ATP ADP + Pi GTP GDP
pyruvate ---------------> oxaloacetate ----------------> PEP
HCO3- pyruvate PEP carboxykinase
carboxylase
TCA Cycle
Pi
2) fructose 1,6 bisphosphate
fructose 6-phosphate
fructose 1,5-bisphosphatase
glucose 6-phosphatase
3) glucose 6-phosphate --------------------------> glucose
 • This enzyme is bound to ER membrane, but
faces ER lumen.
• GLUT7 transporter must transport glucose 6-
phosphate into ER lumen.
• Enzyme not found in membrane of brain or
muscle ER.
Consequences?
PRECURSORS FOR GLUCONEOGENESIS
1) lactate
Cori cycle - no net gain or loss of glucose
Anaerobic respiration of pyruvate.
2) amino acids
glutamate -ketoglutarate
pyruvate -----------------------------------> alanine
transamination
3) glycerol
glycerol kinase
glycerol ---------------> glycerol 3-phosphate -----> DHAP
• If glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase is embedded
in inner mitochondrial membrane, e- passed to
ubiquinone.
• If enzyme is cytosolic, NADH is also a product.
REGULATION OF GLUCONEOGENSIS
• Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally
regulated.
• If both pathways were activated, e.g.
fructose 6-phosphate + ATP ------> fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate + ADP
fructose 1,6-bisphosphate + H2O ---> fructose
6-phosphate + Pi
net reaction: ATP + H2O ---> ADP + Pi
• Called substrate cycle ---> “burn” 4 ATPs for every 2
ATPs made (can be used to generate heat).
• Reason why enzymes are regulated --> prevents this
from happening.
• Two regulatory points are the two steps which had
different enzymes.
fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase
inhibited by AMP and fructose 2,6-
bisphosphate
pyruvate carboxylase
activated by acetyl CoA
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY
• Provides NADPH (serves as e- donor) and forms
ribose 5-phosphate (nucleotide synthesis).
• Pathway active is tissues that synthesize fatty acids or
sterols because large amounts of NADPH needed.
• In muscle and brain, little PPP activity.
• All reactions are cytosolic.
• Divided into 2 stages:
1) oxidative
glucose 6-phosphate +2 NADP+ + H2O
--> ribulose 5-phosphate + 2 NADPH + CO2 + 2H+
2) nonoxidative
• Uses transketolases (transfers 2-C
units) and transaldolases (transfers 3-C units).
• Links PPP with glycolysis.
• Used to catalyze these types of
reactions:
C5 + C5 <----> C7 + C3
C7 + C3 <----> C4 + C6
C5 + C4 <----> C3 + C6
All reactions are reversible --> very flexible pathway.
Example:
• If ribose 5-phosphate needed, fructose 6-phosphate +
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate taken from glycolysis and
channeled through PPP to make product.
• If NADPH is needed, then ribulose 5-phosphate is
converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and fructose
6-phosphate --> converted to glucose 6-phosphate -->
more NADPH made.
• If use PPP, 1 glucose can be completely oxidized to
12 NADPH and 6 CO2.
• If NADPH and ATP are needed, ribulose 5-phosphate
converted into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and
fructose 6-phosphate --> glycolysis --> pyruvate.
REGULATION OF PENTOSE PHOSPHATE
PATHWAY
• Controlled by levels of NADP+.
• Controlled step is dehydrogenation of glucose 6-
phosphate to 6-phosphogluconolactone.
• Enzyme stimulated by high [NADP+].
• Non-oxidative branch controlled primarily by substrate
availability.
Chapter 16 – Lipid Metabolism
Fatty acids have four major physiologic roles in the
cell:
• Building blocks of phospholipids and glycolipids
• Added onto proteins to create lipoproteins, which
targets them to membrane locations
• Fuel molecules - source of ATP
• Fatty acid derivatives serve as hormones and
intracellular messengers
Absorption and Mobilization of Fatty Acids
• Most lipids are triacylglycerols, some are
phospholipids and cholesterol.
• Digestion occurs primarily in the small intestine.
• Fat particles are coated with bile salts (amphipathic)
from gall bladder.
• Degraded by pancreatic lipase (hydrolyzes C-1 and
C-3 ---> 2 fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerol).
• Can then be absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells; bile
salts are recirculated after being absorbed by the
intestinal epithelial cells.
• In the cells, fatty acids are converted by fatty acyl CoA
molecules.
• Phospholipids are hydrolyzed by pancreatic
phospholipases, primarily phospholipase A2.
• Cholesterol esters are hydrolyzed by esterases to
form free cholesterol, which is solubilized by bile salts
and absorbed by the cells.
• Lipids are transported throughout the body as
lipoproteins.
• Lipoproteins consist of a lipid (tryacylglycerol,
cholesterol, cholesterol ester) core with amphipathic
molecules forming layer on outside.
Lipoproteins
• Both transported in form of lipoprotein particles, which
solubilize hydrophobic lipids and contain cell-targeting
signals.
• Lipoproteins classified according to their
densities:
• chylomicrons – contain dietary
triacylglycerols
• chylomicron remnants – contain dietary
cholesterol esters
• very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) –
transport endogenous triacylglycerols, which are
hydrolyzed by lipoprotein lipase at capillary surface
• intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) -
contain endogenous cholesterol esters, which are taken
up by liver cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis and
converted to LDLs
• low-density lipoproteins (LDL) – contain
endogenous cholesterol esters, which are taken up by
liver cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis; major
carrier of cholesterol in blood; regulates de novo
cholesterol synthesis at level of target cell
• high-density lipoproteins – contain
endogenous cholesterol esters released from dying
cells and membranes undergoing turnover
Storage of Fatty Acids
• Triacylglycerols are transported as chylomicrons and
VLDLs to adipose tissue; there, they are hydrolyzed to
fatty acids, which enter adipocytes and are esterified for
storage.
• Mobilization is controlled by hormones, particularly
epinephrine, which binds to -adrenergic receptors on
adipocyte membrane --> protein kinase A activated -->
phosphorylates hormone-sensitive lipase --> converts
triacylglycerols to free fatty acids and
monoacylglycerols.
• Insulin inhibits lipid mobilization (example of reciprocal
regulation).
• Monoacylglycerols formed are phosphorylated and
oxidized to DHAP (intermediate of glycolysis and
gluconeogenesis).
Can be converted to glucose (gluconeogenesis) or
pyruvate (glycolysis) in the liver.
Fatty Acid Oxidation (-oxidation)
• Fatty acids are degraded by oxidation of the carbon
by-oxidation.
• Pathway that removes 2-C units at a time --> acetyl
CoA --> citric acid cycle --> ATP
• There are three stages in -oxidation:
1)Activation of fatty acids in cytosol catalyzed
by acyl CoA synthetase; two high energy bonds are
broken to produce AMP
2) Transport of fatty acyl CoA into mitochondria
via carnitine shuttle
3) -oxidation - cyclic pathway in which many
of the same enzymes are used repeatedly (see pathway
sheet)
-oxidation of odd chain and unsaturated fatty
acids
• Odd chain fatty acids undergo -oxidation until
propionyl CoA is formed.
• Propionyl CoA is then converted to succinyl CoA,
which then enters the Krebs cycle.
• See pathway sheet for details
• Unsaturated fatty acids need two additional enzymes
besides those of-oxidation.
• enoyl-CoA isomerase
• 2,4-dienoyl-CoA reductase
• How the pathway looks depends upon the location of
the double bond, but there are two possibilities.
• See pathway sheets for details.
ATP generation from Fatty Acid Oxidation:
• Can be estimated from the amount of acetyl CoA, QH2,
and NADH produced.
• See pathway sheet.
Regulation of Fatty Acid Oxidation
• Already talked about fatty acid mobilization via
epinephrine.
• Net result is high concentrations of acetyl CoA and
NADH via -oxidation.
• Both molecules allosterically inhibit pyruvate
dehydrogenase complex.
• Most of acetyl CoA produced goes to Krebs cycle;
during periods of fasting, excess acetyl CoA is
produced, too much for Krebs cycle.
• Also in diabetes, oxaloacetate is used to form glucose
by gluconeogenesis --> concentration of oxaloacetate is
lowered.
• Result is the diversion of acetyl CoA to form
acetoacetate and 3-hydroxybutyrate; these two
molecules plus acetone are known as ketone bodies.
• Acetoacetate is formed via the following reactions:
• The major site of ketone body synthesis is the liver,
within the mitochondrial matrix ---> transported to the
bloodstream.
• Acetoacetate and 3-hydroxybutyrate are used in
respiration and are important sources of energy.
• Cardiac muscle and the renal cortex perferentially use
acetoacetate over glucose.
• Glucose is used by brain and RBCs; in brain, ketone
bodies substitute for glucose as fuel because the brain
cannot undergo gluconeogenesis.
• Acetoacetate can be converted to acetyl CoA and
oxidized in citric acid cycle only in nonhepatic tissues.
Diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; IDDM)
• Decreased insulin secretion by beta cells of
pancreas; could be caused by viruses (?)
• Juvenile onset
• Patients are thin, hyperglycemic, dehydrated,
polyuric (pee a lot), hungry, thirsty
• In these patients, glycogen mobilization,
gluconeogenesis, fatty acid oxidation occurs --- >
massive ketone body production; also, some of the
glucose is in urine (tends to pull water out of body) ----
> diabetic ketoacidosis
FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS
Important features of this pathway:
1) Synthesis takes place in cytosol; -oxidation takes
place in mitochondrial matrix.
2) Intermediates are bound to sulfhydral groups of acyl
carrier protein (ACP); intermediates of -oxidation
are bonded to CoA
3) Growing fatty acid chain is elongated by sequential
addition of two-carbon units derived from acetyl CoA.
4) Reducing power comes from NADPH; oxidants in -
+
oxidation are NAD and FAD
5) Elongation of fatty acid stops when palmitate (C 16) is
formed; further elongation and insertion of double bonds
carried out later by other enzymes
Fatty acid synthesis takes place in three stages:
1) Mitochondrial acetyl CoA is transported into
cytosol via citrate transport system
• Acetyl CoA is condensed with oxaloacetate to
form citrate ---> antiported out with inward movement of
anion
• Citrate cleaved by cytosolic citrate lyase -->
oxaloacetate + acetyl CoA
2) Formation of malonyl CoA
• Acetyl CoA carboxylase is key regulatory
enzyme
• Influenced by glucagon --> inactivates
enzyme in liver
• Epinephrine inactivates enzyme in
adipocytes
• Citrate allosterically activates enzyme
• Fatty acyl CoA allosterically inhibits
enzyme
3) Assembly of fatty acid chain via fatty acid
synthase
• Consists of five separate stages:
1) Loading – acetyl CoA and malonyl CoA are
attached to acyl carrier protein
2) Condensation – both are condensed by fatty
acid synthase to from acetoacetyl-ACP
3) Reduction – NADPH is oxidized to form
hydroxybutyryl ACP
4) Dehydration – formation of double bond
-
5) Reduction – NADPH is source of e and H to
+
form butyryl-ACP
Last four steps are repeated, each time with
malonyl-ACP to elongate chain, until palmitate is
produced.
Overall reaction:
+
acetyl CoA + 7 malonyl CoA + 14 NADPH + 20 H --->
+
palmitate + 7CO2 + 14 NADP + 8 HS-CoA + 6 H2O
Regulation of Fatty Acid Synthesis
• Metabolism of fatty acids is under hormonal regulation
by glucagons, epinephrine, and insulin.
• Fatty acid synthesis is maximal when carbohydrate
and energy are plentiful.
• Important points of control are release of fatty acids
from adipocytes and regulation of carnitine
acyltransferase I in the liver.
• High insulin levels also stimulate formation of malonyl
CoA, which allosterically inhibits carnitine
acyltransferase I  fatty acids remain in cytosol and are
not transported to mitochondria for oxidation.
• Key regulatory enzyme is acetyl-CoA carboxylase
(catalyzes first committed step in fatty acid synthesis).
• Insulin stimulates fatty acid synthesis and inhibits
hydrolysis of stored triacylglycerols.
• Glucagon and epinephrine inhibit fatty acid synthesis
(enzyme is phosphorylated by protein kinase A; removal
of phosphate group catalyzed by protein phosphatase
2A).
• Citrate is an allosteric activator, but its biological
relevance has not been established.
• Fatty acyl CoA acts as an inhibitor.
• Palmitoyl CoA and AMP are allosteric inhibitors.
Synthesis of Eicosanoids
• Precursors for eicosanoids are 20-carbon
polyunsaturated fatty acids such as arachidonate.
• Part of inner leaflet of cell membrane.
• There are two classes of eicosanoids:
1) prostaglandins and thromboxanes
• Synthesized by enzyme cyclooxygenase
• Localized molecules such as thromboxane A2,
prostaglandins, prostacyclin ae produced.
• Thromboxane A2 leads to platelet aggregation
and blood clots  reduced blood flow in tissues.
• Aspirin binds irreversibly to COX enzymes and
prevents prostaglandin synthesis.
2) leukotrienes
• Produced by lipoxygenases.
• Products were once called “slow-acting
substances of anaphylaxis”, responsible for fatal effects
of some immunizations.
Synthesis of Triacylglycerols and
Glycerophospholipids
• Most fatty acids are esterified as triacylglycerols or
glycerophospholipids.
• Intermediate molecule in synthesis of these two
molecules is phosphatidic acid or phosphatidate.
There are two pathways:
1) de novo – “from scratch”
2) salvage pathway - uses “old” pieces and parts to
make new molecules
Synthesis of phosphatidate:
• Common intermediate in synthesis of
phosphoglycerides and triacylglycerols
• Formed from glycerol 3-phosphate and 2 acetyl CoA
molecules
• Enzyme is glycerol phosphate acyltransferase
Synthesis of triacylglycerols and neutral
phospholipids:
• Uses phosphatidate, which is dephosphorylated to
produce 1,2-diacylglycerol
If acetylated ---> triacylglyerol
If reacted with nucleotide derivative -->
phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine
Synthesis of acidic phospholipids:
• Uses phosphatidate and reacts it with CTP ---> CDP-
diacylglycerol
• Addition of serine --> phosphatidylserine
• Addition of inositol ---> phosphatidylinositol
• In mammals, phosphatidylserine
phosphatidylethanolamine can be interconverted -
base-exchange occurs in ER.
• Decarboxylation occurs in mitochondria and
procaryotes
Synthesis of Sphingolipids
• All have C18 unsaturated alcohol (sphingosine) as
structural backbone, rather than glycerol
• Palmitoyl CoA and serine condense --->
dehydrosphinganine ---> sphingosine
• Acetylation of amino group of sphingosine --->
ceramide
• Substitution of terminal hydroxyl group gives:
• sphingomyelin -- addition of
phosphatidylcholine
• cerebroside -- substitute UDP-glucose or
UDP-galactose
• gangliosides -- substitute oligosaccharide
Tay-Sachs disease = inherited disorder of ganglioside
breakdown.
• Deficient or missing enzyme is -N-
acetylhexosaminidase, which removes the terminal N-
acetylgalactosamine residue from its ganglioside.
• One in 30 Jewish Americans of eastern
European descent are carriers of a defective allele.
• Can be diagnosed during fetal development
by assaying amniotic fluid for enzyme activity.
• Causes weakness, retarded psychomotor
development, blindness by age two, and death around
age three.
Synthesis of Cholesterol
• Precursor of steroid hormones and bile salts.
• Most cholesterol is synthesized in liver cells, although
most animal cells can synthesize it.
• Starts with 3 molecules of acetyl CoA to form 3-
hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl CoA, which is reduced to
mevalonate (C6) by HMG-CoA reductase (first
committed step of cholesterol synthesis).
• Amount of cholesterol formation by liver and intestine
is highly responsive to cellular levels of cholesterol.
• Enzyme HMG-CoA reductase is controlled in
multiple ways:
1) Rate of enzyme synthesis is controlled by
sterol regulatory element (SRE); SRE inhibits mRNA
production
2) Translation of reductase mRNA is inhibited
by non-sterol metabolites derived from mevalonate
3) Degradation of the enzyme occurs at high
enzyme levels
4) Phosphorylation of enzyme
If enzyme is phosphorylated via glucagon pathway -->
decreased activity--> cholesterol synthesis ceases
when ATP levels are low.
If enzyme is dephosphorylated via insulin
and pathway --> increased activity
• Cells outside liver and intestine obtain cholesterol from
blood instead of synthesizing it de novo.
• Steps in the uptake of cholesterol by LDL pathway:
1) apolipoprotein on surface of LDL particle binds to
receptor on membrane of nonhepatic cells
2) LDL-receptor complex internalized by endocytosis
3) vesicles formed fuse with lysosomes, which breaks
apart protein part of lipoprotein to amino acids and
hydrolyzes cholesterol esters
4) released unesterified cholesterol can be used for
membrane biosynthesis or be reesterified for storage.
• Defects in LDL receptor lead to familial
hypercholesterolemia (FH), in which cholesterol and
LDL levels are markedly elevated.
• Result is deposition of cholesterol in tissues because
of high levels of LDL-cholesterol in blood.
• Heterozygotes suffer from atherosclerosis and
increased risk of stroke.
• Homozygotes usually die in childhood from coronary
artery disease.
• Disease is the result of an absence (homozygotes) or
reduction (heterozygotes) in number of LDL receptors.
• LDL entry into liver and other cells is impaired.
• Drug therapy can help heterozygotes
1) can inhibit intestinal absorption of bile salts
(which promote absorption of dietary cholesterol)
2) lovastatin - competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA
reductase ---> blocks cholesterol synthesis
Chapter 17 – Amino Acid Metabolism
AMINO ACID SYNTHESIS
Nitrogen Fixation
• Gaseous nitrogen is chemically unreactive due to
strong triple bond.
• To reduce nitrogen gas to ammonia takes a strong
enzyme --> reaction is called nitrogen fixation.
• Only a few organisms are capable of fixing nitrogen
and assembling amino acids from that.
+
• Higher organisms cannot form NH4 from atmospheric
N2.
• Bacteria and blue-green algae (photosynthetic
procaryotes) can because they possess nitrogenase.
Enzyme has two subunits:
1. strong reductase – has Fe-S cluster that supplies e-
to second subunit
2. two re-dox centers, one of which is a nitrogenase
• Composed of iron and molybdenum that reduces N2 to
+
NH4
• Reaction is ATP-dependent, but unstable in the
presence of oxygen.
• Enzyme is present in Rhizobium, symbiotic bacterium
in roots of legumes (i.e. soybeans)
• Nodules are pink inside due to presence of
leghemoglobin (legume hemoglobin) that binds to
oxygen to keep environment around enzyme low in
oxygen (nitrogen fixation requires the absence of
oxygen)
• Plants and microorganisms can obtain NH3 by
- 1. Derived from oxaloacetate --> Asp, Asn, Met,
reducing nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2 )--> used to
make amino acids, nucleotides, phospholipids.
Assimilation of Ammonia
• Assimilation into amino acids occurs through
glutamate and glutamine.
• -amino group of most amino acids comes from -
amino group of glutamate by transamination.
• Glutamine contributes its side-chain nitrogen in other
biosynthetic reactions.
Reaction:
Another reaction that occurs in some animals is the
incorporation of ammonia into glutamine via glutamine
synthetase:
When ammonium ion is limiting, most of glutamate is
made by action of both enzymes to produce the
following (sum of both reactions):
Transamination Reactions
• Having assimilated the ammonia, synthesis of nearly
all amino acids is done via tranamination reactions.
• Glutamate is a key intermediate in amino acid
metabolism
• Amino group is transferred to produce the
corresponding -amino acid.
Origins of Carbon Skeletons of the Amino Acids
• Amino acids that must be supplied in diet are termed
essential; others are nonessential.
• Although the biosynthesis of specific amino acids is
diverse, they all share a common feature - carbon
skeletons come from intermediates of glycolysis, PPP,
or citric acid cycle.
There are only six biosynthetic families:
Thr, Ile, Lys
2) Drived from pyruvate --> Ala, Val, Leu
3) Derived from ribose 5-phosphate --> His
4) Derived from PEP and erythrose 4-
phosphate --> Phe, Tyr, Trp
5) Derived from a-ketoglutarate --> Glu, Gln,
Pro, Arg
6) Derived from 3-phosphoglycerate --> Ser,
Cys, Gly
Porphyrin Synthesis
1. First step in biosynthesis of porphyrins is
condensation of glycine and succinyl CoA to form -
aminolevulinate via -aminolevulinate synthase.
• Translation of mRNA of this enzyme is
feedback-inhibited by heme
2. Second step involves condensation of two molecules
of -aminolevulinate to form porphobilinogen; catalyzed
by -aminolevulinate dehydrase.
3. Third step involves condensation of four
porphobilinogens to form a linear tetrapyrrole via
porphobilinogen deaminase.
4. This is cyclized to form uroporphyrinogen III.
5. Subsequent reactions alter side chains and degree of
saturation of porphyrin ring to form protoporphyrin IX.
6. Association of iron atom creates heme; iron atom
transported in blood by transferrin.
7. Inherited or acquired disorders called porphyrias are
result of deficiency in an enzyme in heme biosynthetic
pathway.
• congenital erythropoietic porphyria - insufficient
cosynthase (cyclizes tetrapyrrole)
• Lots of uroporphyrinogen I, a useless isomer
is made
• RBCs prematurely destroyed
• Patient’s urine is red because of excretion of
uroporphyrin I
Heme Degradation:
• Old RBCs are removed from circulation and degraded
by spleen.
• Apoprotein part of hemoglobin is hydrolyzed into
amino acids.
1. First step in degradation of heme group is cleavage
of -methene bridge to form biliverdin, a linear
tetrapyrrole; catalyzed by heme oxygenase; methene
bridge released as CO.
2. Second step involved reduction of central methene
bridge to form bilirubin; catalyzed by biliverdin
reductase.
3. Bilirubin is complexed with serum albumin --> liver --
> sugar residues added to propionate side chains.
4. 2 glucuronates attached to bilirubin are secreted in
bile.
Jaundice - yellow pigmentation in sclera of eye and in
skin --> excessive bilirubin levels in blood.
• Caused by excessive breakdown of RBCs,
impaired liver function, mechanical obstruction of bile
duct.
• Common in newborns as fetal hemoglobin is
broken down and replaced by adult hemoglobin.
AMINO ACID CATABOLISM
• Excess amino acids (those not used for protein
synthesis or synthesis of other macromolecules) cannot
be stored.
• Surplus amino acids are used as metabolic fuel.
• -amino group is removed; carbon skeleton is
converted into major metabolic intermediate
• Amino group converted to urea; carbon
skeletons converted into acetyl CoA, acetoacetyl CoA,
pyruvate, or citric acid intermediate.
• Fatty acids, ketone bodies, and glucose can
be formed from amino acids.
• Major site of amino acid degradation is the liver.
• First step is the transfer of -amino group to -
ketoglutarate to form glutamate, which is oxidatively
+
deaminated to yield NH4 (see pathway sheet).
+
• Some of NH4 is consumed in biosynthesis of nitrogen
+
compounds; most terrestrial vertebrates convert NH4
into urea, which is then excreted (considered
ureotelic).
+
• Terrestrial reptiles and birds convert NH4 into uric
acid for excretion (considered uricotelic).
• Aquatic animals excrete NH4+ (considered
ammontelic).
+
• In terrestrial vertebrates NH4 is converted to urea via
urea cycle.
• One of nitrogen atoms in urea is transferred from
+
aspartate; other is derived from NH4 ; carbon atom
comes from CO2.
UREA CYCLE
There are six steps of the urea cycle:
+
1) Bicarbonate ion, NH4 and 2 ATP necessary to form
carbamoyl phosphate via carbamoyl phosphate
synthetase I (found in mitochondrial matrix).
2) Carbamoyl phosphate and ornithine (carrier or
carbon and nitrogen atoms; an amino acid, but not a
building block of proteins) combine to form citrulline via
ornithine transcarbamoylase
3) Citruilline is transported out of mitochondrial matrix in
exchange for ornithine
4) Citruilline condenses with aspartate -->
arginosuccinate via an ATP-dependent reaction via
arginosuccinate synthetase
5) Arginosuccinate cleaved to form fumarate and
arginine via arginosuccinate lyase
fumarate --> malate--> oxaloacetate -->
gluconeogenesis
oxaloacetate has four possible fates:
1) transamination to aspartate
2) conversion into glucose via
gluconeogenesis
3) condensation with acetyl CoA to
form citrate
4) conversion into pyruvate
6) Two -NH2 groups and terminal carbon of arginine
cleaved to form ornithine and urea via arginase
• Ornithine is transported into mitochondrion to
repeat cycle.
Overall reaction:
+
CO2 + NH4 + 3 ATP + aspartate + 2 H2O ---> urea + 2
ADP + 2 Pi + AMP + PPi + fumarate
Inherited defects in urea cycle:
1) Blockage of carbamoyl phosphate synthesis leads to
hyperammonemia (elevated levels of ammonia in
blood)
2) argininosuccinase deficiency
• Providing surplus of arginine in diet and
restricting total protein intake
• Nitrogen is excreted in the form of
argininosuccinate
3) carbamoyl phosphate synthetase deficiency or
ornithine transcarbamoylase deficiency
• Excess nitrogen accumulates in glycine and
glutamine; must then get rid of these amino acids
• Done by supplementation with benzoate and
phenylacetate (both substitute for urea in the disposal
of nitrogen)
benzoate --> benzoyl CoA --> hippurate
phenylacetate --> phenylacetyl CoA -->
phenylacetylglutamine
Fate of Carbon Skeleton of Amino Acids
• Used to form major metabolic intermediates that can
be converted into glucose or oxidized by citric acid
cycle.
All 20 amino acids are funneled into seven molecules:
1) pyruvate
2) acetyl CoA
3) acetoacetyl CoA
4) -ketoglutarate
5) succinyl CoA
6) fumarate
7) oxaloacetate
• Those that are degraded to acetyl CoA or acetoacetyl
Coa are termed ketogenic because they give rise to
ketone bodies.
• Those that are degraded to pyruvate or citric acid cycle
intermediates are termed glucogenic.
• Leucine and lysine are only ketogenic --> cannot be
converted to glucose
• Isoleucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine are
both.
• All others are glucogenic only.
• C3 family (alanine, serine, cysteine) ---> pyruvate
• C4 family (aspartate and asparagine) ---> oxaloacetate
• C5 family (glutamine, proline, arginine, histidine) --->
glutamate ---> -ketoglutarate
• Methionine, isoleucine, valine, threonine --> succinyl
CoA
• Leucine --> acetyl CoA and acetoacetate
• Phenylalanine and tyrosine --> acetoacetate and
fumarate
• Tryptophan --> pyruvate
Regulation of the Urea Cycle
• The main allosteric enzyme is glutamate
dehydrogenase.
It is inhibited by high GTP and ATP levels.
It is stimulated by high GDP and ADP levels.
Chapter 18 – Nucleotide Metabolism
Roles of nucleotides in the cell:
1) Activated precursors of DNA and RNA
2) Nucleotide derivatives are activated intermediates in
many biosynthetic pathways
e.g. UDP-glucose, CDP-diacylglycerol
3) Universal currency of cell (i.e. ATP)
+
4) Components of three major coenzymes: NAD , FAD,
and CoA
5) Metabolic regulators (i.e. cyclic AMP)
Nucleotide synthesis can either by de novo or by
recycling preformed bases (salvage pathway).
Nomenclature:
Nucleotides are composed of three components:
1) nitrogenous base - pyrimidine (cytosine, uracil,
thymine) or purine (adenine or guanine)
2) pentose sugar - ribose (RNA) or deoxyribose (DNA)
3) phosphate group
nucleoside - purine or pyrimidine base linked to
pentose sugar
nucleotide - phosphate ester of nucleoside
SYNTHESIS OF PURINE NUCLEOTIDES
• Purine ring is synthesized de novo from 5 different
precursors: aspartate (N-1 atom), CO2 (C-6 atom),
glycine (C-4, C-5, N-7 atoms), tetrahydrofolate (C-2, C-
8 atoms) and glutamine (N-3, N-9).
• Purine ring structure is synthesized from ribose 5-
phosphate; PRPP then donates ribose 5-phosphate for
purine synthesis.
• Purine ring is built onto the ribose 5-phosphate via a
10 -tep pathway: glutamine, glycine, tetrahydrofolate,
and glutamine make contributions to form 5-membered
ring; construction of 6-membered ring forms inosine 5’-
monophosphate (IMP).
• IMP can be converted into AMP or GMP
• For AMP synthesis, aspartate amino group
condenses with keto-group of IMP; GTP-dependent
reaction.
• For GMP synthesis, C-2 is oxidized to form
xanthosine monophosphate (XMP).
• Amide nitrogen of glutamine replaces
oxygen of C-2 to form GMP
• ATP-dependent reaction
Synthesis of purine bases using the salvage
pathway:
• Free purine bases are formed by degradation of
nucleic acids and nucleotides.
• Purine nucleotides can be synthesized from preformed
bases by salvage reactions (simpler and less costly
than de novo pathway).
• Ribose phosphate portion of PRPP is transferred to
purine to form the corresponding ribonucleotide:
Two salvage enzymes recover purine bases:
1) adenine phosphoribosyl transferase
adenine + PRPP --------> adenylate + PPi
2) hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase
(HGPRTase)
hypoxanthine + PRPP --------> inosinate + PPi
guanine + PRPP ---------> guanylate + PPi
Regulation of purine nucleotide synthesis:
• Probably largely by feedback inhibition.
• Glutamine-PRPP amidotransferase (in main pathway)
is allosterically inhbited by IMP, AMP, GMP.
• Those steps leading specifically to AMP or GMP
synthesis work primarily by feedback inhibition:
XMP and GMP inhibit IMP dehydrogenase
AMP inhibits adenylosuccinate synthetase
SYNTHESIS OF PYRIMIDINE NUCLEOTIDES
• Pyrimidine ring is assembled first, then linked to
ribose phosphate ---> pyrimidine nucleotide.
• Requires fewer ATPs than purine synthesis (2 vs. 4).
• Pyrimidine ring has three metabolic precursors:
bicarbonate, amide group of glutamine, aspartate.
• PRPP is also required.
• There is a 6-step pathway for de novo synthesis of
UMP:
1) glutamine combines with bicarbonate ion +
2ATPs to yield carbamoyl phosphate + glutamate
2) carbamoyl phosphate combines with
aspartate via aspartate transcarbamolyase to form
carbamoyl aspartate (product contains all the atoms
necessary for pyrimidine ring).
3) carbamoyl phosphate is cyclized
enzymatically to form L- dihydroorotate.
4) L-dihydroorotate is oxidized by
dihydroorotate dehydrogenase to form orotate; e-
removed from substrate are transferred to ubiquinone -
--> O2 to ETS.
5) Orotate replaces pyrophosphate group of
PRPP to form orotidine 5’-monophosphate (OMP)
6) OMP is decarboxylated by OMP
decarboxylase to form uridine 5’-monophosphate
(UMP)
• Dihydroorotate is produced in the cytosol, then passes
through the outer mitochondrial membrane.
• Enzyme dihydroorotate DH is on outer surface
of inner mitochondrial membrane
• Orotate then moves back into cytosol
Regulation of UMP synthesis:
• asparate carbamoylase (ATCase)- main regulatory
enzyme
• Inhibited by UTP and CTP
• Activated by ATP
• Keeps purines and pyrimidines in equal
amounts
Synthesis of CTP
• Formation of CTP from UMP in three reactions (see
pathway sheet).
• Regulation of pathway is via CTP synthetase
- allosterically inhibited by CTP
CONVERSION OF RIBONUCLEOTIDES TO
DEOXYRIBONUCLEOTIDES
• Deoxyribonucleotides are formed from ribonucleotides
by ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase.
• Energy to fuel reduction comes from NADPH.
• There are really three proteins involved:
1) thioredoxin reductase
2) thioredoxin
3) ribonucleotide reductase
• Once dADP, dGDP, and dCDP are formed, they are
phosphorylated by nucleoside diphosphate kinases.
• Regulation of ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase is
complex because there are 2 regulatory sites:
1) Activity site - a.k.a. allosteric site - controls
catalytic site
2) Specificity site - also allosterically regulated-
controls substrate specificity
If ATP is bound in activity, enzyme is ACTIVE
If dATP or ATP is bound, reductase is pyrimidine
specific
CDP --> dCDP
UDP --> dUDP
Binding of dTTP to specificity site causes enzyme to
take GDP --> dGDP.
Binding of dGTP to specificity site causes enzyme to
take ADP --> dADP.
Synthesis of Deoxythymidylate (dTMP) by
Methylation of Dump
• dTMP is formed from dUMP, which is formed by any
of the following:
dUMP is converted to dTMP by thymidylate synthase
• Methyl group donor is methylene
tetrahydrofolate
• Many cancer drugs inhibit the activity of
thymidylate synthase and dihydrofolate
reductase --> decreased levels of dTMP
synthesis --> decreased DNA synthesis
SALVAGE OF PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES

Purine Catabolism
• Many organisms convert purine nucleotides to uric
acid (see pathway sheet)

AMP ---> IMP ---> hypoxanthine ---->

GMP --> xanthine ----->

• High serum levels of uric acid may lead to gout

• Inflammation of joints is due to precipitation of
sodium urate crystals
• Kidneys may also be damaged by deposition
of crystals
• Gout is thought to be an inherited metabolic
disease
• Some patients with gout have a partial
deficiency of HGPRTase
- leads to reduced synthesis of GMP
and IMP by salvage pathway
- causes increase in PRPP levels -->
increased purine biosynthesis by de novo pathway
• Gout can also be caused by increased levels
of PRPP caused by a yperactive synthetase
• Gout can be treated with allopurinol, an analog
of hypoxanthine --> ultimately acts as an inhibitor of
xanthine oxidase; called suicide inhibition

Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
• Total lack of HGPRTase.
• Results in compulsive self-destructive behavior.
• Self-mutilation, mental deficiency, spasticity.
• Elevated levels of PRPP ---> increased rate of purine
biosynthesis by de novo pathway ---> overproduction of
uric acid.
• Possible that brain may rely heavily on salvage
pathway for IMP and GMP synthesis.
• Shows that abnormal behavior can be caused by
absence of a single enzyme.

Pyrimidine Catabolism
• Begins with the hydrolysis of nucleosides and Pi from
nucleotides.
• Successive reactions produce ribose 1-phosphate or
deoxyribose 1-phosphate.

• Thymine is ultimately broken down to succinyl CoA.

• Uracil and cytosine are broken down into alanine, then
acetyl CoA.
IMPORTANT CHEMICAL CONCEPTS
In this handout you will be reviewing important
chemical concepts that involves solutions,
concentrations and stoichiometry. We all know that the
environment that we are in, are in the form of solutions.
Take for example the air, it’s a mixture of different gases
called gaseous solutions, our body is an aqueous
solution too which, most of it are within the cells, blood
plasma is one example of a solution inside the body. In
our daily lives we used and encounter products that are
mainly in a solution, as we ate our chips, we can find in
the nutritional facts the amounts and the ingredients that
we are getting from the chips, sometimes we taste them
as too salty because of the high sodium chloride (NaCl)
content.
Solutions can be a homogeneous mixture
which are composed of components that can be
classified as solvents and solutes of which the latter can
be characterized into concentrations- is the ratio of
solute in a solution to either solvent or total solution.
Concentration is usually expressed in terms of mass per
unit volume (Figure 1.). Expressing quantitatively and
calculating concentrations can be perceived as
“intensive”, however, constant practice will make the
entire experience rewarding.
Figure 1. Concept map for solutions
Sometimes we love to experiment different
chemicals by mixing them and we are excited of what
will come out from the experiment. We are not aware,
that the chemicals undergo chemical reactions among
themselves and we are just amazed that we observed
a change of color, and changes in the phase of matter,
after. How is it possible? In here, we are going to utilize
the “balancing chemical equations”. You are not strange
in this tool, this have been used for many centuries by
chemists in order for them to determine the amount of
reactants and the products that were formed or
produced after the chemical reactions, hence chemist
called this as stoichiometry- deals with the relative
quantities of reactants and products in chemical
reactions. It can be used to find the quantities of the
products from given reactants in a balanced chemical
reaction, as well as percent yield. Why is solution
stoichiometry significant? Because it allows us to make
predictions about the outcomes of chemical reactions
and determine the optimal ratio of reactants for a
chemical reaction so that all reactants are fully used.
Everything in analytical chemistry involves
stoichiometry, as you study further both the qualitative
and quantitative aspects of chemicals.
Lesson 1 – Expressing Quantities and Concentrations
A solution is a special type of mixture that is
homogeneous throughout. This means that the
molecules or ions involved are mixed thoroughly that
the composition is uniform throughout the mixture.
Think of a soft drink. You cannot see sugar within the
water when it is fully dissolved, not even under the
microscope. Two important components make up a
solution, the solvent- the component in a solution that
is present in the largest amount, and the solute- the
component in a solution in a lesser amount. The most
common example for this is the salt (NaCl) solution,
wherein water is the solvent and salt (NaCl) is the
solute. More than two solutes can be found in a
solution. But how do you measure solutions?
Measuring solution is by expressing through its
concentration, either qualitatively or quantitatively. The
concentration of a solution is a macroscopic property
and it represents the amount of solute dissolved in a unit
amount of solvent. The proportion of solute and solvent
in solutions are not even. Depending upon the
proportion of solute, a solution can be described as:
Qualitative:
a. Concentrated – a solution that contains a large
proportion of solute relative to solvent or
b. Diluted – a solution that contains a small proportion
of solute relative to solvent.
Semi-Quantitative:
a. Saturated – a solution in which no more solute will
dissolve.
b. unsaturated – a solution in which more solute will
dissolve.
You can say that a solution is saturated when
solutes will no longer dissolve in a solvent. The
solubility of a solute is the amount of solute that will
dissolve in a given amount of solvent to produce a
saturated solution. For example, at 0 oC, we can
dissolve a maximum of 35.7 g of solid NaCl in 100 mL
of water (a saturated solution). Any additional solid NaCl
that we add to the saturated solution simply falls to the
bottom of the container and does not dissolve.
amount of solute
The concentration of solution = amount of solution
Or
amount of solute
The concentration of solution = amount of solvent
There are number of ways that concentrations
can be expressed quantitatively. Some expressions are
temperature-dependent (i.e., the concentration of the
solution changes as the temperature changes). This is
an important factor to be considered for experiments in
which the temperatures do not remain constant (Table parts per [mass of Used for trace
1). billion (ppb) solute/mass of quantities; masses
solution] × 109 are known but
(µg solute/kg molecular masses
Table 1. Temperature dependence of some solution) maybe unknown;
concentrations. typically used to
Concentration Measurements Temp. express
Expression Required Dependence contamination of
Y/N dilute solutions
Percent Mass of solute N
composition Mass of solution (mass does not
(by mass) change with We can calculate concentrations quantitatively by
temp.) various methods.
molarity Moles of solute Y
Volume of solution (volume 1. Mass/Weight Percentage or Percentage by
changes with Mass/Weight
temp.)
It is the amount of solute in grams present in 100 grams
molality Moles of solute N
Moles of solvent (neither mass or of the solution. Therefore, the formula will be:
moles changes
with temp.)
mole fraction Moles of solute Y
Moles of solvent (moles does not
change with
temp.)

Unit examples of concentration includes: g/cm3, kg/l,

M, m, N, kg/L. (Table 2.)

Table 2. Different units for expressing concentrations 2. Volume Percentage

for solutions. It is the volume of solute in mL present in 100 mL
Unit Definition Application solution. The formula will be:
Mass [mass of solute (g) Useful when masses
percentage / mass of solution are known but
(%) (g) x 100 molecular masses
are unknown
mole of solute / Use for quantitative
molarity (M) liter of solution reactions in 10% solution of HCl by volume means that 10 mL of
(mol/L) solutions and liquid HCl is present in 100 mL of the solution.
titrations;
Mass and molecular
mass of solute and 3. Mass of volume percentage
volume of solution It is the mass of solute present in 100 mL of solution.
are known We can calculate the mass of the solute using the
molality (m) mole of solute / kg Used in determining volume percentage. The formula would be:
of solvent (mol/kg) how colligative
properties vary with
solute concentration;
Masses and
molecular mass of
solute are known A 10% mass by volume solution means that 10 gm
Mole fraction moles of solute / Used for partial solute is present in 100 mL of solution.
(x) total moles pressures of gases
present (mol/mol) and vapor pressures
of some solutions; 4. Molarity
Mass and molecular
The molarity of a solution gives the number of gram
mass of each
component are molecules of the solute present in one liter of the
known solution.
parts per [mass of Used in health
thousand solute/mass of sciences, ratio
(ppt) solution] × 103 solutions are
(g solute/kg typically expressed
solution) as a proportion such Thus, if one-gram molecule of a solute is present in 1
as : 1:1000
kg of the solvent, the concentration of solutions is said
parts per [mass of Used for trace
to be one molar. The unit of molarity is mol kg -1. Molality
million (ppm) solute/mass of quantities;
solution] × 106 Masses are known is the most convenient method to express the
(mg solute/kg but molecular concentration of solutions because it involves the mass
solution) masses maybe are of liquids rather than their volumes. It is also
unknown independent of the variation in temperature.
 5. Normality cities is also expressed in ppm by volume. It refers to
The normality of a solution gives the number of gram the volume of the pollutant in 106 units of volume. 10
equivalents of the solute present in one liter of the ppm of SO2 in the air means 10 mL of SO2 is present in
solution. 106 mL of air.

8. Molality
Molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute
dissolved in 1 Kg of the solvent.
Thus, if one gram equivalent of a solute is present in
one liter of the solution, the concentration of solutions is
said to be 1 normal.

1N = Normal One gram Normality is Thus, if one-gram molecule of a solute is present in 1

equivalent of the 1 kg of the solvent, the concentration of solutions is said
solute per liter of
solution to be one molar. The unit of molarity is mol kg -1. Molality
is the most convenient method to express the
N/2 = Seminormal 0.5 g equivalent of Normality is concentration of solutions because it involves the mass
the solute per liter 0.5 of liquids rather than their volumes. It is also
of solution
independent of the variation in temperature.
N/10 = Decinormal 0.1 g equivalent of Normality is
the solute per liter 0.1
of solution 9. Formality
N/100 = Centrinormal 0.01 g equivalent Normality is
It is the number of mass in grams present per liter of
of the solute per 0.01 solution. In case, formula mass is equal to molecular
liter of solution mass, formality is equal to molarity. Like molarity and
normality, the formality is also dependent on
N/1000 = Millinormal 0.001 g equivalent Normality is temperature. It is used for ionic compounds in which
of the solute per 0.001
liter of solution there is no existence of a molecule. A mole of ionic
compounds is called formal and molarity as the
formality.

6. Mole Fraction
The mole fraction of any component in a solution is the
ratio of the number of moles of that component to the
total number of moles of all components. The total mole
fraction of all the components of any solution is 1. For a
binary solution of A and B.

Mole Fraction of A (XA) =

Mole Fraction of B (XB) = Where,

w = weight of solute,
And, XA+XB = 1 f = formula weight of solute
V= volume of solution
nf = no. of gram formula weight
7. Parts per million (ppm)
When a solute is present in trace quantities, it is
convenient to express the concentration of solutions in Examples
parts per million (ppm). The formula is as follows:
1. Mass Percentage

Example 1
Ordinary bleach is 5.25% NaOCl by mass, which means
In case of mass, we may express it as: (Mass of each 100 g of bleach contains 5.25 g NaOCl.
solute/Mass of solution) × 106

In case of volume, we may express it as: (Volume of Example 2

solute/Volume of solution) × 106
So, we can express the concentration of solutions in
parts per million as mass to mass, volume to volume
and mass to volume form. Atmospheric pollution in
Find the mass percentage of 6 g sodium hydroxide
dissolved in 50 g of water. (Note: since the density of
water is nearly 1, this type of question often gives the
volume of water in milliliters.)
Step 1: Find the total mass of the solution: 2. Volume Percentage (v/v %)
total mass = 6 g sodium hydroxide + 50 g water Volume Percent Formula
total mass = 56 g Volume percent = {Volume of solute / volume of solution} x
100
Step 2: Find the mass percentage of the sodium
hydroxide using the formula: Example 1
mass percent = (grams of solute / grams of solution) x 100 Determine the volume/volume percent solution made by
mass percent = (6 g NaOH / 56 g solution) x 100 combining 25 mL of ethanol with enough water to
mass percent = (0.1074) x 100 produce 200 mL of the solution.
answer = 10.74% NaOH
Given:
Volume of solute is 25 Ml
Example 3 Volume of the solution is 200 mL
Find the masses of sodium chloride and water required
to obtain 175 g of a 15% solution. Step 1:
(This problem is a bit different because it gives you the Volume percent = volume of solute /volume of solution x 100%
mass percentage and asks you to then find how much = {25 mL / 200 mL} x 100%
solute and solvent are needed to yield a total mass of Volume percent = 12.5 %
175 grams. Start with the usual equation and fill in the
given information:)
Example 2
Step 1: A solution is prepared by dissolving 90 mL of hydrogen
mass percent = (grams solute / grams solution) x 100 peroxide in enough water to make 3000 mL of solution.
15% = (x grams’ sodium chloride / 175 g total) x 100 Identify the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide
solution.
Step 2:
Solving for x will give you the amount of NaCl: Given:
Volume of solute is 90 mL
x = 15 x 175 / 100 Volume of solution is 3000 Ml
x = 26.25 grams NaCl
Step 1:
So, now you know how much salt is needed. The Volume percent = volume of solute /volume of solution x 100%
solution consists of the sum of the amount of salt and = 90 mL/ 3000mL x 100%
water. Simply subtract the mass of salt from the solution Volume percent = 3 %
to obtain the mass of water that is required:

Step 3:
mass of water = total mass - mass of salt 3. Mass by Volume Percentage (% m/v)
mass of water = 175 g - 26.25 g Mass/Volume Percent = Mass of solute (g) x 100
mass of water = 147.75 g Volume of solution (mL)
Common units for w/v% concentration are g/100mL (%)

Example 4 Example 1
What is the mass percent of hydrogen in water? In a solution, there is 111.0 mL (110.605 g) solvent and
5.24 mL (6.0508 g) solute present in a solution. Find the
Step 1: mass/volume percent of the solute.
First, you need the formula for water, which is
H2O. Next you look up the mass for 1 mole of hydrogen Mass/Volume Percent = (Mass of Solute) / (Volume of
and oxygen (the atomic masses) using a periodic table. Solution) x 100%
= (6.0508g) / (111.0mL + 5.24mL) x 100%
hydrogen mass = 1.008 grams / mole
oxygen mass = 16.00 grams / mole = (0.0520) x 100%
= 5.205%
Step 2:
Next, you use the mass percentage formula.
The key to performing the calculation correctly is to note 4. Molarity
there are 2 atoms of hydrogen in each water molecule. Example 1
So, in 1 mole of water there are 2 x 1.008 grams of What is the molarity of concentrated HCl if the solution
hydrogen. The total mass of the compound is the sum contains 37.0% HCl by mass and if the density of the
of the mass of the two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen solution is 1.18 g/ml?
atom.
Step 1: In order to find the molarity of the solution, we
mass percent = (mass of element in 1 mole of must determine the number of moles of HCl in 1 L of
compound / mass of 1 mole of compound) x 100 solution.
mass percent hydrogen = [(2 x 1.008) / (2 x 1.008 + The problem can be solved by using factors
16.00)] x 100 derived in the following way.
mass percent hydrogen = (2.016 / 18.016) x 100
mass percentage hydrogen = 11.19%
 1. The mass of 1 L of solution is found by means
of the density.
2. The mass of pure HCl in this quantity of
solution is obtained by use of the percent composition.
3. The molecular weight of HCl (36.5) is used to
convert the mass of HCl into moles of HCl:
Since 1 L of the solution contains 12.0 mol HCl, the
solution is 12.0 M.
Example 2
A 1.5L solution is composed of 0.25g NaCl dissolved in
water. Find its molarity.
Solution:
M = (Moles of Solute) / (Liters of Solution)
= (0.004277mol NaCl) / (1.5L)
= 0.002851 M
Molarity = 0.0029M
Example 3
Consider this problem. (a) How many grams of
concentrated nitric acid solution should be used to
prepare 250 ml of 2.00 M HNO3? The concentrated acid
is 70.0% HNO3. (b) If the density of the concentrated
nitric acid solution is 1.42 g/ml, what volume should be
used?
1. Since the desired solution is 2.00 M, there
must be 2.00 mol HNO3 in 1.00 L.
2. The molecular weight of HNO3 is 63.0.
3. In 100 g of concentrated nitric acid (70.0%
HNO3) there are 70.0 g of HNO3.
= 45.0 g conc. HNO3
The density of the concentrated acid is used to convert
the answer to part (a) into ml of concentrated HNO 3.
= 31.7 ml conc. HNO3
5. Molality
The molality of a solution is calculated by taking the
moles of solute and dividing by the kilograms of solvent.
moles of solute
Molality (m) = kilograms of solvent
Example 1
Calculate the molality of 15.00 M HCl with a density of
1.0745 g/cm3
Solution:
Step 1: Let us assume 1000. mL of solution is on hand.
In that liter of 15-molar solution, there are:
15.00 mol/L times 1.000 L = 15.00 mole of HCl
15.00 mol times 36.4609 g/mol = 546.9135 g of HCl
Step 2: Use the density to get mass of solution
1000. mL times 1.0745 g/cm3 = 1074.5 g of solution
1074.5 g minus 546.9135 g = 527.5865 g of water
= 0.5275865 kg
Step 3: Calculate molality:
= 15.00 mol / 0.5275865 kg
= 28.43 m (to four sig figs)
Note: the mole fractions of water and HCl can also be
calculated with the above data. There are 29.286 moles
of water and 15.00 moles of HCl.
Example 2
What is the molality of a solution consisting of 1.34 mL
of carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4, density= 1.59 g/mL) in
65.0 mL of methylene chloride (CH2Cl2, density = 1.33
g/mL)?
Solution:
Step 1: Moles CCl4:
1.34 mL times 1.59 g/mL = 2.1306 g
2.1306 g / 153.823 g/mol = 0.013851 mol
Step 2: Mass of the methylene chloride:
65.0 mL times 1.33 g/mL = 86.45 g
= 0.08645 kg
Step 3: Molality:
= 0.013851 mol / 0.08645 kg
= 0.160 m (to three sig figs)
Example 3
What is the molality of a 12.5% solution of glucose,
C6H12O6, in water? The molecular weight of glucose is
180.0.
The molality of the solution equals the number of moles
of glucose dissolved in one kilogram of water. The
factors used are derived from the following:
In a 12.5% solution, 12.5 g of C6H12O6 is dissolved
(100.0 g – 12.5 g) = 87.5 g H2O
The molecular weight of C6H12O6 is 180.0
The solution is 0.794 m in C6H12O6
6. Normality Example 4
Relation between Normality and Molarity
Example 1
Calculate the normality of NaOH solution formed by Here is Normality formula in terms of molarity:
dissolving 0.2 gm NaOH to make 250 ml solution.
Normality = n x Molarity
Normality (N) = number of gram equivalent of solute
Volume of solution in liter where n = number of H+ in Acid, OH- in base and for
salt, charge present in ionic forms
No. of gram equivalent of solute = _____weight____
Equivalent weight
7. Formality (F)
Equivalent weight = Molar mass (n) Formality is used for ionic compounds solution
= 23 + 16 + 11 like NaCl. It is the number of moles of solute (ionic
= 40 compound) present in 1 litre solution.

So, Molar mass of ionic compound is known as formula

N = no. of grams equivalent (mass) Mass i. e. (FM)
Volume
So it is the number of Formula mass in gram of solute
= ____weight____________ in 1 litre solution
Equivalent weight x 1000 /volume in mL

= __2__ x 1000
40 250
= 0.2 N unit = ‘F’ or ‘Moles L-1’

If you dissolve sodium chloride, NaCl, in water, you

Example 2 know that it dissociates completely and exists as ions in
Calculate the normality of 0.321 g sodium carbonate solution.
when it mixes in a 250 mL solution.
NaCl (aq] → Na+(aq] + Cl−(aq]
First, you have to know or write down the formula
for sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Once you do this you
can identify that there are two sodium ions for each
carbonate ion. Now solving the problem will be easy.

N of 0.321 g sodium carbonate

N = Na2CO3 × (1 mol/105.99 g) × (2 eq/1 mol)
N = 0.1886 eq/0.2500 L
N = 0.0755 N

Example 3
Find the equivalent Weight of Potassium permanganate
(KMnO4) in redox reaction with Oxalic Acid (H2C2O4 •
H20) in presence of dilute H2SO4

MnO−4 + 8H+ + 5e− → Mn2++ 4H20

Solution:
KMnO4 acts as oxidizing agent in the acidic
medium and gain electron. Here it gains 5 electrons. So
valence or equivalence factor is 5.

Now Molar Mass of KMnO4 = 158

Equivalent Weight = Molar Mass

n

= 158
5

= 31.6
GENETICS
SCI222 – GENETICS PRE-MENDELIAN GENETICS
- concepts of Genetics before Mendel’s discovery
LECTURE 01 – GENETICS: The Science of Heredity - heredity is a “blending” process
and Variation - mixture of characteristics from parents
- however some offspring look more similar to
GENETICS one parent
- branch of Biology - characteristics may persists across
- deals with heredity and variation in all living things generations
- core biological science
- seeks to understand biological diversity
- the molecular and physical bases
- mechanisms
- principles

- Theory of Pangenesis
- Aristotle
- Male semen formed all over and reflects the body then
travels to sex organs

- term derived from Greek word “gen”

- to become or grow into something
- coined by William Bateson in 1906

Diversity

- Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics aka

Theory of Use and Disuse
- Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)

- Germplasm Theory
- August Weismann (1834-1914)
- Challenged Pangenesis Theory using mice
- Hereditary materials is inherited only through
gonads

- started with Austrian Monk, Gregor Mendel (1822-

1884)
- father of Modern Genetics
- discovered hereditary characteristics
determined by “factors” aka genes HISTORY OF GENETICS
- results of experiment is distilled into: - Carl Correns, Erick Von Tschermak and Hugo de Vries
- gene is inherited from generation to - independently duplicated Mendel’s
generation where progeny has a physical copy experiment and discovery in the 1900s
- gene provided information regarding
the structure - William Bateson, Becky Saunders and Lucien Cuenot
 - Mendelian principles also applied to animals
in 1902

- Walter Sutton and Theodor Bovieri

- Independently associated Mendelian factors
to chromosome in 1903
- Chromosome Theory of Inheritance

- Thomas Hunt Morgan and Calvin Bridges

- confirmed Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
- chromosome contained not one but many
genes - the definition of similarities and differences in the
patterns encountered within the human species, and of
- Oswald Avery, Collin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty the degree of plasticity in these systems, are basic to
- identified deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as the human understanding and important to human welfare.
hereditary material in 1944
APPLICATIONS OF GENETICS
- James Watson and Francis Crick - Plant, Animal and Microbial improvements
- discovered molecular structure of DNA in - Medicine
1953 - Genetic Counselling
- Legal Applications
SCOPE OF GENETICS - Recombinant DNA Technology
- From the standpoint of the individual, the development
and maintenance of its own unique, inherent pattern in
dynamic interplay with the environment are the central
problems of life.

Examples:
Nature – genes and hereditary factors
- Physical appearances
- personality characteristics
Nurture – environmental variables
- childhood experiences
- how we were raised
- social relationships
- surrounding culture

- For the species, the ability to transfer these systems

to the other generations is the primary requirement for
continued existence

- For living forms as a whole, the orderly variety of

patterns and their changes with time on a geological
scale constitute the accomplishment of organic
evolution.
LECTURE 02 – GENETICS: Chromosomal Basis of
Heredity

The Cell

1. Nucleolus
2. Nucleus
3. Ribosome (little dots)
4. Vesicle
5. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Secondary Constriction
6. Golgi apparatus (or “Golgi body”) - pinched off small chromosomal section forming a
7. Cytoskeleton “satellite”
8. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - associated where the nucleolus is formed or attached
9. Mitochondrion
10. Vacuole
11. Cytosol
12. Lysosome
13. Centrosome
14. Cell membrane

The Chromosome Structure

Nucleolus-Organizing Region
- Organizes nucleolus

Chromosome
•

Chromomeres and Knobs

- Clumping of stretched out chromosome forming a
“beads on a string” appearance.
- Chromomeres – small beads
- Knobs – larger beads

Centromere or Primary Constriction

- permanent and well-defined region
- attachment site of kinetochore proteins
- disco-shaped protein structure in eukaryotic
cells where spindle fibers attach during cell division
 M PHASE
- Mitosis occurs
- 4 main stages
- Prophase
- Prometaphase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
Cell Division
Mitosis
- faithful reproduction of genetic and
chromosomal composition of a cell to two daughter cell

Meiosis
- special
- chromosome number is reduced to half

Mitosis

CELL CYCLE PHASES

G1 PHASE G2 OF INTERPHASE
- First Gap - A nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus
- Longest Phase - Nucleus contains, one or more nucleoli
- Cell increases in volume - Two chromosomes have formed by duplication of
- increase water intake centrosome
- building new protoplasm and cytoplasmic - Centrosomes are regions in animal cells that organize
organelles the microtubules of the spindle
- Contains two centrioles
- Duplicated chromosomes cannot be seen individually
- Not yet condensed

S PHASE
- DNA Replication/Synthesis

PROPHASE
- Chromatin fibers become more tightly coiled
G2 PHASE - Observable with light microscope
- Second Gap Period - Nucleoli disappear
- Synthesis of RNA and protein - Duplicated chromosomes appear as identical sister
chromatids joined at centromeres
- Mitotic spindle begins to form
- composed of the centrosomes and the microtubules
that extend from them
- radial arrays of shorter microtubules that extend from
the centrosomes are called asters (“stars”)
- Centrosomes move away from each other, propelled
partly by the leathering microtubules between them
PROMETAPHASE
- Nuclear envelope fragments
- Microtubules extending from each centrosome can
now enter nuclear area
- Chromosomes become even more condensed
- Each of the two chromatids of each chromosome now
has a kinetochore
- a specialized protein structure at the
centromere
- some microtubules attach to the kinetochores
(kinetochore microtubules)
- jerk the chromosomes back and forth
- Non-kinetochore microtubules interact with those from
the opposite pole of the spindle
METAPHASE
- Centrosomes are now at opposite poles of the cell
- Chromosomes convene at the metaphase plate
- a plane that is equidistant between the spindle’s two
poles
- Chromosomes’ centromeres lie at the metaphase
plate
- Each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister
chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules
coming from opposite poles
ANAPHASE
- Shortest stage of mitosis (only a few minutes)
- Begins when the cohesion proteins are cleaved
- allows the sister chromatids of each pair to part
suddenly
- Each chromatid becomes a full-fledged chromosome
- liberated daughter chromosomes begin moving toward
opposite ends of the cell as kinetochore microtubules
shorten
- microtubules ae attached at the centromere region
- chromosomes move centromere first (at about 1
μm/min).
- cell elongates as the non-kinetochore microtubules
lengthen
- by the end, the two ends of the cell have equivalent
and complete collections of chromosomes
TELOPHASE
- two daughter nuclei form in the cell
- nuclear envelopes arise from the fragments of the
parent cell’s nuclear envelope and other portions of the
endomembrane system
- nucleoli reappear
- chromosomes become less condensed
- any remaining spindle microtubules are
depolymerized
- mitosis, the division of one nucleus into two geneically
identical nuclei, is now complete
 Cleavage of a Plant Cell

CYTOKINESIS
- the division of the cytoplasm is usually well under way
by late telophase, so the two daughter cells appear
shortly after the end of mitosis
- in animal cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a
cleavage furrow
- pinches the cell in two
- in plant cells, formation of cell plate formation

Prophase in a Eukaryotic Cell

Metaphase to Cytokinesis in a Eukaryotic Cell

Cleavage of an Animal Cell

Cell Cycle
 Cell Division in Prokaryotes - genetic rearrangement between nonsister
chromatids
- involves exchange of corresponding DNA
segments
- begins during pairing and synaptonemal
complex formation,
- completed while homologs are in synapsis.

Synaptonemal Complex
(A) Model of the SC. Lateral elements (light
blue rods) of homologous chromosomes align and
synapse together via a meshwork of transverse
filaments (black lines) and longitudinal filaments (dark
blue rods). The longitudinal filaments are collectively
referred to as the “central element” of the SC. Ellipsoidal
structures called recombination nodules (gray ellipsoid)
are constructed on the central region of the SC. As their
name implies, recombination nodules are believed to be
involved in facilitating meiotic recombination (crossing
over). The chromatin (red loops) of each homologue is
attached to its corresponding lateral element. Because
there are two “sister chromatids” in each homologue,
two loops are shown extending laterally from each point
CELL DIVISION along a lateral element. (B) Top: Set of tomato SCs.
Meiosis Chromatin “sheaths” are visible around each SC.
- similar to mitosis Bottom: Two tomato SCs. The chromatin has been
- preceded by the duplication of chromosomes then stripped from the SCs, allowing the details of the SC to
followed by two consecutive cell divisions be observed. Each SC has a kinetochore (“ball-like”
- Meiosis I and Meiosis II structure) at its centromere. Recombination nodules,
- result in four daughter cells with only half as many ellipsoidal structures found on the central regions of
chromosomes as the parent cell SCs, mark the sites of crossover events (see insert).

MEIOSIS I
- separation of homologous chromosomes

A schematic diagram for homolog interaction

PROPHASE I and the synaptonemal complex. (a) Homolog
- Early Prophase I interactions are the key events during meiotic prophase
- During early prophase I, before the stage shown I, including pairing, synapsis, and recombination,
above: followed by homolog segregation. For simplicity, only
- Chromosomes begin to condense one homolog pair is shown. Initiation involves early
- homologs loosely pair along their lengths, chromosome interactions, with typical features being
aligned gene by gene. formation of centromere or telomere clusters. Pairing is
- Paired homologs become physically the process by which homologs recognize each other
connected to each other thru the synaptonemal by DNA sequence homology-dependent duplex
complex formation. The formation of the synaptonemal complex
- zipper-like protein structure stabilizes the juxtaposition between homologs. Meiotic
- state is called synapsis. recombination involves copying of DNA of the homolog,
- Crossing over occurs • including the formation of CO with the exchange of
flanking regions. CO is also critical for the maintenance
of homologs from the time of disassembly of the SC to Chiasmata
the onset of anaphase I. (b) The synaptonemal complex
(SC). The SC is a tripartite structure consisting of two
parallel lateral elements and a central element and
normally forms between homologs during meiotic
prophase I. The SC is important for stabilizing
homologous pairs and facilitating the completion of
meiotic recombination.

PROPHASE I
- Late Prophase
- Microtubules from one pole or the other attach
to the two kinetochores,
- Protein structures at the centromeres
of the two homologs.
- Homologous pairs then move toward the
metaphase plate.

- Can also be divided into 5 sub-stages

- Leptotene
PROPHASE I
- Zygotene
- Mid-Prophase
- Pachytene
- Synapsis has ended with the disassembly of
- Diplotene
the synaptonemal complex in mid-prophase
- Diakinesis
- Chromosomes in each pair have moved apart
slightly.
- Leptotene
- Each homologous pair has one or more X-
- Chromosomes contract and become visible
shaped regions called chiasmata (singular, chiasma).
- Zygotene
- exists at the point where a crossover
- Chromosomes continue to condense
has occurred.
- Homologous chromosomes pair up and begin
- appears as a cross
synapsis
- sister chromatid cohesion
- Each homologous pair of synapsed
holds the two original sister chromatids together
chromosomes consists of four chromatids
- Centrosome movement
- Tetrad or bivalent
- spindle formation
- Pachytene
- Nuclear envelope breakdown occur as in mitosis.
- Chromosomes become shorter and thicker
- Synaptonemal complex develops
- Diplotene
- Centromeres of paired chromosomes move
apart
- Diakinesis
- separation of homologous chromosomes is
complete
- crossing over has occurred

Schematic of the synaptonemal complex at

different stages during Prophase I
METAPHASE I
- Pairs of homologous chromosomes are now arranged
at the metaphase plate,
- one chromosome in each pair facing each
pole.
- Both chromatids of one homolog are attached to
kinetochore microtubules from one pole
- other homolog are attached to microtubules
from the opposite pole.

PROPHASE II
- A spindle apparatus forms.
- In late prophase II,
- chromosomes move toward the metaphase II
plate.
- still composed of two chromatids associated
at the centromere

ANAPHASE I
- Breakdown of proteins responsible for sister chromatid
cohesion along chromatid arms
- allows homologs to separate.
- Homologs move toward opposite poles, guided by the
spindle apparatus.
- Sister chromatid cohesion persists at the centromere
- Causing chromatids to move as a unit toward
the same pole.

METAPHASE II
- Chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase plate.
- Two sister chromatids of each chromosome are not
genetically identical
- crossing over
- Kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to
microtubules extending from opposite poles.

TELOPHASE I AND CYTOKINESIS

- Each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of
duplicated chromosomes.
- Each chromosome is composed of two sister
chromatids
- one or both chromatids include regions of non-
sister chromatid DNA.
- Cytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with
telophase I
- forms two haploid daughter cells.

ANAPHASE II
- Proteins holding the sister chromatids together at the
centromere allows chromatids to separate. •
- Chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual
chromosomes.

LIFE CYCLE
- Ensures the survival of the species
- generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the
reproductive history of an organism
- from conception to production of its own
TELOPHASE II AND CYTOKINESIS offspring
- Nuclei form - Chromosomes play a key role
- Chromosomes begin decondensing - Mitosis
- Cytokinesis occurs. - Meiosis
- One parent cell produces four daughter cells
- each with a haploid set of (unduplicated) - Common themes
chromosomes. - Diploid phase
- Four daughter cells are genetically distinct from one - Series of mitotic divisions
another and from the parent cell. - Gamete formation
- Meiosis
- Haploid Mitotic Division (optional)
- Fertilization of gametes

- Terminal or gametic meiosis

- Humans, animals and lower plants

Meiosis in Human Male

- Intermediary or sporic meiosis

- Flowering plants
- Initial or Zygotic Meiosis
- Some algae, fungi and diatoms
- Occurrence of meiosis immediately after
fertilization
CENTRAL DOGMA Codon Table

- Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

- explanation of the flow of genetic information within a
biological system
- DNA makes RNA, and RNA makes protein
- simplistic

Francis Crick 1957

This states that once "information" has passed
into protein it cannot get out again. In more detail, the
transfer of information from nucleic acid to nucleic acid,
or from nucleic acid to protein may be possible, but
transfer from protein to protein, or from protein to
nucleic acid is impossible. Information means here the
precise determination of sequence, either of bases in
the nucleic acid or of amino acid residues in the protein.

Francis Crick 1970

The central dogma of molecular biology deals
with the detailed residue-by-residue transfer of
sequential information. It states that such information
cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein
or nucleic acid
General Transfer
REPLICATION
- The copying of DNA
- Is remarkable in its speed and accuracy
- More than a dozen enzymes and other proteins
- Participate in DNA replication
- Begins at special sites called origins of replication,
where the two strands are separated
- A eukaryotic chromosome
- May have hundreds or even thousands of
replication origins

Protein Structure

- Elongation of new DNA at a replication fork

- Is catalyzed by enzymes called DNA
polymerases, which add nucleotides to the 3 end of a
growing strand
- Antiparallel elongation
 Bacterial DNA replication proteins and their
functions
Protein Function for Leading and Lagging
Strands
Helicase Unwinds parental double helix at
replication forks

Single-stranded Binds to and stabilizes single-stranded

binding protein DNA until it can be used as a template

Topoisomerase Corrects “overwinding” ahead of

replication forks by breaking, swiveling,
and rejoining DNA strands

- Antiparallel elongation
- To elongate the other new strand of DNA, the Function for Leading Function for
lagging strand Strand Lagging Strand
Primase Synthesizes a single Synthesizes an
- DNA polymerase III must work in the RNA primer at the 5’ RNA primer at the
direction away from the replication fork end of the leading 5’ end of each
- The lagging strand strand Okazaki fragment
- Is synthesized as a series of
segments called Okazaki fragments, which are then DNA pol Continuously Elongates each
III synthesizes the leading Okazaki fragment,
joined together by DNA ligase strand, adding on the adding on to its
primer primer

DNA pol Removes primer from Removes the

I the 5’ end of leading primer from the 5’
strand and replaces it end of each
with DNA, adding on to fragment and
the adjustment 3’ end replaces it with
DNA, adding on to
the 3’ end of the
adjacent fragment

DNA Joins the 3’ end of the Joins the Okazaki

Ligase DNA that replaces the fragments
primer to the rest of the
leading strand

- DNA polymerases cannot initiate the synthesis of a

polynucleotide
- They can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end
- The initial nucleotide strand
- Is an RNA or DNA primer
- Only one primer is needed for synthesis of the leading
strand
- But for synthesis of the lagging strand, each
Okazaki fragment must be primed separately

Priming DNA Synthesis

TRANSCRIPTION
- Is the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA
- Produces messenger RNA (mRNA)
- In prokaryotes
- Transcription and translation occur together
- In eukaryotes
 - RNA transcripts are modified before becoming - A codon in messenger RNA
true mRNA - Is either translated into an amino acid or
serves as a translational stop signal
- Codons must be read in the correct reading frame
- For the specified polypeptide to be produced
- The genetic code is nearly universal
- Shared by organisms from the simplest
bacteria to the most complex animals

- In laboratory experiments
- Genes can be transcribed and translated after
being transplanted from one species to another

- is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA

- RNA synthesis
- During transcription - Is catalyzed by RNA polymerase, which pries
- The gene determines the sequence of bases the DNA strands apart and hooks together the RNA
along the length of an mRNA molecule nucleotides
- Follows the same base-pairing rules as DNA,
except that in RNA, uracil substitutes for thymine
- The stages of transcription are
- Initiation
- Elongation
- Termination

- Promoters signal the initiation of RNA synthesis
- Transcription factors
- Help eukaryotic RNA polymerase recognize
promoter sequences
- As RNA polymerase moves along the DNA
- It continues to untwist the double helix,
exposing about 10 to 20 DNA bases at a time for pairing
with RNA nucleotides
- The mechanisms of termination
- Are different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
- Prokaryotes
- Rho-independent termination and
Rho-dependent termination.
- Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
- Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus
- Modify pre-mRNA in specific ways
before the genetic messages are dispatched to the
cytoplasm
- Each end of a pre-mRNA molecule is modified in a
particular way
- The 5’ end receives a modified nucleotide cap
- The 3’ end gets a poly-A tail
- RNA splicing
- Removes introns and joins exons
- carried out by spliceosomes in some cases
- Ribozymes
- Are catalytic RNA molecules
that function as enzymes and can splice RNA
- The presence of introns
- Allows for alternative RNA splicing
- Proteins often have a modular architecture
- Consisting of discrete structural and functional
regions called domains
- In many cases
- Different exons code for the different domains
in a protein
TRANSLATION
- RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide
- A cell translates an mRNA message into protein •
- With the help of transfer RNA (tRNA)
- Molecules of tRNA are not all identical
 - Each carries a specific amino acid on one end
- Each has an anticodon on the other end

- The ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA

- A tRNA molecule - The P site
- Consists of a single RNA strand that is only - The A site
about 80 nucleotides long - The E site
- Is Roughly L-shaped

- A specific enzyme called an aminoacyl-tRNA

synthetase
- Joins each amino acid to the correct tRNA

- We can divide translation into three stages

- Initiation
- Elongation
- Termination

- The initiation stage of translation

- Brings together mRNA, tRNA bearing the first
amino acid of the polypeptide, and two subunits of a
ribosome

- Ribosomes
- Facilitate the specific coupling of tRNA
anticodons with mRNA codons during protein synthesis
- The ribosomal subunits
- Are constructed of proteins and RNA
molecules named ribosomal RNA or rRNA
- In the elongation stage of translation - Eukaryotic cell
- Amino acids are added one by one to the - The nuclear envelope separates transcription
preceding amino acid from translation
- Extensive RNA processing occurs in the
nucleus

- The final stage of translation is termination

- When the ribosome reaches a stop codon in
the mRNA

- A number of ribosomes can translate a single mRNA

molecule simultaneously
- Forming a polyribosome
- Polypeptide chains
- Undergo modifications after the translation
process

- After translation
- Proteins may be modified in ways that affect
their three-dimensional shape
- Two populations of ribosomes are evident in cells
- Free and bound
- Free ribosomes in the cytosol
- Initiate the synthesis of all proteins

- Prokaryotes
- cells lack a nuclear envelope
- Allowing translation to begin while
transcription is still in progress
MICROBIOLOGY
AND
PARASITOLOGY
SCI221 – MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

MODULE 1 – INTRODUCTION ON THE CONCEPTS IN MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

Lesson 1 – History of Microbiology

Microbial organisms are globally ubiquitous. Microorganisms, such as bacteria can be found on the surface of
our skin, inside our bodies, and even in a 3000-year old Egyptian mummy.

Several centuries ago, early people thought that the misdeeds of an individual or an entire town were
responsible for the ailments that they have experienced. Some people went to extreme measures and have accused
innocent persons of practicing witchcraft and have blamed them for the disease that afflicted them. Little did they know
that those sicknesses they have are caused by various microorganisms.

THE STEPPING STONE

1665 – An English man named Robert Hooke observed a thin slice of cork in 1665. The cork that he observed
resembled the rooms of monks, thus the birth of the term ‘cell’. His observation marked the beginning of the ‘Cell theory’
with a tenet ‘all cells are composed of cells’. However, the device he used to observe the cork lacks the resolution to
enable the observation of microorganisms.

1673 – The resolution conundrum was solved by a Dutch lens maker named Anton van Leeuwenhoek. He was able
to create more than 400 microscopes. In between 1673 to 1723, he wrote descriptions and made detailed drawings
about animalcules. The drawings were later on interpreted as representations about bacteria and protozoa.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
1668 – Francesco Redi, an Italian physician attempted to refute such a theory. He
devised two experiments. The first experiment involved two jars filled with decaying
meat. One jar was left open while the other one was sealed. In the second
experiment, instead of sealing the jar, he only covered it with a net.

The meat in the unsealed jar was accessible to flies and as a result, this jar
teemed with maggots. On the other hand, since the flies cannot access the meat
in the seal-tight jar, no maggots were able to proliferate. In the jar covered with net
flies surrounded the jar and landed on the net’s surface. Since the meat remained
inaccessible to the flies, the flies were unable to place its eggs and no maggots
existed inside the jar. Redi’s results refuted the persistent belief that forms of life
emerged from nonlife.

1745 – John Needham strengthened people’s belief about spontaneous generation. He reported that microorganisms
were able to exist in the chicken and corn broths after those were heated and poured into flasks.

1765 – Lazzaro Spallanzani suggested that Needham’s experiment was botched because of microbial contamination.
Since the flasks were not sealed, airborne microorganisms could have contaminated the flasks.

Twenty years later, Needham replied by explaining ‘vital force’ is necessary for spontaneous generation. Since
the two broths were heated, and the flasks were covered, a vital force was destroyed and was continued to be kept
away from the broths respectively.
 The intangible ‘vital force’ can be referred to as oxygen when Anton Lavoisier discovered its importance
to life. Spallanzani’s observations of Needham’s experiment was ostracized because he failed to take account that the
oxygen level inside the flasks was so low to support life.

BIOGENESIS THEORY
1885 – Rudolf Virchow defied Spontaneous Generation with his hypothesis that ‘living cells arise from pre-existing
cells’. Since he can only present his premise but could not show any scientific proof to back it up, he failed to change
the mind of the scientific community.

Louis Pasteur successfully disproved the Spontaneous Generation. He demonstrated the existence of airborne
microorganisms and that air itself did not create those organisms.

In Pasteur’s first experiment, short-necked flasks with the beef broth were
heated to bring the broth to a boil. Some flasks were left open and after a couple of
days, the broth was teeming with microorganism. Also, some flasks were sealed.
Unlike the first set of flasks, the broth remained as it is, without the presence of
microbes. Pasteur’s second experiment was the same yet with a slight modification.
After this time, he utilized an open-ended, long-necked flask with a neck bent into an
‘S-curve’. The flask was heated to bring the broth to a boil, and it was then cooled.
This flask allowed airborne microbes to contaminate the broth. However, since the
flask utilized the ‘S-curve’ design, the microbes are trapped in the arched portions of
the flask. Thus, the broth remained as it is.

Major contributions of Pasteur:

 Ended the Spontaneous generation.
 Pasteur’s experiment proved that microbes can be blocked to prevent them from proliferating.
 developed methods to control the presence of bacteria in milk and an alcoholic beverage
 paved the way for the aseptic technique.

FIRST GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY (1857-1914)

This period can be characterized by rapid advances spearheaded by Pasteur and Robert Koch that lead to the
establishment of Microbiology as a new branch of Science.

Major Discoveries:
 Identification of the causative agents for a particular disease.
 Role that immunity plays in the prevention and cure of diseases.
 Chemical activities of microbes.
 Improved techniques in performing microscopy
 vaccine, and surgical technique development.

Fermentation
The common problem that both milk and alcoholic beverage industry possess is spoilage (souring of milk, beer, and
wine). In the alcoholic beverage industry, yeasts are used to convert sugars to alcohol in the process known as
‘fermentation’. But different microorganisms convert the alcohol into acetic acid that causes the beverage to sour.

To solve this conundrum, heating the beverage with a specific temperature for a
particular duration of time would eliminate the microbes responsible for spoilage. This
process of heating is known as ‘pasteurization’.
The Germ Theory Disease
Pasteur’s discovery about fermentation and pasteurization alerted the scientific community. Scientists thought
that microbial organisms must have some connection with the diseases that have been plaguing throughout human
history and not misdeeds of some persons in a village (also known as Miasma Theory).

1860 – Joseph Lister utilized carbolic acid to disinfect wounds. This practice reduced mortalities from infections.

1876 – Robert Koch was able to isolate ‘Bacillus anthracis’ the causative agent for Anthrax.
Koch obtained and studied a blood sample of a sheep infected with the pathogen. He then injected a portion of
the blood sample to a healthy sheep just to see it contract the same disease. When he acquired the blood sample of
the sheep he injected, he compared it to the first sample and was able to identify the same causative agent. The isolation
of the bacterium that caused anthrax also leads to the formulation of Koch postulates that are still useful in proving
specific microbes with the disease they have caused.

Vaccination
The term ‘vaccination’ came from the Latin word ‘vacca’ which means cow. This term was coined by Louis Pasteur to
honor Edward Jenner for his successful work against smallpox.

Jenner put the milkmaid’s story (the milkmaid exclaimed that she would not get dreaded
smallpox because she milked a cow infected with cowpox) into action. He inoculated an
eight-year-old boy in the arm with cow pox-contaminated-needle. The boy got sick with
fever, but he was able to recover.

SECOND GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY (1940-1980)

This focused on the search for substances that could annihilate pathogenic microorganisms (antibiotics);
treatment of certain illnesses using chemical substances (chemotherapy); and, the use of synthetic drugs prepared
inside the laboratory by various pharmaceutical agencies.

1910 – German physician named Paul Ehrlich fired the first shot of chemical revolution when he realized his hypothesis,
‘that a magic bullet can kill or hunt down a microbe without harming the host’ by discovering Salvarsan (Salvarsan, a
synthetic drug with an arsenic derivative, got its name as it provides salvation to a venereal disease known as Syphilis).

1928 – Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered the world’s first antibiotic. As he was back from his vacation, he
decided to clean his laboratory for he forgot to do so before he took his break. There, he noticed that the growth of the
bacterium that surrounded the mold (known as Penicillium notatum) was inhibited.

THIRD GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY (1990-PRESENT)

Various technological advancements such as DNA sequencing tools, massive use of computing technology
allowed microbiologists to study the genetic material of an organism, and the advent of recombinant DNA technology
allowed humans to integrate the beneficial use of microbes in making human lives easier.

Paul Berg is the person who is responsible for pioneering recombinant DNA technology. The said
technology works on the premise that fragments of an animal or a human DNA that codes for an
essential protein, can be attached to a microbial DNA. The resulting hybrid from that insertion, known
as recombinant DNA, can be inserted into the bacteria which in turn produces large quantities of the
desired protein.
RELATED FIELDS OF MICROBIOLOGY
BACTERIOLOGY – the science of bacteria began with Leuuwenhoek’s observation about animalcules. Pasteur also
played a huge role by disproving Spontaneous Generation and developing pasteurization. On the other hand, Heide
Schulz discovered a bacterium large enough to be seen by the naked eye (known as Thiomargarita namibiensis).
MYCOLOGY – the science that deals with fungi, also works hand in hand with other fields of study such as Medicine,
Agriculture, and other Ecological Branches.

PARASITOLOGY – the study of parasitic organisms, provides various insights about protozoa and worms. The
discovery of different parasites in this branch of science can be attributed to man’s encroachment of the forest.

IMMUNOLOGY – the science of immunity provides discernment about how the human body would adapt and be able
to mount a defense when faced with a known infection, how vaccines work in general, and how vaccines are developed.
- This branch of science was greatly advance with Rebecca Lancefield’s suggestion in 1933 to classify
streptococci to serotypes (based on certain components of cell walls of the bacteria) as it allowed doctors to decide
what type of treatment to prescribe given the type and the variation of the bacteria.

VIROLOGY – the science of Viruses. was advanced by two persons namely Dmitri Iwanowski for his observation about
the causative agent tobacco mosaic disease being so small that it can pass through filters that can filter out bacteria,
and Wendell Stanley for demonstrating the crystallized structure of the agent that causes the same disease. This field
was led to its cutting-edge technological state since the development and use if electron microscopes in the 1930s.

MOLECULAR GENETICS – Concerned about the mechanisms of how microorganisms’ inherent traits.

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY – the science that deals with how genetic information is carried in a genetic material sprang
up in this period of Microbiology.

Lesson 2 – History of Parasitology

Intestinal parasite such as Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) and Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm) have
affected an estimate of 802 million up to 1.2 billion people according to the latest information from the Center of Disease
Control.

Back in time, early people have little information about how these parasitic organisms cause disease, its
transmission, and its effective treatment. A branch of science that is generally concerned about parasites known as
Parasitology, would provide great insights about different parasites.

SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
Some scientists presented their own ideas with experiments to back their claims, yet the scientific community
continued to ostracize them for not accounting another factor or the community itself is cloud with their biases and
opinions.

Aside from life arising from non-living matter, the theory of spontaneous generation also incited that parasites
also existed in the same fashion.
One prime example of the latter reason is the conclusion of Edward Tyson. At first he performs dissections
with Ascaris lumbricoides (also known as ring worm). He could have concluded that it reproduces sexually with an
organism of its kind, yet he clinched that it came to existence by spontaneous generation.

Other persons such as Marcus Bloch and Johan Göze exclaimed that “parasites are inborn to their hosts”. V.
L. Brera refuted the remarks of Bloch and Göze by suggesting that parasites could have developed in eggs and these
parasites were able to proliferate in the bodies of their hosts through food ingestion. Brera also added that, parasites
continue flourish in the hosts since the environment are right for them to exist.

Although famous personalities in the field of science tried to disprove the theory such as William Harvey, Anton
van Leeuwenhoek, Jan Swammerdam, Francesco Redi and many others, only Louis Pasteur was successful in putting
the status quo at its end.

ORIGINS OF THE SPECIALTY-PARASITOLOGY

FRANCESCO REDI – father of Parasitology

Although Francesco Redi did an experiment to disprove Spontaneous Generation and failed, he was still
acclaimed with the title ‘Father of Parasitology’ for his investigation. Aside from that he also wrote a paper entitled
‘Osservazioni intorni agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi’ (Comments around living animals found in
living animals). In the paper he mentioned his primary interest in ectoparasites (such as lice), and the tapeworms that
plagued cats and dogs.

NICOLAS ANDRÉ – the first person to illustrate the scolex of Taenia saginata (human tape worm).
- He also associated the presence of parasites in the human body with venereal diseases (sexually
transmitted diseases) but he himself doubted the relationship between the two.
- he also enumerated factors that would determine the propensity of an individual to harbor parasites.
According to him, the factors include bad air and food that contains ‘seeds’ of worms, and overindulgence of food.
- He also wrote ‘De la generation des vers dans le corps l’homme’ (generation of the worms in the
human body).

PIERRE PALLAS – an important figure in 18th century parasitology also wrote a zoological text entitled ‘Miscellanea
Zoologica’ that concentrated on bladder worms.

JOHAN GÖZE – an amateur naturalist published ‘Versuch einer Naturg eschichte der Eingeweidewürmer tierischer
Körper’ (Trying a nature history of the intestinal worms of animal bodies) in 1787. He also incuded his discovery of the
scolex of Echniococcus spp.

MARCUS BLOCH - wrote an award-winning essay that caught the attention of the scientific community about the hook
lets on the head of the tapeworm. His essay was entitled ‘Abhandlung von der Erzeugung der Eingewiedewürmur’
(treatise on the production of intestinal worms).

19TH CENTURY DEVELOPMENT IN PARASITOLOGY

V.L. BRERA – had access to Göze’s helminth collection. Upon seeing it, he scorned the idea of having worms in the
human body as beneficial contributory factor to good health.

CARL RUDOLPHI – The use of microscopy in the histological study allowed him to publish a two-volume compendium
that increased the list of all known parasites. The works are entitled ‘Entozoorum sive Vermium intestinalium historia
naturalis’ and ‘Entozoorum synopsis ciu accedunt mantissa duplex et indices locupletissima’.

FELIX DUJARDIN – He was the first person to appreciate the ‘pass’ part of the life cycles of both trematodes and
cestodes in an intermediate host; and, that ‘bladder worms’ are part of the life cycle of the tapeworms. He also coined
the term ‘proglottis’ and he wrote ‘Histoire naturelle des helminthes ou vers intestinaux’ as one of his parasitological
text.

CASIMIR DAVAINE – A French parasitologist is responsible for the introduction of fecal examination as a method of
diagnosing intestinal helminthiases.
- He also provided a conclusive evidence that the eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides remained
infective for long periods of time in a damp water.
- his published work entitled ‘Traite des entozoaires et des maladies vermineuses de l’homme
et des animaux domestiques in 1860 contained brief records of various parasitic species with excellent illustrated
descriptions.

EARLY ENGLISH TEXTS ON PARASITOLOGY

19TH CENTURY
No English texts can be found for Parasitology. Majority of the Scientific Literature came from Europe.

One of the earliest texts for parasitology were from the relevant passages of Matthew Baillie’s ‘Morbid Anatomy
of some important parts of Human Body’. In that text, he mentioned that tapeworm infections were uncommon in Britain.

1840’s – George Busk FRS translated selected continental works about helmintology to the English Language which
was then issued by the Ray Society. The same society also published the work of a Danish Naturalist Johannes
Steenstrup. His work was about the complete life cycle of a single species of liver fluke that illustrated his hypothesis
of the alternation of generations.

1857 – a two-volume work which contained the translations of ‘Manual of Animal and Vegetable Parasites’ and ‘Tape
and cystic worms’ were published by the Sydenham Society.

THOMAS SPENCER COBOLO - Thomas Spencer Cobold was a son of a Suffolk clergyman. He served an
apprenticeship with a Norwich Surgeon named J. G. Croose. After he took a post graduate study in Paris, he returned
to the anatomy department of John Goodsir at Edinburgh where he studied comparative anatomy and observed many
animal parasites such as ‘Fasciola gigantica’ in giraffes. He then published ‘Entozoa, an Introduction to the study of
Helminthology’. The published work contained a detailed account of all known parasites that affected ‘Homo sapiens’.

He also presented his discovery of the development of an embryo ‘Filariae’ in the bofy of a mosquito on behalf of Patrick
Manson at the Linnean Society. In 1879, he also wrote ‘Parasites: A treatise on the Entozoa of Man and Animals’ which
includes some account of the Ectozoa.

The Discipline Established

- Before the dawn of the 19th century, this field was just a component of zoology. However, the published works that
came from the European land greatly helped in creating this new branch of Science. Today, majority of the advances in
this study originated from tropical countries.

- In 1898, the earliest journal that was devoted to parasitology known as ‘Archives de Parasiologie’ was founded.

- New fields of study related to Parasitology (such as Protozoology and Helminthology) sprang up as separate
departments in London School of Tropical Medicine in 1905.
- Joseph Leidy, a paleontologist discovered ‘Trichinella spiralis’ in pork and was hailed as founder of the American
Parasitology.

- The Helmintology Society of Washington was founded in 1910. Later, the said organization became the nucleus for
the American Society of Parasitologists in 1925 with H. B. Ward as its first President which in turn founded the Journal
of Parasitology in 1904.

Although Parasitology had its origins in the zoological sciences, it is today an established interdisciplinary field,
greatly influenced by Microbiology, Immunology, Biochemistry, and other life sciences. Generally, Parasitology and
the other life sciences work hand in hand to:
 identify parasitic microorganisms and inform the public about how these organisms harm and create havoc in
the human body.
 provide practical solutions to public health conditions caused by different microorganisms.
 enable the public to be informed about the right information and dismiss false beliefs and superstitions.
Lesson 3 – Microscopy
One major event that could make that possible is if the most important tool in the field of science, the microscope
would never have been invented.

PARTS OF THE COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

STRUCTURAL PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE

1. Head – This is also known as the body; it carries the optical parts in the upper part of the microscope.

2. Base – It acts as microscopes support. It also carriers the microscopic illuminators.

3. Arms – This is the part connecting the base and to the head and the eyepiece tube to the base of the microscope. It
gives support to the head of the microscope and it also used when carrying the microscope. Some high-quality
microscopes have an articulated arm with more than one joint allowing more movement of the microscopic head for
better viewing.

OPTICAL PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE

1. Eyepiece – also known as the ocular lens. This is the part used to look through the microscope. It is found at the top
of the microscope. Its standard magnification is 10x with an optional eyepiece having magnifications from 5X – 30X.

2. Eyepiece tube – it is the eyepiece holder. It carries the eyepiece just above the objective lens. In some microscopes
such as the binoculars, the eyepiece tube is flexible and can be rotated for maximum visualization, for variance in
distance. For monocular microscopes, they are nonflexible.

3.Objective lenses – These are the major lenses used for specimen visualization. They have a magnification power of
40x-100X. There are about 1- 4 objective lenses placed on one microscope, in that some are rare facing and others
face forward. Each lens has its own magnification power.

4. Nose piece – also known as the revolving turret. It holds the objective lenses. It is movable hence it can rotate the
objective lenses depending on the magnification power of the lens.

5. The Adjustment knobs – These are knobs that are used to focus the microscope. There are two types of adjustment
knobs (fine adjustment knobs and the coarse adjustment knobs).

6. Stage – This is the section on which the specimen is placed for viewing. They have stage clips to hold the specimen
slide in place. The most common stage is a mechanical stage, which allows the control of the slides by moving the slides
using the mechanical knobs on the stage instead of moving it manually.

7. Aperture – This is a hole on the microscope stage, through which the transmitted light from the source reaches the
stage.

8. Microscopic illuminator – This is the microscopes light source, located at the base. It is used instead of a mirror. It
captures light from an external source of a low voltage of about 100v.

9. Condenser – These are lenses that are used to collect and focus light from the illuminator into the specimen. They
are found under the stage next to the diaphragm of the microscope. They play a major role in ensuring clear sharp
images are produced with a high magnification of 400X and above. The higher the magnification of the condenser, the
more the image clarity. More sophisticated microscopes come with an Abbe condenser that has a high magnification of
about 1000X.

10. Diaphragm – it is also known as the iris. It is found under the stage of the microscope and its primary role is to
control the amount of light that reaches the specimen. It is an adjustable apparatus, hence controlling the light intensity
and the size of the beam of light that gets to the specimen. For high-quality microscopes, the diaphragm comes attached
with an Abbe condenser and combined they can control the light focus and light intensity that reaches the specimen.

11. Condenser focus knob – this is a knob that moves the condenser up or down thus controlling the focus of light on
the specimen.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF THE MICROSCOPE

BRIGHTFIELD
Distinguishing features
Uses visible light as a source of illumination:
cannot resolve structures smaller than about
0.2 µm; specimen appears against a bright
background. Inexpensive and easy to use.
Principal Uses
To observe various stained specimens and to
count microbes; does not resolve very small
specimens, such as viruses.

Image from produced brightfield microscope. The specimen is against a bright background of
microscopic field.

DARKFIELD
Distinguishing features
Uses a special condenser with an opaque
disk that blocks light from entering the
objective lens directly; light reflected by
specimen enters the objective lens, and the
specimen appears light against a black
background.
Principal Uses
To examine living microorganisms that are
invisible in brightfield microscopy, do not stain
easily or are distorted by staining; frequently
used to detect Treponema pallidum in the
diagnosis of syphilis.

Unlike the brightfield, the image of the specimen is against a dark background

PHASE-CONTRAST
Distinguishing features Principal Uses
Uses a special condenser containing an To facilitate detailed examination of the internal
annular (ring-shaped) diaphragm. The structures of living specimens.
diaphragm allows direct light to pass through
the condenser, focusing light on the specimen
and a diffraction plate in the objective lens.
Direct and reflected or diffracted light rays are
brought together to produce the image. No
staining required.
 Image produced from a phase-contrast microscope. Note the visibility of internal structures of the
specimen without the help of stain.

DIFFERENTIAL INTERFERENCE CONTRAST

Distinguishing features Principal Uses
Like phase-contrast, uses differences in To provide three-dimensional images.
refractive indexes to produce images. Uses two
beams of light separated by prisms; the
specimen appears colored as a result of the
prism effect. No staining required.

The colored image of the specimen as the result of prism effect.

FLUORESCENCE
Distinguishing features Principal Uses
Uses an ultraviolet or near-ultraviolet source of For fluorescent-antibody techniques
illumination that causes fluorescent compounds (immunofluorescence) to rapidly detect and
in a specimen to emit light. identify microbes in tissues or clinical
specimens.

T. pallidum emits light under the fluorescent microscope

TWO-PHOTON
Distinguishing features Principal Uses
Uses two photons to illuminate a specimen To image living cells up to depth of 1 mm,
reduce phototoxicity, and observe cell activity
in real time

Alive Paramecium illuminated using two photons

SCANNING ACOUSTIC
Distinguishing features
Uses a sound wave of specific frequency that
travels through the specimen with a portion
being reflected when it hits an interface within
the material.
Principal Uses
To examine living cells attached to another
surface. Such as cancer cells, artery plaque
and biofilms.
 Biofilm as projected from a scanning acoustic microscope

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM)

Distinguishing features Principal Uses
Uses a beam of electrons instead of light; To examine viruses or the internal structure in
electrons pass through the specimen; thin sections of cells (usually magnified 10,000
because of the sorter wavelength of electrons, – 10,000,000 x
structures, smaller than 0.2 µm can be resolved.
The image produced is two-dimensional.

Paramecium under TEM

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM)

Distinguishing features Principal Uses
Uses a beam of electrons instead of light; To study the surface features of cells and
electrons are reflected from the specimen; viruses (usually magnified 1000-500,00x).
because of the shorter wavelength of electrons,
structures smaller than 0.2 µm can be resolved.
The image produced appears three-dimensional.

Paramecium under SEM

ATOMIC FORCE
Distinguishing features Principal Uses
Uses a metal-and-diamond probe that is gently Provides three-dimensional images of
forced down along the surface of the specimen. biological specimens at high resolution in
Produces a three-dimensional image. No special nearly atomic detail and can measure physical
preparation required properties of biological specimens and
molecular processes.

Image projected from atomic force

MODULE 2 – MICROORGANISMS AND OTHER PARASITIC EUKARYOTES

Lesson 1 – Bacteria
Scientists were puzzled as to how they would classify the bacteria. Even the taxonomic system that was created
to classify these microorganisms have failed. However, the effort to organize these microbes persisted in the form of
Bergey’s Manual. This material is solely focused on classifying the said organisms according to morphology, staining
reactions, and presence of endospores. Even though the material brought practical uses, it also has its limitations as
well.

Prokaryotes are classified into three domains. These domains include Bacteria (Gram +), Bacteria (Gram -), and
Archaea.

Bacteria (Gram -) Bacteria (Gram +) Archaea

Proteobacteria Fermicutes Crenarchaeota
Cyanobacteria Tenericutes Euryarchaeota
Chlorobi Actinobacteria Nanoarchaeota
Chloroflexi Korarchaeota
Chlamydiae
Planctomycetes
Bacteriodetes
Fusobacteria
Spirochaetes
Deinococcus-Thermus

Generally, prokaryotes can be classified into Archaea, and Bacteria. Even though bacterial organisms
outnumber the human population, only relatively few genera cause disease in humans, animals, plants, or any other
living organism.

In the taxonomic system of classification, there are three domains. These domains include Bacteria, Archaea,
and Eukarya. Generally, Bacteria can be classified into Gram-Negative and Gram-Positive.

GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA
Gram-Negative Bacteria are the type of microorganisms that would appear pink when a staining technique
known as gram staining is employed. These are the bacteria that are difficult to kill and generally resistant to antibiotics.

This entire classification of the gram-negative bacteria is composed of the following phyla:
 Proteobacteria
 Cyanobacteria
 Chlorobi
 Chloroflexi
 Chlamydiae
 Planctomycetes
 Bacteroidetes
 Fusobacteria
 Spirochaetes
 Deinococcus – Thermus

PHYLUM PROTEOBACTERIA
This phylum was thought to have come from a photosynthetic ancestor. However, due to evolution organisms
with different nutrient requirements began to spring up and slowly replaced this characteristic as only a few
microorganisms under this are photosynthetic.

Class Alphaproteobacteria
General Characteristics:
- These organisms can grow even in an environment with low levels of nutrients.
- They have unusual body parts known as prosthecae (also known as stalks or buds).
- They are agriculturally important since they can fix nitrogen
Prosthecase

https://stalkedbacteria.wordpress.com/distinctivefeaturesandbiology/

Common representatives Impact

Pelagibacter Possess an incredibly few numbers of genes

Azospirillum Fixes nitrogen

Acetobacteraceae Converts ethanol to acetic acid

Rickettsia A pathogenic type of bacteria that causes spotted fever

Ehrlicia Lives obligate with white blood cells

Caulobacter Lives in low nutrient environments

Hyphomicrobium Lives in low nutrient environments

Rhizobium Plays an important role in leguminous plants.

Bradyrhizobium Plays an important role in leguminous plants.

Agrobacterium It causes crown gall (roots and stems of a single plant

merge).

Nitrobacter Plays an important role in agriculture as it also fixes the

Nitrosomonas nitrogen in a readily usable form to plants.

Wolbachia It disrupts the reproductive mechanism of an insect.

Class Betaproteobacteria
General Characteristics:
- This class utilizes hydrogen gas, ammonia, and methane for its nutrients.
- Several important pathogenic bacteria are in this class.

Common representatives Impact

Acidithiobacillus It oxidizes reduced forms of sulfur such as hydrogen sulfide and elemental
sulfur into sulfates.

Spirillum These bacteria thrive in a freshwater environment and an aerobic one

Sphaerotilus The bulk presence of these bacteria is a problem in sewage treatment

facilities.

Burkholderia They can degrade 100 different organic molecules and they can also
contaminate and proliferate disinfectants.
 Bordetella B. pertussis is the causative agent of whooping cough.

Neisseria It inhabits in mucus membranes of humans.

Zooglea These bacteria are important for aerobic sewage treatment process as they
form a fluffy and slimy masses for its smooth operation.

Class Gammaproteobacteria
General Characteristics:
- This class is the largest among proteobacteria with diverse physiological types.

Common representatives Impact

Triotrichales T. namibiensis is the largest known bacterium.

Pseudomonadales Aerobic rods or cocci

Legionellates Shares intracellular lifestyle with rickettsia

Vibrionales Can be found in raw or undercooked shellfish

Enterobacteriales Active fermenters of glucose and other carbohydrates

Pasteurellales A common pathogen of domestic animals.

The largest Bacterium, Triotrichales namibiensis. This bacterium ranges from 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm in length. The
largest was reported to be 0.75 mm. That is visible with your naked eye.

Class Deltaproteobacteria
General Characteristics:
- Members of this class are generally predators of other bacteria.

Class Epsilonproteobacteria

Common representatives Impact

Desulfovibrionales They utilize oxidized forms of sulfur such as sulfates or elemental sulfur as
electron acceptors rather than oxygen.

Myxococcales The source of its nutrition is the bacteria that they encounter, enzymatically
lyse, and digest.

General Characteristics:
- Members of this class are slender and either helical or curved.

Common representatives Impact

Campylobacter Microaerophilic vibrios with each cell have one polar flagellum

Helicobacter Microaerophilic curved rods with multiple flagella

PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA
This phylum got its name for its blue-green pigmentation and was once called ‘blue-green algae’ for they
resemble the eukaryotic algae and occupy the same ecological niche.
 Organisms under this phylum should not be called algae for they are bacteria.

PHYLUM CHLOROBI AND CHLOROFLEXI

These phyla are like the first one for they are also photosynthetic, yet they cannot produce oxygen. However,
Phylum Chlorobi (with Chlorobium as its representative genera) are green sulfur bacteria. On the other hand, Phylum
Chloroflexi (with Chloroflexus as its representative genera) are green non-sulfur bacteria.

PHYLUM CHLAMYDIAE
Members of this phylum and does not possess peptidoglycan in their cell walls. An earlier edition of Bergey’s
Manual classified and grouped these bacteria along with rickettssial bacteria for they also grow intracellularly.

Common representatives Impact

Chlamydia Chlamydia trachomatis is the causative agent of blindness (Trachoma) for

persons who reside in less-developed countries; nongonococcal urethritis, and
lymphogranuloma venereum which are both venereal diseases.

Chlamydophila Chlamydophila psittaci is the causative agent of respiratory disease known as

ornithosis.

PHYLUM PLANCTOMYCETES
This is the only phylum in domain Bacteria where the definition of bacteria itself gets blurry. Organisms in this
phylum may have been classified under domain Bacteria, yet there the makeup of their cell walls resemble those of
archaea, and some organelles look a lot like eukaryotic cells.

PHYLUM BACTERIODETES
This phylum includes bacterial microorganisms that are either aerobic or anaerobic. Furthermore, bacterial
organisms under this group are common inhabitants on the human microbiome, especially in the gastrointestinal tract.

Common representatives Impact

1. Bacteroides Inhabitants of the human gastrointestinal tract (approximately 1

billion per gram of feces) and some also live in the gingival crevice
of the gums.

2. Cytophaga This genus is very important as it degrades cellulose and chitin.

PHYLUM FUSOBACTERIA
Bacteria under this phylum are anaerobic. They may be pleomorphic yet; they may also be spindle-shaped (fuso
means spindle).

PHYLUM SPIROCHAETES
This phylum has a morphology that is like a coiled metal spring. The distinctive characteristic of this phylum is
the presence of axial filaments as its method of motility. The rotation of its axial filament allows the bacterium to move
like a corkscrew.
 Common representatives Impact

Treponema Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of Syphilis, a venereal

disease.

Borrelia Bacteria in this genus cause relapsing fever and Lyme disease.

Leptospira The presence of bacteria in this genus in water would cause

Leptospirosis.

PHYLUM DEINOCOCCUS-THERMUS
This phylum is composed of two bacterial species that are widely studied. These are Deinococcus radiodurans
and Thermus aquaticus.

The former is greatly resistant to radiation. Even if it is exposed to a radiation level as high as 15000 Grays
which would be enough to kill a human being, its genetic material which is uniquely arranged is still capable of rapid
repair cause Leptospirosis of radiation damage.

GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIA
The gram-positive bacteria appear dark violet or purple under the microscope when a staining technique is
known as ‘gram staining’ is applied. These bacteria generally possess a thick peptidoglycan layer in their cell walls
which keep the CV-I complex from getting washed off. Furthermore, these types of bacteria are easy to kill with first-line
antibiotics.

Microscopic view of a gram-positive bacteria. Note the purple color due to gram staining

The bacterial domain can also be divided into three groups:

- Low G + C
- High G + C
- Tenericutes

LOW G + C GRAM-POSITIVE (FIRMICUTES)

The group has a low G + C ratio which means both guanine and cytosine in the genetic material are high
compared to adenine and thymine.

Fermicutes are further grouped into Clostridiales, Bacillales, and Lactobacillales. Let’s examine the common
representatives of each group each.

CLOSTRIDIALES
Common representatives Impact
1. Clostridium  tetani are the causative agent of tetanus
 C. botulinum causes food poisoning (also known as botulism)
2. Epulopiscium  It was thought to be a protozoan at first
 This bacterium was large enough to be seen by the unaided
eye.
 It has 25 times as much DNA as a human cell

BACILLALES
Common representatives Impact
1. Bacillus  Only a few are pathogenic to humans
 Some also produce antibiotics
 2. Staphylococcus  This bacterium can inhabit in nasal secretions and can survive
in foods with high osmotic pressure such as cured meats or
even in low moisture foods
LACTOBACILLALES
Common representatives Impact
1. Lactobacillus  Are situated in the vagina, intestinal tract, and oral cavity.
 These bacteria are commercially used to produce sauerkraut,
pickles, buttermilk, and yogurt.
2. Streptococcus  A taxonomically complex genus that is culpable for the
illnesses they cause.
 These bacteria also produce extracellular substances that
contribute to its pathogenicity.
3. Enterococcus  Commonly inhabit the gastrointestinal tract, vagina, and the
oral cavity.
 These bacteria can also be found in large numbers in the
human stool.
4. Listeria  This is a great threat for pregnant women as it endangers the
fetus and causes stillbirth.

HIGH G + C GRAM-POSITIVE (ACTINOBACTERIA)

The group has a high G + C ratio which means both guanine and cytosine in the genetic material are low
compared to adenine and thymine.

Common representatives Impact

1. Mycobacterium This genus is further classified into two groups. Fast and slow-
growing. The former refers to pathogenic microbes that show
colonies in an appropriate media within seven days, while the
latter refers to non-pathogenic bacterial species which does
not produce colonies in an appropriate culture media within
seven days.
2. Corynebacterium The best-known specie of this genus known as
Corynebacterium diphtheriae causes diphtheria.
3. Propionibacterium This genus got its name for its ability to produce propionic acid
which is very important in the fermentation of Swiss cheese.
4. Gardnerella Gardnerella vaginalis is the causative agent of vaginalis.
5. Frankia It Causes nitrogen-fixing nodules to form in alder tree roots.
6. Streptomyces Commercial antibiotics today are made from this genus.
7. Actinomyces Commonly found in the mouth and throat of humans and
animals.
8. Nocardia N. asteroids in the soil causes chronic and difficult-to-treat
pulmonary infection, and mycetoma (a localized destructive
infection of feet or hands).

TENERICUTES
Another classification of this Bacterial domain is Tenericutes. This phylum was once included in Firmicutes for
this phylum possess a low G + C. This phylum encompasses wall-less mycoplasmas.

Furthermore, mycoplasmas are very small with between 0.1 to 0.25 µm and have only 517 genes (with a
minimum of a number between 265 and 350 genes). Since they are very small, at first, they were thought to be viruses.

Several studies of their genetic material reveal that they are genetically related to gram-positive Lactobacillales
but over time (through degenerative evolution), the genetic material disappeared.

A significant pathogen under this phylum, M. pneumoniae is the causative agent of mild pneumonia.

ARCHAEA (EXTERMOPHILES)
These bacteria (also known as extremophiles) are exceptionally interesting for this domain and are highly
diverse. Some organisms under this domain have different morphologies (they can be rods, cocci, and helices). They
can also be gram-negative or gram-positive. Others may reproduce by the conventional binary fission; others can also
utilize fragmentation or budding. Others may or may not have cell walls. To this day, there are no known pathogenic
archaea.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS UNDER THE ACHAEAN DOMAIN:

HALOPHILES – Thrive in environments with greater salt concentration compared to other biomes such as the Great
Salt Lake.
- The optimal temperature for these microorganisms is 80 degrees Celsius or higher
- Present growth temperature of archaea growing near a hydrothermal vent at 2000 meters is 121
degrees Celsius

THERMOPHILES – A type of bacteria that thrives in relatively high temperatures (between 45 to 122 degrees Celsius)

ACIDOPHILES – These microorganisms would thrive optimally to environments with pH levels below zero and
frequently at elevated temperatures.
- Sulfolobus is a great example since its optimal pH level is about 2 and the optimal temperature is more
than 76 degrees Celsius

METANOGENS - produce methane from combining hydrogen with carbon dioxide

- These bacteria. They are important since they are utilized in sewage treatment.
- The human body also harbors these bacteria in the human colon, vagina, and mouth.

Lesson 2 – Viruses, Viroids, and Prions

Viruses are too small to be seen by a typical microscope. These microorganisms are even smaller than bacteria
as it can pass through filters that filter out bacterial organisms.

This single fact about viruses was proven to be true when Dimitri Iwanowski attempted to isolate the causative
agent of Tobacco Mosaic Disease in 1892 by using a porcelain filter that was designed to sieve out bacteria. However,
the culprit of the said illness was able to pass through the pores of the filter and find its way to healthy plants as the
water was used to sprinkled the plants.

Advances in the field of Microbiology and Parasitology brought by the development of the electron microscope,
led to the discovery of more viruses including the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and so much more. The World Health
Organization’s list of top 10 emerging pathogens are viruses and these emergent agents have greater possibilities of
causing outbreaks on a global scale. The up-and –coming culprits include hepatitis A, B, and C viruses, human
coronaviruses, chikungunya virus, zika virus, and thrombocytopenia syndrome virus.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES

Scientists have never expected that other infectious agents are smaller compared to other bacteria. These
infectious agents were first described as contagium vivum fluidum (a contagious fluid).

1930s - scientists began using the word ‘virus’ (which means poison).
- Wendell Stanley isolated the causative agent of Tobacco Mosaic Disease in 1935.

VIRUS
 Viruses can be described as exceptionally obligate intracellular parasites.
 Viruses are just inert outside their living host cells.
 Contain a single type of genetic material, either DNA or RNA.
  Contain a protein coat (sometimes the virus will be enclosed by an envelope of lipids, proteins, and
carbohydrates) that surrounds the nucleic acid.
 Multiply inside living cells by using the synthesizing machinery of the cell.
 Cause the synthesis of specialized structures that can transfer the viral nucleic acid to other cells.

Viruses are just inert outside their living host cells?

This means that no biological processes are going on with the virus outside a living organism. However, if
viruses manage to get inside the living host (say for example airborne viruses got inhaled by a healthy person), the
viruses will hijack the host’s metabolic machinery to reproduce copies of themselves which would cause infection.
Therefore, viruses can only survive if it is inside the host cell.

VIRUS STRUCTURE

Nucleic Acid

Capsid

Envelope

NUCLEIC ACID
 Viral genes are encoded by either DNA or RNA (not both).
 The genome of the virus can be single-stranded or double-stranded (single or double-stranded DNA; single or
double-stranded RNA).
 The nucleic acid can either be helical or linear. Some viruses in the case of the Influenza Virus, the nucleic acids
are in several segment.

CAPSID
 The capsid is a protein coat that protects the nucleic acid of the virus. This structure accounts for the mass of the
virus itself.
 composed of protein subunits known as capsomeres. These protein subunits can be uniformly made up of a single
type of protein, yet several types of protein can also be present.

ENVELOPE
 other viruses also have an envelope. The envelope which is composed of a combination of lipids, proteins, and
carbohydrates, encapsulates the capsid.

One distinguishing feature of a virus is the presence of spikes on the surface of the envelope which can also
be used as an identifying feature of a virus.

GENERAL MORPHOLOGY
Viruses are classified according to their capsid architecture:
Helical Viruses
 They resemble long rods and maybe rigid and flexible
 The nucleic acid is inside a hollow capsid with a helical form
 Examples of this virus are Rabies and Ebola

Polyhedral Viruses
 The majority are animals, plants, and bacterial viruses
 The capsid is in the shape of an icosahedron (regular polygon with 20 triangular faces and 12
corners)
 The capsomere of every face forms an equilateral triangle
 Examples of this virus are adenovirus and poliovirus

Enveloped Viruses
 They are roughly spherical
 When helical viruses are enveloped, they are called enveloped helical virus (influenza virus)
 When polyhedral viruses are enveloped, they are called enveloped polyhedral virus or
icosahedral virus (human herpesvirus)

Complex Viruses
 Possess complicated structures
 Examples include bacteriophages and poxviruses

TAXONOMY OF VIRUSES
There are different types of viruses:

Class Characteristics Viral Family Important Genera Clinical/ Special Features

I DOUBLE- Adenoviridae Mastadenovirus Medium-sized viruses that cause

STRANDED DNA various respiratory infections in
Nonenveloped humans; some cause tumors in
animals.
Papovaviridae Papillomavirus Small viruses that cause warts and
(human wart virus) cervical and anal cancer in humans.
Polyomavirus

Enveloped Poxviridae Orthopoxvirus Very large, complex, brick-shaped

(vaccinia and viruses that cause smallpox
smallpox viruses) (variola), molluscum contagiosum
Molluscipoxvirus (wartlike skin lesion), and cowpox.

Herpesviridae Simplexvirus (HHV-1 Medium-sized viruses that cause

and -2) various human diseases: fever
Varicellovirus (HHV- blisters, chickenpox, shingles, and
3) Lymphocryptovirus infectious mononucleosis; cause a
(HHV-4) type of human cancer called
Cytomegalovirus Burkitt’s lymphoma.
(HHV-5)
Roseolovirus (HHV-6
and HHV-7)
Rhadinovirus (HHV-8)

II SINGLE- Parvoviridae Human parvovirus Fifth disease; anemia in

STRANDED DNA B19 immunocompromised patients.
Nonenveloped

Class Characteristics Viral Family Important Genera Clinical/ Special Features

III DOUBLE- Reoviridae Reovirus Generally mild respiratory infections

STRANDED RNA Rotavirus transmitted by arthropods; Colorado
Nonenveloped tick fever is the best-known.
 IV SINGLE- Picornaviridae Enterovirus Includes the polio-, coxsackie-, and
STRANDED RNA, Rhinovirus echoviruses; hand-foot-mouth virus;
+STRAND (common cold virus) more than 100 rhinoviruses exist
Nonenveloped Hepatitis A virus and are the most common cause of
colds.

Caliciviridae Hepatitis E virus Includes causes of gastroenteritis

Norovirus and hepatitis E.

Enveloped Togaviridae Alphavirus Includes many viruses transmitted

Rubivirus (rubella by arthropods (Alphavirus);
virus) diseases include eastern equine
encephalitis (EEE), western equine
encephalitis (WEE), and
chikungunya.
Rubella virus is transmitted by the
respiratory route.

Flaviviridae Flavivirus Can replicate in arthropods that

Pestivirus transmit them; diseases include
Hepatitis C virus yellow fever, dengue, Zika, and
West Nile encephalitis.

Coronaviridae Coronavirus Associated with upper respiratory

tract infections and the common
cold; SARS virus, MERS-CoV.

V SINGLE- Rhabdoviridae Vesiculovirus Bullet-shaped viruses with a spiked

STRANDED RNA, (vesicular stomatitis envelope; cause rabies and
-STRAND virus) numerous animal diseases.
One strand of Lyssavirus (rabies
RNA, virus)
Enveloped

Class Characteristics Viral Family Important Genera Clinical/ Special Features

Filoviridae Filovirus Enveloped, helical viruses; Ebola

and Marburg viruses are filoviruses.

Paramyxoviridae Paramyxovirus Paramyxoviruses cause

Morbillivirus parainfluenza,
(measles virus)
mumps, and Newcastle disease in
chickens.

Virusoid or Deltaviridae Hepatitis D Depends on coinfection with

Satellite RNA hepadnavirus.

Multiple Strands Orthomyxoviridae Influenza virus A, B, Envelope spikes can agglutinate red
of and C blood cells.
RNA,Enveloped
Bunyaviridae Bunyavirus (California Hantaviruses cause hemorrhagic
encephalitis virus) fevers such as Korean hemorrhagic
Hantavirus fever and Hantavirus pulmonary
syndrome; associated with rodents.

Arenaviridae Arenavirus Helical capsids contain RNA-

containing granules; cause
lymphocytic choriomeningitis,
Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever, and
Lassa fever.
 VI SINGLE- Retroviridae Oncoviruses Includes all RNA tumor viruses.
STRANDED RNA, Lentivirus (HIV) Oncoviruses cause leukemia and
PRODUCE DNA tumors in animals;
Enveloped Lentivirus causes AIDS.

VII DOUBLE- Hepadnaviridae Hepadnavirus After protein synthesis, hepatitis B

STRANDED DNA, (hepatitis B virus) virus uses reverse transcriptase to
USE REVERSE produce its DNA from mRNA;
TRANSCRIPTASE causes hepatitis B and liver tumors.
ENVELOPED

VIRAL MULTIPLICATION
MULTIPLICATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES
There are different means for a virus to enter and exit a host cell. However, the basic mechanism for viral
multiplication for all viruses is quite similar. Since bacteriophage, a type of virus that infects a bacterium has been studied
extensively, it would provide us a great insight as to how viruses utilize the two alternative mechanisms, the lytic and
lysogenic cycle to multiply.

THE LYTIC CYCLE

This mechanism is composed of five distinct stages. The clear distinction of this cycle from the other
alternative is that at the end of this mechanism, the host cell would breakdown.

1. Attachment
For this stage to happen, phage particles need to collide with the bacterium. When a collision happens between the two,
a chemical interaction between the phage’s attachment site (which is known as tail fibers) and the bacterium’s receptor
site must happen.

2. Penetration
Once the phage’s attachment site and the bacterium’s receptor site interact chemically, the phage will then inject its
genetic material into the bacterium. To make this possible, the phage will release an enzyme that will digest a portion
of the bacterium’s cell wall (this enzyme is known as phage lysozyme).
 3. Biosynthesis
Once the phage’s genetic material would reach the host’s cytoplasm, the cellular processes of the host will come to a
halt due to the virally induced degradation of the host DNA. At this point, the viral proteins would now interfere with the
transcription or the repression of translation. All resources of the host’s cell would now be utilized to create other copies
of the phage.Several minutes after infection, only separate components of the virus can be detected in the host cell.
The period of complete viral multiplication and infective virions still do not appear is known as the eclipse period.

4. Maturation
At this stage, the viral components would be assembled into complete virions

5. Release
Once the viral components have been assembled, an enzyme known as Lysozyme will be synthesized by the phage
gene. This same enzyme would cause the bacterium’s cell wall to breakdown. As a result, newly produced phages
would be released from the host cell. The new phages will also infect other susceptible cells within the vicinity and the
cycle is repeated within those cells.

THE LYSOGENIC CYCLE

Some viruses would not cause lysis of the host cell (these viruses are known as lysogen or temperate phages).
Unlike T-even bacteriophages which utilize the lytic cycle, Lambda Bacteriophage does the contrary and would be a
good example under this mechanism.

Instead of directly proceeding to the biosynthesis stage, the phage’s genetic material has the option to recombine, and
become part of the bacterial DNA. In this case, the phage’s inserted genetic material becomes a prophage.

This happens because the prophage genes are repressed by two repressor proteins (that are also products of
phage genes). These repressor proteins bind to the operators to prevent the genes from getting transcribed. Every time
that the bacterial DNA gets duplicated, the prophage DNA gets replicated as well, and the prophage remains latent
within the progeny cells.

However, if certain conditions and events are met, such as the action of UV light or exposure to certain
chemicals, popping out of the phage DNA would occur which would then lead to the initiation of the lytic cycle.

THE THREE IMPORTANT THINGS TO REMEMBER LYSOGENIC MECHANISM:

1. Lysogenic cells are immune to reinfection of the same phage. However, the host cell is not immune to
infection caused by other phage types.
 2. Lysogeny would often result in phage conversion. Thus, the host cell can exhibit new properties since the
phage’s genetic material recombined with the host’s genetic material.

3. When popping out of a phage’s genetic material would occur, it is possible that a fragment of the host cell
would also be picked up and be transferred to another bacterium in a process known as specialized
transduction. This would further result in a manifestation of new properties.

Manifestation of new properties due to lysogenic mechanism:

VIROIDS
Some plant diseases are not caused by plant viruses, but by a viroid. A viroid is a short piece of RNA with 300
to 400 nucleotides and has no protein coat. This naked RNA is internally paired. Thus, it has a closed, folded, three-
dimensional structure. This unique feature gives itself a sort of protection as it is protected by the destruction of cellular
enzymes. On the other hand, if a viroid is enclosed with a protein coat, it is known as a virusoid.

So, without the capsid and the envelope, how this viroid is transmitted?
Viroid is transmitted by cross-contamination because of mechanical damage to plants as a result of horticultural
or agricultural practices. While some are transmitted by aphids and they can also be transferred from plant to plant by
leaf contact.

When the viroid or virusoid gets into the plant’s nucleus or chloroplast, the host’s cellular machinery would copy
these naked RNAs which could lead to plant deformities. Some viroids and virusoids can also act as a ribozyme to cut
continuous RNA is spliced to help themselves replicate. Whatever type of replicative process, the result is the same.
Both would eventually cause damage to the plant by gene splicing which would further damage the plant’s cosmetic or
death.

PRIONS
Prions (proteinaceous infectious particles) are infectious proteins that were discovered by an American
neurobiologist in 1982 named Stanley Prusiner. He proposed that an infectious protein must have been the culprit for
a neurological disorder (known as scrapie) in a sheep. The infectivity of the scrapie-infected brain was reduced by
treating it with proteases and not radiation.

To this day, the Centers for Disease and Control have listed the following human diseases to fall under
this category. The diseases are:
 Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)
 Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)
 Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Syndrome
 Fatal Familial Insomnia
 Kuru

Furthermore, CDC recognizes the following animal diseases under this same category which are:
 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
 Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD)
 Scrapie
 Transmissible mink encephalopathy
 Feline spongiform encephalopathy
 Ungulate spongiform encephalopathy

It should be noted that the human diseases caused by prions possibly indicate a genetic cause. However, the
most alarming thing is animal diseases since eating infected meat especially undercooked meat can transfer the
infectious proteins and cause the same disease of the infected animal.

When an infectious protein gets inside the host, a normal host glycoprotein known as 𝑃𝑟𝑝𝐶 , would be converted
𝑆𝑐
to 𝑃𝑟𝑝 . The normal glycoprotein is responsible for preventing cell death. Once the converted protein gets accumulated
in the brain, these plaques would be useful in post-mortem diagnosis but not the cause of the cell damage.

Lesson 3 – Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular and eukaryotic organisms that inhabit water and soil. Its feeding and the growth stage
known as trophozoites, feed upon bacteria, and small particulate nutrients. There are roughly 20,000 species of
protozoa. Out of that number, only a few cause diseases in humans, yet the ailments from these microorganisms’ have
significant and economic impacts such as Malaria which continue to be the fourth leading cause of death in African
children.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTOZOANS

- The term ‘protozoa’ denotes the first animals. However, protozoa are very different from animals. First, some protozoan
organisms are photosynthetic
- Second, these organisms have complex life cycles that allow them to be from one host and then transfer to another
host
(For these two main reasons, the term protozoa are accurately understood as ‘animal-like nutrition’)

LIFECYCLE OF PROTOZOANS
This type of organism can reproduce asexually by the means of fission or budding. However, there is another
way for these organisms to reproduce. Through Schizogony, a nucleus will undergo multiple divisions. When the nuclei
are formed, a small portion of cytoplasm would concentrate around each nucleus, then all would separate into individual
daughter cells.

Aside from reproducing asexually, some protozoan organisms such as the Paramecium is capable of reproducing
sexually via conjugation, while others are also capable of producing gametes.

Reproduction by Fission
SURVIVAL MECHANISMS OF PROTOZOANS
A. ENCYSTMENT
If conditions are not right for life to exist, these organisms can produce a cyst. This structure is a protective
capsule that permits protozoans to survive outside its host especially when food, moisture, oxygen level, and
temperatures are not suitable or when noxious chemicals are also present.

B. NUTRITION
 Protozoans are mostly aerobic heterotrophs. However, intestinal protozoans are also capable of anaerobic
growth.
 All protozoans inhabit areas with enough supply of water. Some are capable of food transport, while others
possess a protective covering or a pellicle.
 Even though protozoans have different ways of getting nutrition inside their cells, their digestion takes place in
vacuoles, and wastes are eliminated through the anal pore.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT PROTOZOANS

EXAMPLES OF EUKARYOTIC PROTOZOA:

WITH FEEDING GROOVES

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Most are spindle-shaped and flagellated.
 This super kingdom includes two phyla with no mitochondria and phylum Euglenozoa.
COMMON REPRESENTATIVES DESCRIPTIONS
1. Giardia intestinalis Found in the small intestine of humans and other animals.
Excreted in the feces as a cyst.
Can survive outside the host.
2. Trichomonas vaginalis Can be found both in the vagina and the male urinary tract.
Can be transmitted by sexual intercourse but can also be from
toilet facilities and towels.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Disk-shaped mitochondria
 Devoid of sexual reproduction
COMMON REPRESENTATIVES
1. Euglenoids
2. Hemoflagellates
EUGLENOZOA
DESCRIPTIONS
Are photoautotrophs and with a pellicle.
Some are also chemoautotrophs.
They can move because of a flagellum at the anterior end.
Are blood parasites.
They are transmitted by bites of insects and can be found in the
circulatory system of an infected host.

AMOEBAE
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Moves by using projections of the cytoplasm known as pseudopods
COMMON REPRESENTATIVES DESCRIPTIONS
1. E. histolytica The only pathogenic ameba in the human intestine which causes
amebic dysentery.
Uses lectins to attach to the galactose of the plasma membrane
and causes cell lysis.
 2. E. dispar A common non-pathogenic ameba.
Does not possess lectins.
3. Acanthamoeba Can infect the cornea.
Can cause blindness.

4. Balamuthia The causative agent of granulomatous amebic encephalitis (brain

abscesses).
Often affects immunocompromised persons.
A free-living organism found in water.
Is not transmitted from human to human.

APICOMPLEXA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 These organisms are not motile in their mature forms and are obligate parasites.
 The organelles in that respective location contain enzymes that can penetrate the tissues of the
hosts.
COMMON REPRESENTATIVES DESCRIPTIONS
1. Plasmodium vivax The causative agent of malaria.
2. Babesia microti The causative agent of fever and anemia in immunocompromised
individuals.
3. Toxoplasma gondii A parasite that involves cats is also dangerous to pregnant women
as it causes congenital infections.
4. Cyclospora cayetanensis A newly identified apicomplexan parasite is responsible for 600
cases of diarrhea in both the United States and Canada.

CILIATES
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 These organisms possess cilia which are arranged in precise rows over the surface of the cell.
 These cellular structures are very amazing since a unison movement allows an organism o bring
food particles to its mouth.
COMMON REPRESENTATIVES DESCRIPTIONS
1. Balantidium coli The causative agent of severe, and rare dysentery.

SLIME MOLDS
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
 These organisms are closely related to amebae and are placed in the phylum Amoebozoa.
COMMON REPRESENTATIVES DESCRIPTIONS
1. Cellular Slime Molds Eukaryotic organisms resemble amebae.
These organisms live and grow by ingesting fungi and
bacteria using phagocytosis.
Scientists continue to interest Biologists since unfavorable
conditions allow this taxon to aggregate and form a single
structure
2. Plasmodial Slime Molds This plasmodium (mass of protoplasm) moves like a giant
ameba, and it engulfs organic debris and even bacteria
Muscle like proteins that form microfilaments account for its
movement
When this taxon is grown under a laboratory setting,
cytoplasmic streaming.
Lesson 4 – Fungi
There are approximately 100,000 species of fungi. Out of this vast number, only a few are pathogenic to both
humans and animals.

Over the past decade, however, the infections caused by fungal organisms have been increasing. Most of these
infections are from those individuals with compromised immune systems and the causative agents are those fungi
commonly found in the normal flora in the human body.

Aside from afflicting humans, fungal infections have also wreaked havoc to economically important plants with
an estimated cost of more than Php. 49.1 billion annually.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
In identifying bacteria and yeasts, special biochemical tests are conducted. However, if we will be identifying
fungi, we can forget the technicality of the biochemical tests for fungi that are identified based on their respective
appearance that includes colony characteristics and reproductive spores.

Below are the general characteristics of fungi:

1. Fungi are eukaryotic organisms; their cells contain membrane-bounded organelles such as nuclei and
mitochondria.
2. Fungi, which vary strikingly in size and shape.
3. Fungal cells are enclosed by cell walls composed in part of chitin.
4. Fungi lack chlorophyll and chloroplasts and therefore non-photosynthetic. Hence, they are heterotrophs.
5. Some fungi obtain nutrition from dead organic matter (decomposers). Also, some fungi obtain nutrients from
living organisms (parasites).

NUTRITIONAL ADAPTATIONS
1. Fungi commonly grow in environments that are considered to be acidic for common bacteria. Fungi optimally thrive
in places with a pH level of 5. Aside from that, fungi can also thrive on substances with minimal moisture content that
would be too low to support bacterial growth.
2. Generally, most molds and yeasts are aerobic and facultative anaerobes respectively.
3. Most fungi can grow in relatively high sugar or salt concentrations since they can tolerate osmotic pressure than
bacterial microorganisms.
4. Fungi require lesser nitrogen than bacteria for growth.
5. Fungi are capable of metabolizing complex carbohydrates, such as lignin (a component of wood), then that of most
bacteria.

STRUCTURES
Most fungi have a filamentous body plan. The body structures of fungi range from unicellular yeasts to
multicellular, filamentous molds.

YEASTS
 They are unicellular.
 They reproduce asexually by budding (where a small bud starts to grow until it eventually separates from the
parent cell) or by fission (where one cell completely divides into two cells).
 They can also reproduce sexually via spore formation

MOLDS
 The body (or the thallus) of a mold or fungi comprised of a long-branched thread (or filament) of cells called
hyphae.
 The hyphae then form a tangled mass or tissue-like aggregation known as mycelium.
 The hyphae can be coenocytic (which means they are not divided into individual cells but would appear as a
giant multinucleated cell). Some hyphae can also be divided by cross walls called septa into individual cells that
each contain one or more nuclei.
 They can reproduce sexually and asexually by the formation of spores.

FISSION YEAST
 They divide evenly to produce two new cells.
 They are capable of facultative anaerobic growth.
 However, if given access to oxygen, they can perform aerobic respiration.
LIFE CYCLE OF FUNGI
1. ASEXUAL SPORES
It is produced by an individual fungus through mitosis and subsequent cell division. There is no fusion of the
nuclei of cells. There are two types of asexual spores:
 Conidiospore or condium
o It can either be a unicellular or multicellular spore that is not enclosed in a sac.
o Conidia (spores produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus)
o Arthoconida (spores produced by C. immitis)
o Blastoconidia (spores produced by C. albicans and Cryptococcus)
o Chlamydoconidium (spores produced by C. albicans)
 Sporangiospore
o It is formed within a sporangium or sac at the end of an aerial hypha called a sporangiopore
(produced by Rhizopus).

2. SEXUAL SPORES
This fungal sexual spore results from sexual reproduction and is composed of three distinct phases:

 Plasmogamy - A haploid nucleus of a donor cell (+) penetrates the cytoplasm of a recipient cell (-).
 Karyogamy - The (+) and (-) nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus.
 Meiosis - The diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei (sexual spores), some of which may be genetic
recombinants.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF FUNGI

Fungi have been used even before the advent of the current technological advancement of microbiology and
parasitology. A great example would be the utilization of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used to make bread and wine;
and, the use of Aspergillus niger to produce citric acid for foods and beverages in 1914, and genetically modifying it to
produce a variety of proteins and a hepatitis B vaccine.

Other beneficial effects of fungi:

1. Trichoderma was also used to commercially produce an enzyme known as cellulase to remove plant cell walls
to produce a clear fruit juice.
2. Taxomyces not only saved lives from cancer but it also saved yew forests of the United States from being
decimated as it has become an alternative source for taxol.
3. Entomophaga was used to kill gypsy moths that were destroying trees in the eastern part of the US.
4. Coniothyrium minitans feed on fungi that destroy soybeans and other bean crops.
5. Paecilomyces fumosoroseus has been used as a biological alternative to chemicals to kill termites hiding inside
tree trunks and other hard-to-reach places.

In contrast to the enumerated beneficial effects of fungi, some undesirable effects also happen. Since fungi have better
nutritional adaptations than bacteria; fruits, grains, and vegetable spoilage due to molds are more common than bacterial
spoilage of the said products.

FUNGAL DISEASES
Any fungal infection is called a mycosis (plural mycoses). Mycoses are generally chronic (or long-lasting)
since fungi grow slowly. Below are the different categories of fungal infections.

A. Systemic mycoses - are fungal infections deep within the body that affect many tissues and organs.
B. Subcutaneous mycoses - are fungal infections beneath the skin.
C. Cutaneous mycoses - affect keratin-containing tissues such as hair, nails, and skin.
D. Superficial mycoses - are localized on hair shafts and superficial skin cells.
 E. Opportunistic mycoses - can infect any tissues. However, they are usually systemic.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FUNGI

The following examples are selected fungi of medical importance.

PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC/S
Are characterized by the production of nonmotile asexual spores and sexual zygospores

IMPORTANT COMMON DESCRIPTION/S

GENERA REPRESENTATIVE/S
Rhizopus R. arrhizus Useful for the production of
Are saprobic (decomposers) lactic acid and cortisone, for
and feed on a variety of dead alcoholic fermentation, and
organic matter. the biosorption (passive
Are commonly used in adsorption of chemical
industrial processes. contaminants by an organism)
In Asia, several species are of heavy metals.
important in some foods and R. stolonifera Used to produce fumaric acid,
many traditional alcoholic lactic acid, and cortisone.
beverages.
R. delemar Produces fumaric acid and
biotin.
Mucor Mucor spp. Causes infections in man,
A filamentous fungus found frogs, amphibians, cattle, and
in soil, plants, decaying swine.
fruits, and vegetables. Most of the Mucor spp. are
As well as being ubiquitous unable to grow at 37°C
and a common laboratory Thermotolerant strains
contaminant isolated from human infections
exist.

PHYLUM MICROSPORIDIA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Are eukaryotic, unicellular organisms that are obligate, spore-forming, intracellular parasites that
invade vertebrates and invertebrates.
Microsporidiosis is primarily found in patients with compromised immune systems, especially
those infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) or have undergone organ transplants.

IMPORTANT GENERA DESCRIPTION/S

Encephalitozoon An important cause of neurologic and renal disease in rabbits,
E. cuniculi can also cause disease in immunocompromised
people.
Nosema It causes nosemosis, also called nosema, which is the most
common and widespread disease of adult honeybee
diseases.

PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC/S
Are characterized by the production of nonmotile asexual conidia and sexual ascospores
Common examples are yeasts, cup fungi, morels, truffles, and pink and green molds

COMMON REPRESENTATIVES DESCRIPTIONS

Aspergillus It is commonly isolated from soil, plant debris, and the indoor
air environment.
It has been reported as causative agents of opportunistic
infections in man.
Claviceps purpurea It is usually isolated with the ears of rye and other grasses.
Chronic consumption of small amounts causes uterine and
vascular contraction, resulting in abortion, arterial occlusion,
 and painful gangrene.
Acute consumption of large amounts can cause headaches,
vertigo, hallucinations, and convulsions; the Salem witches
may have been victims of this.
Blastomyces dermatitidis Blastomyces dermatitidis is the causal agent of
blastomycosis, an invasive and often serious fungal infection
found occasionally in humans and other animals in regions
where the fungus is endemic.
Histoplasm capsulatum Can be found in bird droppings, especially from chickens and
blackbirds.
Is the causative agent of Histoplasmosis, an infection caused
by breathing in spores of a fungus often found in bird and bat
droppings.
Microsporum Is the causative agent of tinea capitis, tinea corporis,
ringworm, and other dermatophytoses (fungal infections of
the skin).
Trichophyton It causes athlete's foot, ringworm, jock itch, and similar
infections of the nail, beard, skin, and scalp.
Epidermophyton It infects skin (tinea corporis, tinea cruris, tinea pedis) and
nails (onychomycosis).
Sporothrix schenckii It can infect humans as well as animals and is the causative
agent of sporotrichosis, commonly known as "rose handler's
disease".
The most common route of infection is the introduction of
spores to the body through a cut or puncture wound in the
skin.
Stachybotrys Is also known as black mold or toxic black mold, which is a
variety of microfungus that produces its conidia in slime
heads.
It is sometimes found in soil and grain, but the mold is most
often detected in cellulose-rich building materials from damp
or water-damaged buildings.
Coccidioides immitis It is a pathogenic fungus that resides in the soil in certain parts
of the southwestern United States, northern Mexico, and a
few other areas in the Western Hemisphere.
It is the causative agent a disease called coccidioidomycosis
(valley fever).
This fungus creates a mass that can mimic a lung tumor.
Candida albicans This fungus is part of our natural microflora — or the
microorganisms that commonly live in or on our bodies.
It can be found in the gastrointestinal tract, the mouth, and the
vagina.
Pneumocystis Is the causative agent of fungal pneumonia.
It is common in immune-compromised individuals.

PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA
GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC/S
Are characterized by the production of sexual basidiospores.
Common examples are mushrooms, puffballs, rusts, and smuts.

COMMON REPRESENTATIVES DESCRIPTIONS

Cryptococcus It is an invasive fungus that causes cryptococcosis an
infection commonly associated with immunosuppressive
individuals while being rare in healthy individuals.
The organism is widely prevalent in certain regions of the
world. However, the most common forms of exposure include
a history of exposure to soil, bird droppings.
Malassezia Amanita spp. It is naturally found on the skin surfaces of many animals,
including humans.
It can cause hypopigmentation or hyperpigmentation on the
trunk and other locations in humans.
Lesson 5 – Helminths
Parasitic organisms are not only limited to members of the microscopic world. Some parasites are in fact
observable can be seen by the naked eye. A number of these parasitic species are animals that spend a part of all of
their lives in the bodies of their host such as human. These parasitic animals belong to the following phylum
Platyhelminthes and Nematoda.

Current figures of Centers for Disease and Control approximate 807 million to 1.2 billion people have been
afflicted with Ascaris, 604-795 million with whipworm, and 576-740 million for hookworms infections.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Generally, helminths are multicellular eukaryotic organisms. These animals possess various life systems such
as digestive, circulatory, nervous, excretory, and reproductive systems. However, parasitic species of helminths are
highly specialized compared to their free-living counterparts.

PARASITIC HELMINTH CHARACTERISTICS:

1. They may lack a digestive system.
The nutrients that they need to live is available from the host’s food, body fluids, and tissues.

2. Their nervous system is reduced.

Since the nutrients and other substances are available from the host, and the environment of the host is fairly
constant, an extensive nervous system is no longer needed.

3. Their means of locomotion is occasionally reduced or completely lacking.

Parasitic helminths do not search habitable places for they are transferred from one host to another.

4. Their reproductive system is often complex.

Parasitic helminths produce large numbers of eggs, by which a suitable host is infected.

LIFE CYCLE

The life cycle of parasitic helminths is quite complex. However, there are few important things to note.
These are:
1. Succession of intermediate hosts is involved to complete each larval stage of the parasite

2. Parasitic helminths can be dioecious (one reproductive organ in one body) or monoecious (two reproductive
organs in one body, or hermaphroditic).
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT PARASITIC HELMINTHS

PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (THE FLATWORMS)

GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC/S
Dorsoventrally flattened
Are causative agents of developmental disturbances in a wide variety of animals

CLASS/ES COMMON DESCRIPTION/S

REPRESENTATIVE/S
Trematodes (Flukes) 1. Clonorchis sinensis Also known as Asian Liver
Flat, leaf-shaped bodies. Fluke.
With a ventral sucker and an Occasionally seen in
oral sucker. immigrants in the United
They obtain food by sucking States.
it through their non-living 2. Paragonimus spp. Occur throughout all parts
outer covering cuticle. of the globe.
Are given names according A particular species of this
to the tissue of the definitive class (known as P.
host in which adults live. kellicotti), can be
associated with eating raw
crayfish on river raft trips.
3. Schistosoma The causative agent of
Schistosomiasis.
This parasitic fluke
borrows through the skin of
the human hosts and
enters the circulatory
system.
The adults are commonly
found in certain abdominal
and pelvic veins.

Cestodes (Tapeworms) 1. Taenia saginata Also known as the beef

These organisms commonly tapeworm
inhabit the intestines, hence Can also be a human
the name intestinal parasites. intestinal parasite and can
Its head has suckers for reach a length of six
attaching to the intestinal meters.
mucosa of the definitive host. Can be found on in the
Other species possess small feces of an infected
hooks for attachment. human. From there, the
They lack a digestive system mature proglottids with
and do not ingest food thousands of eggs wriggle
particles. away.
To obtain nutrients, they Can be transferred to a
absorb food through the grazing animal if it ingests
cuticle. the wriggling proglottids.
2. Taenia solium Also known as the pork
tapeworm.
Humans are its only known
definitive host.
Its eggs can be found in the
fecal material of an
infected individual.
3. Echinococcus Its intermediate host are
granulosus humans.
Its definitive host include
dogs and coyotes.
 PHYLUM NEMATODA (THE ROUNDWORMS)
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
These roundworms are cylindrical and tapered at each end.
They have a complete digestive system comprised of a mouth, intestine, and an anus.
Most species are dioecious with males being smaller than that of females.
These organisms have free-living counterparts.
COMMON
REPRESENTATIVE/S
1. Ancylostoma duodenale
2. Anisakines
3. Ascaris lumbricoides
4. Baylisascaris procyonis
5. Enterobius vermicularis
6. Necator americanus
7. Strongyloides stercoralis
8. Trichinella spiralis
9. Trichuris trichiura
DESCRIPTION/S
Also known as the human hookworm.
It is the most common parasitic infection in countries
with poor access to adequate water, sanitation, and
hygiene.
It is transmitted through contact with contaminated soil.
This parasite can be harbored inside the human body
from domesticated animals.
Possess a complex life cycle that would involve certain
hosts such as fishes, crustaceans and other marine
mammals.
When an infective host is consumed by an individual,
this parasite anisakiasis.
Also known in its common name as roundworms.
This parasite is the causative agent of Ascariasis.
The female adult can reach up to 20 cm to 30 cm in
length, and adult males up to 15 cm to 20 cm.
This parasite is available in different colors such as pink,
yellow, and white.
The average life of the adult parasite is one year, after
which it dies, and it is spontaneously eliminated as it
evacuates through the digestive tract. This is the reason
why a spontaneous cure of disease can happen if there
is no reinfection. Adult worms do not multiply in the
human host.
Also known as the raccoon roundworm.
It is the causative agent of a rare but serious neurologic
and ocular disease in humans.
Only larval stages are involved in zoonotic infections.
Also known as Pinworm.
It is the causative agent of Enterobiasis (or Pinworm
Infection), one of the most common nematode infections
in the world.
Transmission occurs in people who are living in
crowded environments and usually occurs within
families though this infection usually occurs in children.
The worms are tiny, thread-like, and whitish.
The worm is named after the characteristic pin-like tail
present on the posterior part of female worms
It is the major cause of hookworm infections worldwide.
It is a parasite that is transmitted by soil and can cause
severe disease in immunocompromised individuals.
It is the causative agent of Trichinellosis also that results
from consuming undercooked or raw meat (usually
pork).
Although, other mammals like wild carnivores and
horses can be reservoirs of infection. It can cause
symptoms varying from generalized fever, abdominal
pain, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, myalgia to more
severe like myocarditis and encephalitis.
It is known as the human whipworm that causes
Trichuriasis in humans.

10. Toxocara canis and T. cati
It is referred to as the whipworm because it looks like a
whip with wide handles at the posterior end.
Children appear to be vulnerable to the parasite and
poor sanitation is associated with heavy disease
burden.
Their definite hosts include cats, dogs, foxes, coyotes,
and wolves.
These parasites are known to cause human
toxocariasis. Severe complications are blindness or
meningoencephalitis.
MODULE 3 – MICROBIAL GROWTH
Lesson 1 – Requirements for Microbial Growth
Courseware from DynEd stated that “conditions must be right for life to exist”. Indeed, that statement is proven
true. When previous conditions from our world did not stabilize until today, life as we know it would never exist.
In the microbial realm, certain conditions must be met for the citizens of that world to exist.

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MICROBIAL GROWTH

A. TEMPERATURE
Most microorganisms are capable of thriving in an environment with temperatures that favor human beings.
However, certain bacteria have different temperature requirements for optimum growth.

For this reason, microbial organisms are classified into three primary groups according to their preferred range of
temperature. These are:
● Psychrophiles
• This group can be regarded as cold-loving microbes.
• There are two subgroups:
o The First subgroup
▪ Can grow at 0 degrees Celsius with 15 degrees Celsius as its optimum temperature
▪ Cannot grow beyond 25 degrees Celsius
o The Second subgroup
▪ They are often regarded as Psychotrophs by Food Microbiologists
▪ Can grow at degrees Celsius with 20 – 30 degrees Cesius as its optimum temperature
▪ They optimally grow at refrigeration temperatures
▪ They are commonly associated with low-temperature food spoilage

● Mesophiles
• This group is called the moderate-temperature loving microbes.
• Can optimally grow between 25 – 40 degrees Celsius.
• They are the most common microbes.
• They are mostly accountable for food spoilage outside the refrigerator
• Pathogenic bacteria belong in this group with optimum temperatures of 37 degrees Celsius. This temperature
is usually used at incubators in the laboratory for clinical cultures.
• This group also causes diseases.

● Thermophiles (heat-loving microbes)

• Has incredibly high optimum temperatures starting at 80 degrees Celsius.
• Micro bacteria from Archaea are great examples of this group.
• Commonly inhabit environments with extreme temperatures such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents.

One of the ways to preserve food or food supplies is through refrigeration. This method works on the principle
that low temperatures decrease microbial reproductive rates. Although it is true, it does not mean that we need to throw
all our foods and food supplies in the fridge without cleaning. Let us always remember that cleaning the refrigerator, the
food containers, and correctly handling the food itself also contribute to increasing the shelf life.

Furthermore, other microorganisms can still thrive in refrigeration temperatures. Aside from Psychotrophs, fungi
can also cause food spoilage. Also, putting large quantities of food takes much time to cool than small ones.

B. pH LEVELS
Bacterial microorganisms thrive best between pH levels 6.5 to 7.5. Only a few grow at a pH of 4. This is the
main reason why pickles, sauerkraut, and cheese are preserved from spoilage by the acids produced during bacterial
fermentation. (In the previous subjects that you have taken, pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of a solution)
 However, other bacteria can tolerate higher pH levels. One example would be a chemoautotrophic bacterium
in coal mines. The said bacterium can thrive at a pH of 1. Another would be those from Archaea, they are known as
acidophiles. Aside from the said organisms, microbes from fungi can also tolerate higher pH levels.

C. OSMOTIC PRESSURE
To obtain nutrients that are required for growth, microorganisms need water. 80 – 90% of their bodies are made
up of water.
If the environment that the microorganisms inhabit would change to an environment with high osmotic pressure
(such as hypertonic solution), the water inside the microorganisms would move out and would cause plasmolysis. On
the contrary, if the environment is hypotonic, water would move inside the cell and too much water going in would cause
cytolysis.
For a typical bacterium to thrive, the solution must be isotonic. That is an equal amount of water going in and
out.

Organisms such as extreme halophiles (also known as obligate halophiles) can tolerate high salt concentrations
and cannot thrive at environments with low salt content.

CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MICROBIAL GROWTH

A. CARBON
Aside from water, carbon is one of the most essential requirements for microbial growth. This element is the
structural backbone of living matter. Furthermore, this element is very important that all organic compounds that make
up a living cell contain it.

Chemoautotrophic bacteria get their daily need of carbon from other organic materials such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, or carbon dioxide.

B. NITROGEN, SULFUR, AND PHOSPHORUS

Microbial organisms would not live from carbon alone. Other elements are needed as well.

Although carbon is the structural backbone, a good amount of Sulfur and Nitrogen is required for protein
synthesis. In ATP and nucleic synthesis, phosphorus is needed to store and transfer chemical energy. In the dry weight
of a bacterial cell, Nitrogen contributes 14%, and the two remaining elements together constitute 4%.

C. TRACE ELEMENTS
Aside from the elements that were first mentioned, other elements are required to complete the recipe of
microbial growth. Trace elements, as what the name suggests, are essential elements needed in trace or very small
amounts.

Elements such as iron, copper, molybdenum, and zinc are elements needed for the proper functioning of
enzymes such as cofactors.

D. OXYGEN

THE TABLE BELOW SUMMARIZES THE EFFECTS OF OXYGEN ON VARIOUS MICROBES

E. ORGANIC GROWTH FACTORS
Any important organic compound that cannot be synthesized by the organism must be obtained from other
sources. A classic example of this would be human beings taking multivitamin capsules. These organic compounds can
be termed as organic growth factors.

The majority of the bacterial microorganisms can synthesize their vitamins and do not depend on other sources.
Some bacteria however lack the enzymes needed for the synthesis of certain vitamins and other organic growth factors.

Other types of organic factors aside from vitamins include amino acids, purines, and pyrimidines.

BIOFILMS
No man is an island. Indeed, in the world we live today, there is a great emphasis on working with teams. This
principle is also applicable in the microbial world for the following reasons:
• Efficiency in cell-to-cell communication leads to better coordination
• Microbes are sheltered from harmful factors in the environment such as desiccation, antibiotics, the host’s
immune system.
• Resources for growth are distributed evenly.

Based on the cited beneficial reasons, biofilms are essential for the continued existence and proliferation of bacterial
organisms. Below are the series of events that would occur for a biofilm to form.
1. A free-floating (planktonic) bacterium attaches to a surface.
This bacterium uses quorum sensing to produce and secrete a signaling chemical known as an inducer to the
surrounding medium.
2. Other bacterial cells move toward the source of the chemical signal and would also begin producing the
same chemical signal.
3. To fully distribute the nutrients and other requirements for growth, the bacteria would form a pillar-like
structure.
This structure would be similar to a primitive circulatory system where the tip through which water passes
through first carries nutrients and as it leaves, it carries outgoing wastes.
4. Biofilms can propagate through the detachment of small or large clumps of cells, or by a type of "seeding
dispersal" that releases individual cells.
Either type of detachment allows bacteria to attach to a surface or a biofilm downstream of the original
community.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that roughly 70% of bacterial infections are caused by
biofilms. The majority of healthcare-related infections are because of the proliferation of biofilms on medical catheters,
and even the indwelling of medical devices such as mechanical heart valves. In the United States alone, biofilms
damage has amounted to billions of dollars per year as it accounts for energy losses, equipment damage, and product
contamination.

Currently, there are two approaches to prevent the proliferation of biofilms. One would be the incorporation of
antimicrobials into surfaces on which biofilms might form. Second, would be the utilization of lactoferrin, which is present
in many human secretions. These two approaches work the same way and that is by inhibiting the secretions of inducers.

On the contrary, biofilms also brought positive effects such as bioremediating hazardous waste sites, bio filtering
municipal and industrial water and wastewater, and forming bio-barriers to protect soil and groundwater from
contamination.
Lesson 2 – Culture Media
To conduct an in-depth study about microorganisms, they need to be cultivated in laboratory settings. Cultivating
these different microorganisms does not mean that we would infect the whole laboratory with microbes. That is very
dangerous as it could cause deaths of scientists and laboratory staff! However, we just need to let them thrive, in the
world of their own.

CULTURE MEDIA
A culture medium is any material prepared for the growth of bacteria in
a laboratory. Microbes that grow and multiply in or on a culture medium are
known as a culture. Some microbes are introduced into a culture medium to
initiate growth. These microbes are termed as inoculum.

In our previous lessons, bacteria and fungi are very diverse. These microbes have different requirements and
we need to take that into account for them to grow in the culture medium

Presently, a wide variety of cultural media are available for the growth of microorganisms in the laboratory and
these media can be obtained from commercial sources. Furthermore, important nutritional requirements are already
pre-mixed. The remaining things to do would be the addition of distilled water, sterilization, and identification of bacteria
to study.

When a chosen bacterium is desirable to be observed and studied in a solid medium, a solidifying agent known
as agar is added to the medium. This solidifying agent has been derived from a marine alga and has been used as a
thickener in jellies and ice cream. Furthermore, it has been valuable in the science of microbiology to study microbes.
No other substitute has been discovered ever since.

CHEMICALLY DEFINED MEDIA

From the previous lessons, we have two classifications of requirements for microbial growth: the physical and
chemical requirements.

In a chemically defined media, all chemical requirements for microbial growth such as sources of carbon,
nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and any organic growth factors have been considered to permit microbial growth. The
tables below are examples of the contents of a chemically defined media for Escherichia coli.

COMPLEX MEDIA
This type of culture media is used to cultivate heterotrophic bacteria and fungi. In contrast to the chemically
defined media, which is used to grow autotrophic bacteria, this complex media is also made up of nutrients from the
extracts of yeasts, meats, plants, or digests of proteins from other sources.

Furthermore, the energy, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur requirements of the bacterium are provided by protein.
The vitamins and other organic factors required for microbial growth are provided by meat or yeast extracts.

If the complex media is in a liquid form, it is called nutrient broth. On the other hand, if it is in a solid form, an
agar is added and is termed as nutrient agar.
The table below is an example of a complex medium for the growth of Heterotrophic Bacteria.

Composition of Nutrient Agar, a Complex Medium for the Growth of Heterotrophic

Bacteria
Constituent Amount
Peptone (partially digested protein) 5.0 g
Beef extract 3.0 g
Sodium chloride 8.0 g
Agar 15.0 g

REDUCING MEDIA
Cultivating aerobic bacteria has a special problem. Since anaerobes are killed by oxygen exposure, a
specialized medium known as reducing medium is used. In this growth medium, an ingredient known as sodium
thioglycolate chemically combines to dissolved oxygen and depletes the oxygen in the medium to allow the growth of
obligate anaerobes.

But before using this growth medium, always remember that it must be stored in ordinary, and capped test
tubes. Aside from that, always heat the medium before using it to drive off absorbed oxygen.

Aside from using reducing media, a special method must also be used to maintain the culture. One approach
would be the utilization of sealed boxes and jars where oxygen is chemically removed after the culture in Petri plates
has been introduced. Moreover, the certain envelope of chemicals in the sealed container is opened to expose it to the
oxygen in the container. This system has less than 1% of oxygen, and 18% of carbon dioxide.

Another approach would be the use of special Petri plates (also known as OxyPlate) that would create an
anaerobic environment for obligate aerobes. This special Petri plate has curved grooves to make a sealed enclosure.
Furthermore, this type of Petri plates contains oxyrase. This is an enzyme that combines oxygen with hydrogen to make
water.

One final approach would be the utilization of an aerobic chamber that is filled with inert gasses and is equipped
with an air lock.

SELECTIVE AND DIFFERENTIAL MEDIA

In clinical and public health settings, it is very important to detect the presence of specific microorganisms
associated with a specific disease or poor sanitation. Thus, selective, and differential media are used.

The selective media are primarily designed to suppress the growth of any unwanted bacterium and encourage
the growth of the bacterium of interest. One classical example would be the use of bismuth sulfite agar to isolate the
typhoid bacterium. The said agar prevents the growth of gram-positive and most gram-negative intestinal microbe other
than the causative agent of typhoid.

On the other hand, differential media allows the easier distinction of colonies from the desired organism from
other colonies growing on the same plate. One example would be the utilization of blood agar to identify microbes that
would destroy red blood cells. In this medium, a noticeable reaction would occur, and this allows microbiologists to
identify the causative agent. Take a good look at Stretococcus pyogenes. This bacterium causes strep throat. When
cultivated using the blood agar, its bacterial colonies would lyse the surrounding blood cells.
 Sometimes, both the characteristics of selective and differential media are combined in a single medium for
isolation. One example would be isolating Staphylococcus aureus. This bacterium has a tolerance for high salt
concentrations, it can ferment carbohydrate mannitol to form an acid. To isolate this bacterium. Mannitol salt agar is
used. It contains the requirements for the growth of the microbe in question and eliminates the growth of competing
organisms. Also, this medium contains a pH indicator. This indicator allows microbiologists to know and identify the
bacterium-of-interest that it has already fermented the mannitol into an acid.

ENRICHMENT CULTURE
This type of culture media is very useful to detect a specific bacterium when it is present in small numbers while
other bacteria are also present but in larger numbers. This culture media is typically used to detect a bacterium in soil
or fecal samples.

This media is commonly liquid, and it also provides nutrients and environmental conditions that would allow the
microbe to grow but no other bacteria. In layman’s term, it allows the bacterium to be in detectable levels.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CULTURE MEDIA AND ITS RESPECTIVE PURPOSE

Type Purpose

Chemically defined Growth of chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs; microbial assays

Complex Growth of most chemoheterotrophic organisms

Reducing Growth of obligate anaerobes

Selective Suppression of unwanted microbes; encouraging desired microbes

Differential Differentiation of colonies of desired microbes from others

Enrichment Similar to selective media but designed to increase numbers of

desired microbes to detectable levels

SPECIAL CULTURE TECHNIQUES

At present, the technological state of microbiology has radically transformed this field. From a simple microscope
to the advanced ones. However, some microbes would not grow in the different types of culture media that we have
explored. One example would be the causative agent of leprosy which is Mycobacterium leprae. This bacterium must
be cultivated in Armadillos since the temperature of this animal matches to that of the causative agent. Also, viruses do
not reproduce when it is outside the host.
 To surmount this limitation and to study other microorganisms such as aerobic bacteria. Clinical laboratories
have special carbon dioxide incubator that provides higher or lower carbon dioxide concentrations than the atmosphere.

To achieve higher concentrations of the said gas, the cultures are placed inside a jar with a lighted candle (also
known as candle jars). Once the candle stops burning, the oxygen concentration has been lowered and an elevated
carbon dioxide concentration has also been attained. This condition mimics the environment found inside the
gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, and other parts of the body where pathogenic bacteria thrive. Microbes that
proliferate in high carbon dioxide concentrations are known as capnophiles. This candle jar method is still used
occasionally, especially if commercially available substitutes are not present.

Lesson 3 – Staining Pure Cultures and Preserving Bacterial Cultures

OBTAINING PURE CULTURES

One of the basic requirements to be employed is a medical examination. The doctor would place different
medical tests to determine the physique of the patient. This would also require the utilization of different infectious
materials from the patient itself such as urine, sputum, pus, and fecal matter to obtain several kinds of bacteria. Aside
from those, other sources of bacteria include soil, water, or food samples.

If the said materials were placed on the various culture media, the same microbial organisms from the samples
or materials can be found on the culture media itself after a couple of days. Most bacteriological tasks need pure
cultures or clones of microorganisms like bacteria. The commonly used isolation method to produce pure culture is the
streak plate method.

STEPS IN PERFORMING THE STREAK PLATE METHOD

STEP 1 – Sterilize the wire loop (inoculating loop)
This is accomplished by placing the wire loop on top of the flame of the alcohol lamp or Bunsen burner. (The
loop is sterilized once it glows red)

STEP 2 – Allow the loop to cool for a couple of seconds

This will not kill the microbes in the pure culture

STEP 3 – The loop is inoculated

Dip the wire loop into the broth culture containing the mixture of bacteria

STEP 4 – Transfer the inoculated loop to the petri plate

Lift the lid of the petri dish just enough to insert the loop and use the loop to make a streak pattern on top of the
culture medium.

STEP 5 – Put the lid back and place the Petri Plate inside the incubator for a few days.
After a few days in the incubator, visible colonies would appear. However, let us remember a few things. First,
this method works well when the bacterium you are going to cultivate is available in large numbers. Lastly, if the
bacterium is present in small numbers, we must cultivate it using an enrichment medium before we isolate it using the
streak plate method.
PRESERVING BACTERIAL CULTURES
Like buying groceries and staples, bacterial cultures need to be preserved. There are two known methods for
preserving bacterial cultures. Both of which involve the use of refrigeration. These are deep-freezing and lyophilization
(freeze-drying).

DEEP-FREEZING
It is a process wherein the microbial cultures are placed in a suspending liquid. The cultures are then quick-
frozen at temperatures ranging from -50 degrees Celsius up to -95 degrees Celsius. If a researcher or a scientist wants
to study the preserved microbial cultures, thawing would be done. This method can be used to preserve cultures for
several years.

LYOPHILIZATION (also known as FREEZE-DRYING)

One of the key differences includes the range of temperature at which the microbes are suspended. The range
is from -54 degrees Celsius to -72 degrees Celsius. Aside from that water is removed by using a high vacuum. At the
same time, the container is sealed by melting the glass using a high-temperature torch. Then, what remains after this
process is powder-like residues that contain the surviving microbes. This method can preserve microbes for several
years and when the microbes will be studied, they can be revived using hydration form a suitable liquid nutrient medium.
MODULE 4 – SMEAR PREPARATION, DYES, AND STAINING TECHNIQUES

Lesson 1 – Smear Preparation

SMEAR PREPARATION
- The microbes that we will be observed under the compound light microscope are generally colorless. Does this mean
that the microscopes in the laboratory are useless? No, they are not, but to observe the different microbes, we need to
do a series of tasks before we could finally see them.
- The first thing that we are going to do is to prepare smears on the microscope slides. To do this, a representative
sample is obtained either from a solid or liquid medium and is spread over the surface of the slide. The slide is then
allowed to dry by air before fixing it with heat.
- As we fix the specimen by heat, the bacteria will be attached permanently to the slide. This prevents the specimen to
be washed along with the liquid substances that we will be using later on. Furthermore, heat-fixing the specimen kills all
the bacteria. This would cause minimal distortion, but it preserves the various parts of the bacteria in a natural state. To
do this, the air-dried slide is passed through the flame of the Bunsen burner for several times.
- After creating a smear and fixing it, we can now stain it accordingly.

DYES
- Generally, salts.
- Composed of positive and negative ions and chromophores.

TWO TYPES OF DYES:

● Basic Dyes (Positive ions) – commonly used stain
Examples:
- Crystal Violet
- Methylene blue
- Malachite green
- Safranin
● Acidic dyes (negative ions) – used in the background
Examples:
- Eosin
- Acid fuchsin

STAINING TECHNIQUES
1. Simple Staining
 This staining technique is used for highlighting the entire microorganism.
 Cellular shapes and basic structures can be seen when this technique is employed.
 To intensify the stain, a mordant is added to the solution.
 The dyes that are used in this technique include methylene blue, carbolfuchsin, crystal violet, and
safranin.

2. Differential Staining
 Every specimen reacts differently in this staining technique.
 This can be used for identification purposes.

A. Gram Staining
o Developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.
o It classifies the bacteria in two groups (gram-positive and gram-negative).
o This staining technique begins by covering the heat-fixed smear crystal violet which is
then followed by a wash of distilled water and an application of mordant. The mordant
is then washed by a decolorizer and safranin would be used as a counterstain.
o Under the microscope, gram-positive bacteria would appear with a dark violet or a
purple color. On the other hand, gram-negative bacteria would have a pink color.
o The different colors are attributed to the cell wall differences of the two bacteria.
o Since Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer, the decolorizer cannot
penetrate inside the cell wall and cannot wash the CV-I complex made by the
combination of crystal violet and iodine.
o Since gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer compared to gram-
positive bacteria, the decolorizer washes out the CV-I complex. This renders the
bacteria colorless not until it is stained by safranin.
 Steps in gram-staining:

B. Acid-fast Staining
o It strongly binds to bacteria with a waxy material in their cell walls.
o It is used to identify bacteria in the genus Mycobacterium (M. tuberculosis for
Tuberculosis; M. leprae for Leprosy) and the genus Nocardia.
o This staining technique begins by covering the heat-fixed smear with a red dye known
as carbolfuchsin. The slide is then subjected to heat as it increases the penetration and
retention of the dye. Once it has cooled, the excess dye is washed with water and
followed by treating the slide with acid-alcohol and counterstaining with methylene blue.
o Under the microscope, acid-fast organisms would be pink since the red dye is soluble
to the lipids found in the cell walls of these microbes.
o Non-acid fast organisms would be blue since the red dye has been washed by acid
alcohol.

Note:
Red cells are acid-fast
Blue cells are non-acid-fast

3. Special Staining
 This technique colors and isolates specific parts of microorganisms such as endospores, flagella, and
capsules.

A. Negative Staining for Capsules

o A capsule is a gelatinous covering and its presence determines the virulence.
o In this special staining technique, the bacteria are mixed with a fine colloidal
suspension of nigrosine. This provides a contrasting background. Afterward, safranin
is used as a counterstain.

Note: Capsule stain of Cryptococcus neoformans

B. Endospore staining
o An endospore or a spore is a special resistant and dormant structure,
o This structure helps the microbe to survive.
o The basic dyes that we have discussed cannot penetrate the walls of this special
structure.
o The most common stain used for endospores is Schaeffer-Fulton endospore stain.
o This can be alternatively done by covering the heat-fixed smear with malachite green.
The slide is then exposed to heat for five minutes before the excess dye is washed with
water for 30 seconds and then counterstained using safranin.

C. Flagella staining
o Flagella are special structures used for locomotion. These structures are too difficult to
observe in a light microscope without staining.
o A mordant and carbolfuchsin is used for this special staining technique.
MODULE 5 – INTERACTION BETWEEN MICROBE AND HOST

Lesson 1 – Principles of Diseases

We were able to learn the roots of microbiology and parasitology, the different organisms that the two fields of
science revolve upon, their requirements for growth, and how can we cultivate them in laboratory settings for further
study. In the succeeding pages, we will now uncover a new field of science that is devoted to the study of diseases, how
diseases-causing agents behave within the host, the frequency of occurrence for a specific disease and its severity, and
a special type of infections that is only found in the establishments that would keep us safe from the different pathogenic
agents.

PATHOLOGY, ETIOLOGY, INFECTION, AND DISEASE

After getting ourselves acquainted with bacteria, viruses, helminths, and fungi, it is now time to study how they
cause infection which can later on become as a disease. Before we dive deeper, let us first differentiate the different
terms that we will be using.

Aside from biology, chemistry, physics, and other branches of science, there is a branch of science that is mainly
concerned about the study of diseases. This filed of science is known as Pathology which came from two Greek words
“pathos” for suffering, and “logos” that means science.

PATHOLOGY
Pathology deals about the cause (also referred to as the etiology) of the disease, and the development of the
disease (also known as pathogenesis). Aside from those two things, this field of study does not ignore the effects of the
disease in the body of an individual especially in the structural and functional changes.

After we have clearly defined what Pathology is, now let us also differentiate infection and disease. The former
speaks about pathogenic organisms such as bacteria invading or colonizing the human body whereas the latter is just
the result of the former one. Say for example, a person inhaled SARS-COV2 (the causative agent of COVID19), and
the virus replicates in the human body, then this is what we call an infection. After some time, the person starts to feel
uncomfortable. He finds it difficult to breathe and continually manifests other symptoms. This is now the disease that
resulted from SARS-COV2 known as COVID19.

SYMPTOMS VS. SIGNS

Symptoms refer to changes in bodily functions which are subjective from one patient to another. In the case of
COVID19, it could be malaise. On the other hand, signs are objective. These can be easily observed by a medical
doctor. In COVID19, one noticeable sign is having a dry cough.

DIAGNOSIS VS. SYNDROME

A diagnosis of a disease can only be done through careful examination of both signs and symptoms by a
medical doctor along with correlation of laboratory tests. In order to diagnose a person with COVID19, a medical doctor
asks the symptoms the patient is experiencing and the symptoms that the doctor can observe along with the results of
the swab test.

A syndrome on the other hand refers to a specific group of associated symptoms or signs that will always
accompany a particular disease.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES:

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES

Communicable Diseases Diseases that can be transmitted directly or indirectly from one
host to another

Contagious Diseases Diseases that are communicable and can easily and rapidly spread
from one person to another

Non-communicable Diseases Diseases that cannot be transmitted from one host to another.

ACCORDING TO ITS OCCURENCE

1. Sporadic Diseases that only occur occasionally.
2. Endemic Diseases that are constantly present in a population.

3. Epidemic Diseases that are acquired in a relatively short period by many

people in a given area.

4. Pandemic Diseases that occur in a global scale.

ACCORDING TO ITS SEVERITY OR DURATION

1. Acute A disease that rapidly develops but it lasts only for a short time.

2. Chronic A disease that slowly develops but it is likely to continue or recur

for long periods.

3. Subacute A disease that is intermediate between acute and chronic.

4. Latent A disease with an inactive causative agent for a time. When the
agent becomes active, symptoms of the disease will manifest.

ACCORDING TO THE EXTENT OF HOST INVOLVEMENT

1. Local Infection Pathogenic microorganisms are limited to a small area of the body.

2. Systemic or Generalized Infection Pathogenic microorganisms and/or their products are spread
throughout the body wither by blood or lymph.

3. Focal Infection Pathogenic agents of a local infection can enter the blood or a
lymphatic vessel and can spread to different parts of the body and
get confined to it.

4. Primary Infection Acute infection that causes initial illness.

5. Secondary Infection Disease that has been caused by an opportunistic pathogen after
the immune system is weakened from the Primary Infection.

6. Subclinical or In apparent No noticeable illness even if the pathogenic agent is still carried in
the body.

HEALTHCARE-ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS
Healthcare-associated Infections (HAIs) were traditionally referred as nosocomial infections since the Latin word
for hospital is nosocomial. As the name implies, this type of infection is acquired in hospitals, nursing homes, surgical
centers, and health care clinics.

During the past 20 years, a 36% increase in HAIs were reported given the current technological advancement
in sterilization techniques. Contracting nosocomial infections can be attributed to three main factors which include the
compromised immune system of the patients, the microorganisms that are present in the hospital itself, and the chain
of transmission.

A. Compromised Immune System

 Human beings have two levels of protection against pathogenic agents. The first level is the skin and the mucous
membranes as long as it remains intact. Patients with burns are generally susceptible to HAIs since the first line
that would protect them against pathogenic microbes is no longer intact and efficient.

 Aside from burn patients, persons with surgical wounds, trauma, injections, invasive diagnostic procedures,
ventilators, intravenous therapy, and urinary catheters are also prone to contract HAIs.

 The next level of protection against pathogenic agents is the immune system. There are different white blood
cells that protect the human body against different pathogens. The first one, T cells (T Lymphocytes) protect
the human body by mobilizing phagocytes to kill the pathogens. On the other hand, B cells (B Lymphocytes)
produce antibodies that neutralize toxins which prevent the attachment of a pathogen to the host cells.
  When a patient’s immune system has become weak due to a primary infection, he or she is susceptible to an
opportunistic pathogen. Aside from this, persons who have acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is
also prone in contracting HAIs. Certain drugs, radiation therapy, burns, diabetes, leukemia, kidney disease,
stress, and malnutrition can also affect the actions of T and B cells in defending the body.

B. Microorganisms in the Hospital

 The table below from Centers for Disease and Control Prevention lists the common microorganisms involved in
HAIs with its respective type of infection.

MICROORGANISM MOST COMMON INFECTION

TYPE

1. Coagulase-negative Blood stream

staphylococci
2. Staphylococcus aureus Surgical wound

3. Clostridium difficile Diarrhea after abdominal

surgery

4. Enterococcus spp. Bloodstream

5. Candida spp. (fungus) Urinary Tract Infections

6. Escherichia coli Urinary Tract Infections

7. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Urinary Tract and Pneumonia

8. Klebsiella pneumoniae All Sites

9. Enterobacter spp. All Sites

10. Acinetobacter baumannii All Sites

C. Chain of Transmission
 HAIs are commonly transmitted by a direct contact between staff members and patients and between patients
themselves. Furthermore, catheters, syringes, and respiratory devices can also transmit HAIs.

 One way to stop the chain of transmission of HAIs would be the use of Aseptic techniques. Aside from that,
proper cleaning, storage, and handling of equipment and supplies would also help.

Lesson 2 – Mechanisms of Pathogenicity

PORTALS OF ENTRY
In order for a pathogen to cause disease to the host, it must first enter the host using different portals of entry
which include mucous membranes, skin, and the parenteral route.

A. MUCOUS MEMBRANES
As stated earlier, pathogenic agents need to obtain an entry point before it can cause disease to the host. The
disease-causing agents can enter the body using the lining of the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary
tract, and conjunctiva.

MUCOUS MEMBRANES AS PORTAL OF ENTRY

PORTALS OF ENTRY HOW PATHOGENS ENTER ASSOCIATED DISEASES

Respiratory Tract Easiest and most frequently traveled Common cold

portal of entry Pneumonia
Tuberculosis
Pathogenic agents gain entry as Influenza
they are inhaled by the host. Measles

Gastrointestinal Tract Pathogenic microbes gain entry Poliomyelitis

through contaminated food and Hepatitis A
water, and with dirty hands. Typhoid Fever
 Amebic Dysentery
Giardiasis
Shigellosis
Cholera

Genitourinary Tract Pathogens obtain entry through HIV Infection

sexual contact. Genital Warts
Chlamydia
Human Herpesvirus-2
Syphilis
Gonorrhea

Conjunctiva Pathogens obtain entry through Conjunctivitis

contaminated eye wares, dirty Trachoma
hands, and foreign bodies in the eye. Ophthalmia neonatorum

B. SKIN
Based on surface area and weight, the largest organ in the human body is skin. Aside from protecting us from
pollution and ultraviolet rays, the skin is also responsible for giving a primary and effective barrier against pathogenic
agents as long as it remains intact.

C. PARENTAL ROUTE
There is also another route for microorganisms to gain entry and this is through the parenteral route. This refers
to punctures, injections, bites, cuts, wounds, surgery, and splitting of the skin or even the mucous membranes due to
swelling or drying.

HIV, hepatitis viruses, and bacteria causing tetanus and gangrene can gain entry and cause further damage to
the body.

HOW DO BACTERIAL PATHOGENS DAMAGE THE HOST CELLS?

As stated earlier, there are different portals of entry that a pathogenic agent can use to enter the host’s body.
Afterwards, the goal of the disease-causing agent would be to colonize and invade. However, before that could happen,
a battle between the pathogen and the host’s immune system will ensue. If the host’s defenses are more robust
compared to the threat, then the bacteria can no longer cause further damage. Otherwise, if the mounted defenses of
the host are defeated by the invaders, then the host is harmed by the bacterial microorganisms in the following ways:

1. The Bacterial pathogen will use the host’s Nutrients.

Most pathogenic bacteria require iron to grow. Much of the iron in the host can be found to iron transport proteins
such as lactoferrin, transferrin, ferritin, and hemoglobin. In order to acquire iron, pathogens secrete proteins called
siderophores that will steal the iron in the transport proteins. When the concentration of free iron in the host is low, some
bacteria produce toxins which destroy host cells to release their iron and make it accessible to the bacteria.

2. Through causing a direct damage.

Pathogenic agents are able to inflict direct damage by consuming the nutrients of the host cells and in producing
waste products. Aside from that, pathogens can also cause damage by making the host cell rupture after these agents
have multiplied inside the cell.

3. By the production of toxins.

Pathogenic microorganisms are capable of producing poisonous substances that are known as toxins. These
harmful byproducts are transported through the blood or the lymph and may cause fever, cardiovascular disturbances,
diarrhea, shock. inhibition of protein synthesis, destruction of blood cells and blood vessels, and the disruption of the
nervous system through spasms.

There are two types of toxins namely, the exotoxins and endotoxins. The former pertains to the products
produced by the gram-positive bacteria as part of their growth and metabolism. This type of toxin gets secreted in the
surrounding medium and is responsible for the manifestation of specific signs and symptoms, not the colonization of the
bacteria itself.

In order to neutralize the exotoxin, an anti-toxin must be produced by the immune system. However, there are
cases where vaccination is used to prevent getting intoxicated. One classic example would be getting vaccinated with
tetanus toxoid to prevent tetanus. On the other hand, endotoxins are part of the gram-negative bacterial cells and is not
a metabolic product that is produced compared to exotoxin. Since they are part of the bacterial cells, this type of toxin is
released when the bacteria die, or the cell walls lyse. Endotoxins are also responsible for the manifestation of signs and
symptoms in a general fashion such as chills, fever, weakness, aches, and in some cases shock and death.

Antibiotics that are used to treat diseases caused by gram-negative bacteria can exacerbate the symptoms.
When the liver lipase breaks down the endotoxin, improvement in the patient’s condition can be observed.

4. Through the induced hypersensitivity reactions.

In a mild infection, an immune response is expected to get rid of the pathogenic agent. To do that, our body
releases cytokines to coordinate the body’s response against infection.

The cytokines that were released would signal the immune cells to mount a defense in a region or part of the
body to eliminate the pathogenic agent. As a result, inflammation would be triggered along with the manifestation of its
cardinal signs such as warmth, redness, swelling, and pain.

This is also the start of the healing process as the immune cells try to eliminate the pathogenic agents. However,
some patients especially those who contracted COVID19 experience an unregulated immune response and
overproduction of cytokines. As a result, more immune cells get activated to a certain region and this creates hyper
inflammation and tissue damage. This phenomenon that is characterized by the overproduction of cytokines is known
as Cytokine Storm.

PATHOGENIC PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES, FUNGI, PROTOZOA, AND ALGAE

The table below summarizes the pathogenic properties of viruses, fungi, protozoa, and helminths.

PATHOGENIC PROPERTIES OF SOME PATHOGENIC AGENTS

VIRUSES FUNGI PROTOZOA HELMINTHS

Viruses are able to avoid
the host’s immune
response by growing
inside the cells
Viruses gain access to
host cells because they
have attachment sites for
receptors on the host cell.
Viruses gain access to
host cells because they
can mimic important
substances to the host
cells
Fungi are able to The protozoa along Helminths utilize host
produce metabolic with their waste tissues for own
products that are toxic products are growth or produce
to human hosts such responsible for the large parasitic
as toxins, proteases, symptoms in the host. masses. The cellular
and enzymes. damage evokes
Some protozoa attach symptoms to be
Some fungi are also to host cells by a manifested.
resistant to antifungal sucking disc and digest
drugs by decreasing the cells and tissue Helminths block
the synthesis of fluids. lymphatic circulation
receptors for these causing swelling of
drugs. Some protozoa evade extremities.
host defenses and
cause disease for very Metabolic waste
long periods of time. products of helminths
exacerbate the
manifestation of
symptoms.

Lesson 3 – Immunity
In the previous lessons, we have learned how pathogenic agents obtain entry in the human body, how those
pathogens create havoc and destruction inside the body, and the different properties that make pathogens “pathogenic”.

Indeed, the human body is remarkable since it has its own protection against the different pathogens. In this
lesson, we will explore how the immunity can help us remain healthy, the difference between immunity and susceptibility,
and how vaccination works and what are its effects.

SUSCEPTIBILITY AND IMMUNITY

When a pathogenic agent attacks the host, one thing is certain. Either the host is immune or susceptible.
Immunity refers to the ability of the host’s defenses to get rid of the disease-causing agents or their byproducts while the
susceptibility pertains to the lack of the immunity.
INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
In general, there are two types of immunity: innate and adaptive. Innate immunity refers to defenses that are
present at birth. Adaptive immunity is based on a specific response to a specific microbe.

INNATE IMMUNITY
The first type of immunity, also known as innate immunity, can provide a rapid response to protect the host from
disease-causing agents that would try to obtain entry in the host’s body. Furthermore, type of immunity is composed of
two lines of defenses. The first line of defense includes the skin and the mucous membranes. The second line of
defense include natural killer cells, phagocytes, inflammation, fever, and antimicrobial substances. It is also
important to remember that innate immunity can never recognize a specific microbe and has no memory response.

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Adaptive immunity on the other hand provides a slower response compared to innate immunity. However, a
memory component for recognizing microbes gives this type of immunity a robust figure to effectively protect the host
from diseases-causing microbes that have obtained entry. Furthermore, this immunity makes use of T and B
lymphocytes.

PRINCIPLES AND EFFECTS OF VACCINATION

One of the iconic examples of vaccination is the work of Edward Jenner against smallpox. Regardless of whether
vaccines target viruses or bacteria, the main duty of vaccines is to stimulate the body’s immune system by teaching the
system itself to identify the infectious agent.

To teach the body’s immune system, the general idea would be allowing the infectious agent to enter the host’s
body. So, does this mean that if I wanted to be immune against tuberculosis, I should let the causative agent enter my
body? Not exactly.

Consider the following types of vaccines and their respective characteristics below:

A. Live attenuated vaccines – this type of vaccine contains an attenuated or the “weakened” causative agent.
This type of vaccination can provide a lifelong immunity.
B. Inactivated vaccines – this type of vaccine contains the “killed” bacteria or viruses.
C. Sub-unit vaccines – this type of vaccine has “fragments” of the causative agent such as toxoids, virus-like
particles, and polysaccharides.
D. Conjugated vaccines – this vaccine consists the antigen to boost your immune response to a specific causative
agent.
E. Nucleic Acid vaccines – it allows the recipient’s immune system to make the antigen protein itself.
F. Recombinant vector vaccines – genetically modified and a virulent viruses or bacteria produces the desired
antigen.

Whatever type of vaccination, the general principle is the same and that is teaching the immune system to
identify the pathogen and to equip the host with a robust immune system that is capable of warding the actual disease-
causing agent when the system encounters it.

We now know how vaccination works. Generally, vaccination is a better option than curing the disease itself
especially in the developing countries just like ours. Aside from teaching the immune system, the main goal of vaccination
is to achieve herd immunity. When a sufficient percentage in a country’s population has been vaccinated, those
individuals who cannot be vaccinated for some reasons such as allergic reaction to the vaccine itself, are still protected.
Say for example, in a family of five persons, only one individual is not vaccinated for smallpox. Since the persons that
surround the unvaccinated individual cannot develop smallpox for which they are immune to, the unvaccinated individual
cannot contract smallpox and is protected.

Herd immunity is very important as it prevents the occurrence of pandemics. However, if the causative agent is able to
infect an unvaccinated individual, the disease would still be sporadic, and it would not escalate to global scale.
MODULE 6 – ENVIRONMENTAL, APPLIED, AND INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY

POSITIVE FUNCTIONS OF MICROBES IN THE ENVIRONMENT

The living material is composed of different elements such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen
(N), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), iron (Fe), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg). Without
these elements, the living matter would cease to exist. Since the resources in this world are finite, the microorganisms
that we have discussed from the beginning of this course will be beneficial for they can recycle the primary elements
that constitute the living matter.

Organisms have different needs. With that idea, the resources that they also require must also be suited for
them. This can be done with the aid of the different microorganisms. Since microorganisms possess a great deal of
metabolic diversity, the appropriate form of resources is ensured to be available for every type of life.

DIFFERENT BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

A. CARBON CYCLE

 Carbon is an essential element of life since it the building block of all organic compounds.
 The well-known key players in this cycle are plants since they utilize carbon from carbon dioxide through
photosynthesis.
 However, microorganisms such as planktonic algae and cyanobacteria also act as producers because they are the
source of carbon from which marine life is derived.

B. NITROGEN CYCLE

 Aside from carbon, nitrogen is also important for without it, synthesizing proteins, nucleic acids, and other nitrogen-
containing compounds would be impossible.
 This biogeochemical cycle is particularly important in agriculture as certain species of bacteria can fix atmospheric
nitrogen into a usable for plants.
C. SULFUR CYCLE

 Sulfur is one of the elements that constitute the living matter.

 Four amino acids contain sulfur. These amino acids include methionine, cysteine, homocysteine, and taurine.
 Both plants and animals incorporate sulfates to become part of sulfur-containing amino acids for humans and other
animals.

D. OXYGEN CYCLE

 Plants are commonly known to be the key player in photosynthesis.

 Other organisms such as algae and cyanobacteria can also produce oxygen using photosynthesis as well.
 As a matter of fact, 50% of the oxygen on this planet came from algae and cyanobacteria. Without microorganisms,
life would not be possible.

Importance:
- Aside from participating in the different biogeochemical cycles, microorganisms also participate in decomposition. In
some books, this process is referred to as biodegradation.
- Biodegradation allows the breakdown of organic materials to other forms of carbon. Microorganisms decompose an
organic matter to return the elements to the environment.
- Microbes can also be put to good use by using them as detoxifying agents or to degrade pollutants in the process
known as bioremediation. One example would be the use of microbes in the Alaskan beach following the Exxon Valdez
oil spill in 1989.
- Aside from using them as cleaning agents, they can also be used in composting to make humus and when garbage is
placed in an anaerobic condition, the bacterial activity of methanogens can produce methane which is good for
producing electricity and heat.

THE IMPACT OF FOOD AND INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY

A. FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
This is a field of applied microbiology that is focused on studying microorganisms and their impacts on foods
and beverages. This branch of microbiology enabled the following:

 Promulgation and adoption of food safety standards and organizations that would monitor food safety.
  Advancement of food preservation techniques.
 Developing nutritional food and beverage products by using different types of bacteria.

B. INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY
Just like food microbiology, this is also a field of applied microbiology that puts beneficial bacteria to be applied in
industrial applications. This applied microbiology enabled humanity to:

 Develop methods to apply fermentation on a large scale.

 Mass produce xanthan, amino acids, vitamins, citric acid, enzymes used in manufacturing and medical fields,
vaccines, antibiotics, and steroids.
 Find alternative sources of energy in organic wastes.
 Advance the application of recombinant DNA.
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
SCI212 – ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY THE DIFFERENT ORGAN SYSTEMS OF THE
HUMAN BODY WITH THEIR COMPOSITIONS AND
MODULE 1 – BODY PLAN & ORGANIZATION FUNCTIONS
The different morphological structures that are
present inside your body and how these structures are INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
intricately organized in order to perform complex
functions. Life processes of the human body are
maintained at several levels of structural organization.
These include the chemical, cellular, tissue, organ,
organ system, and the organism level. Higher levels of
organization are built from lower levels. Therefore,
molecules combine to form cells, cells combine to form
tissues, tissues combine to form organs, organs
combine to form organ systems, and organ systems
combine to form organisms.
Aside from learning those structures, you will
encounter terminologies that are unique to this course
alone, these terminologies will guide you on how to
locate different parts of the body as you study their 1. Forms the external body covering
anatomy and where they are located in the body. 2. Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes
vitamin D
Lesson 1 – An Introduction to the Human Body
Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands,
Your body is made up of different parts that are hair, and nails.
interdependent with each other, thus, one part cannot
function without the other, hence called a system. SKELETAL SYSTEM

An organ system is a group of organs that

functions together to perform a specific task in an
organism's body. Most animals and plants have organs,
which are composed of groups of tissues such as the
heart that work together to perform one function.
Although each organ system is unique anatomically,
however, their functions considerably overlapped for
they work collaboratively to carry out the task.
Malfunctioning of one part of the system can lead to
disability and death. Humans and other mammals
have many organ systems.
In the human body, there are about eleven (11)
organ systems, however, some biologist adds the 1. Protects and supports body organs
immune system to this list to make a total of twelve (12) 2. Provides the framework for muscles
organ systems, but most people consider the immune 3. Site of blood cell formation
system to be a part of the lymphatic system. You may 4. Stores minerals (calcium, phosphorous)
also find sources where the lymphatic and immune
systems are both included within the circulatory system, Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments.
which would give us a total of ten (10) organ systems.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Other sources consider the vestibular system (the
organs of balance) and the neurotransmitter system
(chemicals that control our moods, memory, appetite,
sleep, etc.) an organ system, which would add up to
thirteen (13) organ systems.
Regardless of how you separate the different
organ systems within the human body, as you study
these systems, keep in mind that an organ or structure
that is included in one system may also be included in
another. For example, the testes and ovaries produce
hormones and are therefore part of the endocrine
system; however, these same structures are also
involved in reproduction and thus are included in the
reproductive system.
1. Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
and facial expression
2. Maintains posture
3. Produces heat (thermogenesis)

Composed of muscles and tendons.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. The heart pumps bloods

2. The blood vessels transport blood throughout the
body
3. Blood transports nutrients, respiratory gases,
wastes, hormones throughout the body

1. Is the fast-acting control system of the body Composed of the heart and blood vessels.
2. Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and
glands LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

1. Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns

1. Regulate processes such as growth, reproduction,
and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Composed of various hormone- secreting glands
(pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas).
it to blood
2. Prevents edema
3. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
4. Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen,
lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide
Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter
the blood.
2. Eliminates indigestible food stuffs as feces.
Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus,
salivary glands, pancreas, and liver.
URINARY SYSTEM
1. Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body.
2. Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the
blood.
Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
and urethra.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Main function is the production of offspring
2. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
3. Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization
and development of the fetus
4. Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the
newborn
Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine
tubes, uterus, and vagina.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Main function is the production of offspring
2. Testes produce sperm and make sex hormones
3. Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female
reproductive tract
Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes,
scrotum, and ductus deferens.
Lesson 2 – An overview of Anatomy and Physiology
The human body comprises of numerous
diverse parts. It is exceedingly complex, both in terms
of structure and function. Generally, the human body
shows up to operate as a single unit. Be that as it may,
it is made up of numerous distinctive parts whose
capacities are dependent on one another. Diverse body
parts perform diverse capacities which are now and
then related. For the body to be healthy and sound, all
the different parts have to function normally.
ANATOMY
Human Anatomy is the scientific study of the
body’s structures. A few of these structures are
exceptionally minute and can be seen and analyzed
with the help of a microscope. Other bigger structures
can promptly be seen, controlled, measured, and
weighed. The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek
word anatome meaning “to cut apart.” Human anatomy
began by examining the exterior part of the wounded
body of the warrior. Later, doctors were permitted to
dismember bodies of the dead to expand their
knowledge. When a body is dismembered, its structures
are cut separately and were observed by studying their
physical properties and their connections to one
another. Dismemberment is still employed in medical
schools, life structures courses, and in pathology labs.
In order to study structures in living individuals, be that
as it may, a number of imaging strategies have been
created. These techniques permit medical practitioners
and scientists to see internal structures in the living
body.
There are two major division of Anatomy.
Gross anatomy (plainly visible), is the study about
large anatomical structures that can be seen by the
naked eye, such as the outside and inside of a particular
organ (Figure 1a.). Some books refer this division as
Macro anatomy. Micro- anatomy on the other hand,
is the study of structures that incorporates cytology
which is the study of cells and histology, the study about
tissues (Figure 1b). As the innovation of microscopes
has progressed, anatomists have been able to observe
minute structures of the body, from fractions of huge
structures just like the stomach, to the three-
dimensional structures of atoms within the body.
Subdivided three different fields of Gross Anatomy:
Surface anatomy (or superficial anatomy), the study of
external anatomical features without doing a dissection.
This field is used also to gauge the position and
structure of deeper organs, tissues, and systems.
Regional anatomy, the study on a particular external
and internal regions of the body (such as the chest or
abdomen) and how different systems work together in
that region.
Systemic anatomy focuses on the anatomy of different
organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system or
respiratory system.
Human Heart
Heart tissue
Microscopic anatomy can be subdivided into
specialties:
Cytology- analyzes the internal structure of individual
cells.
Histology- examines tissues and organs.
The human body has numerous layers of
organization. Organic frameworks comprise of organs
that comprise of tissues, and tissue in turn is made up
of cells and connective tissue. Thus, studying
microscopic anatomy permits us to focus on tissues and
cells. Further, anatomy utilize both invasive and non-
invasive methods in gathering data around various
organs and frameworks of the body. Such methods are
dissection (cutting of the body to study its structure) and
endoscopy (the use of adaptable tube with a light and
camera to study inner organs).
PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology examines the function of
anatomical structures; it considers the physical and
chemical processes responsible. Further, Physiology is
the scientific study of functions of living systems. It
centers on how biomolecules, cells, tissues, organs and
organ systems work as a unit and tries to understand
the mechanical, physical and biochemical components
that keep the human body alive.
Important subfields of Physiology:
a. Human physiology is the study of the functions of the
human body.
e.g. How the body absorbs food and nutrients
b. Cell physiology is the study of the functions of living
cells.
e.g. cellular respiration
c. Special physiology is the study of the physiology of
specific organs.
e.g. How the heart pumps blood for circulation
d. Pathology studies the effects of disease on organ or
system functions
e.g. occurrence of cancer
In general, anatomy deals with how all parts of
the human body interact to form a functional whole,
while physiology is concerned with the way those parts
function together. Let us take for example, the small
intestine, anatomy studies the type of tissues found in
it, while physiology studies the absorption process
taking place in the small intestine. If we are going to
look into the whole perspective of anatomy and
physiology, both are separate studies, though they are
often taught together. Anatomy and physiology study
about diverse viewpoints of human science, together
they give a more complete picture of what the human
body is and how it works.
 e.g. Circulation of blood inside the human heart
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN
BODY
Have you ever wonder what makes up your
body? What makes up your brain, heart and your
kidney? How these organs function and interact in
order for you to live normally? Before you begin to study
the different structures and functions of the human
body, it is helpful to consider its fundamental design;
that is, how its minute parts are collected together to
form into larger structures. It is convenient to consider
the structures of the body in terms of fundamental levels
of organization that increase in complexity: subatomic
particles, atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues,
organs, organ systems, organisms and biosphere.
Levels of structural organization of the human
body:
The body’s structural organization is often
discussed in terms of six distinct levels of increasing
complexity, from the smallest chemical building blocks
to a peculiar human organism.
Chemical level. Matter is made up of small
units/particles called atoms. It forms all the chemical
substances inside the body. Carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen are examples of atom and
basically, called chemical element. Atom is composed
of subatomic particles with charges such as the proton
which bears the positive charge, electrons-negative
charge and neutrons with no charge at all. In the center
of the atom lies the nucleus which houses both the
protons and neutron, electrons on the other hand, is
found outside the nucleus.
Arrangement of subatomic particles in an atom:
Of the 96 naturally occurring elements on earth,
six of these make up the body of an organism. They
have been clearly identified as essential for the proper
functioning of the human body which physiologist have
gained interest. When these atoms come together, they
form a molecule, e.g. water-a molecule that is made up
2 atoms of hydrogen and one oxygen. These molecules
can be simple and complex inside the body for which
they made up entirely the bulk of the body, hence called
biomolecules. Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and many
more are examples of biomolecules that makes up the
human body.
Cell. The first and most basic level of organization in
the human body is the cellular level. A cell is the basic
unit of life and the smallest unit capable of reproduction.
While cells vary greatly in their structure and function
based on the type of organism, all cells have a few
things in common. They are made up of organic
molecules, contain nucleic acids (such as DNA and
RNA), are filled with fluid called cytoplasm, and have a
membrane made out of lipids, a phospholipid bilayer, in
particular. Cells also contain many structures within the
cytoplasm – a thick solution which fills each cell and
includes all the materials inside the cells including the
organelles, which perform various cellular functions.
These tiny parts of the cell are enclosed with a
membrane and work interdependently with each other
to carry on cellular metabolism. Examples of these
organelles are, Golgi apparatus, endoplastic reticulum,
mitochondria, lysosomes and many more. The cell has
a central nucleus of which its function is to govern the
entire activities of the cell. Chromosomes, are found
inside the nucleus and are responsible in the genetic
make-up of an organism.
Tissues. A tissue is a group of comparative cells and
their extracellular matrix are of the same origin.
Together, they carry out a particular work. Organs are
composing of several tissues.
 4 Major tissue types in the human body
1. Connective tissues. Tissues that functions to bind
and support other tissues and organs in the body.
Additional to their functions, connective tissues serve as
storage of reserve fuel, for protection, insulation,
transport of substance within the body.

Bone marrow tissue

2. Muscle Tissue. Tissue that is compose of cells that

allows organisms to move.

Figure 7. Striated muscle tissue.

3. Epithelial Tissues. These tissues cover the body

surfaces, line body cavities and hollow organs. Glands
are composed of epithelial tissues that functions for
absorption, secretions and excretions.

Figure. 8. Epithelial tissue.

THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
Elements, Atoms, and Molecules
Chemicals play many more roles in life
-Making up our bodies, those of other
organisms, and the physical environment
2.1. Living organisms are composed of about 25
chemical elements:
- About 25 different chemical elements
- are essential to life
- Trace Elements
- are essential to life, but occur in
minute amounts
ATOM is the unit of matter, the smallest unit of an
element
ELEMENT is the substance composed of atoms having
an identical number of protons in each nucleus.
Elements cannot be reduced to simpler substances by
normal chemical means.
CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND NITROGEN
-make up the bulk of living matter
2.2 Trace elements are common additives to food
and water
- Dietary deficiencies in trace elements
- can cause various physiological
conditions
2.3. Elements can combine to form compounds
- Chemical elements
- combine in fixed ratios to form
compounds (e.g. Sodium + Chlorine = Sodium Chloride)
2.4. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and
electrons
Atom – the smallest particle of matter that still
retains the properties of an element
Subatomic Particles:
- an atom is made up of protons and neutrons located
in a central nucleus
- nucleus is surrounded by electrons
- arranged in electron shells
Differences in Element
- Atoms of each element
- are distinguished by a specific number of
protons
Isotopes
- the number of neutrons in an atom may vary
-variant forms of an element are called isotopes
- some isotopes are radioactive
2.5. Radioactive isotopes can help or harm us
- radioactive isotopes are useful as tracers
- for monitoring the fate of atoms in living
organisms
Basic Research
• Biologists often use radioactive tracers
- To follow molecules as they undergo chemical
changes in an organism
Medical Diagnosis
 • Radioactive tracers are often used for Covalent Bond join atoms into molecules through
diagnosis Electron sharing.
- In combination with sophisticated imaging instruments - In covalent bonds, two atoms share one or more pairs
of outer shell electrons, forming molecules

How brain function is studied now? PET, CAT, MRI, etc.

- hearing
- speaking
- seeing
- thinking about words
- music appreciation

2.6. Electron arrangement determines the chemical

properties of an atom
- Electrons in an atom
- are arranged in shells, which may contain
different numbers of electrons

Sharing of electrons may be EQUAL or UNEQUAL

- a molecule is nonpolar
- when its covalently bonded atoms share
electrons equally
Atoms whose shells are not full, tend to interact with
other atoms and gain, lose, or share electrons. These
interactions form chemical bonds.

Types of chemical bonds:

1. Ionic bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Hydrogen bond

Ionic Bonds are attractions between ions of opposite

charge
- When atoms gain or lose electrons
- Charged atoms called ions are created
- in a polar molecule
- electrons are shared unequally between
atoms, creating a polar covalent bond

- Sodium and chloride ions

- bond to form sodium chloride, common table
salt
- an electrical attraction between ions with opposite Hydrogen Bonds are weak bonds important in the
charges chemistry of life
- results in an ionic bond - the charged regions on water molecules are attracted
to the oppositely charged regions on nearby molecules
 Hydrogen bonding occurs in other biologically
important compounds such as proteins and DNA.
4 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
1) Synthesis when two or more atoms or reactants
bond to form a new, more complex structure.
Synthesis requires energy and is important to
the growth of body parts.
2) Decomposition the opposite of synthesis
3) Single Replacement
4) Double Replacement
• Catalysts affect the speed of a reaction but is
not consumed by the reaction.
• Electrolytes contains electrically charged
particles (ions), it will conduct an electric
current. When electrically charged ions
disassociate in water, the solution will conduct
electricity. Example: Salt water
2.3. Chemical Constituents of Cells
2 types of chemicals:
1. Organic must contain carbon and hydrogen but
may contain other elements as well. (C6H12O6)
Living things or once living things.
2. Inorganic all the other compounds (H20) do
NOT contain C.
- Inorganic compounds:
- water
- oxygen
- carbon dioxide
- salts
WATER
- Surrounds ¾ of the Earth’s surface
- Makes up almost 70% of human’s body
- Can be used for recreation
- Supplies body with essential minerals
- Helps in maintaining homeostasis
- Serves as habitat for aquatic organisms
- Used in food preparation
- Used for hygienic purposes
- Source of oxygen
- Source of energy (e.g. hydroelectric power plants)
Essential Minerals
• are inorganic substances that exist naturally on
and in the earth
• 14 minerals that have been shown by research
to be essential to human health are: calcium,
chromium, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron,
magnesium, manganese, molybdenum,
phosphorus, potassium, selenium, sodium and
zinc
• “Essential” because they comprise human
tissue
• Good sources of essential minerals include
fruits, vegetables, meats, nuts, beans and dairy
products.
• Varying amounts of minerals can be obtained
from WATER
Importance of minerals in body
• crucial to the growth and production of bones,
teeth, hair, blood, nerves, skin, vitamins,
enzymes and hormones
• For healthy functioning of nerve transmission
• blood circulation
• cellular integrity
• energy production and muscle contraction
Water’s Life-supporting properties
- Water is the solvent of life
- Polar or charged solutes dissolve when water
molecules surround them, forming aqueous solutions
- Hydrogen bonds make liquid water cohesive
- Due to hydrogen bonding
- water molecules can move from a
plant’s roots to its leaves by adhesion
- insects’ can walk on water due to surface
tension
- created by cohesive water molecules
- Water’s hydrogen bonds regulate temperature
- water’s ability to store heat (high heat
capacity)
- moderates body temperature and
climate
- it takes a lot of energy to disrupt hydrogen
bonds
- so water is able to absorb a great deal
of heat energy without a large increase in temperature
- as water cools
- a slight drop in temperature releases
a large amount of heat
- Water has high heat of vaporization
- a water molecule takes energy with it when it
evaporates
- leading to evaporative cooling
Storm Turns Focus to Global Warming
Is the rash of powerful Atlantic storms in recent
years a symptom of global warming?
Some scientists have maintained that the rise in mean
global temperatures over the last half a century — a
well-documented trend widely linked to human activities
such as the burning of fossil fuels — will inevitably have
an effect on storms.
- Ice is less dense than liquid water
- hydrogen bonds hold molecules in ice farther
apart than in liquid water
- ice is therefore less dense than liquid water
which cause it to float
- floating ice protects lakes and oceans ffrom
freezing solid
 8. Threonine
9. Asparagine
10. Glycine
11. Methionine
12. Tryptophan
13. Aspartic acid
14. Histidine
15. Phenylalanine
16. Tyrosine
Oxygen
17. Cysteine
• Releases energy from glucose and other
18. Isoleucine
nutrients.
19. Proline
• This energy drives metabolism.
20. Valine
Carbon Dioxide
(NOTE: the 8 essential amino acids are in red. These
• It is an inorganic substance that is a metabolic
cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be
waste product, exhaled from the lungs
obtained from food. Arginine and histidine are essential
only for children.)
Salts
• Provide a variety of ions that metabolic
Nucleic Acids
processes require.
• Nucleic acids form genes and take part in
protein synthesis.
• They contain the elements C, H, O, N, P
Organic Compounds
• The building blocks are called nucleotides.
1. Carbohydrates
• Nucleic acids are of two major types: DNA (with
2. Lipids
deoxyribose) and RNA (with ribose).
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids
DNA & RNA
Carbohydrates
Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Supply most of the energy needed by cells
stores the molecular code in genes.
• How many strands does it have? 2
Composed of what 3 elements? C, H, O
 Deoxy means without Oxygen
1) Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
2) Disaccharides are two sugars joined together
Ribonucleic acid: RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in
3) Polysaccharides, such as starch, are built of
protein synthesis.
many sugars.
• How many strands does it have? 1
• Humans synthesize the complex carbohydrate
called glycogen.
Acids, bases and salts
ACIDS AND BASES
Proteins
• pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. It indicates how
• Proteins have a great variety of functions in the
acidic something is.
body---as structural materials, as energy
• Acids have pH less than 7
sources, as certain hormones, as receptors on
• Neutral pH equal to 7
cell membranes, as antibodies, and as
• Bases have pH greater than 7
enzymes to catalyze metabolic reactions.
• Proteins contain what 4 elements? C, H, O, N
Living organisms are sensitive to acidic and basic
Sometimes S
conditions:
• Building blocks of proteins are the amino acids
(20)
Acid = An ionic compound that releases H+ ions in
• Proteins have complex shapes held together by
solution
hydrogen bonds. (their many shapes changes
Base = An ionic compound that accepts H+ ions or
their functions)
produces OH- ions in solution
• Protein shapes, which determine how proteins
• Acidity is measured on the pH scale
function, can be altered by pH, temperature,
from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic
radiation, or chemicals. H bonds break this is
or alkaline)
called denatured.

Amino Acids
1. Alanine
2. Glutamic Acid
3. Leucine
4. Serine
5. Arginine
6. Glutamine
7. Lysine
 2. Acids, bases and salts when dissolved in
water serve as electrolytes.
3. Salts are abundant in our body in the form of
different body fluids like sweat and tears.

Electrolytes
• the elements necessary for electrochemical
activity in our body
• Water (H20) – and the three minerals sodium,
potassium and chloride are all necessary for the
transmission of electrical impulses between
cells

THE pH SCALE CHEMICAL REACTIONS

- the pH of most cells is kept close to 7 (neutral) by 2.17 Chemical reactions change the composition
buffers of matter
- Buffers are substances that resist pH change - in a chemical reaction
- reactant interact, atoms rearrange, and
products result

- living cells carry out thousands of chemical reactions

that rearrange matter in significant ways

Beta-carotene → Vitamin A (2 molecules)

- Acid precipitation threatens the environment

- Some ecosystems are threatened by acid
precipitation
- Acid precipitation is formed when air pollutant
from burning fossil fuels
- Combine with water vapor in the air t
form sulfuric and nitric acids This is the general equation for
- can kill trees and damage buildings photosynthesis—the process of capturing sunlight
energy and converting it to chemical energy.
Salts
- formed when an acid and a base react with one
another neutralizing the concentration of H+ ions
- process is called neutralization

HCl (acid) + NaOH (base) = NaCl + water (salt)

Acetic Acid + NaOH = Sodium Acetate + water

Importance of acids, bases and salts in living

organisms:
1. Life processes occur in neutral pH.
CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
The structural and functional characteristics of
different types of cells are determined by the nature of
the proteins present. Cells of various types have
different functions because cell structure and function
are closely related. The generalized cell functions
include movement of substances across the cell
membrane, cell division, and protein synthesis.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal
environment of the body within narrow and rigidly
controlled limits. The major functions important in the
maintenance of homeostasis are fluid and electrolyte
balance, acid-base regulation, thermoregulation, and
metabolic control.
Lesson 1 – Cell Structure and Function
Cells are not only the building blocks of the
organisms; they are also the functional units of life. Life
passes from one generation to the next in the form of
cells. Cells are complex, and their components perform
various functions in an organism. They are of different
shapes and sizes. The body of the organisms is made
up of cells of different shapes and sizes. Cells comprise
several cell organelles that perform specialized
functions to carry out life processes. Every organelle
has a specific structure.
Cells are grouped into tissues, tissues into
organs and organs into organ systems. Different types
of tissues, organs and organ system results in division
of labor or performance of different functions of the body
by specialized structures.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL
A cell performs these major functions essential
for the growth and development of an organism.
1. Provides Support and Structure of the Body.
Cells form the structural basis of all the
organisms. Cell wall and the cell membrane are the
main parts that function to provide support and structure
to the organism.
2. Allows Transport of Substances.
Various nutrients are carried by the cells to
transport various chemical processes inside the cells.
The waste produced by the chemical processes is
removed from the cells by active and passive transport.
In passive transport, small molecules such as oxygen
and carbon dioxide are diffused across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. In active
transport, the larger molecules are diffused across the
cell membrane where the cells require a lot of energy to
transport the substances.
3. Energy Production
Cells need energy to carry out various chemical
processes. The energy is produced by the cells through
a process called photosynthesis in plants and
respiration in animals.
4. Facilitates Growth through Mitosis
In mitosis, the parent cell divides into the
daughter cells. The cells multiply and facilitate the
growth in an organism.
5. Helps in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the
processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is called
as asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to
form daughter cells. Meiosis makes the daughter cells
to be genetically different from the parent cells.
That is why cells are known as the structural and
functional unit of life. This is because cells are
responsible for providing structure to the organisms and
performs several functions necessary for carrying out
life’s processes.
Different types of animal cells
1. Skin cells of animals mostly consist of keratinocytes
and melanocytes – ‘cyte’ meaning cell. Keratinocytes
make up around 90% of all skin cells and produce
a protein called ‘keratin’. The keratin in skin cells helps
to make skin an effective layer of protection for the
body. Keratin also makes hair and nails. Melanocytes
are the second main type of skin cell. They produce a
compound called ‘melanin’ which gives skin its color.
Melanocytes sit underneath keratinocytes in a lower
layer of skin cells and the melanin they produce is
transported up to the surface layers of cells. The more
melanocytes you have in your skin, the darker your skin
is.
2. Muscle cells. Myocytes, muscle fibers or muscle
cells are long tubular cells responsible for moving an
organism’s limbs and organs. Muscle cells can be either
skeletal muscle cells, cardiac muscle cells or smooth
muscle cells. Skeletal muscle cells are the most
common type of muscle cells and are responsible for
making general, conscious movements of the body.
Cardiac muscle cells control contractions of heart by
generating electrical impulses and smooth muscle
cells control subconscious movements of tissues such
as blood vessels, the uterus, and the stomach.
3. Blood cells can be split into red and white blood
cells. Red blood cells make up around 99.9% of all
blood cells and are responsible for delivering oxygen
from the lungs to the rest of the body. Red blood cells
are the only animal cells that do not have a nucleus.
White blood cells are a vital part of an animal’s
immune system and help to battle infections by killing
off damaging bacteria and other compounds.
4. Nerve cells also called neurons, are the main cells
of the nervous system. The human brain alone has
around 100 billion nerve cells. They are the message
carriers of animal cells and deliver and receive signals
using dendrites and axons. Dendrites and axons are
extensions from the cell that receive and export signals
to and from the cell, respectively.
5. Fat cells, also known as adipocytes or lipocytes, are
used to store fats and other lipids as energy reserves.
There are two common types of fat cells in animals –
white fat cells and brown fat cells. The main difference
between the two cell types is the way they store lipids.
White fat cells have one large lipid drop whereas in
brown fat cells there are multiple, smaller lipid droplets
spread through the cell.
Lesson 2 – The Cell Membrane
CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane, also called the plasma
membrane, is a thin layer that surrounds
the cytoplasm of all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells,
including plant and animal cells. It is a selectively
permeable cell organelle, allowing certain substances
inside the cell while preventing others to pass through.
It also serves as the site of attachment for the
cytoskeleton that helps to provide shape and support to
the cell.
A cell membrane is composed of lipids and proteins.
The composition fluctuates based on fluidity, external
environment, and in the different stages of development
of the cell.
CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
The main components that make up all cell
membranes are lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Their proportions vary between different types of
eukaryotic cells, but their basic characteristics remain
the same. Lipids form the core of all membranes. Lipids
are ideally suited to a barrier function because they are
hydrophobic (they repel water and anything dissolved
in it). Proteins allow cells to interact and communicate
with each other, and they provide pathways that allow
water and hydrophilic molecules to cross the lipid core.
Carbohydrates are found on the outside surface of cells.
For a typical human cell, proteins account for about 50
percent of the composition by mass, lipids account for
about 40 percent, and the remaining 10 percent comes
from carbohydrate molecules.
MEMBRANE COMPOSITION
1. Lipids is one of the main components of the cell
membrane that makes up the cell’s structural
framework. Membrane lipids are composed of the
following types:
a) Phospholipid: Major component of the cell
membrane forming a bilayer structure. The
hydrophilic (water-loving) head of
phospholipids points towards the inner
cytoplasmic side and outer extracellular fluid.
While the hydrophobic (water-hating) tail faces
away from them. This lipid bilayer is semi-
permeable, meaning that it allows only certain
molecules to diffuse across the membrane.
b) Cholesterol is the second most common
membrane lipid. They are selectively dispersed
between phospholipid molecules. They are
also hydrophobic but contains a polar hydroxyl
group and that draws it to the bilayer’s outer
surface, where it is found between adjacent
phospholipids. Cholesterol works by preventing
phospholipids from being too closely packed
thus preventing the cell membrane from
becoming stiff.
c) Glycolipids: The outer leaflet of the bilayer
contains glycolipids, a minor but physiologically
significant lipid type comprising a fatty acid tail
coupled via sphingosine to a carbohydrate
head group. Glycolipids create a carbohydrate
cell coat that is involved in cell-to-cell
interactions and conveys antigenicity.
2. Proteins. It is the second major part of the cell
membrane, its function is to help ions and other charge
molecules cross the lipid barrier. Membrane proteins
also allow for intercellular communication and provide
cells with sensory information about the external
environment. The two main categories of membrane
proteins are:
a) Integral Membrane Proteins: Also called
intrinsic proteins, they penetrate the lipid core
and permanently embedded within the cell
membrane. Structurally, the integral proteins
are hydrophobic in nature that penetrates the
phospholipid bilayer, thus anchoring the protein
to the membrane.
b) Peripheral Membrane Proteins: Also called
extrinsic proteins, they are only temporarily
associated with the membrane. Most peripheral
membrane proteins are hydrophilic, so they are
usually attached to integral membrane proteins
or are loosely bound to the phospholipid head
group. They help in cell signaling and are often
associated with ion channels and
transmembrane receptors. Peripheral proteins
are associated with both the intracellular and
extracellular plasma membrane surface.
c) Intracellular. Proteins that are localize to the
intracellular surface include many enzymes,
regulatory subunits of ion channels, receptors,
and transporters.
d) Extracellular. Proteins located on the
extracellular surface are enzymes, antigens,
and adhesion molecules.
3. Carbohydrates is the least abundant component of
the cell membrane. Carbohydrates are found on the
outside surface of cells that exists in either of the
following two forms:
 a) Glycoproteins: Proteins having carbohydrate
chains attached to them. They are embedded
within the cell membrane and are important in
cell-to-cell communications and transport of
substances across the membrane.
b) Glycolipids: Lipids having carbohydrate chains
attached to them. They are located on the
surface of the cell membrane, extending from
the phospholipid bilayer into the extracellular
environment. Glycolipids help to maintain
membrane stability and to facilitate cellular
recognition and cell-to-cell communication.
CELL MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS:
Primary Role
Selectively Permeable: Creates a potential gradient
across the membrane that allows small uncharged
molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water
as well as hydrophobic substances such as lipids to get
through the membrane passively inside the cell without
any loss of metabolic energy. While charged ions such
as sodium, potassium, and calcium as well as large
molecules like amino acid and carbohydrates cannot
pass through. This is important for the cell to preserve
its internal milieu irrespective of any environmental
changes and thus is the main function of the cell
membrane.
Other Functions
 Protection and Cell Defense: Insulates the
interior of the cell and provides mechanical
support from outside shock and harmful agents
 Maintaining Homeostasis: Determines the
internal milieu of the cell, the physiological
conditions such as temperature and osmotic
pressure by maintaining the salt balance
 Maintaining Concentration Gradient: Maintains
the differences in concentration of substances
inside and outside the cell thus helping in their
transport
 Signal Transduction: Receives and processes
the extracellular signals by receptor molecules
present in the cell membrane and relay them
inside the cell for necessary actions
 Catalysis of Chemical Reactions: Stimulates
chemical reactions that help in the growth and
metabolism of the cell using enzymes
 Cell Communication: Allows exchange
(receiving and sending) of messages between
adjacent cells, thus helping them to function in
a coordinated fashion.
 Adaptation and Response: Helping to sense the
extracellular environment and thus regulating
the fluidity of the cell membranes by altering the
lipid of the cell
 Maintaining Cell Shape and Morphology: Acting
as the base of attachment for the cytoskeleton
that helps in cell movement
Movement of Substances through the Cell
Membrane
Cell membranes are selectively
permeable, meaning that they allow some substances,
but not others, to pass into or out of the cells.
Intracellular material has a different composition than
extra-cellular material, and the cell’s survival depends
on maintaining the difference. Substances such as
enzymes, glycogen, and potassium ions (K+) are found
at higher concentrations intracellularly, whereas Na +,
Ca 2+, and Cl− are found in greater concentrations
extracellularly. In addition, nutrients must enter cells
continually, and waste products must exit. Because of
the permeability characteristics of cell membranes and
their ability to transport certain molecules, cells are able
to maintain proper intracellular concentrations of
molecules.
Movement through the cell membrane may be
passive or active. Passive membrane transport does
not require the cell to expend energy.
Active membrane transport does require the
cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
Passive membrane transport mechanisms
include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Diffusion results from the natural, constant random
motion of all solutes in a solution. More solute particles
occur in an area of higher concentration than in an area
of lower concentration. Because particles move
randomly, the chances are greater that solute particles
will move from the higher toward the lower con-
centration than from the lower toward the higher
concentration. A concentration gradient is the
difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent
between two points divided by the distance between the
two points. The concentration gradient is said to be
steeper when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small. When we say that a
substance moves down (or with) the concentration
gradient, we mean that solutes are diffusing from a
higher toward a lower concentration of solutes. When
we say that a solute moves up (or against) its
concentration gradient, this means that the substance
moves from an area of lower solute concentration to an
area of higher solute concentration. In the body,
diffusion is an important means of transporting
substances through the extracellular and intracellular
fluids. In addition, substances, such as nutrients and
some waste products, can diffuse into and out of the
cell. The normal intracellular concentrations of many
substances depend on diffusion. For example, if the
extracellular concentration of O2 is reduced, not enough
O2 diffuses into the cell, and the cell cannot function
normally.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane, from a region of higher water concentration
to one of lower water concentration. Even though water
is a polar molecule, it is small enough that it can move
across the cell membrane by passing either between
the phospholipid molecules or through water channels.
Osmosis is important to cells because large volume
changes caused by water movement can disrupt normal
cell functions. Osmosis occurs when the cell membrane
is less permeable, selectively permeable, or not
permeable to solutes and a concentration gradient for
water exists across the cell membrane. Water diffuses
from a solution with a higher water concentration across
the cell membrane into a solution with a lower water
con-centration. The ability to predict the direction of
water movement across the cell membrane depends on
knowing which solution on either side of the membrane
has the higher water concentration. The concentration
of a solution, however, is expressed not in terms of
water, but in terms of solute concentration. For
example, if sugar solution A is more concentrated than
sugar solution B, then solution A has more sugar
(solute) than solution B. As the concentration of a
solution increases, the amount of water (solvent)
proportionately decreases. Water diffuses from the less
concentrated solution B (less sugar, more water), into
the more concentrated solution A (more sugar, less
water). In other words, water diffuses toward areas of
high solute concentration and dilutes those solutes.
Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent the
movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane. Thus, osmotic pressure is a measure of the
tendency of water to move by osmosis across a
selectively permeable membrane. When placed into a
solution, a cell may swell, remain unchanged, or shrink,
depending on the concentration gradient between the
solution and the cell’s cytoplasm. A hypotonic
(under) solution usually has a lower concentration of
solutes and a higher concentration of water relative to
the cytoplasm of the cell. Thus, the solution has less
tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell. Water moves
by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell. If the cell
swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis.
When a cell is immersed in an isotonic (equal) solution,
the concentrations of various solutes and water are the
same on both sides of the cell membrane. The cell
therefore neither shrinks nor swells. When a cell is
immersed in a hypertonic (above) solution, the
solution usually has a higher concentration of solutes
and a lower concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell. Water moves by osmosis from the
cell into the hypertonic When placed into a solution, a
cell may swell, remain unchanged, or shrink, depending
on the concentration gradient between the solution and
the cell’s cytoplasm.
Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated
transport process that moves substances across the
cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration of that substance.
Because movement is with the concentration gradient,
metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not required.
Active membrane transport mechanisms include
active transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Active transport is a carrier-mediated process
that moves substances across the cell membrane from
regions of lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration gradient.
Consequently, active transport processes accumulate
substances on one side of the cell membrane at
concentrations many times greater than those on the
other side.
Secondary active transport involves the
active transport of one substance, such as Na+, across
the cell membrane, establishing a concentration
gradient. The diffusion of that transported substance
down its concentration gradient provides the energy to
transport a second substance, such as glucose, across
the cell membrane. In cotransport, the diffusing
substance moves in the same direction as the
transported substance; in counter transport, the
diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that
of the transported substance.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis. Endocytosis is the
uptake of material through the cell membrane by the
formation of a vesicle. The cell membrane invaginates
(folds inward) to form a vesicle containing the material
to be taken into the cell. The vesicle then moves into the
cytoplasm. Endocytosis usually exhibits specificity. The
cell membrane contains specific receptor molecules
that bind to specific sub-stances. When a specific
substance binds to the receptor molecule, endocytosis
is triggered, and the substance is transported into the
cell. This process is called receptor-mediated
endocytosis. Cholesterol and growth factors are
examples of molecules that can be taken into a cell by
receptor-mediated endocytosis. Bacterial phagocytosis
is also receptor-mediated. The
term phagocytosis (cell-eating) is often used for
endocytosis when solid particles are ingested. A part of
the cell membrane extends around a particle and fuses
so that the particle is surrounded by the membrane.
That part of the membrane then “pinches off” to form a
vesicle containing the particle. The vesicle is now within
the cytoplasm of the cell, and the cell membrane is left
intact. Phagocytosis is an important means by which
white blood cells take up and destroy harmful
substances that have entered the body. Pinocytosis
(cell-drinking) is distinguished from phagocytosis in that
much smaller vesicles are formed, and they contain
liquid rather than particles.
In some cells, membrane-bound sacs
called secretory vesicles accumulate materials
for release from the cell. The secretory vesicles move
to the cell membrane, where the membrane of the
vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the material
in the vesicle is eliminated from the cell. This process is
called exocytosis (exo, outside).
Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of
digestive enzymes by the pancreas and the
secretion of mucus by the salivary glands.
Lesson 3 – Homeostasis and Homeostatic Mechanisms
HOW BODY TEMPERATURE DECREASES AND
INCREASES:
Response to Body Temperature
Homeostasis is the tendency of biological
systems to maintain relatively constant conditions in the
internal environment while continuously interacting with
and adjusting to changes originating within or outside
the system. Maintaining a stable internal environment is
the responsibility of the autonomic nervous
system(ANS). The ANS is organized similarly to the
somatic nervous system and uses many of the same
neural pathways. Internal sensory receptors gather
information about blood pressure (baroreceptors),
blood chemistry (chemoreceptors), and temperature
(thermoreceptors) and relay it to autonomic control
centers in the brain. The principal organs of
homeostasis are the skin, liver, lungs, heart, and
kidneys. The ANS modulates organ function via two
distinct effector pathways: the sympathetic nervous
system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous
system (PSNS). The actions of the SNS and PSNS
often appear antagonistic, but they work in close
coordination with each other.
The maintenance of homeostasis in the body
typically occurs through the use of feedback loops that
control the body’s internal conditions.
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
Feedback occurs when reponse to either a
biotic or abiotic factor has an effect on the person of
some kind (or animal). There are two types of feedback,
negative and positive feedback. Negative feedback is
most common in biological systems, for example: doing
excercise creates metabolic heat which raises the core
temperature of the body, then due to cooling
mechanisms such as flushed skin or sweating begin
and the temperature decreases.
Feedback loop is defined as a system used to control
the level of a variable in which there is an identifiable
receptor (sensor), control center (integrator or
comparator), effectors, and methods of communication.
In feedback loops: Variables are parameters
that are monitored and controlled or affected by the
feedback system. Receptors (sensors) detect changes
in the variable and sends message to the control center
in the form of a chemical signal or a nerve impulse.
Control centers (integrators) compare the variable in
relation to a set point and signal the effectors to
generate a response. Control centers sometimes
consider information other than just the level of the
variable in their decision-making, such as time of day,
age, external conditions, etc. Effectors execute the
necessary changes to adjust the variable, receives
outputs from the control center and produces a
response or effect that changes the condition, nearly
every body organ and tissue can behave an effector.
Methods of communication among the
components of a feedback loop are necessary in order
for it to function. This often occurs through nerves or
hormones, but in some cases receptors and control
centers are the same structures, so that there is no
need for these signaling modes in that part of the loop.
Feedback Cycle is defined as any situation in which a
variable is regulated and the level of the variable
impacts the direction in which the variable changes (i.e.
increases or decreases), even if there is not clearly
identified loop components.
With this terminology in mind, homeostasis then can be
described as the totality of the feedback loops and
feedback cycles that the body incorporates to maintain
a suitable functioning status.
Feedback is a situation when the output or response of
a loop impacts or influences the input or stimulus.
Typically, we divide feedback loops into two main types:
1. positive feedback loops, in which a change in
a given direction causes additional change in the
same direction. For example, an increase in the
concentration of a substance causes feedback
that produces continued increases in
concentration
2. negative feedback loops, in which a change in
a given direction causes change in the opposite
direction. For example, an increase in the
concentration of a substance causes feedback
that ultimately causes the concentration of the
substance to decrease
NEURAL REGULATION
The nervous system plays a critical role in the
regulation of vascular homeostasis. The primary
regulatory sites include the cardiovascular centers in
the brain that control both cardiac and vascular
functions.
THE CARDIOVASCULAR CENTERS IN THE BRAIN
Neurological regulation of blood pressure and
flow depends on the cardiovascular centers located in
the medulla oblongata. This cluster of neurons
responds to changes in blood pressure as well as blood
concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen ions. The cardiovascular center contains
three distinct paired components:
ultimately perfusion: neural, endocrine, and auto
regulatory mechanisms. They are summarized in Figure
below.
Adequate blood flow, blood pressure, distribution,
and perfusion involve auto-regulatory, neural, and
endocrine mechanism.

 The cardioaccelerator centers stimulate cardiac

function by regulating heart rate and stroke
volume via sympathetic stimulation from the
cardiac accelerator nerve.
 The cardioinhibitor centers slow cardiac function
by decreasing heart rate and stroke volume via
parasympathetic stimulation from the vagus
nerve.
 The vasomotor centers control vessel tone or
contraction of the smooth muscle in the tunica
media. Changes in diameter affect peripheral
resistance, pressure, and flow, which affect
cardiac output.

Baroreceptors are specialized stretch receptors

located within thin areas of blood vessels and heart
chambers that respond to the degree of stretch caused
by the presence of blood. They send impulses to the
cardiovascular center to regulate blood pressure.
Vascular baroreceptors are found primarily in sinuses
(small cavities) within the aorta and carotid arteries:
The aortic sinuses are found in the walls of the
ascending aorta just superior to the aortic valve,
whereas the carotid sinuses are in the base of the
internal carotid arteries. There are also low-pressure
baroreceptors located in the walls of the venae cavae
and right atrium.
When blood pressure increases, the baroreceptors are
stretched more tightly and initiate action potentials at a
higher rate. At lower blood pressures, the degree of
stretch is lower and the rate of firing is slower. When the
cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata receives
this input, it triggers a reflex that maintains homeostasis.

 When blood pressure rises too high, the

baroreceptors fire at a higher rate and trigger
parasympathetic stimulation of the heart. As a
result, cardiac output falls.
 When blood pressure drops too low, the rate of
baroreceptor firing decreases. This will trigger an
increase in sympathetic stimulation of the heart,
causing cardiac output to increase.

Chemoreceptors monitor levels of oxygen, carbon

dioxide, and hydrogen ions (pH), and thereby contribute
to vascular homeostasis. Chemoreceptors monitoring
the blood are located in close proximity to the
baroreceptors in the aortic and carotid sinuses. The
chemoreceptors respond to increasing carbon dioxide
and hydrogen ion levels (falling pH) by stimulating the
cardio accelerator and vasomotor centers, increasing
cardiac output and constricting peripheral vessels.

Three homeostatic mechanisms ensure

adequate blood flow, blood pressure, distribution, and
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION PROKARYOTIC CELLS

ATTRIBUTES OF CELLS
a. Plasma membrane
b. DNA
c. Cytoplasm
d. Obtain energy and nutrients from their environment

CELL SIZE
1. 1–100µm
2. Why is there a limit to cell size?
a. Surface-to-volume ratio
b. Distance from surface to center  Have no membrane-bound organelles
 Include true bacteria
 On earth 3.8 million years
 Found nearly everywhere
 Spores in each breath; intestines
 Naturally in soil, air, hot springs

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

CELL TYPES

 Have numerous internal structures

 Various types & forms
 Plants, animals, fungi, protists
 Multicellular organisms

Prokaryotic— no nucleus, circular DNA, ribosomes

Eukaryotic—larger, nucleus, linear chromosomes,
membranous organelles
EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
- Nucleus is control central of the cell
1. Membrane bound (nuclear envelope)
2. contains nucleoli; synthesizes ribosomal
RNA
3. DNA is chromosomes (DNA and proteins)

- Golgi Apparatus are membranous sacs

associated with ER
a. Processing and transport of proteins,
lipids
b. Synthesis and transport of
polysaccharides

- Lysosomes are Golgi-derived vesicles

containing digestive enzymes

EUKARYOTIC CELLS: Organelles

Organelles Energy sources for cell activities
- Endoplasmic Reticulum
- consists of folded membranes - Mitochondria provide energy for cellular
attached to the nucleus functions (respiration)
- Rough ER a. Membrane bound, numerous
- site of protein synthesis and protein b. Matrix/cristae
secretion c. has their own DNA and ribosomes;
self-replicate

- Ribosomes assemble amino acid into

polypeptide chains
a. Associated with the ER
b. Composed of RNA and proteins
 - Chloroplasts – function in photosynthesis
1. Green – contain chlorophyll pigment
2. Stroma/grana (thylakoid stacks)
3. has their own DNA and ribosomes;
self-replicate
4. Up to 100 per cell
EVOLUTION OF EUKARYOTIC CELL
Endosymbiotic Hypothesis
Similarities of bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts:
- self-reproducing by binary fission
- size of organism and genome
- single circular naked DNA
- proportion of (G & C) to (A & T)
- same sized ribosome
- protein synthesis inhibited by antibiotics
- enzymes for synthesis of DNA, RNA and protein
- electron transport system

Plant & Animal Cells

Plant Cells Animal Cells

- Cytoskeleton
- internal infrastructures Cell wall – Both Other organelle
- Surface structures provides constructed not found in
- extensions of the plasma membrane strength & from eukaryotic plants
- aid in movement of simple organisms rigidity cells (lysosomes
formed from
Have Both contain Golgi)
chloroplasts, similar
photosynthetic organelles Centrioles,
important in cell
Both division
surrounded by
cell membrane

VIRUSES
PROKARYOTES & EUKARYOTES - acellular
- not considered to be living
- cause serious diseases in most organisms
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Archaebacteria Both Everything else

and Eubacteria surrounded by
plasma
membrane, but
very different.
CELL MEMBRANE MEMBRANE FAT COMPOSITION VARIES
Fat composition affects flexibility
Cell Membrane - membrane must be fluid & flexible
- cell membrane separates living cell from nonliving - about as fluid as thick salad oil
surroundings - % unsaturated fatty acids in phospholipids
- thin barrier = 8nm thick - keep membrane less viscous
- controls traffic in & out of the cell - cold-adapted organisms, like winter
- selectively permeable wheat
- allows some substances to cross more easily - increase % in autumn
than other - cholesterol in membrane
- hydrophobic vs hydrophilic
- made of phospholipids, proteins & other
macromolecules

Phospholipids
- fatty acid tails
- hydrophobic
- Phosphate group head
- hydrophilic
- arranged as a bilayer

Phospholipid Bilayer
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
Proteins determine membrane’s specific functions
- cell membrane & organelle membranes each
have unique collections of proteins

Membrane proteins

More than lipids:

- peripheral proteins
- locally bound to surface of membrane
- cell surface identity marker (antigens)

In 1972, S.J. Singer & G. Nicolson proposed

that membrane proteins are inserted into the
phospholipid bilayer.

Fluid Mosaic Model – fluid, mosaic

- integral proteins
Membrane is a collage of proteins & other - penetrate lipid bilayer, usually across
molecules embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid whole membrane
bilayer. - transmembrane protein
- transport proteins
- channels, permeases
(pumps)

Why are proteins the perfect molecule to build

structures in the cell membrane?

CLASSES OF AMINO ACIDS

What do these amino acids have in common?

Nonpolar & hydrophobic

 Many Functions of Membrane Proteins

PROTEINS DOMAINS ANCHOR MOLECULE MEMBRANE CARBOHYDRATES

Within membrane
- nonpolar amino acids
- hydrophobic
- anchors protein into membrane

On outer surfaces of membrane

- polar amino acids
- hydrophilic
- extend into extracellular fluid & into
cytosol

Play a key role in cell-cell recognition

- ability of a cell to distinguish one cell from
another
- antigens
- important in organ & tissue development
- basis for rejection of foreign cells by immune
system

Movement across the Cell Membrane

DIFFUSION
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Examples: - governs biological systems
Water channel in bacteria - universe tends towards disorder
(entropy)

Diffusion
- movement from high to low concentration
- “passive transport”
- no energy needed
Proton pump channel in photosynthetic bacteria

Osmosis (movement of water)

Function through conformational change = shape

change
DIFFUSION ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane is the boundary between inside &
outside
- separates cell from its environment

Can it be an impenetrable boundary? NO.

TO

IN food
- carbohydrates
- sugars, proteins
- amino acids
- lipids
- salts, O2, H2O
OUT waste
- ammonia
- salts,
- CO2
- H2O ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- products Cell may need to move molecules against
concentration gradient
DIFFUSION THROUGH PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER - shape change transports solute from one side
What molecules can get through directly? of membrane to other
- fats & other lipids - protein “pump”
- ‘costs” energy = ATP

TO
What molecules cannot get through directly?
- polar molecules
- H20
- ions
- salts, ammonia
- large molecules
- starches, proteins

CHANNELS THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE

Membrane becomes semi-permeable with protein
channels
- specific channels allow specific material Many models & mechanisms
across cell membrane

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Diffusion through protein channels
- channels move specific molecules across cell
membrane
- no energy needed
GETTING THROUGH CELL MEMBRANE
Passive Transport
- Simple Diffusion
- diffusion of nonpolar, hydrophobic
molecules
- lipids
- high to low concentration
- Facilitated transport
- diffusion of polar, hydrophilic
molecules
- through a protein channel
- high to low concentration
gradient OSMOSIS IS DIFFUSION OF WATER
- Water is very important to life, so we talk about water
Active Transport separately
- diffusion against concentration gradient - Diffusion of water from high concentration of water to
- low to high low concentration of water
- uses a protein pump - across a semi-permeable membrane
- requires ATP

TRANSPORT SUMMARY

CONCENTRATION OF WATER
- Direction of osmosis is determined by comparing total
solute concentrations
- Hypertonic – more solute, less water
- Hypotonic – less solute, more water
- Isotonic – equal solute, equal water
HOW ABOUT LARGE MOLECULES?
Moving large molecules into & out of cell Net movement of water
- through vesicles & vacuoles
- endocytosis
- phagocytosis = “cellular eating”
- pinocytosis = “cellular drinking”
- exocytosis

MANAGING WATER BALANCE

- Cell survival depends on balancing water uptake &
loss

Freshwater Balanced Saltwater

ENDOCYTOSIS

- Isotonic
The Special Case of Water - animal cell immersed in mild salt solution
Movement of water across the cell membrane - example: blood cells in blood plasma
- problem: non
- no net movement of water
 - flows across Saltwater
membrane equally, in both directions
- volume of cell is stable

Balanced

AQUAPORINS (1991 | 2003)

Water moves rapidly into & out of cells
- evidence that there were water channels

- Hypotonic
- a cell in fresh water
- example: Paramecium
- problem gains water, swells, & can
burst
- water continually enters
Paramecium cell
- solution: contractile vacuole
Peter Agre (John Hopkins)
- pumps water out of cell
- ATP
- Plant cells
- turgid

Freshwater

Roderick MacKinnon (Rockefeller)

Osmosis
Water regulation
- contractile vacuole in Paramecium

Cell (compared to beaker) – hypertonic

Beaker (compared to cell) – hypotonic
- Hypertonic Which way does the water flow? IN
- a cell in salt water
- example: shellfish
- problem: lose water & die
- solution: take up water or pump our
salt
- plant cells
- plasmolysis = wilt
CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM
Respiration
RESPIRATION is the means by which the energy of
carbohydrates is transferred to ATP and is thus made
available for the immediate energy requirements of the
cell.
Energy-yielding carbohydrate molecules are
generally found stored in plants as sucrose or starch.
The preliminary step to the respiratory sequence is the
hydrolysis of these storage molecules to
monosaccharides. Respiration is generally considered
to begin with glucose, the building block of sucrose and
starch.
GLUCOSE – a common six-carbon sugar (C6H2O6); the
most common monosaccharide in most organisms.
- can be used as a source of energy under
both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
Maximum energy-yields for oxidizable organic
compounds are generally achieved only under aerobic
conditions.
e.g. complete oxidation of glucose:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ------ 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
With oxygen as the ultimate electron acceptor,
this reaction is highly exergonic (means energy-
yielding). This reaction represents the process cell
respiration. When energy is extracted from organic
compounds with the involvement of oxygen, the process
is called fermentation.
Stages of Respiration:
1. Glycolysis – the six-carbon glucose molecule is
broken down to a pair of three-carbon molecules of
pyruvic acid or pyruvate. (Pyruvic acid dissociates,
producing pyruvate and a hydrogen ion. Pyruvic
acid and pyruvate exist in dynamic equilibrium, and
the two terms can be used interchangeably).
2. KrebCycle
3. Electron transport chain
KrebCycle and Electron Transport Chain are the
pyruvate molecules are further broken down to carbon
dioxide and water.
As the glucose is oxidized, some of its energy
is extracted in a series of small, discrete steps and is
stored in the high energy bonds of ATP.
I. GLYCOLYSIS:
 (from glyco meaning “sugar” and lysis
meaning “splitting”).
 It is an anaerobic process that occurs in
the ground substance of the cytoplasm.
 A series of nine steps and each is
catalyzed by a specific enzyme.
 Series of reactions is carried out by
virtually all living cells of organisms.
Note: Note the formation of ATP from ADP and the
formation of NADH2 from NAD. ATP and NADH2
represent the cell’s net energy harvest from this
process.
Steps of Glycolysis:
STEP 1. The first step in glycolysis requires an
input of energy. This activation energy is supplied by
the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP. The terminal phosphate
group is transferred from an ATP molecule to the
glucose molecule, producing glucose 6-phosphate and
ADP is an energy-yielding reaction. Some of the energy
released from the ATP is conserved in the chemical
bond linking the phosphate to the sugar molecule. This
reaction is catalyzed by a specific enzyme the
hexokinase , and each of the reactions that follows is
similarly catalyzed by a different specific enzyme.
STEP 2. In this step, the molecule is rearranged,
again with the help of a particular enzyme. The six –
sided ring characteristics of glucose becomes a five-
sided fructose ring. Glucose and fructose have the
same number of atoms (C6H12O6) and differ only in the
arrangement of their atoms. this reaction can proceed
in either direction; it is pushed forward by the
accumulation of glucose 6-phosphate from step 1 and
the disappearance of fructose 6-phosphate as it enters
step 3.
STEP 3. This step, which is similar to step 1, results
in the attachment of a phosphate to the first carbon of
the fructose molecule, which produces fructose, 1,6-
biphosphate, that is, fructose with phosphates in the 1
and 6 positions. The conversion of the glucose
molecule to the higher energy fructose 1,6-biphosphate
compound is accomplished at the expense of two
molecules of ATP. Thus far, no energy has been
recovered, but the overall yield will more than
compensate for this initial investment.
STEP 4. This is the cleavage step of glycolysis. The
molecule is split into two interconvertible three-carbon
molecules-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and
dihydroxyacetone phosphate. However, because the
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is used up in subsequent
reactions, all of the dehydroxyacetone phosphate is
eventually converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
Thus, all subsequent steps must be considered twice to
account for the fate of each glucose molecule. With the
completion of step 4, the preparatory reactions that
require an input of ATP energy are complete.
STEP 5. Next, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
molecules are oxidized-that is, hydrogen atoms with
their electrons are removed –and NAD is converted to
NADH2. This is the first reaction from which the cell
gains energy. Energy from this oxidation reaction is
also used to attach an additional phosphate group to
what is now the 1 position of each of the glyceraldehyde
molecules. (The designation Pi indicates inorganic
phosphate that is available as a phosphate ion in
solution in the cytoplasm). Note that a high –energy
bond (~) is formed.
 STEP 6. The high-energy phosphate is released
from the glycerate 1,3-biphosphate molecule and is
used to recharge a molecule of ADP (a total of two
molecules of ATP are formed per molecule of glucose).
This is a highly exergonic reaction and pulls all the
previous reactions forward.
STEP 7. The remaining phosphate group is
transferred from the number 3 to the number 2 carbon.
STEP 8. In this step, a molecule of water is removed
from the three-carbon compound, and as a
consequence of this internal rearrangement of the
molecule, a high energy phosphate bond is formed.
STEP 9. The high-energy phosphate is transferred to
a molecule of ADP, forming another molecule of ATP
(again, a total of two molecules of ATP are formed per
molecule of glucose). This is also a highly exergonic
reaction, and so the sequence runs to completion with
an accelerating force.
KREB CYCLE OR TCA
Organisms derive the majority of their energy
from the Kreb's Cycle, also known as the
TCA cycle. The Kreb's Cycle is an aerobic process
consisting of eight definite steps. In order to enter the
Kreb's Cycle pyruvate must first be converted into
Acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex found
in the mitochondria.
In the presence of oxygen organisms are
capable of using the Kreb's Cycle. The reason oxygen
is required is because the NADH and [FADH2] produced
in the Kreb's Cycle are able to be oxydized in the
electron transport chain (ETC) thus replenishing the
supply of NAD+ and [FAD].
The rest of the reaction works to convert the
intermediate remaining (succinyl- CoA) back to the
oxaloacetate which the Krebs cycle turns.
STEP 5. Enough energy is released during
some of the reactions to phosphorylate ADP to form
ATP.
STEP 6. In the conversion of succinate to
fumarate, hydrogen atoms and electrons are
transferred to FAD, forming FADH2.
STEP 7. In the last conversion, which generates
oxaloacetate, hydrogen and electrons are transferred to
NAD+ forming the last NADH molecule in the cycle.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN/
PHOSPHORYLATION:
The proton gradient across the inner
mitochondrial membrane maintained by action of
electron transport chain. Chain consists of 6 proteins
associated with inner mitochondrial membrane:
1. NADH dehydrogenase (complex I)
2. Succinate coenzyme Q reductase (complex II)
3. Coenzyme Q (CoQ) (also called ubiquinone)
4. Cytochrome bc1 complex (complex III)
5. Cytochrome c (Cyt c)
6. Cytochrome oxidase (complex IV)
KREB CYCLE

KREB CYCLE:
Steps of the Kreb Cycle:
STEP 1. As three-carbon pyruvate enters the
mitochondrion, enzymes split away its COO- group
which departs as CO2. Enzymes also transfer a
hydrogen atom and two electrons to NAD+ forming
NADH. The two-carbon molecule remaining is linked to
a coenzyme, forming the intermediate acetyl-CoA.

STEP 2. The two carbon molecule becomes

attached becomes attached to oxaloacetate, the point
of entry into the Krebs cycle, to form the six-carbon
citrate.

STEP 3. Citrate is rearranging into the six-

carbon isocitrate, which is stripped of a hydrogen atom
and electrons that are transferred to NAD+ to form
NADH. It is also stripped of a COO- group, this being
the second CO2 to depart.
STEP 4. The resulting intermediate also gives up
a hydrogen atom and electrons to NAD+, forming
NADH. And it gives up a COO- group, which is the last
CO2 to depart.
Steps
In order for pyruvate from glycolysis to
enter the Kreb's Cycle it must first be converted into
Acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex which is an oxidative process wherein
NADH and CO2 are formed. Another source of
Acetyl-CoA is beta oxidation of fatty acids.
 1. Acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb Cycle when it
is joined to oxaloacetate by citrate synthase
to produce citrate. This process requires
the input of water. Oxaloacetate is the final
metabolite of the Kreb Cycle and it joins
again to start the cycle over again, hence
the name Kreb's Cycle. This is known as Step 2. Two electrons from the reduced FeS proteins
the committed step
are then passed to CoQ along with 2 protons. The CoQ
is thus reduced to CoQH2 (ubiquinol) while the FeS
2. Citrate is then converted into isocitrate by proteins are oxidised back to Fe3+ state. CoQ is small
the enzyme aconitase. This is and lipid soluble so it is mobile in the mitochondrial
accomplished by the removal and addition membrane. It diffuses easily and shuttles the electrons
of water to yield an isomer. to complex III.

3. Isocitrate is converted into alpha-

ketogluterate by isocitrate
dehydrogenase. The byproducts of which
are NADH and CO2.

4. Apha-ketogluterate is then converted into

succynl-CoA by alpha-ketogluterate
dehydrogenase. NADH and CO2 are once
Step 3. Complex III contains cytochrome b, cytochrome
again produced.
c1 and FeS proteins. Like FeS proteins, cytochromes
contain bound Fe atoms (this time the iron is heme).
5. Succynl-CoA is then converted into The iron atoms alternate between +3 and +2 oxidation
succinate by succynl-CoA synthetase states as they pass on the electrons.
which yields one ATP per succynl-CoA. CoQH2 passes 2 electrons to cyt b causing the Fe 3+ to
be reduced to Fe2+. The electrons are passed to the FeS
6. Succinate coverts into fumerate by way of protein and then to cyt c1.
the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase and
[FAD] is reduced to [FADH2] which is a
prosthetic group of succinate
dehydrogenase. Succinate
dehydrogenase is a direct part of the
ETC. It is also known as electron carrier II.
Step 4. Cyt c is another small mobile protein. It accepts
7. Fumerate is then converted to malate by electrons from complex III (Fe3+ is reduced to Fe2+) and
hydration with the use of fumerase. shuttles them to the last electron transport protein in the
chain (complex IV).
8. Malate is converted into oxaloacetate by
malate dehydrogenase the byproducts of
which are NADH.

Step 5: Complex IV contains cytochrome an and

cytochrome a3 (both use Fe and Cu atoms to handle the
electrons). Four cytochrome c molecules pass on 4
electrons to complex IV. These are eventually
transferred with 4 H+ to O2 to form 2 water molecules.

Step 1. NADH binds complex I & passes 2 electrons to

a flavin momonucleotide (FMN) prosthetic group. The
FMN is reduced to FMNH2. Each electron is transferred This is a complex reaction mechanism and no
attempt has been made in the above diagram to explain
with a proton.
how the 4 electrons from 4 Cyt C are conveyed to the
The electrons are then passed to iron-sulphur
O2.
proteins (FeS) in complex I (this is non-heme iron). The
electron is accepted by Fe3+ which is reduced to Fe2+: Complex II actually contains the enzyme
succinate dehydrogenase which catalyses the
reduction of succinate to fumarate (which as we will see
later is a reaction of the so called citric acid cycle). FAD
oxidises succinate to fumarate (FAD becoming reduced
to FADH2 as it picks up 2 electrons and 2 protons).
Succinate dehydrogenase is actually associated with
complex II. FADH2 is oxidised back to FAD by passing
the electrons on to FeS proteins in complex II. The
electrons are then passed to CoQ and are passed on to
complex III as described above in step 3.

Step coenzyme ATP Source of ATP

yield yield

Glycolysis -2 Phosphorylation of
preparatory glucose and
phase fructose 6-
phosphate uses two
ATP from the
cytoplasm.

Glycolysis pay- 4 Substrate-level

off phase phosphorylation

2 NADH 4 (6) Oxidative

phosphorylation.
Only 2 ATP per
NADH since the
coenzyme must
feed into the
electron transport
chain from the
cytoplasm rather
than the
mitochondrial
matrix. If the malate
shuttle is used to
move NADH into the
mitochondria this
might count as 3
ATP per NADH.

Oxidative 2 NADH 6 Oxidative

decarboxylation phosphorylation
of pyruvate

2 Substrate-level
Krebs Cycle phosphorylation

6 NADH 18 Oxidative
phosphorylation

2 FADH2 4 Oxidative
phosphorylation

Total yield 36 (38) From the complete

ATP oxidation of one
glucose molecule to
carbon dioxide and
oxidation of all the
reduced
coenzymes.
CELL STRUCTRURAL ORGANIZATIONS
CELL – the basic structural and functional unit of all
living things.
Functions of the cell:
1. mechanical function
2. chemical function
3. osmotic function – the uptake of materials from the
outside environment
4. specialized function
5. specific functions such as: nutrition; bioenergetics;
biosynthesis; growth; excitability; reproduction
Recent revisions in kingdom classifications is
based upon the radically different cell plans found in
prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
PROKARYOTIC CELL ORGANIZATION:
Average size: 1-10µm, but some bacteria are small as
0.2-0.3µm.
Existence: single; ungrouped cells (unicellular)
- each cells can exist independently of all others
and there is no difference between cells associated
together in a group.
Reproduction:
Binary fission – parent cell divides in half to produce
two equivalent daughter cells in which all the living
material has been partitioned about equally.
Parts:
I. Protoplasm – living part or material of the cell
contains: plasma membrane/plasma lemma –
the only permanent membrane in prokaryotes
two regions: cytoplasm and nucleoid
II. Cell Wall – surrounds the protoplasm; provides
support and shape
Murein – considered to be a secretion of the
living material within the cell and not to be protoplasmic
in nature; chemical composition is peptidoglycan, -
composed of two sugar derivatives, N-acetyl
glucosamine and N-acetyl muramic acid and a small
group of amino acids, consisting of L-alanine, D-
alanine, D-glutamic acid, and either lysine or
diaminopimelic acid.
III. Plasma membrane
- 10 nm thick
- infolded at some sites extending into the
cytoplasm
- in some prokaryotes, blue-green algae and
purple bacteria, the infolded membranes contains
pigments and enzymes that are involve in the light-
capturing processes of photosynthesis.
Prokaryotes are non-compartmentalize –
means prokaryotic cell have no permanent membrane-
bound compartments.
IV. Cytoplasmic Regions:
- contains many kinds of chemicals including
enzymes active in metabolism.
A. Ribosomes – tiny particles compose of RNA and
proteins, and are essential for protein synthesis in cells.
– 15 to 20 nm in diameter and can only
be seen at high magnifications with the electron
microscope.
B. Nucleoid Region – appears as an irregularly-
shaped lighter area within the surrounding cytoplasm.
Each region contains one molecule of DNA.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – represents the
entire set of genes for the species.
- in prokaryotes, it is not complexed
with proteins, but exist instead as a naked double helix
molecule only 2 nm wide but many thousands
nanometers long.
C. Other features are found in some but not true to
all prokaryotes:
a. surrounding sheath or capsule outside the
cell wall.
b. some produced spores
c. some move about by means of flagella.
d. Some produce storage granules or gas
vacuoles.
Capsule – a polysaccharide – containing material lying
outside the cell; play an important role in the attachment
of certain pathogenic microorganisms to their hosts.
Endospores – a differentiated cells formed within the
cells of certain gram-positive bacteria and extremely
resistant to heat as well as to other harmful agents.
Flagella – consist of a single coiled tube of protein
Pili – serves as a specific receptor for certain type of
virus particles; involved also in the attachment to human
tissues by some pathogenic bacteria.
Gas vesicles – are a means of motility allowing cells to
float up and down in a water column in response to
environmental factors; was observed in cyanobacteria.
D. Inclusions – function in the storage of energy or
serve as a reservoir of structural building blocks.
- bounded by a thin nonunit membrane
consisting of lipid which separates the inclusion from the
cytoplasm proper
poly-β- hydroxybutyric acid (PHB), a lipid-like
compound
EUKARYOTIC CELL ORGANIZATION
The major trademark of the eukaryotic cell is
its membrane-bound compartments, which a physically
separate from the plasma membrane.
I. Cell Membrane – regulates what enters and leaves
the cell and also aids in the protection and support of
the cell.
All cells are separated from their surrounding
by a cell membrane.
1972 S. Singer and G. Nicolson – introduced the
“Fluid- Mosaic Model” of membrane structure.
- proposes that the
membrane is a bilayer of phospholipids. Carbohydrate
chain of glycolipids and glycoproteins are involved in
cell to cell recognition. Proteins also serve other
functions such as receptors for chemical messenger
passage of molecules through the membrane, and
enzymes in metabolic reactions.
Two components of fluid mosaic model of
membrane structure:
1. Lipid Component – form the matrix of the
membrane.
a. Phospholipid – lipids found in the membrane.
- liquid at body temperature
and has the consistency of olive oil.
- Spontaneously form a bilayer.
b. Glycolipids – are like phospholipids except
that the hydrophilic head is made up of a variety
of simple sugars to form a straight or branching
carbohydrate.
- regulates the action of plasma
membrane proteins involved in the growth of
the cell.
c. Cholesterol – a major membrane lipid, equal
in amount to phospholipid. The presence of cholesterol
makes the membrane more impermeable to most
biological molecules.
Passage of molecules through the membrane
is dependent upon the protein component.
2. Protein component – the protein associated with the
plasma membrane are either attracted to its inner
surface or embedded in the lipid bilayer.
- often, they have hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions.
a. glycoproteins – proteins associated with
the plasma membrane; have an attached
carbohydrate chain that projects externally
from the membrane.
Functions:
1. Make cell to cell recognition possible.
2. Act as receptors for a chemical
messenger. Ex. hormone
3. Enzymes for cell reaction.
4. Passage of molecules across the
membrane.
II. Nucleus – the most conspicuous compartment in
which DNA is organized into complex nucleoprotein
bodies called chromosomes.
Function:
- governs or direct the chemical activity of the cell
- guides the life processes of the cell as long as it lives
Chromosomes – made of a molecule of DNA which is
complexed with proteins
Genes in eukaryotes are distributed among two
or more DNA molecules within two or more
chromosomes in the nucleus.
Structures present:
a. nuclear envelope – consist of two-membranes
pock marked with nuclear openings called pores.
 outer surface of the nuclear envelope facing the
cytoplasm is studded with ribosomes.
b. nucleolus – globular structure that are essential for
the continued existence of the cell for they are
centers for synthesis of ribosomes.
c. nucleoplasm – chemically complex but shapeless
materials.
III. Cytoplasm – bathed in a granular cytosol and is
found between the plasmalemma boundary and the
nuclear envelope
- it is the executive center and has a vital
reciprocal interdependence with the nucleus
- consist of semi-fluid ground substance, which
is in the sol or gel state at different times and in different
cellular region.
Cytoplasmic matrix – known as the ground substance
Cytoplasmic organelles – organized living matter
regarded as small internal organs of the cell having
specific functions in the maintenance of the cell.
a. Endoplasmic Reticulum – a system of membranous
channels and passageways which extends and
branches throughout the cytoplasmic volume.
Function:
- its channel serves as the routes for transport of
materials specially proteins between the various
regions of the cytoplasm or between the various parts
of the cytoplasm and the nucleus forming a
communication network.
- as a cytoplasmic framework providing catalytic
surfaces for some of the biochemical activities
1. Rough or granular ER (RER) – with
ribosomes attached to its surface.
Function: Protein synthesis
2. Smooth or agranular ER (RER) – tubular in
appearance and without ribosomes attached to its
surface.
b. Golgi Apparatus – a compartment composed of
smooth membranes;
Function:
- storage, processing and packaging certain proteins
made at the rough E.R in cells
Vesicles – where Golgi apparatus packaged
the modified proteins.
c. Ribosomes – tiny rounded bodies and are spherical
in shape.
Function:
-the site for protein synthesis.
d. Mitochondria – a sausage-like structure that appear
as double-walled vessel; the outer wall is smooth
membrane and the inner wall is a membrane with many
inward folds called cisternae.
- called as the “powerhouse” of the cell
Function:
- site of chemical reactions that extract energy from
foodstuff and make it available to the cell for its
innumerable energy demanding activities.
e. Lysosomes – membrane enclosed bodies that are
slightly smaller than mitochondria.
Function:
- storage vesicle for many powerful hydrolytic enzymes
- act in a sense as the “digestive system” of the cell
enabling it to process some of the bulk materials taken
in by phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
f. Vacuoles – membrane enclosed fluid-filled spaces
found in both plants and animals.
Function:
- dumping sites of noxious wastes
- storage of materials like starch granules, fat droplets
and water.
g. Microbodies – a variety of organelle similar to
lysosome in structure and appearance.
- contain powerful oxidative enzymes.
Function: catalytic or enzymatic activities.
h. Microfilaments – long, thin, tiny cylindrical fibrils or
tubules made up predominantly of protein tubulin;
part of the cytoplasmic matrix that has some degree
of contractility.
Function:
- form spindle fiber during mitosis
- form skeletal elements of motile organelles such
as cilia, flagella and components of the centrioles.
i. Microtubules – smaller than microfilaments; long,
hollow cylindrical structures.
Function:
- play the role in intracellular movement and support.
- Help guide the movements of a variety of materials
within the cell.
- Provide a supportive cytoskeleton that helps maintain
the cell’s shape.
j. Centrioles – are small dark bodies located just
outside the nucleus of most animal cell; they are
cylindrical in structure.
Function:
- associated with the formation of spindle in dividing
animal cell.
k. Plastids - round or oval bodies containing pigments
commonly found in plants.
Types of plastids:
a. chloroplast (green plastids) – green colored
bodies containing chlorophyll- a green coloring
pigment visible in the cytoplasm of the green
plants.
- bounded by a double membrane,
composed of flattened sacs called thylakoids.
These are piled up like stacks of coins and each
stack is called a granum, where the green
pigment of chlorophyll is found. The fluid-filled
space about the grana is called the
stroma.
Function:
- Site of photosynthesis, during which light energy
(photons) is used to produced food molecules like
glucose. Chloroplasts take in carbon dioxide, water,
and radiant energy from the sun andtransform into ATP
molecules in order to produce glucose. they give off
oxygen, which exits from the leaves as a gas.
b. leucoplasts or leucoplastids – colorless plastids
present in non-photosynthesizing plant tissue.
Function: serve as storage of starch
c. chromoplast (colored plastids) – colored bodies
in plant cells containing various pigments.
- give brown, red, blue, orange or
yellow color responsible for varied
colors of petals, fruits and
vegetables.
I. CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE OR
PLASMALEMMA
Characteristics of the cell membrane:
1. It is a cytoplasmic boundary or limiting membrane
condensed into a peripheral film.
2. It is a selectively permeable or semi permeable
membrane that may or may not allow certain ions
and molecules to enter or leave the cell.
Functions of the cell membrane:
1. holds and protects the contents of the cell.
2. Serves as a limiting membrane that separates the
cell from the surrounding environment.
3. Regulates the internal environment of the cell by
regulating the incoming and outgoing materials
4. Transports substances in and out of the cell like
nutrients, gases, hormones and waste products.
II. CYTOSOME OR BODY
A. CYTOPLASM – protoplasm that includes all the
protoplasm except the nucleus.
Cytoplasmic organelles:
a. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) –a network of fine,
tube-like, unit membrane microtunnels that traverse
the cytoplasm between the nuclear envelope and
the outer plasma membrane
b. Ribosomes – tiny rounded bodies or spherical
granules.
Function:
- site of protein synthesis (manufacturing units or
principal factories).
c. Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus – consists of
several flattened tubular membranes stacked upon
each other termed cisternae and dilated areas at
either end of the cisternae called vacuoles.
Functions:
1. packaging of the protein secretory material
2. site of formation of lysosomes, new ER and
synthesis of carbohydrates
d. Mitochondria –spherical, rod-shaped, cigar or
sausage shaped, somewhat hollow structures.
Functions: powerhouse of the cell; related to
cellular respiration; provide energy
e. Lysosomes –suicide bags; membrane bound,
dense appearing structures or packages
Functions: intracellular digestion (digestive system
of the cell)
f. Microbodies - similar to lysosomes in that they are
membrane bound sacs which contain enzyme
Functions:
1. involved either in the production of hydrogen
peroxide
2. concerned with active internal metabolism of
the cell
g. Centrosome –granular structure located just
outside the nucleus and found in all animal cells.
Function: active in the process of cell division
h. plastids – round or oval bodies containing
pigments commonly found in plants
i. Microfilaments and Microtubules – long, thin, tiny
cylindrical fibrils or tubules made up of protein
Function: form spindle fiber components of the
centriole

B. NUCLEUS
Characteristics:
1. rounded, darkly-stained structure separated from
the cytoplasm by a double walled nuclear envelope,
the nuclear membrane.
2. Composed of DNA as the principal nucleic acid and
some RNA and protein
Functions:
1. control center
2. controls protein synthesis
3. controls many metabolic activities of the cell

Parts of the nucleus:

a. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
b. Nucleoplasm
c. Chromatin
d. nucleolus
TISSUES AND HISTOLOGY  Cellularity - Consists almost entirely of cells
TISSUE  Covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs,
and forms glands
TISSUE – collections of similar cells and the substance  Outside surface of the body
surrounding them  Lining of digestive, respiratory and
- classifies based on structure of cells, urogenital systems
composition of non-cellular extracellular matrix, and cell  Heart and blood vessels
function  Linings of many body cavities
 Polarity - has apical, basal, and lateral
Major types of adult tissues: surfaces
- Epithelial  Rests on a basement membrane
- Connective  Specialized cell contacts bind adjacent cells
- Muscle together
- Nervous  Avascular – no blood vessels
 Regenerative – replaces lost cells by cell
Histology: Microscopic Study of Tissues division
- Biopsy: removal of tissues for diagnostic purposes
- Autopsy: examination of organs of a dead body to Functions:
determine cause of death - Protecting underlying structures; e.g., epithelium lining
the mouth
EMBRYONIC TISSUE - Acting as barriers; e.g., skin
- Permitting the passage of substances; e.g., cells lining
air sacs in lungs and nephrons in kidney
- Secreting substances; e.g., pancreatic cells
- Absorbing substances; e.g., lining of stomach and
small intestine

Special Characteristics:

3 MAJOR GERM LAYERS THAT FORM THE

EMBRYONIC DISC (source of stem cells):

1. Endoderm
- inner layer
- forms lining of digestive tract and dervatives
2. Mesoderm
- middle layer
- forms tissues such as muscle, bone, blood
vessels
3. Ectoderm
- outer layer Classifications:
- forms skin and neuroectoderm Number of layer of cells
1. Simple
– one layer of cells. Each extends from
I. EPITHELIAL TISSUE basement membrane to the free surface
2. Stratified
- more than one layer of cells
3. Pseudostratified
– tissue appears to be stratified, but all cells
contact basement membrane so it is in fact simple

Shape of cells
1. Squamous – flat, scale-like
2. Cuboidal – about equal in height and width
3. Columnar – taller than wide
 Simple Columnar Epithelium

Description:
Single layer of tall cells with round to oval
nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucus-
Simple Squamous Epithelium secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells).

Function:
Absorption; secretion of mucus enzymes, and
other substance, ciliated type propels mucus (or
reproductive cells) by ciliary action.

Location:
Non-ciliated type lines most of the digestive
tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, and excretory
ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small
bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus.

Description: Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

Single layer of flattened cells with disc- shaped
central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm; the simplest of the
epithelia.

Function:
allows passage of materials by diffusion and
filtration in sites where protection is not important;
secrets lubricating substances in serosae.

Location:
Kidney glomeruli and corpuscles; air sacs or
lungs; lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic
vessel; lining of ventral body cavity (serosae). Description:
Single layer of cells of differing heights, some
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different
levels; may contain goblet cells and bear cilia.

Function:
Secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of
mucus by ciliary action.

Location:
Non-ciliated type in male’s sperm-carrying
ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the
trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract.

Description: Stratified Epithelial

Single layer of cube-like cells with large, - contain two or more layers of cells
spherical central nuclei - regenerate from below
- major role is protection
Function: - are named according to the shape of cells apical layer
Secretion and absorption

Location:
Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of
small glands; ovary surface
Stratified Squamous Epithelium Location:
Lines the ureters, bladder, and part of the
urethra.

Description:
Thick membrane composed of several cell
layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and
metabolically active; surface cells are flattened
(squamous0; in the keratinized type, the surface cells
are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in
mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial
layers.
EPITHELIUM: GLANDULAR
- A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes
an aqueous fluid
- Two types of glands formed by infolding of epithelium:
Endocrine: no contact with exterior of body;
ductless; produce hormones (pituitary, thyroid,
adrenals, pancreas)
Exocrine: open to exterior of body via ducts
(sweat, oil)
- Exocrine glands classified either by structure or by the
method of secretion
- classified by structure:
Unicellular: goblet cells
Multicellular: sweat, oil, pituitary, adrenal
Multicellular Exocrine Glands

- many layers of cells – squamous in shape

- deeper layers of cells appears cuboidal or columnar
- thickest epithelial tissue – adapted for protection

Function:
Protects underlying tissues in areas subjected
to abrasion.

Location:
Non-keratinized type forms the moist linings of
the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety
form the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane.

Specific types:
Keratinized – contain the protective protein keratin
Non-keratinized – forms moist lining of body openings - Classified on the basis of types of ducts or mode of
secretion
Location: - Types of ducts:
Keratinized – forms epidermis Simple: ducts with few branches
Non-keratinized – forms lining of esophagus, mouth, Compound: ducts with many branches
and vagina. - If ducts end in tubules or sac-like
structures: acini. Pancreas:
Transitional Epithelium - if ducts end in simple sacs: alveoli.
Lungs

Lateral Surface Features:

- Tight junctions
- Desmosomes
- Gap junctions

MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS: Tight Junction

Description:
Resembles both stratified squamous and
stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columnar;
surface cells dome shaped or squamous-like,
depending on degree of organ stretch.

Function:
Stretches readily and permits distension of
urinary organ by contained urine.
- Integral proteins of adjacent cells fuse together
- Completely encircle the cell and form an adhesion belt. - basal lamina and reticular layers of the underlying
- Form an impermeable junction connective tissue deep to it form the basement
- common near apical region membrane

LATERAL SURFACE FEATURE – CELL JUNCTIONS EPITHELIAL SURFACE FEATURES

Desmosomes – to disc-like plaques connected across Apical surface features
intercellular space Microvilli – finger-like extensions of plasma
membrane
- plaques of adjoining cells are joined by
proteins called cadherins - Abundant in epithelia of small intestine and
- proteins interdigitate into extracellular space kidney
- intermediate filaments insert into plaques from - maximize surface are across which small
cytoplasmic side molecules enter or leave

MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS: Desmosome Cilia – whip-like, highly motile extensions of

apical surface membranes

- movement of cilia – in coordinated waves

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Most diverse and abundant tissue
- Main classes:
- Connective tissue proper
- Cartilage
- Bone tissue
- Blood
- Characteristics
- Mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin
(mesenchyme derived from mesoderm)
- varying degrees of vascularity
- common in superficial layers of skin; skin peels after a
- nonliving extracellular matrix, consisting of
sunburn
ground substance and fibers
- reduces chance of tearing, twisting, stretching
- cells are not as abundant nor as tightly packed
together as in epithelium
- Linker proteins extend from plaque like teeth of a
zipper
CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Embryonic Origin
- Intermediate filaments extend across width of cell.

MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS: Gap Junction

- Connexon proteins are trans-membrane proteins Functions of Connective Tissue:

- present in electrically excitable tissues (heart, smooth - Enclose organs as a capsule and separate organs into
muscle) layers. Areolar
- Connect tissues to one another. Tendons and
BASAL FEATURE: THE BASAL LAMINA ligaments.
- Non-cellular supporting sheet between the epithelium - Support and movement. Bones.
and the connective tissue deep into it - Storage. Fat.
- Consists of proteins secreted by the epithelial cells - Insulation. Fat.
- Transport. Blood.
Functions: - Protection. Bone, cells of the immune system.
- acts as a selective filter, determining which molecules
from capillaries enter the epithelium STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF CONNECTIVE
- acts as scaffolding along which regenerating epithelial TISSUE:
cells can migrate Ground substance – unstructured material that fills the
space between cells
Fibers – collagen, elastic, or reticular Embryonic Connective Tissue
Cells – fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts,
hematopoietic stem cells, and others

CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS:

- Fibroblasts – secrete the proteins needed for fiber
synthesis and components of the extracellular matrix
- Adipose or fat cells (adipocytes) – common in some
tissues (dermis of skin); rare in some (cartilage)
- Mast cells – common beneath membranes; along
small blood vessels. Can release heparin, histamine, Mesenchyme: source of all adult connective tissue
and proteolytic enzymes in response to injury. - derived from mesoderm
- Leukocytes (WBC’s) – respond to injury or infection - delicate collagen fibers embedded in semifluid
- Macrophages – derived from monocytes (a WBC). matrix
Phagocytic; provide protection
- Chondroblasts – form cartilage Structure:
- Osteoblasts – form bone The mesenchymal cells are irregularly
- Hematopoietic stem cells – form blood cells shaped. The extracellular matrix is abundant and
- Undifferentiated mesenchyme (stem cells) – have contains scattered reticular fibers.
potential to differentiate into adult cell types. Location:
Mesenchyme is the embryonic tissue
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) from which connective tissues, as well as other tissues,
- ECM has 3 major components: arise.
1. Protein fibers
2. Ground substance
3. Fluid
- Protein fibers
1. Collagen fibers – composed of the protein
collagen. Strong, flexible, inelastic; great tensile
strength (i.e. resist stretch).
- perfect for tendons, ligaments
2. Elastic fibers – contain molecules of protein
elastin that resemble coiled springs. Return to its
original shaper after stretching or compression,
- perfect for lungs, large blood
vessels. Mucus: found only in the umbilical cord. Wharton’s
3. Reticular fibers – formed from fine jelly.
collagenous fibers form branching networks (stroma).
Fill spaces between tissues and organs. Structure:
Mucous tissue is mesenchymal tissue
GROUND SUBSTANCE that remains unspecialized. The cells are irregularly
Interstitial (tissue) fluid within which are one or shaped. The extracellular matrix is abundant and
more of the molecules listed below: contains scattered reticular fibers.
- Hyaluronic acid: a polysaccharide. Very Location:
slippery; serves as a good lubricant for joints. Common Umbilical cord of newborn.
in most connective tissues.
- Proteoglycans: protein and polysaccharide Areolar Connective Tissue
complex. Polysaccharides called glyocosaminoglycans
(chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate). Protein part
attaches to hyaluronic acid. Able to trap large amounts
of water.
- Adhesive molecules: hold proteoglycan
aggregates together. Chondronectin in cartilage,
osteonectin in bone, fibronectin in fibrous connective
tissue.

Functions as a molecular sieve through which Description:

nutrients diffuse between blood capillaries and Gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells;
cells. fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white
blood cells.

Function:
Wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages
phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in
inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid.
 Description:
Location: Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers;
Widely distributed under epithelia of body, e.g. some elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast
forms lamina propria of mucous membranes; packages
organs; surrounds capillaries Function:
Able to withstand tension exerted in many
Adipose Tissue directions; provides structural strength.

Location:
Dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive
tract; fibrous capsules of organs and of joints,

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Description:
Matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; closely
packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to
the side by large fat droplet.

Function: Description:
Provides reserve food fuel; insulates against Primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastin
heat loss; supports and protects organs. fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast.

Location: Function:
Under skin; around kidneys and eyeballs; within Attaches muscles to bones or to muscles;
abdomen; in breasts. attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress
when pulling force is applied in one direction.
Reticular Connective Tissue
Location:
Tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses

Elastic Connective Tissue

Description:
Network of reticular fibers in a typical lose
ground substance; reticular cells lie on the network.

Function: - bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic fibers

Fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma)
that supports other cell types including white blood cells,
mast cells, and macrophages.
Location:
Lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow,
and spleen).
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
oriented in multiple directions
- In walls of elastic arteries (aorta), lungs, vocal
ligaments
- Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue after being
stretched
CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Cartilage
- Composed of chondrocytes (cells) located in matrix-
surrounded spaces called lacunae.
- Type of cartilage determined by components of the
matrix.
- Firm consistency.
- Ground substance: Proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid
complexed together trap large amounts of water
(microscopic sponges). Allows tissue to spring back
after being compressed.
- Avascular and no nerve supply. Heals slowly.
- Perichondrium. Dense irregular connective tissue that
surrounds cartilage. Fibroblasts of perichondrium can
differentiate into chondroblasts (cartilage-forming cells)
- Types of cartilage
 - hyaline Function:
- fibrocartilage Tensile strength with the ability to absorb
- elastic compressive shock.

Hyaline Cartilage Location:

Intervertebral discs; pubis symphysis, discs of
knee joint

BONE TISSUE

Description:
Amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers the
matrix forms an imperceptible network; chondroblasts
produce the matrix and when mature (chondrocytes) lie
Description:
in lacunae.
Hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen
fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae. Very well vascularized.
Function:
Supports and reinforces; has resilient
Function:
cushioning properties; resists compressive stress
Bone supports and protects (by enclosing);
provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium
Location:
and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the
Forms most of the embryonic skeleton; coves
site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis).
the ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal
cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea,
Location:
and larynx.
Bones
Elastic Cartilage
BLOOD TISSUE

Description:
Description: Red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix
Similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic (plasma).
fibers in matrix
Function:
Function: Transport of respiratory gases, nutrients,
Maintains the shape of a structure while wastes, and other substances.
allowing great flexibility.
Location:
Location: Contained within blood vessels.
Supports the external ear (pinna): epiglottis
MUSCLE TISSUE
Fibrocartilage Characteristics:
- Cells are referred to as fibers
- Contracts or shortens with force when stimulated
- Moves entire body and pumps blood

Types:
Skeletal: attached to bones
Cardiac: muscle of the heart.
Smooth: muscle associated with tubular structures and
with the skin. Non-striated and involuntary.

Description:
Matrix similar to but less firm than in hyaline
cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate
SKELETAL TISSUE Location:
Mostly in the walls of hollow organs.

NERVOUS TISSUE

Description:
Long, cylindrical. Multinucleate cells; obvious Description:
striations Neurons are branching cells; cell processes
that may be quite long extend from the nucleus-
Function: containing cell body; also contributing to nervous tissue
Voluntary movement; locomotion, manipulation are non-irritable supporting cells
of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control
Function:
Location: Transmit electrical signals from sensory
In skeletal muscles attached to bones or receptors and to effectors (muscles and glands) that
occasionally to skin. control their activity

CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE Location:

Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

TISSUES AND AGING

- Cells divide more slowly
- Collagen fibers become more irregular in structure,
though they may increase in number
- Tendons and ligaments become less flexible
and more fragile
- Elastic fibers fragment, bind to calcium ions, and
become less elastic
Description: - Arterial walls and elastic ligaments become
Branching, striated, generally uninucleate cell less elastic
that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated - Changes in collagen and elastin result in
discs) - Atherosclerosis and reduced blood supply to
tissues
Function: - Wrinkling of the skin
As it contacts, it propels blood into the - Increased tendency for bones to break
circulation; involuntary control - Rate of blood cell synthesis declines in the elderly
- Injuries don’t heal as readily
Location:
The walls of the heart

SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE

Description:
Spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no
striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets

Functions:
Propels substances or objects (foodstuffs,
urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary
control.
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY, DIRECTIONAL
TERMS, PLANES, SECTIONS, AND BODY CAVITIES
There is universal agreement in the field of
anatomy that the relative description of the human body
is always in a specific position called anatomical
position. In this position, the individual is standing
upright, face forward, with the upper limbs positioned at
the sides, the palms turned forward, and the feet flat on
the floor.
1. Directional Terms
Directional Terms are used by anatomists to
locate numerous body structures in relationship to one
another.
A. Superior: toward the head or upper part of a
structure
Example: The head is superior to the
shoulders.
B. Inferior: away from the head or toward the lower
part of a structure
Example: The intestines are inferior to the
lungs
C. Anterior (also known as ventral): toward the front
of the body
Example: The trachea is anterior to the
esophagus.
D. Posterior (also known as dorsal): toward the back
of the body
Example: The esophagus is posterior to the
trachea.
E. Medial: locating a structure nearer to the midline of
the body, which divides the body into equal right and left
halves.
Example: The ulna is medial to the radius.
F. Lateral: locating a structure further from the midline
of the body
Example: The lungs are lateral to the heart.
G. Intermediate: being between two structures
Example: The index finger is intermediate to the
thumb and middle finger.
H. Proximal: nearer to the point of attachment of an
appendage to the trunk of the body
Example: The knee is proximal to the shin.
I. Distal: farther from the point of attachment of an
appendage to the trunk of the body
Example: The elbow is distal the shoulder.
J. Superficial: toward or on the surface of the body
Example: The skin is superficial to the muscles.
K. Deep: away from the surface of the body.
Example: The ribs are deep to the skin.
2. Body Positions
Body positions are the manner in which the
human body is positioned in relation to the surrounding
area.
Dorsal recumbent- also known as supine; lying on the
back
Ventral recumbent- also known as prone; lying face
down
Right lateral recumbent- lying on the right side
Left Lateral recumbent- lying on the left side
3. Body Planes
Imaginary flat surfaces, or planes, can also be
used to describe the various regions of the body. These
planes pass through various angles of the body.
A. Midsaggital plane- separates the body into equal
right and left halves
B. Parasaggital plane- separates the body into
unequal right and left halves
C. Frontal/Coronal plane- vertical plane that separates
the body into anterior and posterior sections
D. Tranverse/Cross/Horizontal plane- divides the
body into superior and inferior portions
4. Body Cavities
The organs within the body are located within
body cavities. Each of these cavities is lined with
membranes and contains organs. The major body
cavities include the cranial cavity, which houses the
brain, the thoracic cavity for the heart and lungs, the
abdominal cavity, mainly for the digestive organs, and
finally the pelvic cavity, for the reproductive organs.
5. Abdominopelvic Cavity
Since the abdominopelvic cavity is so large, it is
further divided into quadrants:
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
6. Body Regions
For anatomical studies, a nine-region division is
more widely used. The nine-region division allows us to
place organs and structures in a fairly precise manner.
The four quadrant system is generally used by clinicians
to locate the side of pain, tumors, and other
abnormalities.
Umbilical region: the centermost region characterized
by the presence of the umbilicus (bellybutton)
Right lumbar region: the region immediately to the
right lateral of the umbilical region
Left lumbar region: the region immediately to the left
lateral of the umbilical region

Epigastric: the region immediately superior to the

umbilical region which overlies most of the stomach

Right hypochondriac region: positioned immediately

to the right lateral area of the epigastric region
Left hypochondriac region: positioned immediately to
the left lateral area of the epigastric region

Hypogastric region: positioned immediately below the

umbilical region

Right iliac region: positioned immediately to the right

lateral area of the hypogastric region

Left iliac region: positioned immediately to the left

lateral area of the hypogastric region
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Generally, cells of plants and animals are too
small to be seen with the naked eye, thus, necessitating
the use of special instrument. Such instrument is a
microscope, which may be of two general types: a) the
light microscope which makes use of visible light; b) the
electron microscope, which makes use of a beam of
electrons rather than visible light.
The compound microscope is an example of a
light microscope that makes use of two sets of lenses:
a) a primary magnifier, the objectives, the lenses of
which are immediately next to the specimen being
studied; and b) the secondary magnifiers, the ocular or
eyepiece, the lenses of which are immediately next to
the eye.
Important terms in microscopy:
1. Virtual image or floating image – image seen in
the microscope field.
2. Microscope field – circular area seen through the
ocular where the image of the specimen is
observed.
3. Magnification – ratio of the apparent size of the
object, as seen through the microscope, and the
actual size of the object.
a. total magnification or total power – product
of the magnifying capacity of the eyepiece
and the objective being used.
Ex. high power objective 40x
Ocular 10x
Total power 40 x 10 = 400
This means that the image is 400 times as
big as the object under study.
4. Units of measurement
a. micrometer (m) – unit of measurement of
a light microscope which is equivalent to
10-6.
b. nanometer (m) – unit of measure of an
electron microscope that is equivalent to
10-9.
5. Focusing – the adjustment of the spatial
relationship between the objective lens and the
specimen. When a clear image of the specimen is
seen through the ocular lens, the specimen is said
to be “in focus”.
6. Focal length of focus – the distance from the
optical center of the lens to the focal point.
7. Working distance – the distance between the
front (bottom lens) of the objective lens system
and the top of the cover glass.
Note: Lenses of high magnification and short
focal lengths have a short working distance.
8. Angular aperture – the angle or cone of light
rays, capable of entering the front lens of the
objectives from the point in the object.
Note: More light rays from the specimen can
be taken in by the lens if the angular aperture
of the objective is increased, thus increasing
also the resolving power.
9. Numerical Aperture (NA) of an objective – the
measurement of the angle of the maximum cone
of light that may enter the lens, or simply a
measurement of the ability of the condenser and
objective lens to gather light.
Objective Numerical
Aperture
4x 0.10
10x 0.25
20x 0.40
40x 0.65
Note: The higher magnification of the
objective, the larger is the numerical aperture (NA).
10. Resolving power (RA) – the ability of the lens to
clearly separate or distinguish two points or two
lines individually in the image.
11. Depth of focus – represents the thickness of the
specimen that may be seen in focus at one time.
- decreases with an increase in the
numerical aperture and magnification
-
12. Parfocal – term applied to the objective lens when
practically no change in focus has to when one
power is substituted for another.
Note: Only a slight turn of the fine adjustment
is needed when a change is made from low
power to a high power objective.
13. Refraction – bending of light away from the
objective lens when light passes from the glass of
the microscope slide to the air.
Note: Refraction is lessened by using oil (oil
immersion objective).
14. Cover glass – thin glass (0.17 to 0.18 mm thick)
cut in circles, rectangles or squares for covering
the specimen.
PARTS OF A COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
I. MECHANICAL PARTS:
1. Base – horshoe or V-shaped structure which
supports the entire microscope.
2. Pillar – vertical post extending from the base to
the arm.
3. Arm – curved basic frame of the microscope to
which the base, body and stage are attached.
 - serve as the handle for carrying the
microscope as well as providing support for the body
tube.
4. Inclination joint – a movable hinge that facilitates
tilting of the microscope by holding the arm with
your right hand and the bases with your left hand.
5. Body tube – a hollow cylinder in front of the upper
part of the arm and the serves as the optical
housing for the lenses.
6. Draw tube – the smaller cylinder attached to the
upper part of the body tube and serves to hold the
ocular eyepiece.
7. Revolving nosepiece – a rotating head attached
to the bases of the body tube.
8. Dust shield – a fixed head attached to the base of
the body tube.
9. Stage – a platform, which may be circular or
square, where the slide with the specimen is
placed.
- usually equipped with a pair of clips that hold
the slide in place.
- Some microscopes are provided with a
mechanical stage adjustment knobs for accurate
movement of the slide.
- Provided with central opening which allows
light to pass from the mirror to the object being
studied.
10. Substage condenser with iris diaphragm – a
structure found below the stage holding the abbe
condenser above and the iris diaphragm below.
The iris diaphragm is provided with a projecting
handle or lever which when manipulated can
regulate the amount of light passing through the
lenses into the observer’s eye.
11. Adjustment knobs – consist of two pairs of
knobs:
a. an upper pair, the coarse adjustment knob or
screw which is used for initial focusing by raising
or lowering the body tube with the scanner or the
low power objective in position.
b. A lower small pair, the fine adjustment knob or
screw which is used for final viewing and
adjustment at different depths, with the high power
objective in position.
Note: Never use the coarse adjustment screw
when focusing with the high power objective or any
high powered objective. Use only the fine
adjustment screw. The coarse adjustment screw
can be used when the low power or scanner
objective is in place.
II. ILLUMINATING PARTS:
1. Mirror – usually two-faced, of which one surface is
plane or flat while the other side is concave
(parabolic)
- held by a double-hinged mirror rack or fork
which facilitates adjustments at any desired angle
since the mirror functions to reflect the light into
the specimen.
- The concave mirror is used with low intensity
light which may be either natural or artificial, while
when the source of light is very bright, the plane
mirror is best used.
2. Condenser (abbe condenser) – the substage
optical element which may be fixed or provided
with adjustment for lowering or raising.
- functions to
condense and concentrate reflected light from the
mirror through the specimen at a precise angle to
illuminate the microscopic field.
III. MAGNIFYING PARTS:
1. Eyepiece or ocular – the detachable cylinder
equipped with lenses and located above the draw
tube.
- usually provided with dark
pointer used to point particular parts of the
specimen to be identified.
2. Objective – generally with two or three objectives.
a. Low power objective – the shortest
cylinder or tube with a large lens opening, large
lenses and lower magnification.
b. High power objective – the longer
cylinder or tube with smaller lens opening, smaller
lenses and higher magnification.
c. Oil immersion objective – the longest
cylinder or tube with very small lenses and very high
magnification.
d. Scanner – if there are four objectives
present, then this would be the shortest cylinder
with the biggest lenses and lowest magnification.
CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE
Microscopes are expensive tools, hence, must
be handled very carefully at all times. The following are
some of the precautions that you must be familiar with
when using them.
a. Examine your microscope before using it for any
defects, like misplaced or missing parts. If there is
anything wrong with it, call the attention of the instructor,
otherwise you will be held responsible for any defects.
b. Keep it clean before and after using with a piece of
soft cloth (not your handkerchief).
c. Do not separate loose parts, like the ocular or
objectives, as they may collect dust.
d. Do not touch the lenses with your fingers. Use lens
paper only to clean them.
e. Always check the parts thoroughly after receiving it
from the counter and before returning.
f. If anything is spilled on the microscope, clean it off
immediately.
g. Always carry the microscope carefully with one hand
under the base and the other hand around the arm.
Never carry the microscope hanging like a basket
with only one hand.
HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE:
I. Position:
a. Place the microscope on the table with the
arms toward you and the base at a safe
distance from the edge of the table so that
you do not cramp your body when you look
through the eyepiece.
b. Swing the low power objective in position
directly above the stage aperture.
II. Lighting:
a. Open the diaphragm wide. Make sure that
the top lens of the condenser is at the same
level with the stage.
b. Look through the ocular and adjust the
mirror until you get the greatest possible
amount of light reflected in the objective. If
the field of the microscope is properly
lighted, you should see a circular area of
light that is uniformly bright.
III. Locating the object under the lower
objective:
a. Cut out a letter “e” from the classified ad of
a newspaper. Place this letter in an upright
position on a clean slide with a drop of
water and cover with a cover slip.
b. Look at the objective from the side and turn
the coarse adjustment knob until the tip of
the objective is about 2 mm from the cover
glass. Remember not to let the objective
touch the cover slip for it may damage or
break the lens of the objective or the cover
slip.
c. With both eyes open, look through with one
eye and slowly turn the coarse adjustment
knob until the image of the object comes
into clear focus.
d. Center the object by moving the slide in the
right direction and clip the other end of the
slide in place. Change the opening of the
diaphragm until the field is just bright
enough for you to see the details of the
object clearly. Too strong a light is hard on
your eyes.
e. Look at the upright letter through the
microscope under low power.
f. Bring the image to a sharper focus by
turning either direction the fine adjustment
knob.
g. Look at the upright letter “e” through the
microscope.
IV. Using the high power objective:
a. Rotate the nosepiece to bring the high
power into position. If the object appears
slightly blurred, turn the fine adjustment
knob very slowly until the image is in sharp
focus again.
Caution: Never use the Coarse Adjustment
with the High Power. Do not let the objective
lens touch the cover glass of the slide.
V. Magnifying Power
The compound light microscope is used to
examine details of cellular and tissue structure of
animals. The usefulness of a light microscope is limited
not by its ability to magnify objects, but by its ability to
discern small objects that are very close together. This
is called RESOLUTION and is related to the wavelength
of visible light used to illuminate an object.
The microscope allows the biologists to extend
the vision to a resolution of fractions of a micrometer.
This degree of resolution requires sophisticated
electron microscopes, not generally used by
undergraduate students. Lower magnification, however,
are just as useful for most aspects of animal biology.
For undergraduate laboratory work, microscopes of
magnifications ranging from 5x to 1,000x is commonly
used.
a. To find the total magnifying power of the
microscope, multiply the magnification of
the objective by
that of the ocular. The magnifying powers
are marked on both parts. Compute the
magnifying power
of the microscope assigned to you, using
both the low power and the high power
objective.
b. Magnifying power is in terms of diameters,
not in areas. A 10-X lens makes a line
appear to be ten
times longer than without magnification.
c. In microscopic work, a common unit of
measurement is the micron (µ). A micron
is 1/1000 of a
millimeter (1 millimeter = 1,000 µ).
Compound Microscope
The microscope is an essential tool in the study
of the fine structure of animals. It enables you to see the
animal structures too small to be seen with the naked
eye. The microscope is made up of a system of lenses
that can invert images. It is important to learn the correct
use of this tool from the start so that you realize its full
potentialities. The accuracy and value of many of your
observations in the laboratory will depend on your skill
in the use of this instrument.
PHYSIOLOGY OF BLOOD
I. Components, Characteristics, Functions of Blood
A. Major Components of Blood
1. formed elements - the actual cellular
components of blood (special connective tissue)
a. erythrocytes - red blood cells
b. leukocytes - white blood cells
c. platelets - cell fragments for clotting
2. blood plasma - complex non-cellular
fluid surrounding formed elements; protein &
electrolytes
B. Separation of Components in a
Centrifuge
VOLUME LAYER
1. clear/yellowish PLASMA 55% Top
2. thin/whitish buffy coat <1% Middle
with LEUKOCYTES & 5.
PLATELETS
3. reddish mass – Bottom
45%
ERYTHROCYTES
Hemat ocrit - percentage by VOLUME of erythrocytes
when blood is centrifuged (normal = 45%)
C. Characteristics of Blood
1. bright red (oxygenated)
2. dark red/purplish (unoxygenated)
3. much more dense than pure water
4. pH range from 7.35 to 7.45 (slightly
alkaline)
5. slightly warmer than body
temperature 100.4 F
6. typical volume in adult male 5-6
liters
7. typical volume in adult female 4-5
liters
8. typically 8% of body weight
D. Major Functions of Blood
1. Distribution & Transport
a. oxygen from lungs to body cells
b. carbon dioxide from body cells to
lungs
c. nutrients from GI tract to body cells
d. nitrogenous wastes from body cells
to kidneys
e. hormones from glands to body
cells
2. Regulation (maintenance of homeostasis)
a. maintenance of normal body pH
i.blood proteins (albumin) &
bicarbonate
b. maintenance of
circulatory/interstitial fluid
i. electrolytes aid blood proteins
(albumin)
c. maintenance of temperature
(blushed skin)
3. Protection
a. platelets and proteins "seal"
vessel damage
b. protection from foreign material
& infections
i. leukocytes, antibodies,
complement proteins
II. Erythrocytes (red blood cells; RBCs)
A. Structure
1. 7.5-micron diameter; 2.0 micron thick
2. biconcave disk shape; ideal for gas
exchange
i. spectrin - elastic protein; allows
shape change
3. mature cells are anucleate (no nucleus)
very few organelles;
4. mainly a hemoglobin carrier
i. hemoglobin – 33% of cell mass;
carries oxygen
no mitochondria; only anaerobic
respiration
6. ratio erythrocytes:leukocytes = 800:1
7. red blood cell count: # cells per cubic
millimeter
i. normal male count - 5.1 to 5.8 million
ii. normal female count - 4.3 to 5.2
million
B. Functions (oxygen & carbon dioxide
transport)
1. hemoglobin - large molecules with
globin and hemes
a. globin - complex protein with 4
polypeptides (2 alpha and 2 beta polypeptides)
b. heme group - IRON containing
pigment part of hemoglobin to which oxygen binds
i. each polypeptide has one
heme group;each heme carries one O2
c. normal hemoglobin levels
(grams/l00 ml blood)
i. infants 14-20 grams/l00
ml
ii adult female 12-16
grams/100 ml
iii adult male 13-18 grams/l00
ml
2. states of hemoglobin
a. oxyhemoglobin - when oxygen is
bound to IRON
b. deoxyhemoglobin - no oxygen
bound to IRON
c. carbaminohemoglobin - when
carbon dioxide bound (to polypeptide chain)
C. Hematopoiesis and Erythropoiesis
1. hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis) - the
maturation, development and formation of blood cells
a. red bone marrow (myeloid
tissue) - location of hematopoiesis; in blood
sinusoids which connect
with capillaries; mainly in axial
skeleton and heads of femur & humerus
b. hemocytoblast (stem cell) - the
mitotic precursor to blood cells before differentiation
 i. differentiation - maturing cell 1. Anemias - a symptom that results
becomes "committed" to being certain type when blood has lower than normal ability to
blood cell carry oxygen
a. Insufficient erythrocyte count
2. erythropoiesis - the maturation, i. hemorrhagic anemia -
development, and formation of Red Blood Cells loss of blood from bleeding (wound, ulcer, etc.)
(erythrocytes) ii. hemolytic anemia -
erythrocytes rupture (hemoglobin/transfusion
hemocytoblast -> problems, infection)
proerythroblast -> iii. aplastic anemia - red
early (basophilic) erythroblast -> marrow problems (cancer treatment, marrow disease,
late (polychromatophilic) erythroblast -> etc.)
(hemoglobin) normoblast -> (nucleus ejected b. Decrease in Hemoglobin
when enough hemoglobin) i.iron-deficiency anemia - low
reticulocyte -> (retaining some endoplasmic Iron levels (diet; absorption, bleeding, etc.)
reticulum) ii. pernicious anemia - low
ERYTHROCYTE Vitamin B12 (diet, intrinsic factor for Vit
B absorption)
Hemocytoblast -> 3-5 days c. Abnormal Hemoglobin (usually
reticulocyte genetic)
Reticulocyte -> 2 days (in blood) i.thalassemia - easily ruptured
ERYTHROCYTE RBCs (Greek & Italian genetic link)
ERYTHROCYTE 100-120 days (primarily ii. sickle-cell anemia - sickle-
lifespan des shaped RBCs (genetic Africa, Asia,
southern Europe link)
3. Regulation of Erythropoiesis
a. hormonal controls - erythropoietin is 2. Polycythemia - excess RBC count,
the hormone that stimulates RBC production causes thick blood
DECREASED oxygen level in blood a. polycythemia vera - bone
causes KIDNEYS to increase release of marrow problem; hematocrit may jump
erythropoietin to 80%
1. Less RBCs from bleeding b. secondary polycythemia - high
2. Less RBCs from excess RBC altitude (normal); or too much
destruction erythropoietin release
3. Low oxygen levels (high altitude, c. blood doping in athletes - RBCs
illness) previously withdrawn are transfused
4. Increased oxygen demand before an event;
(exercise) more RBCs, more oxygen
delivery to the body
Eythropoietin now genetically
engineered and synthesized by AMGEN of III. Leukocytes (white blood cells; WBCs)
Thousand Oaks. A. General Structure and Function
Testosterone can also mildly stimulate 1. protection from microbes, parasites,
production of RBCs in humans toxins, cancer
2. 1% of blood volume; 4-11,000 per cubic
b. Iron - essential for hemoglobin to mm blood
carry oxygen 3. diapedesis - can "slip between"
i. 65% of Fe in body is in capillary wall
hemoglobin 4. amoeboid motion - movement through
ii. liver and spleen store most the body
excess Fe bound to ferritin and hemosiderin 5. chemotaxis - moving in direction of a
iii. Fe in blood bound to transferrin chemical
iv. daily Fe loss: 0.9 mg men/l.7 mg 6. leukocytosis - increased "white blood
women cell count" in response to bacterial/viral
v. women also lose Fe during infection
menstrual flow 7. granulocytes - contain membrane-
bound granules (neutrophils, eosinophils,
c. B-complex Vitamins - Vitamin B12 basophils)
and Folic Acid essential for DNA synthesis in early 8. agranulocytes - NO membrane-bound
mitotic granules (lymphocytes, monocytes)
divisions leading to
erythrocytes B. Granulocytes - granules in cytoplasm can
be stained with Wright's Stain; bilobar nuclei; 10-14
D. Erythrocyte Disorders (Anemias & micron diameter; all are phagocytic cells
Polycythemias) (engulf material)
 1. neutrophils - destroy and ingest
bacteria & fungi (polymorphonuclear leuks.; "polys") D. Leukopoiesis and Colony Stimulating
a. most numerous WBC Factors (CSFs)
b. basophilic (blue) & acidophilic (red) 1. leukopoiesis - the production,
c. defensins - antibiotic-like proteins differentiation, and development of white blood cells
(granules) 2. colony stimulating factors (CSF) -
d. polymorphonuclear - many-lobed hematopoietic hormones that promote
nuclei leukopoiesis
e. causes lysis of infecting a. produced by Macrophages and
bacteria/fungi T lymphocytes
f. HIGH poly count --> likely infection i. macrophage-
monocyte CSF (M-CSF)
2. eosinophils - lead attack against ii. granulocyte CSF (G-
parasitic worms CSF)
a. only 1-4% of all leukocytes iii. granulocyte-
b. two-lobed, purplish nucleus macrophage CSF (GM-CSF)
c. acidophilic (red) granules with iv. multi CSF (multiple
digest enzymes lymphocyte action)
d. phagocytose antigens & v. interleukin 3 (IL-3)
antigen/antibody complex (general lymphocytes)
e. inactivate chemicals released
during allergies 3. leukopoiesis - all cells derived from
hemocytoblast
3. basophils - releases Histamine which
causes inflammation, vasodilation, attraction of
WBCs
a. RAREST of all leukocytes (0.5%)
b. deep purple U or S shaped
nucleus
c. basophilic (blue) granules with
HISTAMINE
d. related to "mast cells" of
connective tissue
e. BOTH release Histamine with E. Disorders of Leukocytes
"IgE" signal 1. leukopenia - abnormally low WBC
f. antihistamine - blocks the action of count
Histamine in response to infection or allergic antigen
a. HIV infection,
C. Agranulocytes - WBCs without glucocorticoids, chemotherapy
granules in cytoplasm
2. leukemia - cancerous condition of
1. lymphocytes - two types of "line" of WBCs
lymphocytes a. myelocytic leukemia
a. T lymphocytes - (thymus) (myelocytes)
respond against virus infected cells and tumor cells b. lymphocytic leukemia
b. B lymphocytes - (bone) differentiate (lymphocytes)
into different "plasma cells" which each c. acute leukemia - cancer
produce spreads rapidly
antibodies d. chronic leukemia - cancer
against different antigens
progresses slowly
c. lymphocytes primarily in lymphoid
e. anemia, fever, weight loss,
tissues
d. very large basophilic (purple) bone pain
nucleus f. death from internal
e. small lymphocytes in blood (5-8 hemorrhage or infection
microns) g. chemotherapy & radiation
f. larger lymphocytes in lymph therapy used to treat
organs (10-17 mic)
3. infectious mononucleosis - caused
2. monocytes - differentiate to become by Epstein-Barr virus, excessive monocytes
macrophages; serious appetites for infectious and lymphocytes; fatigue, sore throat, fever; 3
microbes week course
a. largest of all leukocytes (18
microns)
IV. Platelets (thrombocytes - "clotting")
b. dark purple, kidney shaped
A. General Characteristics
nucleus
1. very small, 2-4 microns in diameter
 2. approximately 250-500,000 per 3. platelets attach to damaged vessel
cubic millimeter wall to plug it
3. essential for clotting of damaged 4. platelets produce thromboxane A2 -
vasculature granule release
4. thrombopoietin - regulates platelet 5. serotonin release enhances
production vascular spasm
6. ADP - attracts and stimulates
B. Formation of Platelets platelets at site
Hemocytoblast--->myeloid stem cell--- 7. prostacylin - inhibits aggregation at
>megakaryoblast--->promegakaryocyte--- other sites
>megakaryocyte ---> (large multilobed nucleus)
platelets (anucleated parts of megakaryocyte VII. Coagulation (blood clotting)
cytoplasm) A. General Events in Clotting

V. Plasma (the liquid part of blood) platelet cells activated by damage---

A. General Characteristics >PF3 and/or Tissue Factor produced by platelet
1. plasma makes up 55% of normal cells--->
blood by volume Factor X activated--->prothrombin
2. water is 90% of the plasma by activator (enzyme) produced---
volume >prothrombin conversion---> thrombin
3. many different SOLUTES in the (another enzyme) thrombin stimulates:
plasma fibrinogen----> fibrin mesh
a. albumin - pH buffer &
osmotic pressure 1. anticoagulant - chemical that inhibits
b. globulins - binding proteins clotting
& antibodies 2. procoagulant - chemical that
c. clotting proteins - promotes clotting
prothrombin & fibrinogen 3. intrinsic pathway - within the
d. other proteins - enzymes, damaged vessel
hormones, others a. more procoagulants
e. nutrients - glucose, fatty needed (I-XIII) toward PF3
acids, amino acids, cholesterol, and Factor X
vitamins b. allows more "scrutiny"
f. electrolytes - Na+, K+, Ca++, before clotting occurs
Mg ,++
Cl-, phosphate, sulfate, 4. extrinsic pathway - in outer tissues
bicarbonate, others around vessel
a. tissue thromboplastin
VI. Hemostasis (stoppage of blood flow after (Tissue Factor) - skips intrinsic steps
damage) straight to PF3 and Fac X
A. General Characteristics b. allows rapid response to
1. vascular spasms (vasoconstriction bleeding out of vessel (clot can form in
at injured site) 10 to 15 seconds)
2. platelet plug formation (plugging the 5. After activation of Factor X, common
hole) pathway:
3. coagulation (blood clotting -
complex mechanism) Factor X, PF3 (thromboplastin),
Factor V, Ca++ --->prothrombin
B. Vascular Spasms activator --->prothrombin converted -
1. first response to vascular injury - --> thrombin (active enzyme)
VASOCONSTRICTION is stimulated by: thrombin stimulates: fibrinogen --->
a. compression of vessel by fibrin(meshwork)
escaping blood Ca++ & thrombin ---> Factor XIII
b. injury "chemicals" released (fibrin stabilizer)
by injured cells
c. reflexes from adjacent pain B. Clot Retraction (shrinking of clot)
receptors 1. actomyosin - causes contraction of
platelets
C. Formation of a Platelet Plug 2. blood serum - plasma WITHOUT
1. damage to endothelium of vessel clotting Factors
2. platelets become spiky and sticky in 3. platelet-derived growth factor
response (PDGF) - stimulates fibroblast migration and
endothelial growth
 3. hemophilias – hereditary
C. Clot Eradication (Fibrinolysis) bleeding disorders that occur almost
1. healing occurs over 2 - 10 days exclusively in males
2. tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) a. hemophilia A -
- causes the activation of plasminogen defective Factor VIII (83%)
3. plasminogen--> plasmin b. hemophilia B -
4. plasmin degrades proteins within defective Factor IX (10%)
the clot c. Genentech. Inc. - now
produces genetically engineered TPA
D. Factors Limiting Growth and and Factor VIII;
Formation of Clots patients do not
1. Limiting Normal Clot Growth need transfusions as often
a. blood moves too fast
to allow procoagulants VIII. Blood Transfusions and Blood Typing
b. factors interfere with A. Transfusion of Blood
normal clotting 1. whole blood transfusion – all
i. prothrombin cells and plasma; anticoagulants (citrate and
III - deactivates thrombin oxalate salts)
ii. protein C - used
inhibits clotting Factors 2. packed red blood cells - most
iii. heparin - of the plasma has been removed prior
inhibits thrombin; prevents to transfusion
adherence of platelets to
injured B. Human Blood Groups
1. agglutinogens - glycoproteins
site on the surface of blood cells; causes
"agglutination"
VII. Disorders of Hemostasis (clumping)
A. Thromboembolytic Disorders 2. ABO Blood Groups -
(undesirable clotting) determined by presence or absence of
1. thrombus – blood clot in Type A and Type B agglutinogen
normal blood vessel proteins on cell membrane
2. embolus – blood clot/gas
bubble floating in blood TYPE GENES PEOPLE Antibodies Receive
a. TPA, streptokinase - Blood
can dissolve a clot from:
b. aspirin - inhibits
Thromboxane formation Type A A/A, (30- Anti-B A, O
c. heparin - inhibits A/O, 40%)
O/A
thrombin & platelet deposit
Type B B/B, (10- Anti-A B, O
d. dicumarol -
B/O, 30%)
anticoagulant, blocks Vitamin K O/B
Type A, B, AB,
B. Bleeding Disorders AB (3-5%) None O
1. thrombocytopenia – reduced A/B or
platelet count; generally, below 50,000 per B/A
cubic Type No A (40- Anti-A, O only
millimeter; can cause O or B 50%) Anti-B
excessive bleeding from vascular injury
2. impaired liver function – lack
of procoagulants (Clotting 3. agglutinins – antibodies
Factors) that are made in liver against either A or B
a. vitamin K - essential for liver agglutinogen (whichever is not
to make Clotting Factors for present)
coagulation a. transfusion reaction -
patient's antibodies attack the
donor blood
i. A (anti-B)
receives A,O (not B)
ii. B (anti-A)
receives B,O (not A)
 iii. AB (none) c. diabetes - blood glucose
receives A, B, AB, O universal level
recipient d. infection - generally higher
iv. O (anti-A,anti- WBC count
B) receives O universal donor e. leukemia - significantly
higher WBC count
b. agglutination - when f. differential WBC count -
incorrect blood transfused, antibodies counts % of each of the different
will "clump" new leukocytes (helps
blood diagnose)
c. hemolysis - after clumping, g. prothrombin time - time for
RBCs may rupture, releasing clotting to occur
hemoglobin, harming h. platelet count - diagnose
kidney thrombocytopenia
i. dilute hemoglobin, i. complete blood count
administer diuretics - overall blood reviewp

4. Rh factor - a different group of

agglutinogens
a. Rh positive (Rh+) - an Rh
factor is present
b. Rh negative (Rh-) - NO Rh
factor
c. transfusion reaction -
delayed and less severe than in ABO
confrontation
d. erythroblastosis fetalis - Rh-
mother antibodies attack Rh+ of older
newborn; results
in anemia and low oxygen
levels (hypoxia)
i. RhoGAM - serum
with anti-Rh agglutinins which
will clump the Rh factor,

blocking the reaction of

mothers antibodies
ii. exchange
transfusion - directly
from the mother (Rh-)
to the newborn (Rh+)

5. Blood Typing - mixing Donors

Blood with Recipient Antibodies (Anti-A, Anti-B,
anti-Rh) in order to identify
agglutination
6. Expanding Blood Volume to
Avoid Shock
a. pure plasma without
antibodies
b. plasma expanders - purified
human serum albumin, plasminate,
dextran
c. isotonic saline - normal
electrolyte solution isotonic to blood
plasma (Ringer's
Solution)
7. Diagnostic Blood Tests
a. anemia - low hematocrit
(below 35%)
b lipidemia - high in fat;
yellowish plasma
 ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
SCI211 – ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Definition, scope and concern of organic
chemistry as a branch of chemistry:
Chemistry, the branch of science that deals with
the identification of the substances of which matter is
composed; the investigation of their properties and the
ways in which they interact, combine, and change; and
the use of these processes of form new substances.
The difference between inorganic chemistry and
organic chemistry:
Inorganic focus on matter does not contain
carbon except CO2, carbonates, and carbides. While
organic chemistry focus on matter that contains Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.
Lesson 1 – Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that
studies the structure, properties and reactions of
organic compounds, which contain carbon in covalent
bonding. Study of structure determines their chemical
composition and formula. Study of properties includes
physical and chemical properties, and evaluation of
chemical reactivity to understand their behavior. The
study of organic reactions includes the chemical
synthesis of natural products, drugs, and polymers, and
study of individual organic molecules in the laboratory
and via theoretical study.
Organic chemistry is the study of "living"
things—not in the same way that biology is the study of
life. Rather, organic chemistry takes a look at what
composes the living things, and how they’re structured.
Organic chemistry breaks down living things not only
into organs seen in organisms, but goes a step further
to break down those organs into atoms and molecules.
It focuses mainly on carbon, which is highly essential to
maintaining life, and particularly zeroes in on the
hydrocarbon, which is a molecule, composed of
hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons not only compose
what we’re made of, but also what we consume,
including carbohydrates, proteins, steroids, fats, and
more! As a matter of fact, you may be surprised to know
that everyday things, such as caffeine, plastic, and paint
are all composed of hydrocarbons!
Organic chemistry is the study of the chemistry of
carbon compounds. Carbon is singled out because it
has a chemical diversity unrivalled by any other
chemical element. Its diversity is based on the following:
• Carbon atoms bond reasonably with other carbon
atoms:
• Carbon atoms bond reasonably strongly with
atoms of other elements:
• Carbon atoms make a large number of covalent
bonds (four):
Curiously, elemental carbon is not particularly
abundant. It does not even appear in the list of the most
common elements in Earth’s crust. Nevertheless, all
living things consist of organic compounds namely,
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Most organic chemicals are covalent
compounds, which is why we introduce organic
chemistry here. By convention, compounds containing
carbonate ions and bicarbonate ions, as well as carbon
dioxide and carbon monoxide, are not considered part
of organic chemistry, even though they contain carbon.
 Naturally occurring organic compounds are
found in plants, animals, and fossil fuels. All of these
have a plant origin and rely on the “fixing” of C from CO 2.
Synthetic organic compounds are derived from fossil
fuels or plant material.
HISTORY
Before the nineteenth century, chemists
generally believed that compounds obtained from living
organisms were endowed with a vital force that
distinguished them from inorganic compounds.
According to the concept of vitalism (vital force theory),
organic matter was endowed with a "vital force". During
the first half of the nineteenth century, some of the first
systematic studies of organic compounds were
reported. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study
of soaps made from various fats and alkalis. He
separated the acids that, in combination with the alkali,
produced the soap. Since these were all individual
compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to
make a chemical change in various fats (which
traditionally come from organic sources), producing
new compounds, without "vital force". In 1828 Friedrich
Wöhler produced the organic chemical urea
(carbamide), a constituent of urine, from inorganic
starting materials (the salts potassium cyanate and
ammonium sulfate), in what is now called the Wöhler
synthesis. Although Wöhler himself was cautious about
claiming he had disproved vitalism, this was the first
time a substance thought to be organic was synthesized
in the laboratory without biological (organic) starting
materials. The event is now generally accepted as
indeed disproving the doctrine of vitalism.
Wohler’s urea synthesis in 1828
Wohler: “I have been able to make urea without aid of
kidney of man or dog.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• They are nonpolar compounds – they do not
dissolve in polar solvents like water. (Rule: “likes
dissolve likes”
• They have low melting points – due to weak
intermolecular forces.
• They react slower than ionic compounds – due to
strong covalent bonds between atoms.
Covalent bonds: sharing of electrons
• Single Bond – single covalent bond in which
they share 1 pair of electrons. (2 e-)
• Double Bond – carbon atoms may share 2
pairs of electrons to form a double bond. (4e-)
• Triple Bond – carbon atoms may share 3
pairs of electrons to form a triple bond. (6e-)
SOURCES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
All organic compounds at one time came from
plants or animals. Many of our most important
substance are still derived from these sources directly
or indirectly.
1) PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Many organic compounds are obtained directly
from plant and animals sources by suitable method of
isolation. A few familiar EXAMPLES are carbohydrates
(cellulose, sugar, and starches.) proteins (silk, wool,
casein, and food proteins) fats and oils (cottonseed
soybean oils lard, butter) alkaloids (quinine, morphine,
strychnine) hormones, vitamins, perfumes, flavors and
resins.
2) NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM
Natural gas and petroleum are now the major
sources of organic compounds. They are used as fuels
and also, through synthetic organic reaction for the
production of hundreds of useful organic substances
such as solvents, synthetic rubber, explosive, and
plastic.
3) COAL
Coal is another major source of organic
compounds.it yield coke and coal-tar on pyrolysis or
destructive distillation. More than 200 organic
compounds have been directly isolated from coal-tar.
These coal-tar products are used as starting materials
for the manufacture of thousands of useful aromatic
compounds, including perfumes, drugs, dyes,
photographic developers, and other.
4) SYNTHESIS
Simple organic compounds derived from
petroleum or coal have been converted into thousands
of useful materials by synthetic method. Many
EXAMPLES might be cited of synthetic organic
compounds replacing those obtained from natural
sources, such as dyes, rubber, fibers, plastic, drugs,
vitamins.in many cases the synthetic materials are
superior to the natural compounds replaced. For
example, synthetic dyes are superior to those of natural
http://origin.in other cases the synthetic materials are
entirely unknown in nature and fill the requirements not
satisfied are entirely other sources. EXAMPLES are
ether, glycol, aspirin, and Sulphur drugs. Synthetic
organic chemistry touches almost every phase of life.
• Carbon is able to form 4 covalent bonds (4 valence
electrons) with other carbon or other elements.
Lesson 2 – Carbon and Hydrocarbon Compounds
Methane
The Carbon Atom
Carbon is found in many different compounds.
It is in the food you eat, the clothes you wear, the
cosmetics you use and the gasoline that fuels your car.
Carbon is the sixth most abundant element in the
universe. In addition, carbon is a very special element
because it plays a dominant role in the chemistry of life.
Carbon discovered in prehistory and was known to the Ethane
ancients, who manufactured it by burning organic
material making charcoal. There are four known
allotropes of carbon: amorphous, graphite, diamond
and fullerene. A new (fifth) allotrope of carbon was
recently found. It is a spongy solid that is extremely
lightweight and, unusually, attracted to magnets. The
inventors of this new form of carbon -- a magnetic
carbon nanofoam-- say it could may someday find
medical applications.
Bond Formation
What does carbon look like?
• Ionic bonds: transfer of electrons
• Carbon (C) is a small atom

• Covalent bonds: sharing of electrons

What are hydrocarbons?

• It can form single, double and triple bonds
• Single Bond – single covalent bond in which
they share 1 pair of electrons.
• Double Bond – carbon atoms may share 2
pairs of electrons to form a double bond.
• Triple Bond – carbon atoms may share 3
pairs of electrons to form a triple bond.
• It is intermediate in electronegativity (2.5)
• It forms strong bonds with C, H, O, N, and some metals
• Carbon is unusual
- Bonds strongly to itself
- Forms long straight chains, branched chains
or rings
The hydrocarbons are compounds composed
entirely of Carbon and Hydrogen. They occur widely in
nature. The crude oil consists of complex mixtures of
hydrocarbons, mangoes contain cyclohexane, a cyclic
hydrocarbon, cockroaches secretes a hydrocarbon,
undecane which attract opposite gender of its species.
Hydrocarbons are primarily used as fuel. For example,
Liquefied mixture of propane and butane is used as
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). They also find many
applications in industries such as solvents etc. In this
unit we will study the classification, preparation,
properties and uses of aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons.
The hydrocarbons are the simplest organic
compounds of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. Some
hydrocarbons have only single bonds and appear as a
chain (which can be a straight chain or can have
branches) of carbon atoms also bonded to hydrogen
atoms. These hydrocarbons are called alkanes
(saturated hydrocarbons). Some hydrocarbons have
one or more carbon–carbon double bonds (denoted
C=C). These hydrocarbons are called alkenes. Alkynes
are hydrocarbons with a carbon–carbon triple bond
(denoted C≡C) as part of their carbon skeleton. Alkenes
and alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Examples:
Classification of Hydrocarbons
1. Acyclic or Open Chain Compounds: These
compounds are also known as aliphatic compounds;
they have branched or straight chains. Following are
the examples in this category:
ethane ethene ethyne
pentane 2-methyl butane 2,2-dimethyl propane
2. Alicyclic or Closed Chain or Ring Compounds:
These are cyclic compounds which contain carbon
atoms connected to each other in a ring (homocyclic).
When atoms other than carbon are also present then it
is called as heterocyclic. Examples of this type are as
follows:
3. Aromatic Compounds: They are a special type of
compounds which contain benzene and other ring
related compounds. Similar to alicyclic, they can also
have heteroatoms in the ring. Such compounds are
called heterocyclic aromatic compounds. Some of the
examples are as follows:
(a) Benzenoid aromatic compounds
(b) Non-benzenoid aromatic compounds
4. Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds
 Carbon is essential to all known living systems,
and without it life could not exist.
 The major economic use of carbon other than food
and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons, most
notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil
(petroleum).
 Crude oil is distilled in refineries by the
petrochemical industry to produce gasoline,
kerosene, and other products.
 Cellulose is a natural, carbon-containing polymer
produced by plants in the form of wood, cotton,
linen, and hemp. Cellulose is used primarily for
maintaining structure in plants.
 Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal
origin include wool, cashmere and silk.
 Plastics are made from synthetic carbon polymers,
often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at
regular intervals in the main polymer chain. The
raw materials for many of these synthetic
substances come from crude oil.
Lesson 3 – Functional Groups and Classes of Organic
Compounds
In organic chemistry, a functional group is a
specific group of atoms or bonds within a compound
that is responsible for the characteristic chemical
reactions of that compound. Functional groups also play
an important part in organic compound nomenclature;
combining the names of the functional groups with the
names of the parent alkanes provides a way to
distinguish compounds.
The atoms of a functional group are linked
together and to the rest of the compound by covalent
bonds. The first carbon atom that attaches to the Major Classes of Organic Compounds Based on
functional group is the alpha carbon; the second, the Functional Groups
beta carbon; the third, the gamma carbon, etc. Similarly,
a functional group can be referred to as primary,
secondary, or tertiary, depending on if it is attached to
one, two, or three carbon atoms.
Functional groups determine the chemical
reactivity of an organic molecule. Functional groups are
structural units that determine the chemical reactivity of
a molecule under a given set of conditions. Organic
compounds are classified into several major categories
based on the functional groups they contain. This can
be summarized in the table below.

The R represents a carbon based group.

The first family listed in table 1 is the

hydrocarbons. These include alkanes, with the general
molecular formula CnH2n+2 where n is an integer;
alkenes, represented by CnH2n; alkynes, represented
by CnH2n−2; and arenes. Halogen-substituted alkanes,
alkenes, and arenes form a second major family of
organic compounds, which include the alkyl halides and
the aryl halides. Oxygen-containing organic
compounds, a third family, may be divided into two main
types: those that contain at least one C–O bond, which
include alcohols, phenols (derivatives of benzene), and
ethers, and those that contain a carbonyl group (C=O),
which include aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids.
Carboxylic acid derivatives, the fourth family listed, are
compounds in which the OH of the –COOH functional
group is replaced by either an alkoxy (–OR) group,
producing an ester, or by an amido (–NRR′, where R
and R′ can be H and/or alkyl groups), forming an amide.
Nitrogen-containing organic compounds, the fifth family,
include amines; nitriles, which have a C≡N bond; and
nitro compounds, which contain the –NO2 group.
• The two most common allotropes of carbon are
diamond and graphite
• Diamonds and graphite are among the hardest and
softest natural materials known, respectively.
• Diamond is used for decorative purposes, and also as
drill bits
• Graphite combined with clays form the 'lead' used in
pencils
• Carbon added to iron makes steel
• Carbon is used for control rods in nuclear reactors
• When an element exists in more than one crystalline
form, those forms are called allotropes
• Functional groups are collections of atoms that attach
the carbon skeleton of an organic molecule and confer
specific properties.
• The physical properties and reactivity of compounds
containing the common functional groups are intimately
connected to their structures
• Each type of organic molecule has its own specific
type of functional group.
• Functional groups in biological molecules play an
important role in the formation of molecules like DNA,
proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
• Functional groups include: hydroxyl, methyl, carbonyl,
carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and sulfhydryl.

SUMMARY
• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds,
nearly all of which also contain hydrogen atoms.
• The chemical compounds of living things are known
as organic compounds because of their association with
organisms.
• Among the numerous types of organic compounds,
four major categories are found in all living things:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
• Hydrocarbons are the simplest class of organic
compounds, consisting solely of hydrogen and carbon
• Hydrocarbons can be classified as either aromatic or
aliphatic compounds, depending on the presence of a
benzene ring
• Hydrocarbons are widely used as fuels. For example,
LPG (liquefied petroleum gas), CNG (Liquefied natural
gas)
• Aliphatic compounds can be divided into alkanes,
alkenes, and alkynes, based on the presence of double
or triple bonds in the chemical structure
• Aromatic hydrocarbons, or arenes, contain a benzene
ring, having a closed ring of alternate single and double
bonds with delocalized electrons
• Saturated hydrocarbon compounds consist entirely of
single bonds, so that each carbon atom is connected to
four other atoms
• Unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds are molecules
where some of the carbons are connected to fewer than
four neighboring atoms. Usually the molecules contain
double or triple bonds
• Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons which possess one or
multiple carbon rings. The hydrogen atom is attached to
the carbon ring
• Carbon gets its name from the Latin word carbo, which
means "coal"
• All living things contain carbon in some form.
• Carbon is the primary component of macromolecules,
including proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and
carbohydrates.
• Carbon’s molecular structure allows it to bond in many
different ways and with many different elements.
• The carbon cycle shows how carbon moves through
the living and non-living parts of the environment.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY NH4CNO + heat → NH2CONH2
• The study of carbon & carbon compounds
- Organic compounds are the living primary “I have been able to make urea without aid of kidney of
constituents of all living organisms. man or dog”

• Over 10 million compounds have been identified

CARBON
• C is a small atom
- It forms single, double, and triple bonds
- It is intermediate in electronegativity (2.5)
- It forms strong bonds with C, H, O, N, and
some metals

• Carbon is unusual
- Bonds strongly to itself Mass # = 12
- forms long chains or rings Atomic # = 6
p+ = 6
• Biomolecule – molecule that functions in maintaining no = 6
e- = 6
and reproducing life
• Organic Compounds – carbon containing compounds

ORIGIN OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• Naturally occurring organic compounds are found in
plants, animals, and fossil fuels
• all of these have a plant origin Carbon is able to form 4 covalent bonds (4 valence
• All of these rely on the “fixing” of C from CO2 electrons) with other carbon or other elements.
• Synthetic organic compounds are derived from fossil
fuels or plant material Carbon has 4 valence electrons – can form up to 4
• Most current research focuses on Organic bonds:
• Originally from “organic” meaning life
• Not just chemistry of life, chemistry of carbon
• Exceptions:
- oxides of carbon (CO2, CO)
- carbohydrates, bicarbonates (NaHCO3,
CaCO3)
- cyanides (NaCN, etc)

HISTORY Methane Ethane

- “Organic” – derived from living organisms
- compounds such as sugar, urea, starch
- vitalism: natural products needed a “VitalForce” to
create them
- Wöhler (1828) synthesis of urea

VALENCE
• Elements can form specific numbers of bonds.
Inorganic Organic

• Atoms of some elements can form multiple bonds with

the same atom. Valence remains!
VITAL FORCE THEORY
Inorganic materials could be converted to
organic materials in the presence of a vital force found
only in living bodies.

WOEHLER’S UREA SYNTHESIS (1828)

Ammonium isocyanate + heat → urea
NORMAL BONDING PATTERNS STRUCTURAL FORMULAS
• a 2D model shows bonding pattern and shapes of
Carbon (4 bonds) C C C C molecules

- carbon id found in the center

Nitrogen (3 bonds) N N N
- the short line represents a pair of electrons
(Phosphorus)

Oxygen (2 bonds) O O
(Sulfur)

Halogen (1 bond) X
(F, Cl, Br, I)
TYPES OF BONDS
Hydrogen (1 bond) H • Single Bond – single covalent bond in which they
share 1 pair of electrons. (2 e-)
CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• They are nonpolar compounds – they do not dissolve
in polar solvents like water
- rule: “likes dissolve likes”
• Double Bond – carbon atoms may share 2 pairs of
• Chemical bonds electrons to form a double bond.
- covalent

• Triple Bond – carbon atoms may share 3 pairs of

electrons to form a triple bond

- ionic

TYPES OF COMPOUNDS
• Saturated Compound – organic compounds in which
carbon atoms are bonded in single bonds
Ex: Methane: CH4
- hydrogen

• Bond formation
- ionic bonds – transfer of electrons
Na + Cl Na + Cl
- covalent bonds – sharing of electrons • Unsaturated Compound – compounds where carbon
H + Cl H Cl atoms have double or triple bonds
Ex: Ethene: C2H4

SATURATED HYDROCARBONS
• They have low melting points – due to weak • Saturated – all carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds
intermolecular forces • Unsaturated – containing carbon-carbon multiple
bonds

• They react slower than ionic compounds – due to

strong covalent bonds between atoms.
 • Petroleum: a thick, flammable, yellow-to-black
mixture of solid, liquid, and gaseous hydrocarbons that
• Carbon-to-carbon occurs naturally beneath the Earth's surface.
bonds can be single
(A), double (B), or
triple (C). Note that in
each example, each
carbon atom has four
dashes, which
represent four
bonding pairs of
electrons, satisfying
Example:
the octet rule.
• Petroleum is a mixture of alkanes, cycloalkanes, and
aromatic hydrocarbons.
- Petroleum is formed from the slow
decomposition of buried marine life, primarily plankton
and algae.
• As petroleum is formed it is forced through porous rock
until it reaches an impervious layer of rock.
• Carbon-to-carbon
- Here it forms an accumulation of petroleum
chains can be (A)
and saturated the porous rock creating an oil field.
straight, (B)
branched, or (C) in a
• Crude oil is the petroleum that is pumped directly from
closed ring. (Some
the ground.
carbon bonds are
- It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with
drawn longer, but
one or two carbon atoms up to a limit of about 50 carbon
are actually the
atoms.
same length.)
- This is usually not useful, so it must separate
by distillation.
- liquid mixture of naturally occurring
hydrocarbons
- after refining: the chief source of
transportation fuels

• Natural gas are gaseous mixture of naturally

hydrocarbons
- after processing: used for power generation,
residential, fertilizers, manufacturing, transportation
(still very limited)
HYDROCARBONS
Organic compounds that consist of only carbon
• Petroleum products and the ranges of hydrocarbons
and hydrogen atoms.
in each product.
[Solids (e.g. paraffin) are not abundant, but have many
• Primary recovery lasts for several months or years.
uses]
• As the pressure drops, flow slows and operators must
use “secondary recovery” techniques for to recover
petroleum.

The most common technique: injection of water or gas.

Examples:
• Refinery and tank storage facilities, like this
one in Texas, are needed to change the hydrocarbons
of crude oil to many different petroleum products. The
classes and properties of hydrocarbons form one topic
of study in organic chemistry.
• Crude oil from the ground is separated into
usable groups of hydrocarbons at this Louisiana
refinery. Each petroleum product has a boiling point
range, or "cut," of distilled vapors that collect in
condensing towers.
SEPARATING MIXTURES ON THE BASIS OF • Current (2007) rate of oil production
BOILING POINT AND FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION - KSA
Separating Mixtures of Hydrocarbons - FSU
- Since different - USA
hydrocarbons have - Iran
different boiling - China
points they can be
separated by • Remaining oil reserves
distillation. - KSA
- Crude oil is heated - Iraq
to about 500oC in the - Iran
absence of air. - Kuwait
- The vapors rise and - UAE/Venezuela
cool changing to
liquids at different [FSU – former Soviet Union]
temperatures. [KSA – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]
[UAE – United Arab Emirates]

Petrochemicals – chemicals produced from petroleum

• All plastics are

petrochemicals
Ex: polystyrene;
epoxies

• More uses:
Dyes, MTBE,
phenols
(antiseptics),
packaging,
eyeglass lenses,
TNT, vinyl, rubbing
alcohol, auto parts,
synthetic rubber, drugs, detergents, riot shields,
sterilizers (food & medical supplies).

LISTS OF THE TOP 5 COUNTRIES:

• Oil production to date (since ~1860)
- USA
- FSU
- KSA
- Iran
- Venezuela
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS Summary of Important Families of Organic
• Special groups of atoms attached to a hydrocarbon Compounds
skeleton; the most common sites of chemical reactivity.
• Functional Groups are the reactive portions of the
molecule that undergo predictable reactions depending
upon the functional group.
• Organic compounds often contain elements other than
C, H that increase their reactivity.
• Functional groups are parts of molecules that result in
characteristic features
• About 100 functional groups exist, we will focus on the
most common
• Useful to group the infinite number of possible organic
compounds
• E.g. the simplest group is hydrocarbons
• Made up of only C and H
• Not really a functional “group”
• Further divided into:
- Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Aromatics

HYDROCARBONS

List of Organic Functional Groups

• There are other names that describe patterns of atoms

that are parts of functional groups.
• “Hydroxyl” refers to –OH
• “Carbonyl” refers to C=O
• “Carboxyl” refers to COOH

Which functional groups contain a hydroxyl group?

A carbonyl group? A carboxyl group?
• Hydroxyl: alcohols, carboxylic acids.
• Carbonyl: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,
amides, esters.
• Carboxyl: carboxylic acids

[Note that properties such as boiling and melting point

change due to functional groups.]
ALKANES KETONES

• Only carbon and hydrogen • only one oxygen

• All single bonds • has a C=O group
• C=O group is not at the end of carbon chain, so is next
What should you call cyclic hydrocarbons made up door to 2 carbons
of just single bonds? Cycloalkanes
Ketones cannot easily be oxidised. Why not?
ALKENES No hydrogen atom attached to the C=O group.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

• Only carbon and hydrogen

• A carbon to carbon double bond

What should you call a molecule with two C=Cs?

A diene • has 2 oxygen
• has O-H and C=O groups on the same carbon atom
ALCOHOLS • this –COOH group has to be at the end of a carbon
chain

Write an equation showing how ethanoic acid can

an act as a (weak) acid.
CH3COOH(aq) ↔ CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
• Only one oxygen
• Has an O-H group ESTERS
• Can classify as 1º/2º/3º according to position of O-H
group on carbon skeleton

Why are short-chain alcohols so soluble in water?

They can form hydrogen bonds with H2O molecules
• has 2 oxygen
PHENOLS
• one oxygen is part of a C=O bond, the other is next
door, sandwiched between two carbons

This ester can be made by reacting ethanoic acid

with an alcohol. Name the alcohol, and name the
• Only one oxygen ester. Alcohol = methanol; ester = methyl ethanoate
• Has an O-H group
• The O-H group is directly attached to a benzene ring ETHERS

The C6H5- group has a special name. What is it?

Phenyl

ALDEHYDES
• has 1 oxygen
• no O-H or C=O group
• the oxygen is sandwiched between two carbon atoms

Why do ethers have much lower boiling points t

than their isomeric alcohols? No hydrogen bonds
• Only one oxygen
• Has a C=O group between ether molecules
• C=O group is at the end of carbon chain, so is next
door to a hydrogen atom

Aldehydes can be easily oxidised to form …?

Carboxylic acids
PRIMARY ALCOHOL FUNCTIONAL GROUPS (cont.)

SECONDARY ALCOHOL

• A functional group is an atom or group of atoms that

have a characteristic chemical behavior.
• The chemistry of every organic molecule, regardless
TERTIARY ALCOHOL of size and complexity, is determined by the functional
groups it contains.
• Functional group: An atom or group of atoms within a
molecule that shows a characteristic set of physical and
chemical properties.

• Functional groups are important for three reasons:

1. Allow us to divide compounds into classes.
2. Each group undergoes characteristic chemical
CYCLOALKANE reactions.
3. Provide the basis for naming compounds.

-------

ALKANES
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
R-R’ [where R is and alkyl group and R’ is an alkyl
group]

ALKYL GROUP
• Alkyl group – remove one H from an alkane (a part of
a structure)
• General abbreviation “R”
• Name: replace -ane ending of alkane with -yl ending
– CH3 is “methyl” (from methane)
– CH2CH3 is “ethyl” from ethane
ALKENES KETONE
H O H
H C C C H
H H Propanone (acetone)

R=R’ [where R is an alkyl group and R’ is an alkyl group] ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
• Contain a carbonyl (C=O) group
: O: O : O: O
ALKYNES C H CH3-C-H C CH3-C-CH3
FunctionalAcetaldehyde FunctionalAcetone
group (an aldehyde) group (aketone)

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
ALKYL HALIDE H O
H H H H H C C OH
H C C C C Br H Ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
H H H H

R-X [where X is any “halogen”]

Additional Organic Compounds
C. Carboxylic Acids and Esters
• Carboxylic Acids – contains the carboxyl group
ALCOHOLS
- COOH
H H H H
H C C C C OH
H H H H
- General formula RCOOH
R-OH [where R is any “alkyl group”] - weak acids in solution
O :O:
: :

• contain an –OH (hydroxyl) group bonded to a COH CH3-C-O-H or CH3COOH or CH3CO2H

tetrahedral carbon atom. Functional Acetic acid
group (a carboxylic acid)
HH
: :

-C-O-H H-C-C-O-H
HH
Functional Ethanol
group (an alcohol)

• ethanol may also be written as a condensed

structural formula.
CH3-CH2-OH or CH3CH2OH ESTER
H O
H C C O CH3
ETHERS H Methyl ethanoate (methyl acetate)
H H H
H C C O C H • a derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the carboxyl
hydrogen is replaced by a carbon group.
H H H
O O
CO CH3 -C-O-CH2-CH3
R-O-R’ [where R is any “alkyl group”]
Functional Ethyl acetate
group (an ester)
ALDEHYDES
H O
H C C H
H
AMINE Functional Groups
H O
H C NH2 II
Alcohols R – OH except R-C-OH
H Methylamine Ethers R – O – R’
Aldehydes R – CH = O
O
AMIDE II
O Ketones R – C – R’
O
H3C C NH2 Ethanamide (acetamide) II
Carboxylic Acids R – C – OH
• a derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the –OH of O
the –COOH group is replaced by an amine. II
O O Esters R – C – OR’
C N CH3-C-N-H Amines R – NH2 R – NH – R’
H O
Functional Acetamide
group (a 1° amide) II
Amides R – C - NH2
Halides R – Cl Br I or F
ACID ANHYDRIDE
O O
Alkanes – contain all single bonds
H3C C O C CH3 Ethanoic anhydride Methane CH4
Ethane CH3-CH3
Propane CH3-CH2-CH3
ACID HALIDE Butane CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
O Pentane, Hexane, Heptane,
Octane, etc.
H3C C Cl Ethanoyl chloride Alkenes – contain 1 or more double bonds
Ethene CH2 = CH2
Propene CH3 – CH = CH3
ARENE Butene Two structural isomers (1-butene &
2-butene)

Cyclic Alkanes and Alkenes

Benzene Cyclopropane, Cyclobutane, Cyclopentene

HALIDE
H3C Cl Chloromethane
Aromatics – contain benzene, C6H6

NITRILE
H3C C N Ethanenitrile 2
Uses sp HAO, Flat, Carcinogen

SULFIDE
H3C S CH3

THIOL
H3C S HMethanethiol
Hydrocarbons are compounds made up of only the List of Organic Functional Groups
elements carbon and hydrogen. They may be
aliphatic or aromatic.

TYPES OF ALKYL GROUPS

• Classified by the connection site
- a carbon at the end of a chain (primary alkyl
group)
- a carbon in the middle of a chain (secondary
alkyl group)
- a carbon with three carbons attached to it
(tertiary alkyl group)

ALKANES
• Carbon atoms in alkanes and other organic
compounds are classified by the number of other
carbons directly bonded to them.

• Hydrogen atoms are classified as primary (1°),

secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°) depending on the type of
carbon atom to which they are bonded.
TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS: Multiple Functional Groups:
Carbon-Carbon Bonds O OCH3 O
• Alkenes have a C-C double bond O C
• Alkynes have a C-C triple bond NH2 H3C O O
N
• Arenes have special bonds that are represented as C H
H O
alternating single and double C-C bonds in a six-
membered ring. HO O

Groups with a Carbon-Oxygen Double Bond

(Carbonyl Groups)
• Aldehyde: one hydrogen bonded to C=O
• Ketone: two C’s bonded to the C=O
• Carboxylic Acid: –OH bonded to the C=O
• Ester: C-O bonded to the C=O
• Amide: C-N bonded to the C=O
• Acid Chloride: Cl bonded to the C=O
• Carbonyl C has partial positive charge (+)
• Carbonyl O has partial negative charge (-)

Additional Organic Compounds

A. Aldehydes and Ketones
• Carbonyl group – carbon oxygen group
found in both aldehydes and ketones

Ketone – carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon

atoms
ALKANES AND CYCLOALKANES H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
- n-butane
- C4H10
- n means “normal” in a straight chain

Classes of Hydrocarbons H
Organic Compounds H C H
H H
H C C C H
hydrocarbons (C,H) heteroatomic (O, N, P, S, X, etc.) H H H
- isobutene
- C4H10
aliphatic (fatty) aromatic (pleasant smelling)
CLASSIFICATION OF C&H
alkane alkene alkyne cyclic • Primary (1°) C: a carbon bonded to one other carbon
C C
- 1° H: a hydrogen bonded to a 1° carbon
C C C C
• Secondary (2°): a carbon bonded to two other carbons
- 2°H: a hydrogen bonded to a 2° carbon
Structure: • Tertiary (3°) C: a carbon bonded to three other carbons
• Hydrocarbon: a compound composed only of carbon - 3° H: a hydrogen bonded to a 3° carbon
and hydrogen. • Quaternary (4°) C: a carbon bonded to four other
• Saturated hydrocarbon: a hydrocarbon containing only carbons
single bonds.
• Alkane: a saturated hydrocarbon whose carbons are CH3 CH3
arranged in a chain. CH3 C CH2 CH CH3
• Aliphatic hydrocarbon: another name for an alkane. CH3
SATURATED HYDROCARBON VS. UNSATURATED DEGREE OF SUBSTITUTION
HYDROCARBON C – c (Primary: connected to one other carbon)
• ALKANES c – C – c (Secondary: connected to two other carbons)
- straight chain or normal alkanes c–C–c
H HH HHH HHHH I
HCH HCCH HCCCH HCCCCH c (Tertiary: connected to three other carbons)
H HH HHH HHHH c
I
c–C–c
I
c (Quaternary: connected to four other carbons)

NOMENCLATURE
• Branched chains International
Union of
Pure and
H Applied
H H C H Chemistry
H H H H H H C H H H Colloquially: “eye-you-pac”
H C C C C C H H H H H C C C H
H H H H H H C C C C H H H •Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2
H H H H H C H
H
NOMENCLATURE
Name Condensed Structure
BRANCHING VS. NO BRANCHING Methane CH4
• There are 2 isomeric butanes Ethane CH3CH3
Propane CH3CH2CH3
 Butane CH3(CH2)2CH3 • Number the atoms in the main chain:
Pentane CH3(CH2)3CH3 - begin at the end nearer the first branch point
Hexane CH3(CH2)4CH3 (lower number).
Heptane CH3(CH2)5CH3 1 CH3
Octane CH3(CH2)6CH3
Nonane CH3(CH2)7CH3 2 CH2
4
Decane CH3(CH2)8CH3
Undecane CH3(CH2)9CH3 H3C CH CH CH2 CH3
3
Dodecane CH3(CH2)10CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
5 6 7
Prefix-Parent-Suffix
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH2 CH3 • If branching is equal distant away from both ends of
the parent chain, begin at the end nearer the second
CH3 CH2 CH3 branch point.
3-ethyl-6-methyloctane H3C CH2 CH3
CH3CHCH2CH2CHCHCH2CH3
The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms
CH2CH3
• Identify the number of substituents:
- assign a number to each substituents
according to its point of attachment to the main chain.

3-ethyl-4,7-dimethylnonane
9 8
H3C CH2 CH33
CH3CHCH2CH2CHCHCH2CH3
7 6 5 4 CH2CH3
2 1
3-ethyl
• Parent name of the longest carbon chain is “alkane” 4-methyl
• Groups attached to the parent chain are called 7-methyl
substituents
- each substituent is given a name and a • If there are two substituents on the same carbon,
number assign them both the same number,
- if substituent occurs more than once,
di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. 4-ethyl-2,4-dimethylhexase
CH3 CH3
• Number the chain to give the substituent encountered CH3CH2CCH2CHCH3
first the lowest number CH2 CH3
• If there are different substituents, list them in 2-methyl
alphabetical order. The following are not included in 4-methyl
alphabetization. 4-ethyl
- di-, tri-, tetra-, etc.
- hyphenated prefixes, such as sec- and tert-. • Write the name as a single word, using hyphens to
separate the different prefixes and commas, to separate
Hexane numbers.
CH2CH3 • Use di-, tri-, etc. if more than one identical substituents
CH3CH2CH2CH CH3 • Don’t use these prefixes for alphabetizing purposes.

3-methylhexane
Heptane
CH3 CH 2 CH 3
CH2 CH 3CH 2CH 2CH CH 3
H3C CH CH CH2CH3
CH2CH2CH3
4-ethyl-3-methylheptane

• If two different chains of equal length are present,

1 CH3
choose the one with the larger number of branch points. 2 CH2
4
CH3 CH3CHCHCH2CH3
3
CH3CHCHCH2CH2CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
CH2 CH3 5 6 7
3-ethyl-2-methylhexane
CH3
CH3CHCHCH2CH2CH3
CH2 CH3

• Name a complex substituent and begin numbering at

the point of attachment and set it off in parenthesis.
CH3
CH3CH CHCH2CH2CH CH2CH CH3
CH3 CH3 CH2CH2CH2CH3

2,3-dimethyl-6-(2-methylpropyl)decane

2-methylpropane
1
CH3
2 3
CH3CH CHCH2CH2CH CH2CH CH3
CH3 CH3 CH2CH2CH2CH3
2-methyl-5-(1,2-dimethylpropyl)nonane
CH3 CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH CH CHCH3
CH2 CH3
CH2 CH CH3

NOMENCLATURE-HISTORICAL
• three-carbon alkyl group:
CHCH3
CH3
• isopropyl (i-pr)
• four-carbon groups:
CH3
CHCH2CH3 CH2CHCH3
C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
sec-butyl isobutyl tert-butyl

• five-carbon alkyl groups:

CH3
CH2CH2CHCH3
CH2CCH3
CH3
CH3
ISOMERS
isopentyl neopentyl
• same chemical formula, but different structure
4-(1-methylethyl)heptane or 4-isopropylheptane
CONSTITUTIONAL ISOMERISM
H3C CH CH3 • Compounds isomers: compounds with the same
H3C CH2CH2CH CH2CH2CH3 molecular formula but a different connectivity (order of
attachment of their atoms)
2,6,6- trimethyl- 4(1-methylethyl) nonane example: C4H10
4-isopropyl-2,6,6-trimethylnonane
 CH 3
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 CH 3 CHCH 3
Butane 2-Methylpropane

• Constitutional isomers have atoms connected

differently

• Structure and nomenclature

- to name, prefix the name of the corresponding
open-chain alkane with cyclo-, and name each
substituent on the ring
- if only one substituent, no need to give it a
number
- if two or more substituents, number from the
substituent of lowest alphabetical order
- where there is choice, number to give
substituents the lowest set of numbers

NAMING CYCLOALKANES
• Count the number of carbon atoms in the ring and the
number in the largest substituent chain. If the number of
carbon atoms in the ring is equal to or greater than the
number in the substituent, the compound is named as
an alkyl-substituted cycloalkane
• For an alkyl- or halo-substituted cycloalkane, start at a
point of attachment as C1 and number the substituents
Molecular Constitutional on the ring so that the second substituent has as low a
Formula Isomers number as possible.
CH 4 1 • Number the substituents and write the name
• See text for more details and examples
C5 H12 3
C10 H22 75
C15 H32 4,347
C30 H62 4,111,846,763

Note: World Population is about 6,000,000,000.

Nomenclature
- Count the number of substituents on the ring and the
number in the largest substituent. Name according to
the largest substituent.

methylcyclopentane 1-cyclopropylbutane

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2CH3

2-cyclobutyl-5-methylhexane
CYCLOALKANES
• Hydrocarbons where the carbons form a ring or cyclic
structure; General formula: CnH2n.
5-ethyl-1,1,3-trimethyl-2-(2-
methylpentyl)cyclohexane
CH3

CH3CH2 CH
CH3 3

- For alkyl-substituted cycloalkanes, start at the point of

attachment and number the substituents on the ring so
as to arrive at the lowest sum.
CH3
1
6 2

5 3
4
CH3
1,3-dimethylcyclohexane

- Halogens are treated exactly like alkyl groups.

1-bromo-2-methylcyclobutane
CH3 Naming compounds containing both a ring and a
3 2 long chain of carbon atoms
4 1
Br
1-bromo-3-ethyl-5-methylcyclohexane
Br

CH3CH2 CH3

CIS-TRANS ISOMERISM
• C-C bonds have free rotation
• Rotation is restricted in cyclic structures.
• Cyclic structures have a top and a bottom.
H3 C CH3 H3 C
Reminder: CH3
• Stereoisomers have their atoms connected in the
same order but differ in three-dimensional orientation.
• cis–substituents are on the same side
• trans–substituents are on opposite sides
H3 C CH3 ALKANE MP & BP Trends
BP oC MP oC
Methane -164 -182
cis-1,2-dimethylcyclopropane Ethane -89 -183
Propane -42 -190
H3 C Butane 0 -138
Pentane 36 -130
CH3 Hexane 69 -95
trans-1,2-dimethylcyclopropane Heptane 98 -91
Octane 126 -57
Nonane 151 -51
Decane 174 -30
STRUCTURE-PROPERTIES-AND-REACTIONS-OF-
ALKANES

PROPERTIES OF ALKANES
• Called paraffins (low affinity compounds) because
they do not react as most chemicals
• They will burn in a flame, producing carbon dioxide,
water, and heat
• They react with Cl 2 in the presence of light to replace
H’s with Cl’s (not controlled)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES

• Nonpolar
• Insoluble in water.
• Lower density than water.
• Low boiling and melting points.
• Gases with 1-4 carbon atoms.
(methane, propane, butane)
• Liquids with 5-17 carbon atoms.
(kerosene, diesel, and jet fuels)
• Solids with 18 or more carbon atoms.
(wax, paraffin, Vaseline)

Fossil fuels – a natural source of alkanes:

• Many alkanes occur in nature, primarily in natural gas
and petroleum.
• Natural gas is composed largely of methane, with
lesser amounts of ethane, propane and butane.
• Petroleum is a complex mixture of compounds, most
of which are hydrocarbons containing one to forty
carbon atoms. Distilling crude petroleum (called
refining), separates it into usable fractions that differ in
boiling point.
gasoline: C5H12 to C12H26
kerosene: C12H26 to C16H34
diesel fuel: C15H32 to C18H38

Boiling & Melting points of Alkanes

• Number of carbon atoms ↑ → bp & mp ↑
• Number of branches ↑ → bp & mp ↓
FOSSIL FUELS SOURCES, CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
PREPARATIONS INVOLVING ALKANES:
Alkane, reactions:
1. Halogenation
R-H + X2, heat or hv  R-X + HX
a) heat or light required for reaction.
b) X2: Cl2 > Br2  I2

CH3CH3 + Cl2, hv  CH3CH2-Cl + HCl

ethane ethyl chloride

CH3CH2CH3 + Cl2, hv  CH3CH2CH2-Cl + CH3CHCH3

- Refining crude petroleum into usable fuel and other
propane n-propyl chloride Cl
petroleum products. (a) An oil refinery. At an oil refinery, isopropyl chloride
crude petroleum is separated into fractions of similar 45%
boiling point by the process of distillation. (b) Schematic 55%
of a refinery tower. As crude petroleum is heated, the
lower-boiling, more volatile components distill first, Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons
followed by fractions of progressively higher boiling • Substitution Reactions of Alkanes
point. - Primarily where halogen atoms replace hydrogen
atoms.

CH4 + Cl2 hv

 CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl
3 + Cl2  CHCl
hv
2 2 + HCl

2 2 + Cl2   CHCl3 + HCl

hv
CHCl
CHCl3 + Cl2  CCl4 + HCl
hv

Chemical reactions of Alkanes (Low reactivity):

2-Halogenation:
• Alkanes react with Halogens.
Chemical Properties: Combustion of Alkanes
Hydrocarbons (C-H bonds) are weak to extremely weak
acids
Combustion of hydrocarbons (Oxidation)
CnH2n+2 + O2 → n CO2 + (n+1) H2O + heat

Oxidation-Reduction in Organic Chemistry

Oxidation [O]: the loss of electrons.
Increase in the number of C-X bonds, where X
is an atom more electronegative than carbon. Decrease
in H content. 2. Combustion (oxidation)
CnH2n+2 + (xs) O2, flame  n CO2 + (n+1) H2O + heat
Reduction [H]: the gain of electrons. gasoline, diesel, heating oil.
Increase in number of C-Y bonds, where Y is
an atom less electronegative than carbon. Increase on 3. Pyrolysis (cracking)
H content. alkane, 400-600oC  smaller alkanes + alkenes + H2

Reactions of alkanes: Used to increase the yield of gasoline from

alkane + H2SO4  no reaction (NR) petroleum. Higher boiling fractions are “cracked” into
alkane + NaOH  NR lower boiling fractions that are added to the raw
alkane + Na  NR gasoline. The alkenes can be separated and used in to
alkane + KMnO4  NR make plastics.
alkane + H2,Ni  NR
alkane + Br2  NR Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons (cont.)
alkane + H2O  NR • Combustion Reactions of Alkanes
(Alkanes are typically non-reactive. They don’t react - At a high temperature, alkanes react vigorously and
with acids, bases, active metals, oxidizing agents, exothermically with oxygen.
reducing agents, halogens, etc.) - Basis for use as fuels.

4 10(g) + 13O2(g)  8CO2(g) + 10HO(

2CH 2 g)

• Dehydrogenation Reactions of Alkanes

- Hydrogen atoms are removed and the product is an
unsaturated hydrocarbon.
 C5H12(g) + 8 O2(g) → 5 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g)

or the complex mixture of C6 to C8 hydrocarbons in

gasoline.
Chemical reactions of Alkanes (Low reactivity)
1- Combustion: 2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) → 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
• Alkanes react with oxygen.
• CO2, H2O, and energy are produced. When do incomplete combustions occur?
• Alkane + O2 CO2 + H2O + heat When there is not enough oxygen to fuel the
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + energy complete combustion.

• Combustion (burning) of hydrocarbons releases Complete Combustion:

carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. C4H10 + 13/2 O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O

Incomplete Combustion:
• In words:
Fuel + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Heat C4H10 + 9/2 O2 → 4CO + 5H2O
C4H10 + 5/2 O2 → 4C + 5H2O
• The general equation:
When do incomplete combustions occur?
CxHy + (x + y/4)O2 → xCO2 + (y/2)H2O
When there is insufficient oxygen.
Complete Combustion:
• e.g. for propane:
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
Incomplete Combustion:
Combustion of Alkanes:
C3H8 + 7/2 O2 → 3CO + 4H2O
• Alkanes undergo combustion — that is, they burn in
C3H8 + 2O2 → 3C + 4H2O
the presence of oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water.
• This is an example of oxidation. Every C—H and C—
C bond in the starting material is converted to a C—O
bond in the product.

propane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

butane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

C4H10 + 13/2 O2 → 4CO2 + 5H2O

hexane + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

C6H14 + 19/2 O2 → 4CO2 + 7H2O

• Combustion – reaction with oxygen

• Substitution – one or more H atoms are replaced with

different atoms

The mixture of butane and isobutene used in

disposable cigarette lighters,

2 C4H10(g) + 13 O2(g) → 8 CO2 (g) + 10 H2O(g)

the mixture of C5 to C6 hydrocarbons in charcoal

lighter fluid,
ALKENES Determine the # elements of Unsaturation
Rules of Naming Alkenes: C8H10Br2O
1. Root hydrocarbon name ends in –ene. C8H18 is saturated
C2H4 is ethane compound is deficient by 6 "H's"
3 degrees of unsaturation
2. With more than 3 carbons, double bond is indicated CH2OH
by the lowest–numbered carbon atom in the bond. Br Br Br
CH2=CH–CH2–CH3 e.g.
1 2 3 4
O Br
1–butene O
H Br CH3
ALKENE NOMENCLATURE
Br

ELEMENTS OR DEGREES OF UNSATURATION:

CYCLIC ALAKENES

Halogens replace Hydrogens

C5H10Cl2 is saturated C6H9Br has 2 degrees of unsaturation
Br
Br
Cl Cl
Br
Br
ALKYLIDENE GROUPS
Double Bonds Fused to Rings
Saturated compounds with oxygen and nitrogen
CH2 CHCH3
H H H HH H
H H HH methylene
cyclohexaneethylidene
cyclopentane
C C C OC
H H C NC
H H H HH
POLYENES
H H
C2H6 C2H6O C2H7N
CnH2n+2 CnH2n+2O CnH2n+3N

Name these Alkenes

Cis-trans Isomers Rule 5: Determine name for side chains.
1-hexene

Rule 6: Attach name of braches

Rule 7: List alphabetically.
Rule 8 and 9: Group similar branches.

2-ethyl-4-methyl-4-methyl-1-hexene or 2-ethyl-4,4-
dimethyl-1-hexene

3,3-dimethyl-1,4-cyclohexadiene
2-butyl-1,5-hexadiene

Examples:
(E) 1-ethylidene-2-methylcyclopentane
3-allylcyclohexene

Naming side chains

Example: use the rules on the bottom of handout to
name the following structure

Rule 1: Choose the correct ending

CH2 CH2 CH3

CH3 CH2 C CH2 C CH3

CH3
Rule 2: longest carbon chain

CH2 CH2 CH3 H2

CH3 H2C C CH3
H2 H H2 H2 H
CH3 CH2 C CH2 C CH3 H3C CH C C CH2 H3C C C CH C CH2
5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3 4-methyl-1-pentene 3-propyl-1-hexene
Rule 3: attach prefix (according to # of C)
1-hexene 7-methyl-2-octene
H H2 H2
C C C CH3
CH2 CH2 CH3 H3C C C CH
H H2
CH3 CH2 C CH2 C CH3 CH3
2-ethyl-1-pentene
H2 H2
CH3 C C CH3
H3C C C
Rule 4: Assign numbers to each carbon H2
1-hexene CH2
4 6
1
CH2 CH2 CH3 5
3 5
4
2
1 2 3
CH3 CH2 C CH2 C CH3 3-Methylcyclopentene 4-Ethyl-1-methylcyclohexene
(not 5-methylcyclopentene) (not 5-ethyl-2-methylcyclohexene)
CH3
Cyclic Structures
CH2 CH2 CH3
1 5 6
Cyclobutene
CH3 CH2 C CH2 C CH3
2 3 4 H2C CH2
CH3
HC CH
1,3-cyclopentadiene
H H
H C C C H
C C
H H

Cyclopropane
CH2
H2C CH2
Stereo chemical Notation
3-ethyl-1,5,5-trimethyl-1-cyclohexene
H3C CH3

CH3
H3C

Multiple Double/Triple Bonds:

Stereoisomers

Dienes, Trienes, and Polyenes

• Alkenes that contain more than one double bond. The E-Z Notational System
• Alkane name does not end with –ne, but rather diene, E: higher ranked substituents on opposite sides.
triene, … Z: higher ranked substituents on same side.

How are substituents ranked?

They are ranked in order of decreasing atomic
number.

- consider the isomeric alkenes of molecular formula

C4H8

E/Z system is now recommended by IUPAC for the

designation of geometric isomerism.
1. Use the sequence rules to assign the higher priority *
to the two groups attached to each vinyl carbon.
 Chemical/Physical Properties of Alkenes & Alkynes
(more reactive than alkanes)
• addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation)
• addition of hydrogen halides (hydrohalogenation)
• Addition of water (hydration)
• addition of bromine & chlorine (halogenation)

2. “E” is more stable than “Z” by 2.3 KJ/mol

E/Z SYSTEM

Relative Stabilities of Alkenes

Example:

Cis & Trans Stereoisomers

•Higher atomic number outranks lower atomic number.

- The same molecular formula and the same

connectivity of their atoms but a different arrangement
of their atoms in space.

mp & bp of cis < mp & bp of trans

(Z)-1-Bromo-2-chloro-1-fluoroethene
Hydrogenation of Alkenes: Both cis and trans 2-
butene are hydrogenated to butane
More:
Chemical properties of Alkenes & Alkynes: Markovnikov’s Rule
• Addition reactions The addition of H-X across a double bond
results in the more highly substituted alkyl halide as the
- Double bond is broken and two new single bonds are major product.
formed.
Markovnikov’s rule in Hydrohalogenation: H adds to
double bonded carbon that has the greater number of H
and halogen adds to the other carbon.
Cl H H Cl
CH3 CH=CH2 + HCl CH3CH-CH2 CH3CH-CH2
Propene 2-Chloropropane 1-Chloropropane
(not formed)

Depicting a Reaction:
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES (more reactive than
alkanes)

1. Hydrogenation
• a hydrogen atom adds to each carbon atom of a
double bond.
• A catalyst such as platinum or palladium is used
(transition metals).

Addition of HB or HCl: Markovnikov Addition

CH3 H Br H
HBr CH3 H
C C C C
CH3 H CH3 H
Markovnikov
2. Hydrohalogenation H Br
• A hydrogen halide (HCl, HBr, or HI) adds to alkene to CH3 H
give haloalkane. C C
CH3 H
not formed

Radiochemistry Determined by Stability of

Intermediate

HBr Br H
Bromination (Br2) or Chlorination (Cl2) H-Br
H H H H Br
H
H3C C C CH3 + Br2 H3C C C CH3

Br Br
3o carbocation
Hydrobromination (HBr) or Hydrochlorination (HCl)
H H H H Carbon Stability: more highly substituted, lower
energy.
H3C C C CH3 + HCl H3C C C CH3

H Cl

HBr Addition
\\\\

Example:

3o Carbocation Forms Preferentially

3. Hydration (addition of water):

• water adds to C=C to give an alcohol.
• Acid catalyst (concentrated sulfuric acid).
• A regioselective reaction (Markovnikov’s rule).
H SO OH H
CH3CH=CH2 + H2 O 2 4 CH3CH-CH2
Propene 2-Propanol
CH3 CH3
H2SO4 CH C-C H2
CH3C=CH2 + H2O 3
HOH
2-Methylpropene 2-Methyl-2-propanol

4. Halogenation
• a halogen atom adds to each carbon atom of a double
bond.
• usually by suing an inert solvent like CH2Cl2
ALKYNES
• Alkynes contain a triple bond.
• General formula is CnH2n-2.
• Two elements of unsaturation for each triple bond.
• Some reactions are like alkenes: addition and
oxidation.
• Some reactions are specific to alkynes.

Hydrocarbon Comparison

NAMING ALKYNES
Common Names
• Named as substituted acetylene
CH3 C CH
methylacetylene
(terminal alkyne)

CH3 CH3 DIYNES, ENYNES, AND TRIYNES

CH3 CH CH2 C C CH CH3 • A compound with two triple bonds is a diyne
isobutylisopropylacetylene • An enyne has a double bond and triple bond
(internal alkyne) • A triyne has three triple bonds
• Number from chain that ends nearest a double or
Nomenclature: IUPAC triple bond – double bonds are preferred if both are
• Find the longest chain containing the triple bond. present in the same relative position
• Change -ane ending to -yne.
• Number the chain, starting at the end closest to the C C C C
triple bond.
• Give branches or other substituents a number to • en-ynes
locate their position. • number closest to nearest multiple bond
• if choice start at C=C
• 1-hepten-6-yne
CH3 C CH
propyne
CH3 C C CH2 CH2 Br
5-bromo-2-pentyne
CH CCH2CH2CH2CH CH2
5-bromopent-2-yne
CH3 CH3 Enes with Ynes
CH3 CH CH2 C C CH CH3
2,6-dimethyl-3-heptyne
2,6-dimethylpept-3-yne

Alkyne Nomenclature

HC CCH2CH2CH3
1-pentyne 4-decyne

• Alkynes as substituents are called “alkynyl”

CH2C C CH3
H3C CH2 C C
1-butynyl
3-(2-butynyl)cyclohexene 5-phenyl-1-hepten-6-yne
Examples:
CH3
CH2 CH CH2 CH C CH
4-methyl-1-hexen-5-yne
4-methylhex-1-en-5-yne
 OH 3 C + CaO CaC2 + CO
CH3 C C CH2 CH CH3
4-hexyn-2-ol Coke lime
hex-4-yn-2-ol
CaC2 + 2 H2O H C C H + Ca(OH)2
Multiple bonds
*This reaction was used to produce light for miners’
lamps and for the stage.

Acidity of Alkynes
• Terminal alkynes, R-CC-H, are more acidic than
other hydrocarbons.

Acidity table

Example:

3,4-Dipropyl-1,3-hexadien-5-yne

3-Penten-1-yne

Preparation of Alkynes
1,3-Hexadien-5-yne Elimination Reactions of Dihalides
- intermediate is a vinyl halide

Reactions of Alkynes: Addition of HX and X2

- Addition reactions of alkynes are similar to those of
alkenes
- Intermediate alkene reacts further with excess reagent
- Regiospecificity according to Markovnikov

Addition of HX
- HCl, HBr, and HI add to alkynes to form vinyl halides.
- For terminal alkynes, Markovnikov product is formed.
- If two moles of HX is added, product is a geminal
dihalide.
Br
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES HBr
CH3 C C H CH3 C CH2
• Nonpolar, insoluble in water.
• Soluble in most organic solvents. Br
• Boiling points similar to alkane of same size. HBr
CH3 C CH3
• Less dense than water.
Br
• Up to 4 carbons, gas at room temperature.

Acetylene Reactions of Alkynes: Addition of HX and X2 (cont.)

• Acetylene is used in welding torches.
• In pure oxygen, temperature of flame reaches
2800C.
• It would violently decompose to its elements, but the
cylinder on the torch contains crushed firebrick wet
with acetone to moderate it.

Synthesis of Acetylene
• Heat coke with lime in an electric furnace to form
calcium carbide.
• Then drip water on the calcium carbide.
Addition of HX (cont.) Reduction of Alkynes – Hydrogenation
- Addition of H2 over a metal catalyst (such as palladium
Br Br
HBr HBr on carbon, Pd/C) converts alkynes to alkanes (complete
CH3CH2C CH CH3CH2C CH2 CH3CH2CCH3 reduction)
Br

Addition of Bromine and Chlorine

- Initial addition gives trans intermediate
- Product with excess reagent is tetrahalide

Ozonolysis
CH3CH2C CCH3 O3
H2O CH3CH2C=O + O=CCH 3
OH OH
2 carboxylic acids
Hydration of Alkynes
- Addition of H-OH as in alkenes
- Mercury (II) catalyzes Markovinikov oriented
addition
- Hydroboration-oxidation gives the non-
Markovnikov product

Br2 Addition
Br H
C CH Br2 C C
Br
Br2

Br Br
C C H
Br Br

Mercury (II) – Catalyzed Hydration of Alkynes

- Mercuric ion (as the sulfate) is a Lewis acid catalyst
that promotes addition of water in Markovnikov
orientation
- The immediate product is a vinylic alcohol, or enol,
which spontaneously transforms to a ketone
Interesting Alkynes

- Recall from general chemistry that an allotrope is one

of two or more structural forms of an element. For
carbon, the two most common allotropes are diamond
and graphite.
- There are unusual polyynes containing several
carbon-carbon triple bonds joined in a ring or long chain.
Because these polyynes consist entirely of carbon, they
are esoteric allotropes of carbon.
- Cyclo[18]carbon is a highly reactive compound
containing an 18-membered ring with alternating single
and triple bonds.
- Long polymers of triple bonds containing up to 500 sp
hybridized carbons have also been prepared.
Reduction:
- Treatment of an alkyne with hydrogen in the presence
of a transition metal catalyst, most commonly Pd, Pt, or
Ni, converts the alkyne to an alkane.
Pd, Pt, orNi
CH3CCCH3 + 2H2 3 atm CH3CH2CH2CH3
Cycloalkynes 2-Butyne Butane
- Cyclononyne is the smallest cycloalkyne stable
enough to be stored at room temperature for a - With the Lindlar catalyst, reduction stops at addition of
reasonable length of time. one mole of H2
- Cyclooctyne polymerizes on standing. - this reduction shows syn stereoselectivity
Lindlar H3C CH3
CH3C CCH3 + H2 catalyst
C C
2-Butyne H H
cis-2 -Butene

Hydroboration:
- Hydroboration/oxidation of an internal alkyne gives a
ketone
O
1. BH3
2. H2 O2 , NaOH
3-Hexyne 3-Hexanone
- Hydroboration/oxidation of a terminal alkyne gives an
aldehyde
1. ( sia) 2 BH
2. H2 O2 , NaOH
1-Octyne

OH O
H H
H
An enol Octanal
Addition of X2
- Alkynes add one mole of bromine to give a
dibromoalkene
- addition shows anti stereoselectivity
H3C Br
CH3COOH, LiBr
CH3 C CCH3 + Br2 C C
anti addition Br CH3
2-Butyne
(E)-2,3-Dibromo-2-butene

- The intermediate in bromination of an alkyne is a

bridged bromonium ion
Br-Br Br H3C Br
H3C C C CH3 H3C C C CH3 C C
Br CH3
Br–

Addition of HX
- Alkynes undergo regioselective addition of first one
mole of HX and then a second mole to give a
dibromoalkane
Br Br
CH3 C CH HBr CH3 C=CH2 HBr
CH3 CCH3
Br
Propyne 2-Bromopropene 2,2-Dibromopropane

- the intermediate in addition of HX is a 2° vinylic

carbocation
+
CH3C CH + H-Br CH3C=CH2 + :Br-
A 2° vinylic
carbocation
- reaction of the vinylic cation with halide ion gives the
product

+
Br
CH3 C=CH2 + :Br- CH3 C=CH2

Addition of H2O: hydration

- In the presence of sulfuric acid and Hg(II) salts,
alkynes undergo addition of water
OH O
H2 SO4
CH3 C CH + H2 O CH3 C=CH2 CH3 CCH3
HgSO4
Propyne 1-Propen-2-ol Propanone
(an enol) (Acetone)
STRUCTURE AND SYNTHESIS OF ALCOHOLS Nomenclature
Common name: “alkyl alcohol”
CLASSIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS IUPAC: parent = longest continuous carbon chain
Alcohols can be classified as primary (1°), containing the –OH group.
secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°) depending on the number
of alkyl groups attached to the carbon bearing the –OH Alkane drop -e, add –ol
group. Prefix locant for –OH (lower number for OH)
H H CH3 CH3
NOMENCLATURE FOR ALCOHOLS
H C H H3C C OH H3C C H H3C C CH3
Common names for alcohols:
• Name the C-atoms of a single alkyl group as for
OH H OH OH alkanes.
Methanol 1° alcohol 2° alcohol 3° alcohol
Ethanol 2-propanol 2-methyl-2-propanol • Add the word “alcohol” following a space after the alkyl
name.
Examples of Classifications:

butyl alcohol sec-butyl alcohol isobutyl alcohol tert-butyl alcohol

sec-butanol (isobutanol) tert-butanol

IUPAC Naming:
• Find longest, continuous C-chain to which the OH
group (hydroxyl) is bound. Number the chain in a way
that gives the OH group the lowest numbering.
• Name and number other substituents present.
• The name for the corresponding alkane chain (e.g. for
a 6-C chain, hexane) loses the “e” and picks up “ol”
(hexanol).
• For cyclic alcohols, the OH group is understood to be
attached to C-1.

2-Methyl-2-butanol 2-Methylcyclopentanol

ALCOHOL NOMENCLATURE
OH
2
3 5
6
3-heptanol OH
5-methyl-6-hepten-2-ol

2 OH
OH
1 1

5
CH3 3 CH3 CH3 CH3
3,3-dimethylcyclohexanol
5,5-dimethylcyclohex-2-enol
 H2 H2
OH CHC
HO C OH
OH OH
(S) 2-hexanol (E) 3-methyl-3-penten-2-ol HO OH
OH 1,2,3-propanetriol
OH Glycerin
OH OH
H
OH
(R) 2-butyl-1,4-butanediol
trans3-isopropylcyclopentanol trans-3-methylcyclohexanol
(R) 2-butylbutane-1,4-diol
H3C OH

1-methylcyclopentanol

C4H9OH alcohols
H2 H2
C C
H3C C OH
H2 1-butanol
n-butyl alcohol
(primary alcohol)

OH
C CH
H3C H C 3
H2 2-butanol ISOMERISM FOR ALCOHOLS
Sec-butyl alcohol
(secondary alcohol) Constitutional isomers

Positional isomers
Positional isomers
CH3 3-Methyl-1-butanol

C OH
H3C H C 1-Pentanol

H2 3-Methyl-2-butanol
2-methyl-1-propanol
Isobutyl alcohol
2-Pentanol
(primary alcohol)
2-Methyl-1-butanol

CH3 3-Pentanol
H3C C OH
CH3 2-methyl-2-propanol
Tert-butyl alcohol 2-Methyl-2-butanol
(tertiary alcohol) 2,2-Dimethyl-1-propanol

H2 • Dialcohols, or diols, contain two hydroxy groups in the

C OH same molecule. The IUPAC names of these alcohols
HO C are formed by attaching the ending diol to the alkane
H2 name.
OH • The names will contain two numbers indicating the
HO ethanediol carbons bonded to the two —OH groups, with the
Ethylene glycol numbering starting at the end closest to one of the —
OH groups.
 Methanol: Not a Beverage
O
ADH
CH3OH + HCH + NADH ++ H
methanol NAD formaldehyde
LD50= 0.07 g/Kg

Commonly encountered alcohols

• Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is also metabolized by the body,
and this reaction produces acetaldehyde and acetic
acid:
Acetaldehyde Acetic acid
alcohol
dehydrogenase
(oxidation) (oxidation)

NAMING DIOLS
• two numbers are needed to locate the two –OH • Excessive drinking leads to liver cirrhosis,
groups physiological addiction, loss of memory. Drinking
• use –diol as suffix instead of –ol. during pregnancy poses risks for birth defects.\
• Ethanol is sometimes rendered undrinkable by the
addition of small quantities of toxic substances (e.g.
benzene).
• Industrially, ethanol is synthesized by hydration of
ethene.

Alcohols with more than one OH group

• Polyhydroxyl alcohols possess more than one OH Ethanol: The Beverage
group. Ethanol is a central nervous system depress
• Alcohols which possess two OH groups are called - depresses brain areas responsible for judgement
“diols” and those with three OH groups are called (thus the illusion of stimulation)
“triols”
O
alcohol dehydrogenase
CH3CH2OH + CH3CH + NADH+ H+
ethanol NAD acetaldehyde
1,2-Ethanediol 1,2-Propanediol 1,2,3-Propanetriol LD50 = 1.9 g/Kg
+
NAD
(alkane name + diol, triol, etc.) enz.
Some Alcohols CH3CO2H + NADH ++ H
OH OH acetic acid
CH3CH2OH HO CHCH2NH2 CHCHNHCH3
CH3 Oldest known organic synthesis: “fermentation”
ethanol HO
adrenaline (epinephrine)pseudephedrine Sugar + yeast  ethyl alcohol + CO2
~5-11% ethanol
OH
HOCH
2CHCH
2OH
H Commonly encountered alcohols
glycerol H H • Isopropyl alcohol is used in rubbing alcohol (70%
HO isopropyl alcohol in H2O) and in cosmetics.
cholesterol • Ingested, isopropyl alcohol is metabolized to acetone:
Acetone

Commonly encountered alcohols alcohol

dehydrogenase
• Methanol (CH3OH) finds use as a solvent in chemical
reactions and in fuel for high-performance combustion (oxidation)
engines.
• Drinking methanol is a no-no. It is metabolized to
formaldehyde and formic acid by the liver (alcohol Phenols Ar-OH
dehydrogenase): Phenols are compounds with an –OH group
Formaldehyde Formic acid
attached to an aromatic carbon. Although they share
alcohol
dehydrogenase the same functional group with alcohols, where the –OH
(oxidation) (oxidation)
group is attached to an aliphatic carbon, the chemistry
of phenols is very different from that of alcohols.
NAMING PHENOLS
• Use “phene” (the French name for benzene) as the nol
parent hydrocarbon name, not benzene.
• Name substituents on aromatic ring by their position OH
from OH.
H2N
-O
HO N+ OH 3-methylphenol
OH O
3-butylphenol 2-aminophenol 4-nitrophenol HO

• Structure and Nomenclature of Phenols 4-ethylphenol

- Phenols have hydroxyl groups bonded directly
to a benzene ring OH
Cl Cl
- Naphthols and phenanthrols have a
hydroxyl group bonded to a polycyclic benzenoid ring
Cl 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
OH

benzyl alcohol

Chemical reactions of alcohols

• Any organic molecule can undergo a combustion
reaction. In combustion reactions involving alcohols,
CO2 and H2O are produced:
– CH3OH + O2  CO2 + 2H2O
– CH3CH2OH + O2  2CO2 + 3H2O

Or, for 2-Propanol:

2 9 O2 6CO2 8H2O

COMBUSTION OF ALCOHOLS
• Combustion is the reaction of an alcohol with O 2 to
produce CO2 and H2O.
• Phenols are usually named as substituted phenols.
The methylphenols are given the special name, cresols.
Some other phenols are named as hydroxy compounds.
OH OH CH3 OH
OH COOH

Br

phenol m-bromophenol o-cresol salicylic acid

A combustion:
OH OH COOH
OH
OH
OH
OH OH
catechol resorcinol hydroquinone p-hydroxybenzoic acid

OH

phe
 H2O loss (dry conditions (concentrated H2SO4), high
temperatures) favor alkene formation.
• On the other hand, if this reaction were run in dilute
H2SO4, alcohol formation would be favored.

Hydration
H2O
Dehydration

CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS

(Elimination reactions)
• In an intramolecular alcohol dehydration, a water
molecule is lost (eliminated) from a single alcohol
molecule.
• The elimination involved loss of the OH group and a
H-atom from an adjacent C-atom (sometimes, there’s
more than one of these)
H2SO4
H-OH
180oC

H2SO4
H-OH
180oC

• If there is more than one adjacent carbon atom from

which loss of a H-atom can occur, there will be more
than one possible alkene dehydration product:

1-butene

loss of CH3 H-atom

H2SO4
+ H2O
180oC
loss of CH2 H-atom

2-butene

• Zaitsev’s Rule (for alcohol dehydrations): for cases

where more than one alkene product might be formed
from an elimination reaction, the hydrogen atom tends
to be removed from the carbon that already possesses
the fewest hydrogens.
this carbon has this carbon has 1-butene
two H-atoms three H-atoms

H2SO4
+ H2O
180oC

2-butene
major product

• The alcohol dehydration reaction (like all chemical

reactions) is an equilibrium. Since it occurs through
elimination of an H2O molecule, conditions that favor
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS
(Oxidation reactions)
• Oxidation/reduction reactions involving organic
compounds result in a change in the number of H-atoms
and/or the number of O-atoms bound to carbons in the
molecule:
- Oxidations increase the number of C-O bonds
and/or decrease the number of C-H bonds in a
molecule.
- Reductions decrease the number of C-O
bonds and/or increase the number of C-H bonds in a
molecule.
Methanol Formaldehyde Formic acid

oxidation oxidation

reduction reduction

• Primary and secondary alcohols can be oxidized by

mild oxidizing agents to produce compounds with C-O
double bonds (aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids).

Reaction of alcohols with HX:

R-OH + HX  R-X + H2O

a) HX: HI > HBr > HCl

ALKYL HALIDES Names
• An organic compound containing at least one carbon- • Based on original alkane with a prefix indicating
halogen bond (C-X) halogens and position.

X (F, Cl, Br, I) replaces H CH3CH2CH2Cl 1-chloropropane

CH3CHClCH3 2-chloropropane
• Can contain many C-X bonds CH2ClCHClCH3 1,2-dichloropropane
• Alkyl halides are organic molecules containing a CH3CBr(CH3)CH3 2-bromo-2-methylpropane
halogen atom bonded to an sp3 hybridized carbon atom.
• Alkyl halides are classified as primary (1°), secondary IUPAC names: use rules for alkanes
(2°), or tertiary (3°), depending on the number of [halogen = halo (fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo)]
carbons bonded to the carbon with the halogen atom.
• The halogen atom in halides is often denoted by the
symbol “X”.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKYL HALIDES

a) Primary (1o)
a) Primary (1o)
no. of
no. ofalkyl
alkylgroups:
groups:none
noneororone
one
H
H HH
HC
H CXX HHCCXX
H
H RR CLASSES OF HALIDES
b) Secondary oo)
(2
b) Secondary (2 ) • Alkyl: Halogen, X, is directly bonded to carbon.
no. of
ofalkyl
alkylgroups:
groups:22 • Vinyl: X is bonded to carbon of alkene.
no.
• Aryl: X is bonded to carbon on benzene ring.
HH
R' CCXX
R'
RR Examples:
tertiary (3o)
c) Tertiary H H I
H H
ofalkyl
no. of alkylgroups:
groups:33 H C C Br C C
R'
R''
R''
R' CCXX
H H H Cl
alkyl halide vinyl halidearyl halide
=
RR

STRUCTURE OF HALOGENOALKANES TYPES OF ALKYL HALIDES

Format Other types of organic alkyl halides include:
• Contain the functional group C-X where X is a halogen • Allylic halides have X bonded to the carbon
(F,Cl,Br or I) atom adjacent to a C-C double bond.
• Benzylic halides have X bonded to the carbon
Halogenoalkanes - halogen is attached to an aliphatic atom adjacent to a benzene ring.
skeleton - alkyl group

Haloarenes - halogen is attached directly to a

benzene (aromatic) ring

Structural difference
• Halogenoalkanes are classified according to the
environment of the halogen
NOT ALKYL HALIDES
• Vinyl halides have a halogen atom (X) bonded
to a C-C double bond.
• Aryl halides have a halogen atom bonded to a
aromatic ring.
PRIMARY 1° SECONDARY 2° TERTIARY 3°
DIHALIDES
• Geminal Dihalide – two halogen atoms are bonded to
Examples:
the same carbon
Br
H H
H C C Br 4-Bromoheptane
H Br
geminal dihalide
• Vicinal Dihalide – two halogen atoms are bonded to 3,4-Dibromoheptane
adjacent carbons.
Br
H H
H C C Br Cl
3-Bromo-1-chloro-4-methylhexane
Br H
vicinal dihalide
1,1-Dibromo-3-methyloctane
IUPAC Nomenclature
• Name as haloalkane.
• Choose the longest carbon chain, even if the halogen Note:
is not bonded to any of those C’s.
• Use lowest possible numbers for position.

CH3 CH CH2CH3
Cl 2-chlorobutan
CH2CH2Br
CH3(CH2)2CH(CH2)2CH3
4-(2-bromoethyl)heptane

CH3 Cont.
CH3 CH3
5 4 3 2 1 6 5 4 3 2 1
CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3 CH3 CH2 C CH2 CH CH3
CH3 I
CI Br
iodomethane 3-chloro-2-methylpentane 4-bromo-2,4-dimethylhexane

SUBSTITUTIVE NOMENCLATURE OF ALKYL

HALIDES

• Naming if two halides or alkyl are equally distant

from ends of chain.
- Begin at the end nearer the substituent whose name
comes first in the alphabet
• Many alkyl halides that are widely used have common
names
- chloroform
- carbon tetrachloride

2-bromo-2-methylbutane

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Boiling Points
- molecules with higher molecular weight have higher
boiling points.
- reasons: the molecule is heavier, slower moving, have
greater surface area, have larger London attractions,
resulting higher boiling points.

Example:
CH3F CH3Cl CH3Br CH3I

RMM 34 50.5 95 142

Bp (°C) -78 -24 4 42

- compounds with branched have more spherical

shapes, have smaller surface area, resulting lower
boiling points.
CH3
CH3 CH3 C Cl
CH3CH2CH2CH2Cl CH3CH2CHCl CH3
bp 78 oC bp 67 oC bp 52 oC

- alkyl halides with more carbon atoms have higher

boiling points.
CH3Cl CH3CH2Cl CH3CH2CH2Cl
bp -24oC bp 12oC bp 47oC

Preparing Alkyl Halides

- Alkyl halide is from addition of HCl, HBr, HI to alkenes
to give Markovnikov product

STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM IN
HELOGENOALKANES
• Different structures are possible due to different
positions for the halogen and branching of the carbon
chain.
REACTIONS OF ALKYL HALIDES
Formation of Alkanes (Wurtz reaction)

RELATIVE REACTIVITIES OF PRIMARY,

SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY ALKYL HALIDES
• The reactivity of alkyl halides towards nucleophilic
substitution depend on the halogen.
• The rate of reaction decrease in the order
R-I > R-Br > R-Cl > R-F
(most reactive) (least reactive)
• Reason: C-X bond become stronger from I to F

ELIMINATION REACTIONS –
DEHYDROHALOGENATIONS OF ALKYL HALIDES
• Elimination: loss of two atoms or groups from the
substrate to form a pi bonds.
• Dehydrohalogenation (removal of hydrogen and a
halogen atom) of alkyl halide to form alkene.
NUCLEOPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS
CC C C HX
HX
alkyl halide alkene
HX= HCl or HBr or Hl

REACTION OF ALKANES WITH HALOGENS

• Alkane + Cl2 or Br2, heat or light replaces C-H with C-
X but gives mixtures
• Often not a good idea to plan a synthesis that uses this
method

PREPARING ALKYL HALIDES FROM ALCOHOLS

• Reaction of tertiary C-OH with HX is fast and effective
- Add HCl or HBr gas into ether solution of
tertiary alcohol
• Primary and secondary alcohols react very slowly and
often rearrange, so alternative methods are used.
REDUCTION REACTIONS SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS WITH HALIDES
• Organic reduction is the opposite of oxidation
- Results in gain of electron density at carbon
(replacement of electronegative atoms by hydrogen or
carbon)

Reduction: form C-H (or C-C and break C-O, C-N, C-X

HALOGENATION OF CERTAIN HYDROCARBONS More:

CH3CH2CH2-Br + KOH  CH3CH2CH2-OH + KBr

CH3CH2CH2-Br + HOH  CH3CH2CH2-OH + HBr

CH3CH2CH2-Br + NaCN  CH3CH2CH2-CN + NaBr

CH3CH2CH2-Br + NaOCH3  CH3CH2CH2-OCH3+

NaBr

CH3CH2CH2-Br + NH3  CH3CH2CH2-NH2 + HBr

CH3CH2CH2-Br + NaI, acetone  CH3CH2CH2-I + NaBr

R-X + :OH-  ROH + :X- Alcohol

R-X + H2O  ROH + HX Alcohol

From alcohols #1 synthesis
With HX R-X + :OR´-  R-O-R´ + :X- Ether
R-OH + HX  R-X + H2O
R-X + -:CCR´  R-CCR´ + :X- Alkyne
1. HX = HCl, HBr, HI
R-X + :I-  R-I + :X- Iodide
2. may be acid catalyzed (H+)
3. ROH: 3o > 2o > CH3 > 1o R-X + :CN-  R-CN + :X- Nitrile
4. rearrangements are possible except with most 1 o
ROH R-X + :NH3  R-NH2 + HX Primary
amine
R-X + :NH2R´  R-NHR´ + HX Secondary
amine
R-X + :SH-  R-SH + :X- Thiol

SOME USES OF ALKYL HALIDES

• Solvents
- industrial and household solvents.
- carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4) used for dry
cleaning, spot removing.
- methylene chloride (CH2Cl2) is used to
dissolve the caffeine from coffee beans to produce
decaffeinated coffee.

• Anesthetics
- examples: chloroform (CHCl3) and ethyl
chloride.
• Freons: Refrigerants and foaming agents
- Freons (called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs)
is used as a refrigerant gas.

• Pesticides
- example: DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl-
Trichloroethane) is used as insecticides.

USES OF HALOGENOALKANES
Chlorofluorocarbons - CFC’s
dichlorofluoromethane CHFCl2 refrigerant

trichlorofluoromethane CF3Cl aerosol

propellant, blowing agent

bromochlorodifluoromethane CBrClF 2 fire

extinguishers

CCl2FCClF2 dry
cleaning solvent, degreasing agent

All are/were chosen because of their LOW

REACTIVITY, VOLATILITY, NON-TOXICITY
ETHERS 2. MIXED ETHERS OR UNSYMMETRICAL ETHERS
Ethers are organic compounds in which two
saturated carbon atoms are bound through a single
oxygen atom. methoxyethane

NOMENCLATURE
Common Names
The two-alkyl groups bonded to the functional
STRUCTURE OF ETHERS group (- O -) are written alphabetically followed by the
• Similar structure to alcohols word ether.

Alcohols: R-OH Examples:

–OH is “hydroxy” group

Ethers: R-OR
–OR is “alkoxy” group

ALKOXY GROUP
“R” groups can be the “R” groups can be
same: different:

CH3-O-CH3 CH3CH2CH2-O-CH3
Both “R” groups have One “R” group has three
one carbon carbons while the other
has one.

NAMING ETHERS – IUPAC WAY

• Ether is a class of organic compounds that contain an
1. Find the root name of the smaller “R” group
ether group R-O-R.
Ex: meth-, eth-, prop-
• For the simplest ether, Dimethyl ether or methoxy
2. Add –oxy
methane
Ex: methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy
3. Add the full name of the larger “R” group

EXAMPLE:
O
1-methoxypropane

CLASSIFICATION OF ETHERS
1. Aliphatic Ethers

2. Aromatic Ethers EXAMPLE OF NAMING ETHERS

STEP 1 Write the alkane name of the longer chain:
Ethane
STEP 2 Name the oxygen and smaller alkyl as alkoxy:
Ethoxy
STEP 3 Number the longer chain and locate the
alkoxy group:
Ethoxy ethane

Diphenylether NOMENCLATURE FOR ETHERS

The IUPAC system for naming ethers:
1. Longest continuous carbon chain is used as parent
TYPES OF ETHERS name (might have substituents)
1. SIMPLE ETHERS OR SYMMETRICAL ETHERS 2. Other chain is named as an alkoxy-substituent:
change the “yl” part of the other alkyl chain to “oxy” (e.g.
methyl to methoxy)
Ethoxy ethane
3. Name as alkoxy name then the parent chain. CH3CH2 O CH2CH2CH2Cl
Number the alkoxy substituent to indicate where it 3-Chloropropyl ethyl ether
attaches to the parent alkane. 1-Chloro-3-ethoxypropane

IUPAC SYSTEM
The shorter alkyl group and the oxygen are
named as an alkoxy group attached to the longer
alkane.
• They are named as alkoxyalkanes. CH3
CH3 O C CH3
CH3
2-methoxy-2-methylpropane
methoxypropane
O CH3
Examples:
Methoxycyclohexane
OCH3
CH3CHCH2CH3
2-methoxybutane
CH3
CH3 C-O-CH3
CH3 2-methoxy-2-methylpropane

ISOMERISM IN ETHERS
- Because ethers contain C, H, and O atoms, the
possibilities for isomers is greater than for
hydrocarbons.
- For example, an ether having two three carbon chains
will have the following constitutional isomers:

C5H12O

If complex, the ether part is named as an “alkoxy”

group: - and then the following functional group isomers (ethers
have the same general formulas as alcohols).
CH3-O- = methoxy CH3CH2-O- = ethoxy, etc.
C5H11OH
CH3-O-CH2CH2CH2-O-CH3 1,3-dimethoxypropane
HO-CH2CH2-O-CH2CH3 2-ethoxyethanol

CH3CH2 O CH2CH3 CH3CH2 O CH3

Diethyl ether Ethyl methyl ether
Ethoxyethane Methoxyethane
 ETHERS ALCOHOL
CH3 –O-CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2-OH

- Molecular Formula: - Molecular Formula:

C3H8O C3H7OH

- Molecular Weight: - Molecular Weight:

60.09g/mol 60.09g/mol

- Boiling Point: - Boiling Point:

7.9°C 97.2°C

Ethoxy ethane
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Boiling Points of Ethers:
- hydrogen bonds cannot form between ether molecules
2. Williamson Synthesis
- The reaction of a sodium alkoxide RONa or a sodium
phenoxide ArONa with an alkyl halide to form an ether.
- The reaction involves nucleophilic substitution of an
alkoxide ion for a halide ion.

Solubility of Ethers:
- Ethers are soluble in water, due to their hydrogen bond
formation with water molecules.
Examples:

REACTIONS OF ETHERS
The solubility decreases with increase in the
Cleavage of Ethers by Acids
number of carbon atoms. • Substitution Reactions with strong acids HX,
X could be; I or Br.

PREPARATION OF ETHERS • Ethers are cleaved by HX to an alcohol and a

1. Dehydration of Alcohols haloalkane

Example:

140
Examples: ⁰
Point of Cleavage:
- If both the alkyl groups are primary or secondary, the
Ethoxy ethane smaller alkyl group gets converted to the alkyl halide
predominantly.
- The dehydration of 2° and 3° alcohol is unsuccessful
to get ethers as alkenes are formed easily.

- If one of the alkyl group is tertiary, the point of cleavage

is such that the tertiary alkyl halide is formed as the
major product
- If two or more equivalents of acid are used further
dehydration can occur on formed alcohols which may
react further to form a second mole of alkyl halide.
KETONES AND ALDEHYDES :O: :O:
CARBONYL FUNCTIONAL GROUPS H C H CH3 C H
formaldehyde acetaldehyde
• All ketones have two alkyl groups attached to the
carbonyl C.
: O: : O: : O:
C C
H3C CH3 H3C CH2CH3 C
CH3
dimethyl ketone methyl ethyl ketone
(acetone) (MEK) methyl phenyl ketone
(acetophenone)

KETONES
• “carbonyl” functional group:
O
C
• R can be Ar

• Ketones have two carbon substituents (alkyl,

cycloalkyl, aromatic and not necessarily the same)

General formula for ketones:

STRUCTURE

IUPAC Names for Ketones

• Replace -e with -one. Indicate the position of the
carbonyl with a number.
• Number the chain so that carbonyl carbon has the
ALDEHYDES & KETONES (ALKANALS & lowest number.
ALKANONES) • For cyclic ketones the carbonyl carbon is assigned the
• Aldehydes & ketones both contain the carbonyl group. number 1.
:O: :O: :O: Example:
R C H R C R' R C R' O
aldehyde ketone ketone CH3 C CH CH3
CH3
• The simplest aldehyde is formaldehyde (CH2O). It is 3-methyl-2-butanone
the only aldehyde without an alkyl group attached to the
carbonyl C. O
• All other aldehydes, such as acetaldehyde (CH3CHO),
have one alkyl group and one H attached to the
carbonyl C.
Br 3-bromocyclohexanone
 O 6 4 O
CH3 C CH CH2OH 3 2 1 3-methyl-3-phenyl-2-hexanone
CH3
5 CH3 Ph or
4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-butanone 3-methyl-3-phenylhexan-2-one
O
Parent = longest continuous carbon chain containing
the carbonyl group. Alkane, drop –e, add –one. Prefix 5,5-dimethyl-2-cyclohexenone
a locant for the position of the carbonyl using the
216 or
principle of lower number. 3 5 CH3 5,5-dimethylcyclohex-2-en-1-one
4
CH3
O O
CH3-C-CH2-CH3 CH3-C-CH2-CH2-CH3
2-Butanone 2-pentanone
O O
KETONES in both open chains and rings: O CH3
alkane+one  “alkanone”
• The parent chain must contain the C=O group, and this Cyclopentanone 2-methyl cyclohexanone
CH3
3-methylcyclohexanone
chain is numbered to give the carbonyl group as low a
number as possible. In cyclic ketones, the carbonyl
group is assigned the number ‘1’.

• Ketones are just below aldehydes in nomenclature

priority.
• A ketone group is named as an ‘oxo’ substituent in an
aldehyde.

IUPAC Nomenclature
Cl
O
O
Cl
2-methyl-3-pentanone 2,7-dichlorocycloheptanone

Br Br O
1-phenyl-1-propanone
(common)(R) 6,6-dibromo-5-cyclopentyl-2-heptanone
propiophenone

O O O
CH3CH2CCH3 CH3CH2CCH2CH3 CH3CCH2CH2CH3

2-butanone 3-pentanone 2-pentanone

Pentanone has 2 possible structures. They are:

- All other aldehydes, such as acetaldehyde (CH3CHO),

have one alkyl group and one H attached to the
SOURCES OF KETONES carbonyl C.
• Many ketones occur naturally

NAMING ALDEHYDES
• IUPAC: Replace -e with -al.
Common ketones • The aldehyde carbon is number 1.
• If -CHO is attached to a ring, use the suffix -
• some ketones have a “sweet” smell. Examples:
carbaldehyde.

Examples:
CH3 O
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 C H
3-methylpentanal

CHO
2-Heptanone Butanedione
(clove flavoring) (butter flavoring) 2-cyclopentenecarbaldehyde
Carvone
(spearmint flavoring)

Boiling points Name as Substituent

• On a molecule with a higher priority functional group,
C=O is oxo- and -CHO is formyl.
• Aldehyde priority is higher than ketone.
O CH3 O
CH3 C CH CH2 C H
3-methyl-4-oxopentanal
COOH

CHO 3-formylbenzoic acid

ALDEHYDES ALDEHYDES in open chains:
O alkane+al  “alkanal”
C “carbonyl” functional group

• The parent chain must contain the CHO- group, and

this group is numbered as carbon 1 (because it is
:O: : O: always at a chain end).

R C H C ALDEHYDES attached to rings:

ring+carbaldehyde  “ringcarbaldehyde”
aldehyde carbonyl group
- The simplest aldehyde is formaldehyde (CH2O). It is
the only aldehyde without an alkyl group attached to the
carbonyl C.
CH3 H CH3 O
CH3CH2CH2CH=O CH3CHCH=O C O C O CH -CH
3 2 -C-H
butanal 2-methylpropanal
H H
comm. : formaldehyde Comm.: Acetaldehyde Comm. Prpionaldehyde
H2C=O CH3CH=O IUPAC: Methanal IUPAC: Ethanal. IUPAC: Propanal
methanal ethanal
CH3CH2CH2CHO
(IUPAC: Butanal/Comm. Butyraldehyde)

H
O
O
H
octanal (E) 3-isopropyl-3-hexenal
O H
Br CH
O O
H
cis4-bromocyclohexane-1-carbaldehyde
5-oxohexanal
O 3-(1-methylethyl)HEXANAL
H
O O 3-(1-methylethyl)-5-OXOHEXANAL
O

H CYCLOPENTANE CARBALDEHYDE

benzenecarbaldehy
de
Name as Substituent
• On a molecule with a higher priority functional group,
C=O is oxo- and -CHO is formyl.
• Aldehyde priority is higher than ketone.
O CH3 O 2 CH3OH + O2 → 2 CH2O + 2 H2O
CH3 C CH CH2 C H
3-methyl-4-oxopentanal
COOH
CHO
3-formylbenzoic acid
• Aromatic aldehydes are usually designated as
derivatives of the simplest aromatic aldehyde,
Benzaldehyde
Boiling Points
• More polar, so higher boiling point than comparable
alkane or ether.
• Cannot H-bond to each other, so lower boiling point
than comparable alcohol.
Solubility
• Good solvent for alcohols.
• Lone pair of electrons on oxygen of carbonyl can
accept a hydrogen bond from O-H or N-H.
• Acetone and acetaldehyde are miscible in water.
Methanal/Formaldehyde
• Gas at room temperature.
• Formalin is a 40% aqueous solution of formaldehyde.
• Formaldehyde solutions are used as a fixative for
microscopy and histology. Formaldehyde-based
solutions are also used in embalming to disinfect and
temporarily preserve human and animal remains.
Synthesis and industrial production
• Formaldehyde is produced industrially by the catalytic
oxidation of methanol. The most common catalysts are
silver metal or a mixture of an iron and molybdenum or
vanadium oxides.
• The silver-based catalyst usually operates at a higher
temperature, about 650 °C. Two chemical reactions on
it simultaneously produce formaldehyde: that shown
above and the dehydrogenation reaction:
CH3OH → CH2O + H2
Common Aldehydes
• Aldehydes are often recognizable by their “sweet”
smells:
Benzaldehyde Cinnamaldehyde
(almond flavoring) (cinnamon flavoring)
Vanillin
(vanilla flavoring)
ALDEHYDE AND KETONE FUNCTIONAL GROUP
• As we saw, alcohols can be used to create aldehydes
and ketones. Oxidation of a primary alcohol yields an
aldehyde:
[O]
• And oxidation of a secondary alcohol yields a ketone:
[O]
ISOMERISM FOR ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
• Aldehydes and ketones that have a given number of
carbon atoms are functional group isomers. (This is the
third group of compounds we have seen that have this
relationship; others were alcohols/ethers and
thiols/thioethers)
• Positional isomers are possible for ketones (but not
aldehydes
 Ketone synthesis: 1) oxidation of secondary
alcohols

3-Pentanone 2-Pentanone

C5H10O

• And skeletal isomers are possible for both

2-Pentanone
3-Methyl-2-butanone Ketone synthesis: 2) Friedel-Crafts acylation

C5H10O

Physical Properties of aldehydes and ketones

[ Aromatic ketones (phenones) only]

• Secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones

• Addition of hydrogen cyanide to ketones

- With propanone (a ketone) you get 2-hydroxy-
2-methylpropanenitrile:

- Comparing an aldehyde and a ketone of a given

number of C-atoms, the ketone is generally more
soluble. • Reduction of a ketone
- For example, with propanone you get
PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES AND KETONES 2-propanol:

PREPARATION OF KETONES (4 methods)

1. Oxidation of 2° Alcohols: with mild (anhydrous)
oxidants, moderate, or strong oxidants, e.g., H 2CrO4,
HNO3, KMnO4, NaOCl, etc.
The t
2. Friedel Crafts Acylation of Aromatics: yields ketones The Tollens Test
when an acid chloride is used as the electrophile.

3. Hydration of Alkynes: with Hg+2 and H3O+ yields an

enol, that ‘tautomerizes’ to a ketone. (This test is specific for aldehydes -- ketones will not
react with silver ion.)

Oxidation and Reduction of aldehydes and ketones

(oxidation reaction)
• There are several tests that have been developed to
determine the presence of aldehydes, based on their
oxidation to carboxylic acids:
Carbohydrates (also referred to as glycans) have the - Tollen’s test
basic composition: NH3, H2O
heat
Ag+ Ag
aldehyde carboxylic acid silver metal
Monosaccharides - simple sugars, with multiple
hydroxyl groups. - Benedict’s test

(Based on the number of carbons (e.g., 3, 4, 5, or 6) a

Cu2+ Cu2O
monosaccharide is a triose, tetrose, pentose, or hexose,
etc.) aldehyde carboxylic acid reddish solid

Disaccharides - two monosaccharides covalently

linked
Oligosaccharides - a few monosaccharides covalently
linked.
Polysaccharides - polymers consisting of chains of
monosaccharide or disaccharide units

Oxidation of Aldehydes
• Aldehydes can also be oxidized with the copper(II) ion
(Cu2+)
- The reaction is called the Benedict’s reaction,
and has been used for years in a clinical setting to test
for the presence of glucose in the urine.
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS, ESTERS, AMINES, AND Amides: change –ic acid (common name) to –amide
AMIDES -oic acid (IUPAC) to –amide
O O
CARBOXYLIC ACID CH3CH2CH2C C
NH2 NH2
- Contains a carboxyl group, which is a carbonyl group
(C=O) attached to a hydroxyl group (—OH). butanamide benzamide
- Has the carboxyl group on carbon 1. butyramide
Esters: change –ic acid to –ate preceded by the name
of the alcohol group
O O
CH3CH2CH2C C
O CH3 O CH2CH3
methyl butanoate ethyl benzoate
Examples of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives methyl butyrate
O O
R C R C NAMING CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
OH N R' Formula IUPAC Common
carboxylic acid R" alkan -oic acid prefix – ic acid
O amide HCOOH methanoic formic acid
R C O acid
O M R C CH3COOH ethanoic acid acetic acid
metal carboxylate
O
O CH3CH2COOH propanoic propionic acid
R C
R C acid
O
O R' CH3CH2CH2COOH butanoic acid butyric acid
ester acid anhydride

O Special names:
COOH
R C N R C
nitrile Cl benzoic acid
acid chloride

(Nitriles are included because their behavior is similar COOH COOH COOH
CH3
to that of the carboxylic acids, even though there is no
COOH group.) CH3
CH3
Carboxyl Derivatives o-toluic acid m-toluic acid p-toluic acid
- Under the structural formula of each is a drawing to
help you see its relationship to the carboxyl group. IUPAC Names
O OO O O • The IUPAC names of carboxylic acids
RCCl RCOCR' RCOR' RCNH2 RC N
An ester - Replace the -e in the alkane name with -oic
An acid An acid An amide A nitrile
chloride anhydride acid.
-H2O CH4 methane HCOOH methanoic acid
-H2O -H2O -H2O -H2O CH3—CH3 ethane CH3—COOH ethanoic acid
O O O O O HO H
RC-OH H-Cl RC-OH H-OCR' RC-OH H-OR' RC-OH H-NH2 RC=N
The enol of - Number substituents from the carboxyl carbon
an amide
1.
Nomenclature: the functional derivatives’ names are
derived from the common or IUPAC names of the
corresponding carboxylic acids.
Acid chlorides: change –ic acid to –yl chloride
O O
CH3CH2CH2C C
Cl Cl
butanoyl chloride benzoyl chloride Models of Carboxylic Acids
butyryl chloride

Anhydrides: change acid to anhydride

O O O
H3C C
O O O
H3C C
O O O H H
ethanoic anhydride phthalic anhydride maleic anhydride C CH
acetic anhydride HH
C O
O
H Propanoic acid
 H H H
H
C
H C
O
C C C H
H
H
H O
H Pentanoic acid

Example:

Naming more complex examples

 Butanoic acid

Octanoic acid
Neutralization of Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acid salts - are a product of the neutralization
Pentanedioic acid of a carboxylic acid with a strong base.

CH3—COOH + NaOH CH3—COO– Na+ + H2O

acetic acid sodium acetate
Benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid (carboxylic acid salt)
- Are used as preservatives and flavor
enhancers.
- Potassium Benzoate
- Sodium Sorbate
- MSG

Names and Sources of some Carboxylic Acids

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
• Formic acid is the simplest carboxylic acid.
- This is the substance that causes the painful
sting of insect bites.

• Vinegar is a 5% solution of acetic acid.

PREPARATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Water solubility decreases with the length of the
carbon chain.
• Carboxylic acids can be prepared by oxidizing primary
alcohols or aldehydes.
• The oxidation of ethanol produces ethanoic acid
(acetic acid).

From alcohols
• Oxidation of a primary alcohol or an aldehyde with
CrO3 in aqueous acid
Boiling points of Carboxylic Acids
• Are higher than alcohols, ketones, and aldehydes of
similar mass.

Carbonation of Grignard Reagents

Acidity of Carboxylic Acids

Carboxylic Acids - are weak acids.
- Ionize in water to produce carboxylate ions
and hydronium ions.
Example: O OH
CH3 CH3 NaCN
Mg CH3 C H CH3 CH C N
CH3 C MgCl
H2O
CH3 C Cl
ether CO2 (gas)
Ethanal
CH3 CH3 (Acetaldehyde)
OH OH O
CH3 O H2O
CH3 CH C N CH3 CH C OH
CH3 C C H+
heat 2-Hydroxypropanoic acid
CH3 O MgCl (Lactic acid)

H2O
CH3 O H+

CH3 C C CARBOXYLATE ION FORMATION

O O
CH3 OH +
2,2-Dimethylpropanoic acid R CH2 C OH + NaOH R CH2 C O Na + H2O
(Pivalic acid)
• Carboxylic acids react with aqueous base to yield the
corresponding carboxylate salt.
Oxidation of Primary Alcohols • The carboxylate salts are much more soluble in water
O than are the corresponding unionized carboxylic acids.
R CH2 OH + 4 KMnO4 R C O K
+
This property is used in solubility classification tests.
heat
+ 4 MnO2 + 4 H2O
Example:
+ KOH O O
O O
CH3 (CH2)4 C OH CH3 (CH2)4 C O Na
R C O K+ + H+ R C OH + K
+

+ NaOH + H2O
Example:
O - This is what happens when you titrate an acid!
KMnO4 - This method is used to obtain a neutralization
Cl CH2 CH2 CH2 OH Cl CH2 CH2 C OH
heat equivalent, which can be used to characterize an
3-Chloro-1-propanol 3-Chloropropanoic acid unknown carboxylic acid.
(-Chloropropionic acid)
ESTERS
- In and ester, the H in the carboxyl group is replaced
HYDROLYSIS OF NITRILES with an alkyl group
• Hot acid or base yields carboxylic acids
• Conversion of an alkyl halide to a nitrile (with cyanide
ion) followed by hydrolysis produces a carboxylic acid
with one more carbon (RBr  RCN  RCO2H)
• Best with primary halides because elimination
reactions occur with secondary or tertiary alkyl halides

+ O Esters in Plants
H +
R CH2 C N + H2O R CH2 C OH + NH4 - Esters give flowers and fruits their pleasant fragrances
and flavors.
O
_ H2O _ Naming Esters
R CH2 C N + OH R CH2 C O + NH3 - Name the alkyl from the alcohol –O-
- Name the acid with the C=O with –ate
Example:
NaCN
CH2 Cl CH2 C N

Benzyl chloride

O
H2O
CH2 C N CH2 C OH
H2SO4
100°C
3 hours
Phenylethanoic acid Examples:
(Phenylacetic acid)
Br O
5 Et
6 4 3 2 1O
Ethyl 5-bromo-3,4-dimethylhexanoate
 Br O
5 3 Et
6 O
4 2 1
Ethyl 5-bromo-3,4-dimethyl-2,4-hexadienoate

H
O
C
O CH3 Methyl cyclohexanecarboxylate

O
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 C O CH2 CH3 Ethyl pentanoate

O
CH3 C O CH2 CH3 Esters: RCO2R’
Ethyl ethanoate

O
CH3 CH C O CH3
CH3 Methyl 2-methylpropanoate

propylethanoate

- Show the formation of this ester from its alcohol and

acid beginnings.
- Breaking this apart requires: Water, Hydrolysis

2-Butanol + ethanoic acid

- H2O is removed Condensation, name?

2-butylethanoate
- All esters end in oate and start with the alcohol 2-butyl

Esters in Plants
Esters give flowers and fruits their pleasant
fragrances and flavors.

Some Esters and their names

Flavor/Odor
Raspberries
HCOOCH2CH3 ethyl methanoate (IUPAC)
ethyl formate (common)
Pineapples
CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH3 ethyl butanoate (IUPAC)
ethyl butyrate (common)
Pears
O

CH3—C--O —CH2CH2CH3 propyl ethanoate (IUPAC) Esters as Flavoring Substances
propyl acetate (common)

• Raspberries contain ethyl formate; HCOOCH2CH3

• You can make this compound from formic acid and
ethanol.

• Pineapples contain ethyl butyrate; CH3CH2CH2

COOCH2CH3
• You can make this compound from butyric acid and
ethanol.

• Pears contain propyl acetate; CH3COOCH2CH2CH3

• You can make this compound from acetic acid and
propanol. Ester Products
Aspirin
 Is used to relieve pain and reduce inflammation.
 Is an ester of salicylic acid and acetic acid.
O
C OH
O
O C CH3
Oil of wintergreen
 Is used to soothe sore muscles.
 O Is an ester of salicylic acid and methanol.
C O CH3

OH
 O
O C CH3

O If the OH group is replaced by an amine the

C O CH3 resulting functional group is called an amide. Amides
are named from the parent chain.
OH
• Product of the reaction of a carboxylic acid and
ammonia or an amine.
Esterification • Not basic because the lone pair on nitrogen is
- The reaction of a carboxylic acid and alcohol in the delocalized by resonance.
presence of an acid catalyst to produce an ester. _
O O
C H C + H
H N H N
H H
Bond angles around N are close to 120.

Classes of Amides
• 1 amide has one C-N bond (two N-H).
• 2 amide or N-substituted amide has two C-N bonds
- Equation for the reaction of propanoic acid and
(one N-H).
methanol in the presence of an acid catalyst.
• 3 amide or N,N-disubstituted amide has three C-N
bonds (no N-H).

NAMING AMIDES
• For 1 amide, drop -ic or -oic acid from the carboxylic
acid name, add -amide.
• For 2 and 3 amides, the alkyl groups bonded to
nitrogen are named with N- to indicate their position.
O CH3
HYDROLYSIS CH3CHC N CH2CH3
- Esters react with water and acid catalyst CH3
- Split into carboxylic acid and alcohol N-ethyl-N,2-dimethylpropanamide
N-ethyl-N-methylisobutyramide

Example:

SAPONIFICATION
- Esters react with a bases
- Produce the salt of the carboxylic acid and alcohol

Amides: RCONH2

AMIDES
• Remember the carboxylic acids
Naming of Amides Sulfonyl Chlorides
• Amides change the end of the name of the carboxylic - Replacement of -OH in a sulfonic acid by -Cl gives a
acid “-oic acid” to “-amide”. sulfonyl chloride.
O O
CH3SOH CH3 SCl
O O
Methanesulfonic Methanesulfonyl chloride
acid (Mesyl chloride, MsCl)
O O
H3C SOH H3C SCl
O O
p-Toluenesulfonic p-Toluenesulfonyl chloride
acid (Tosyl chloride, TsCl)

Amides having an NH2 group Acid Anhydrides

• The functional group of an acid anhydride is two acyl
groups bonded to an oxygen atom.
- The anhydride may be symmetrical (two
identical acyl groups) or mixed (two different acyl
groups).
- To name, replace acid of the parent acid by
anhydride.
OO OO
CH3 COCCH3 COC
Acetic anhydride Benzoic anhydride

AMINES
• NH2 groups can be attached as side chains to carbon Acid Halides: RCOX
parent chains. These groups are called amines. Here
is an example.

2-aminopropane is
CH3-CH-CH3
|
NH2

Acid Anhydrides: RCO2COR’

STRUCTURE: ACID CHLORIDES
• The functional group of an acid halide is an acyl group
bonded to a halogen.
- The most common are the acid chlorides.
- To name, change the suffix -ic acid to -yl
halide.
O O
O O Cl Cl NITRILES
Cl
RC- CH3CCl
O •The functional group of a nitrile is a cyano group
An acyl Ethanoyl chloride Benzoyl chloride Hexanedioyl chloride - IUPAC names: name as an alkanenitrile.
group (Acetyl chloride) (Adipoyl chloride)
- common names: drop the -ic acid and add -
onitrile.
Acyl Halides CH3 C N C N CH2 C N
Ethanenitrile Benzonitrile Phenylethanenitrile
(Acetonitrile) (Phenylacetonitrile)
• In naming a nitrile, the CN carbon is one carbon atom
of the longest chain. CH3CH2CN is propanenitrile, not
ethanenitrile.
Nitriles: R—C≡N
PEOPLE AND ITS
EARTH’S
ECOSYSTEM
GEELECT1 – PEOPLE AND THE EARTH’S But climate change affects agriculture too.
ECOSYSTEM Climate change affects agricultural production through
precipitation levels and temperature variations. This is
MODULE 1 – CONSUMPTION SECTORS called reciprocal relationship between climate change
Lesson 1 – Agriculture and Forestry and agriculture!

As you can see, humans can both benefit and exploit Agriculture feeds all of us! We just need to
environmental resources. Now let’s discuss deeply on exercise the practices that will not harm the
how these fields of agriculture and forestry affect the environment. These may include organic farming and
environment due to human consumption. crop rotation.

Agriculture refers to the practice of rearing domestic One way of increasing agricultural production is by
animals and crops. However, the methods that are related clearing the forests. Deforestation provides more land
to this field have notable effects to the environment: for crops and pasture.

Environmental impacts of deforestation:

 Destroys the habitat of species leads to

fragmentation and depletion.
 Affects the water cycle results to interference
of precipitation (rain)
 Enhance the effects of climate change
Pollution Climate
Deforestation
change
What causes deforestation?

HUMAN-MADE NATURAL
farming Wildfires
Effects
grazing livestock Volcanic erupt
mining Typhoon
So how agriculture causes climate change? drilling Parasites
urbanization
illegal logging
Poor
agricultural
practices Why should we take care our forests?

 Forest trees absorb Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Extensive  Forest trees provide Oxygen we breath (O 2)
farming/slash Applicatio  Traps greenhouse gases thereby reducing
and burn or n of global warming
Kaingin method pesticides
and
fertilizers Lesson 2 – Fishing and Hunting

A fishery (plural: fisheries) is an organized effort by

humans to catch fish or other aquatic species, an
Production of Affect the activity known as fishing.
greenhouse gases: quality of air
Carbon dioxide The ecosystems that support fisheries, together with
due to:
Methane other economic activities, are subject to a number of
Production of alterations of significant relevance to their functioning
Nitrous oxide compounds of and resilience and to the goods and services they can
phosphorus, provide.

Climate
Significant THE DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF FISHERIES
change changes in temperature,
precipitation, wind patterns, and other Fisheries impact target resources. They reduce
measures of climate that occur over several their abundance, spawning potential and, population
decades or longer. parameters (growth, maturation, etc.)
 They modify age and size structure, sex ratio,
genetics and species composition of the target
resources, as well as of their associated and dependent
species.
When poorly controlled, fisheries develop
excessive fishing capacity, leading to overfishing, with
major ecosystem, social and economic consequences.
Fishing may also affect ecological processes at very
large scale. The overall impact has been described as
comparable, in aquatic systems, to that of agriculture on
land in terms of the proportion of the system's primary
productivity harvested by humans.
OVERFISHING transforms an originally stable, mature
and efficient ecosystem (see Figure 1.3) into one that is
immature and stressed (see Figure 1.4). This happens
in various ways. By targeting and reducing the
abundance of high-value predators, fisheries deeply
modify the trophic chain and the flows of biomass (and
energy) across the ecosystem.
They can also alter habitats, most notably by destroying
and disturbing bottom topography and the associated
habitats such as (e.g. seagrass and algal beds, coral
reefs) and benthic communities.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES
Physical Adding artificial
structures like artificial
reefs, oil rigs,
aquaculture installations.
Mechanical “ploughing” effect pf
dredges and trawls
Chemical Injection of nutrients,
pesticides, heavy metals,
drugs, hormones
OVERFISHING may result in changes in productivity of
resources.
 Destructive Fishing Techniques – using
dynamite or cyanides or inadequate fishing
practices (e.g. trawling in the wrong habitat)
 Pollution from fish processing plants – of
ozone-depleting refrigerants; dumping at sea of
plastic debris that can entangle marine animals
or be swallowed by turtles
 Lack of Selectivity – affecting associated
and dependent species, resulting in
wasteful discarding practices, juvenile
mortality, added threat to endangered
species, etc.
Poorly-managed large-scale Mari culture can damage
coastal wetlands and nearshore ecosystems, often
used as nurseries by key capture fishery resources, and
contribute to ecosystem contamination with food
residues, waste, antibiotics, hormones, diseases and
alien species.
HUNTING TO EXTINCTION
Nowadays, most people hunt for sport, often leaving the
carcass and taking the head, leaving the remains to
decompose.
Because hunters are only allowed to pursue specific
species, some environmentalists argue that hunting
creates an imbalance in the natural elements of the
environment (see Figure 1.5). Nature has a delicate
balance and human hunting can have an impact on that
natural balance.
PREDATOR PREY
Important: Opponents to hunting claim that animals
have their own ways of population control and humans
are not needed to aid that process.
Did you know what? The University of Michigan predicts
over hunting will be the cause of extinction in about 25
percent of all animal extinctions during the 21st century.
Whales and some African animals have become
endangered due to hunting issues.
EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Positive Effects
• * Population Control
• * The money hunters spend on their hunting
licenses is pumped back into programs that
help protect and enhance wildlife and the
environment
• *wildlife managers view sport hunting as the
principal basis for protection of wildlife
Negative Effects
• * Hunting disrupts natural order
• * Over hunting will cause the decline in the
particular animal species.
• *It affects the natural environment in that it
throws off natural predation and population
growth of the wildlife
• * Hunting also disrupts migration and
hibernation of the animals.
• * Hunting trips cause hunters to drive long
distances until they reach a hunting ground.
This causes them to emit CO2, adding to their
carbon footprint.
• * Hunters set-up campfires and a lot of littering,
which is harmful to the wildlife.
• * The smoke that is emitted by the fire
negatively impacts the animals, and the litter on
the ground may cause animals to choke.
Lesson 3 – Urban Industry of educational and large that they become
recreational facilities, and impersonal.
Urbanization Similarities Industrialization larger and more
It is a  Follow It is a process of specialized healthcare
process process of applying facilities.)
whereby transition mechanical, Urban areas provide a Many cities have areas
populations  Aim for the chemical and great variety of where housing is poor
move from betterment electrical accommodation for their and may even have a
rural to urban of human sciences to citizens ranging from homeless population,
areas, life recognize individually owned houses often in downtown
enabling  Carry both production with to high-density neighborhoods.
cities and beneficial inanimate source apartments and
towns to and adverse of technology. condominiums.
grow. effects to
environment EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION TO ENVIRONMENT
Urban populations interact with their
environment. Urban people change their environment
Urban Industry as an economic activity which is through their consumption of food, energy, water, and
concerned with the processing of raw materials and land. And in turn, the polluted urban environment affects
manufacturing of goods in factories located within towns the health and quality of life of the urban population.
or cities.
People who live in urban areas have very
Enlists the different events that caused the different consumption patterns than residents in rural
emergence of urbanization: Causes of Urbanization areas. For example, urban populations consume much
 Industrialization – shift from old agricultural more food, energy, and durable goods than rural
economics to a novel non-agricultural one. populations.
 Rural-urban Transformations – rural
communities start to adopt the urban culture Urban populations not only consume more
and ultimately become urban centers. food, but they also consume more durable goods. In
the early 1990s, Chinese households in urban areas
 Modernization – more technology,
were two times more likely to have a TV, eight times
sophisticated communication, infra, changes in
more likely to have a washing machine, and 25 times
the made of living namely habits, attitudes,
more likely to have a refrigerator than rural households.
food, beliefs.
This increased consumption is a function of urban labor
 Employment Opportunities – access to well-
markets, wages, and household structure.
paying jobs from developmental sectors such
as public, health, education, transport, sport, Energy consumption for electricity, transportation,
and recreation, industries and business cooking, and heating is much higher in urban areas than
enterprises in rural villages. For example, urban populations have
 Social Benefits and Services - better many more cars than rural populations per capita.
educational facilities, living standards,
sanitation and housing, health care, recreation Almost all of the cars in
The urbanization of the world’s
facilities and social life the world in the 1930s populations, however, will increase
 Commercialization – distribution of goods and were in the United aggregate energy use, despite
services and commercial transactions States. Today we have a efficiencies and new technologies.
car for every two people And the increased consumption of
in the United States. If energy is likely to have deleterious
EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION TO HUMAN environmental effects.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES that became the norm, in
The market potential of Many stores are owned 2050 there would be 5.3 billion cars in the world, all
the population is greater, by national and using energy. As of 2018, 12.7 million motor vehicles in
there is a much greater international chains, the Philippines are registered and running.
variety of shopping making it difficult for
opportunities than in rural small independent  Regions downwind from large in
areas. (this may result in businesses to succeed.  ustrial complexes also see increases in the amount
lower prices and longer of precipitation, air pollution, and the number of
shopping hours) days with thunderstorms.
Urban areas are able to Cities may experience  Urban areas affect not only the weather patterns, but
provide a variety of traffic jams, also the runoff patterns for water.
services that small rural infrastructures  Urban areas generally generate more rain, but they
areas cannot. (these breakdowns such as reduce the infiltration of water and lower the
might include a public water main breaks, lack water tables. This means that runoff occurs more
transportation system, of appropriate housing rapidly with greater peak flows.
water and sewage and jobs, and  Flood volumes increase, as do floods and water
services, a greater variety institutions that are so pollution downstream.
 Classifications of Water use:
In-stream Use- It includes hydroelectric power,
boating, and swimming, for example. While in-stream
activities do not use up the water, they can degrade the
water quality through pollution.

Water Withdrawal Use

This classification includes household use, industry
use, irrigation, livestock watering, and thermal and
nuclear power. Most withdrawals are consumptions,
meaning that the activity uses the water and does not
return to the source.

- Habitat clearing, degradation and fragmentation of the

landscape endangering species of animals HOW CAN WE DETERMINE OUR WATER
- Spread of unlawful resident settlements represented CONSUMPTION?
by slums and squatters
- Increase in air pollutant and greenhouse gas Water (Difference between water intake and water
emissions, formation of smog and precipitation of acid discharge) = Water Intake (The amount of water that is
rain, urban GHG emission
taken (or withdrawn) from the source) – Water
- Reduce physical activity and unhealthy nutrition, air
Discharge (The amount of water that is returned)
travel carries bacteria and viruses from one country to
the next
Amount water (the recirculated amount of water (good
- Very high emissions of sulfur dioxide, smoke, and
indicator of water efficiency)) = Gross water use (total
other particles during stagnant, foggy weather
amount of water that is used) – Water intake (water
conditions
withdrawals from rivers, lakes or aquifers for
- Decrease in the volume of water that percolates into
infrastructure, agricultural, municipal or industrial
the ground and decrease in quality of surface water
purposes)
THREATS OF URBANIZATION
- Intensive urban growth can lead to greater poverty Water Use and Shortages: The Environmental
with, local governments unable to provide services for Impact
all people. Freshwater is one of the most imperiled natural
- Animal populations are inhibited by toxic substances, resources and is the ultimate rate-limiting step for food
vehicles, and the loss of habitat and food sources. production. Remarkably, the production of food is, in
- Pollution and physical barriers to root growth promote essence, the most water-intensive activity in the world.
loss of urban tree cover.
- Urban development can magnify the risk of Areas of concerns in Freshwater Consumption
environmental hazards such as flash flooding. Anthropocentric Bio centric Eco centric
- Large volumes of uncollected waste create multiple Freshwater is a Other species Wasting water
health hazards. vital resource for rely on while our
- Automobile exhaust produces elevated lead levels in the survival of freshwater demand for
urban air. our population. besides water
- Concentrated energy use leads to greater air pollution Seeing as less humans as a increases (as
with significant impact on human health. than 1% of the vital population and
world’s water is component of standards of
WAYS TO MITIGATE THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF fresh water and their survival! living increase
URBANIZATION available for us Overuse of globally),
- Combat poverty by promoting economic development to consume, freshwater in means that we
and job creation. there are household need to
- Plant trees and incorporate the care of city green limitations that settings supplement
spaces as a key element in urban planning. factor into our means there is this lack of
- Create private-public partnerships to provide services carrying capacity less freshwater by
such as waste disposal and housing. as a population freshwater for pulling it out of
- Reduce air pollution by upgrading energy use and on Earth agricultural aquifers or
alternative transport systems. including the use (which groundwater
- Involve local community in local government. availability and affects supplies in
distribution of humans on a which their
Lesson 4 – Water use freshwater. food scarcity regeneration
level), but rate is lower
Water use is described as the total amount of water many livestock than the
withdrawn from its source to be used. species rely extraction rate.
on freshwater.
Aquatic environment conversion affects the Damage to wildlife habitats and migratory paths –
environment and causes environmental destroys forests and rivers to construct a dam
destruction:
Diversion of aquatic environment (for agricultural and Wind energy has negative impact on:
industrial activities), and → Plant and animal species Land use – occupies lands usually plains suitable for
are threatened or endangered due to habitat farming
Damage to wildlife habitats – kills migratory birds and
destruction → Loss of species can trigger the loss of
bats leading to the decline of their population affecting
other species within freshwater ecosystem → Human
the other species in their habitat
existence will be affected because all of us depend
on healthy ecosystems → Risk of human’s health if an Solar power has negative effect on:
environment is contaminated Land use – occupies large amount of area which
includes forest and farmland
Moreover, water takes a lot of energy, time, and money Water use – produces toxic waste that harms water
to filter so that it is safe and drinkable. Therefore, sources including the animals in it.
wasting water or extensive water consumption means
that you are wasting the energy-intensive process of The negative impact towards our environment is far
filtration. from the damage brought to us by using fossil fuel in
transportation. Here in the Philippines, we are using
Filtration + Extraction + Transportation = Safe primarily diesel for our public utility jeepney and buses
for transportation, not to include trucks, cars and
Drinking Water – These processes require
motorcycles that use fossil fuels.
nonrenewable fossil fuels. When these fuels are
depleted, their dangerous by-products (Carbon dioxide) Transportation:
buildup in Earth’s atmosphere and may cause Earth’s Pollution on air and water – carbon emission pollutes
rising temperatures. the air quality and responsible for the formation of
carbonic acid leading to acid rain
Lesson 5 – Energy and Transportation Wildlife and habitat – carbon emission is mainly
responsible for climate change that resulted extreme
Energy is the capacity to do work. This principle weathers that destroys habitat in the forest – extreme
is true in any physical context. From a labor worker who raining leading to extreme flooding and land slide.
carries the loads in the port using the energy from the Construction of transportation infrastructure – roads
food taken up, to a cargo ship which cross the pacific, and bridges destroys forests and habitats.
carrying tons of cargo, navigating using the energy Land loss – construction of transportation infrastructure
stored in the fuel taken by its engine. – roads, railways and bridges uses big land areas.
Our country uses different sources of energy to Climate change also leads to global warming which is
supply the needs of its citizens. We mainly rely on Fossil responsible for the sea level to rise sinking islands and
fuel but we also have hydroelectric plants, geothermal shrinking coastal areas.
power, solar power, Wind power, Biomass power.
Because of the increasing population, our
country’s demand for energy also increases. For
example, in 2010 the country’s fossil fuel consumption
was 60.11% total energy use while in 2014 it reaches
62.43%. But, because fossil fuel is a non-renewable
source of energy, we are now trying to invest more on
renewable source of energy creating more
Hydroelectric plants, Geothermal power, Solar power,
Wind power, Biomass power (see Figures 15 a and b;
Figures 16 a and b).
But how does it affect the environment? We
know that the carbon emission is mainly the result of
fossil fuel which leads to climate change that has greatly
affect extreme weather condition leading to hazardous
natural calamities which does not only destroys property
but also the physical condition of our environment. This
may also be the case for renewable energy source.

Geothermal power plant has negative effect on:

Land use – requires huge land area
Water quality – releases hazardous material towards
water sources
Air quality – emits sulfur and other hazardous gas

Hydro power plant has a negative effect on:

Land use – occupies big land area to construct water
dam
MODULE 2 – PRESSURES ON ECOSYSTEMS AND
BIODIVERSITY
Lesson 1 – Habitat loss, alteration and fragmentation
In most cases, it is our concept of the word
DEVELOPMENT that pushed us to alter our
surroundings for our own benefit and always at the
expense of other living entities, especially the species
of flora (plants) and fauna (animals).
HABITAT ALTERATION is a change in land
use or land cover that has an impact on local
ecosystems. Plants and animals live in specific places
that have the conditions of climate and food resources
needed for survival. Habitats vary from forest and
grassland to urban areas, streams, ponds, and oceans.
Over time, a habitat is subject to alteration, especially
under the influence of human activities. Habitat
alteration, which may lead to habitat loss, is the greatest
current threat to living species.
Large areas of land and water are damaged by
human activities:
- Urbanization
- Agriculture
- Overfishing
These cause fragmentation of habitats, which
threatens those animals that need a large habitat for
breeding and survival. Many species have already
become extinct, particularly in tropical areas. This loss
of biodiversity impacts food resources, such as fish
stocks. Loss of trees can increase soil erosion and
accelerate climate change. Sustainable use of land and
water is therefore needed to minimize the impact of
habitat alteration.
FRAGMENTATION OF HABITATS
Habitat fragmentation is defined as the process
during which a large expanse of habitat is transformed
into a number of smaller patches of smaller total area
isolated from each other by a matrix of habitats unlike
the original (Fahrig, 2003). It threatens those animals
that need a large habitat for breeding and survival.
Habitat fragmentation is a major problem
across the Earth. A decrease in the overall area of
habitat is serious enough, but when combined with
fragmentation, it can undermine the integrity of whole
ecosystems. Roads, urbanization and agriculture are
among the main human activities which break up
natural areas, often with disastrous implications for
wildlife.
ENVIRONMENTAL CASE
Imagine that you are a rare lichen, or a bird which
prefers the dark interior of the woods, such as a tree
creeper. Half of your woodland home is destroyed
to make way for a car park, and the remainder is
bisected by a road. What happens to your cool, dark
patch of the forest? It becomes flooded with light,
the humidity and temperature are altered, and it
may no longer suit your specific needs. Thus,
fragmentation increases what is known as the
‘edge effect’, whereby the interior area of habitat is
affected by the different conditions of the other
habitats on its edges (see Figure 2.3). The smaller
a particular habitat is, the greater is the proportion
of its area which experiences the edge effect, and
this can lead to dramatic changes in plant and
animal communities.
Habitat fragmentation leads to edge effects as
shown in Figure 2.4. Microclimatic changes in light,
temperature, and wind can alter the ecology around the
fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the
fragment. Fires become more likely in the area as
humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise.
Exotic and pest species may establish themselves
easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity
of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology.
Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a
different climate and favors different species from the
interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore
unfavorable for species that require interior habitat
 resource efficiency are the major factors that influence
the escalation of overexploitation.

BIODIVERSITY LOSS
Reduction in the number of genes, individual
organisms, species, and ecosystems in a given area.

Primary Drivers:
Habitat Loss – thinning, fragmenting, or outright
destruction of an ecosystem’s plant, soil, hydrologic,
and nutrient resources.
Invasive species – any nonnative species that
significantly modifies or disrupts the ecosystems it
colonizes.
Lesson 2 – Overexploitation Overexploitation – process of harvesting too many
aquatic or terrestrial animals, which depleted the stocks
What is overexploitation? Generally, it is the use, by of some species while driving others to extinction.
humans, of a natural resource to an extent that it is not Pollution – addition of any substance or any form of
sustainable anymore. When the activities connected energy to the environment at a rate faster than it can be
with capturing and harvesting (hunting, fishing, farming) rendered harmless.
a renewable natural resource in a particular area is Climate change associated with global warming –
excessively intense, the resource itself may become modification of earth’s climate associated with rising
exhausted, as for example, is the case of sardines, levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere over the
herrings, cod, tuna and many other species that man
past one to two centuries.
captures without leaving enough time for the organisms
to reproduce.
Influencers:
Overexploitation is recognized as one of the - human population growth
causes of the degradation and depletion of our natural - increasing consumption
resources. It is a man-made activity that pushes our - reduced resource efficiency
resources to the limit of its capacity to provide the needs
of human population. It is also one of the forces and IMPACTS OF OVEREXPLOITATION
primary drivers that destroy the habitats of majority of SHORT-TERM IMPACTS
living natural resources in biodiversity. NATURAL HUMAN
ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT
Humans often take too many of one species  Endangerment leading  Lack of natural
from their natural habitat. Typically, this involves a to extinction of species wonders to visit due to
species used as a food source. When a species is possibly endemic to overexploitation.
harvested, or taken at a rate faster than the population the area due to  Not enough fish to be
can compensate for, the population is listed as overfishing or other eaten.
overexploited, or overharvested. Think of this like a reasons.  Jobs lost due to lack
full cookie jar in a room full of hungry people. The more  Loss of natural habitat of species.
people that take cookies, the fewer are left in the jar. It for native  Countries who rely on
takes time to bake more cookies, and if the cookies in  Deforestation & tourism to fuel their
the jar are eaten faster than they can be made, soon overfishing. economy will lose
you run out of cookies!  Pollution caused by their main source of
construction. income due to
When the population numbers of a species
 Loss of apex predator overexploitation of the
decline to the point where the animal or plant could
(e.g. shark) in an tourism that they
possibly go extinct, or cease to exist, the organism is
ecosystem, causing created (e.g. Hawaii,
classified as endangered. Removing a species from
the collapse of the Fiji)
their natural habitat can be detrimental. Not only does
ecosystem and its
this threaten the biodiversity, or the variation of life
biodiversity.
within an ecosystem, but is also disrupts the balance of
the ecosystem itself.

CAUSES OF OVEREXPLOITATION

The main causes of overexploitation are

completely human based. Humans use resources at will
without thinking about the impact that it may have on the
planet in the near or far off future, only thinking of what
they want and what they need. Human population
growth, increase consumption and reduction of
 LONG-TERM IMPACTS Convention entered into force on 29 December 1993,
NATURAL HUMAN which was 90 days after the 30th ratification. The first
ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT session of the Conference of the Parties was scheduled
 Complete use of fossil  The effects of global for 28 November – 9 December 1994 in the Bahamas.
fuels and other non- warming, climate
renewable resources. change & pollution will The Convention on Biological Diversity was
 Some cases of affect the human inspired by the world community's growing commitment
overexploitation may lifestyle more to sustainable development. It represents a dramatic
contribute to the severely. step forward in the conservation of biological diversity,
growing problems of  Loss of sources of the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and
global warming and electricity (e.g. fossil equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of
climate change (e.g. the fuels) and genetic resources.
construction of tourist overexploitation of the
resorts and services to coal industry, The overexploitation of resources has led to the
exploit the heightening the prices present biodiversity crisis. The need to halt biodiversity
environment). of electricity, water & loss is unquestionable. The CBD was opened for
 Overexploitation is one gas and impacting signature in 1992. Since then, 195 countries committed
of the five main threats hugely on the average to the challenge of halting biodiversity loss. The '2010
to global biodiversity. human lifestyle. target' set by the Conference of the Parties, the
 Defacement of natural  Loss of resources governing body of the Convention, aimed ‘to achieve by
landmarks (e.g. (e.g. oil, food, water,
2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of
mountains, oceans, trees) will eventually
cause wars between biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national
lakes & deserts).
nations over that level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the
resource. Because of benefit of all life on earth.’ The large number of countries
the necessity of the committed to the target was a sign of the international
resources, the wars community awareness about the urgent need of actions
would be fought on a toward the protection of ecosystems and their services,
huge scale, possibly however the goal was not attained. The failure to act on
starting another World the biodiversity crisis called for new action and
War. rethinking of the goals. In 2010, a new strategy and set
of goals to 2020 were agreed upon by international
governments.
In the Philippines, the impact of
overexploitation, particularly by fisheries, is manifested The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–
in the poor state of reef fisheries (Muallil et al., 2011), 2020 is composed of five strategic goals, which are
the reduction in biodiversity of reef-associated fish supported by 20 specific and measurable targets, the
communities (Nañola et al., 2011), and by shifts in Aichi targets. The targets are intended to be realistic but
their trophic structure (Pauly & Palomares, 2005). still ambitious, and cover each of the five strategic
Ecosystem overfishing, combined with effects of human areas, that is:
induced stress such as siltation, eutrophication 1. indirect causes of biodiversity loss,
(Gurney et al., 2013; Melbourne-Thomas et al., 2011), 2. direct pressures on biodiversity,
and mass coral bleaching (Arceo et al., 2001), has 3. state of biodiversity,
resulted in shifts in coral-dominated communities to 4. benefits from biodiversity, and
algal-dominated ones. Recovery of the depleted and 5. responses to biodiversity loss. \
degraded reef and mangrove habitats may take more
than 20 years, even if effective reduction of intermediate AICHI TARGETS
causes were to occur. Giant clams and some less Understand Reduce Enhance
mobile invertebrates (e.g., Tripneutes gratilla, Juinio- values pollution resilience
Meñez, Bangi, Malay, & Pastor, 2008) have already Mainstream Reduce Implement
been overharvested. biodiversity invasive spp. Nagoya Prot.
Address Minimize reef Revise
FINDING THE WAY TO SUSTAINABILITY
incentives loss NBSAPs
By February 1991, the Ad Hoc Working Group Sustainable Protected areas Respect and
had become known as the Intergovernmental production conserve TK
Negotiating Committee. Its work culminated on 22 May Halve rate of Prevent Improve
loss extinctions knowledge
1992 with the Nairobi Conference for the Adoption of the
Sustainable Conserve gene Mobilize
Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
fisheries pool resources
The Convention was opened for signature on 5 Manage within Restore
June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on limits ecosystems
Environment and Development (the Rio "Earth
Summit"). It remained open for signature until 4 June
1993, by which time it had received 168 signatures. The
Complementary to the Aichi Targets are the Sustainable
Development Goals that will replace the Millennium
Development Goals and should frame the United
Nations development agenda beyond 2015.
The Philippines is one of 18 mega-
biodiverse countries of the world, containing two-
thirds of the earth’s biodiversity and between 70% and
80% of the world’s plant and animal species. The
Philippines ranks fifth in the number of plant species
and maintains 5% of the world’s flora. Species
endemism is very high, covering at least 25 genera of
plants and 49% of terrestrial wildlife, while the country
ranks fourth in bird endemism and considered to host
the most number of marine species in the world. The
Philippines is also one of the world’s biodiversity
hotspots with at least 700 threatened species, thus
making it one of the top global conservation areas.
The Coastal Governance Index ranks the
Philippines 7th out of twenty maritime countries across
the globe for its good track record of well-crafted
environmental laws. While some current proponents
of constitutional change include proposed
environmental rights in its bill of rights, the current
Philippine Constitution promotes a right to a healthy
environment.
The 1987 Philippine Constitution provides that
the State shall protect the nation’s marine wealth in its
archipelagic waters, territorial sea, and exclusive
economic zone, and reserve its use and enjoyment
exclusively to Filipino citizens. The same Constitution
provides that the State shall protect and advance the
right of the people to a balanced and healthful
ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of
nature. It also provides for the protection of the
preferential rights of subsistence fishers and local
communities in the use of inland and offshore fishing
resources and provides for support in the conduct of
their livelihoods.
Land ecosystems suffer equally. Dr. Mundita
Lim, former Director of Philippine Biodiversity
Management Bureau and currently Executive Director
of ASEAN Center for Biodiversity laments, “In the
Philippines, we have lost almost 93 percent of our
original forest cover since the 1900’s. In 2008, 58 out of
the 206 then known mammal species native to the
Philippines were included in the International Union for
the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red Data List of
Threatened Species. This is a number that is
significantly large, considering that more than half of our
native mammalian species are found only in the country
and nowhere else in the world.”
Earth Law or earth jurisprudence, including
Rights of Nature (RON), could help strengthen and
evolve the current legal protections of nature in the
Philippines. Earth Law is an ethical framework that
recognizes nature’s right to exist, thrive and evolve -
enabling nature to defend these rights in court, just like
corporations can. Earth Law has theoretical origins in
1970s but since 2006 when the first Rights of Nature
legislation was implemented in the US has been gaining
strength through constitutional provisions or national
law (Ecuador, Bolivia) and local ordinances (New
Zealand, India, Mexico and in three dozen US cities and
municipalities).
Since 2003, a series of government laws and
policies establishing ICM (Integrated Coastal
Management) as a national strategy to ensure
sustainable development of the country’s coastal and
marine environment and resources and including
guidelines for its implementation, has been issued. In
2016, a Senate Bill to strengthen the adoption of ICM
as a national coastal resource management strategy
has been filed.
ICM-related policy issuances emphasized that
ICM covers all coastal and marine areas, addressing
the inter-linkages among associated watersheds,
estuaries and wetlands and coastal seas by all relevant
national and local agencies. This means that the
management approach should encompass forest,
river and marine areas due to their
interconnectedness. This can easily be seen in
impacts of land- and sea-based human activities such
as agriculture, deforestation and overfishing. Because
of ICM’s integrative characteristic consistent with the
principles of RoN, ICM is used here to show common
principles applied to both RoN and ICM.
(https://www.earthlawcenter.org/blog-
entries/2018/9/seeds-of-hope-for-earth-law-in-the-
philippines)
Lesson 3 – Invasive Species
Some of our favorite games or sports involve “command
and conquer” mechanisms. This scenario is not
uncommon to nature. Nature also involves invading
lands so that organisms can expand their resources
(e.g. food, shelter, space). However, with human
exploitation of wildlife, some organisms that are not
supposedly in their natural habitat; are introduced.
These introduced organisms become more aggressive
and can compete with the native organisms, until the
introduced organisms take over the native’s habitat.
These introduced organisms are also known as
INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES (IAS).
FIGURE 3.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF AN INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES
 Not all non-native species are invasive.
Figure 3.1 describes how a non-native species
become an invasive species.
Ornament
Non-
al
native

Source: https://bit.ly/3gxhVtk
purposes
species

Water hyacinth or
Eichhornia
crassipes were
The rapid
introduced in the
proliferation of
Philippines for
these species
ornamental
clogged
purposes.
waterways
However, no
causing floods
records how these
when heavy rains
species become
occur. It is also
Invasive invasive in ponds,
considered a
rivers, and lakes
Alien nuisance as it
reduces food for
Species fishes

The type of IAS fish

Pest
released by was “wild
control
molly," or Poecilia
spheno. This type of
Economic
fish species is a
purposes
voracious feeder and
eat not only mosquito
In 2019, O. niloticus
larva, but also eats
Philippines however competes
small animals. In the
experienced a with other fishes
Philippines,
dengue that are native to
one of the IAS
outbreak. In aquatic
introduced for
order to control environment.
economic
its vector Moreover, the
purposes is
(mosquito), the adults are voracious
the Nile tilapia
release of The bull frogs
(Oreochromis feeders and are
“mosquito fish” released were
niloticus). threat to the
and bull frogs actually Cane toads
These fish indigenous and
were initiated. or Rhinella marina.
were released endemic fishes.
However, These species do not
to boost the
instead of solving only eat adult
fishing
the problem, it mosquitoes but also
industry.
will only cause eat other insects. It
harm to the will compete with
environment other native
organisms in the
area. Further, they IAS species that already established their
have poison glands population to their new environment. Therefore,
that may harm other such species cannot easily be removed and may
birds and mammals. cause further damage to the ecosystem.
TABLE 1. IAS AND THEIR IMPACT TO THE ENVIRONMENT. EFFECTS OF POLLUTION
Pollution have various effect on the
Species Common Pathway of Impact to the environment
environment and different organisms living on it. Each
name introduction type of pollution has different effects on the
Liposarcus Janitor fish Aquarium Adverse competitorpeople
environment, of indigenous
and otherfishes
organisms.
disjunctivus trade Air Pollution = Causes multiple diseases to
Gmelina arborea Gmelina Lumber humans.
Increase It also
the acidity causes
of the soil anda its
variety
seeds of environmental
effects, such as acid rain, haze, eutrophication,
are toxic.
intoxication of wild life and more.
Swietenia Mahogany Lumber Invades natural forests. The fallen leaves of
Water Pollution = Contaminated water kills
macrophyla this plant species hinders the growth of
various organisms, including humans. Harm to any of
other plantsorganisms can create a chain effect, imperiling
these
the entire environments.
Pomacea Golden Apple Source of food Become a majorSoilpest hindering
Pollution = promotion
Soil contaminants can cause
cananiculata Snail and various
adoptiondiseases
of rice to humans and other organisms. It
Felis catus Feral domestic Pet Some of the
also hascats
a reproduce
huge impactrapidly.
in plant production since it
cat However, these the
decreases feralnutrients
cats huntinendemic
the soil.
birds and other smaller
Light animals.= Unnecessary or excessive
Pollution
lights at night alters and interferes with the timing of
necessary biological activities of humans and animals.
Lesson 4 – Pollution Artificial lights disrupt this nocturnal activity, interfering
with reproduction and reducing populations.
Humans play a significant role in the changes Noise Pollution = Hearing impairment and
in the environment. Few of the human activities that sleep problems are few of the effects of noise pollution
create an impact in our environment are: in humans. It also alters the behavior of the different
overpopulation, pollution, burning fossil fuels, and animals because of the unwanted or excessive noise.
deforestation are few of the impact of human activities.
Lesson 5 – Climate Change
The introduction of harmful materials into the
environment is called pollution, and the harmful Global temperature today is higher compared to
elements that causes it are what we call pollutants. that of 50 years ago. The very evidence of that claim is
the melting of the ice sheets in the arctic region and the
These pollutants can either be natural or created
increase of the sea level which submerge the smaller
through human activities. There are different types of
islands in the pacific.
pollution, these are: air pollution, water pollution, soil According to NASA, “Climate change describes
pollution, light pollution and noise pollution. a change in the average conditions — such as
temperature and rainfall — in a region over a long
Types of Pollution: period of time. NASA scientists have observed Earth’s
 Air – burning of fossil fuels, vehicles, factory surface is warming, and many of the warmest years on
emissions record have happened in the past 20 years.”
 Water – runoff from agricultural fields, industrial
sites, urban areas POTENTIAL EFFECT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
 Soil – improper disposal of toxic chemical Health
Weather – related mortality infectious diseases
substances (asbestos, lead, PCBs, etc.),
Air – quality respiratory illnesses
overuse of pesticides or herbicides Species and Natural Areas
 Light – large amount of light produced by most Loss of habitat and species
urban and other heavily-populated areas Cryosphere – diminishing glaciers
 Noise – any human-made noises (loud, Water Resources
excessive) Water Supply, water quality
Competition for water
PRIMARY POLLUTANT VS SECONDARY Agriculture
POLLUTANT Crop yields
Irrigation demands
Coastal Areas
Primary pollutants cause pollution by their direct Erosion of beaches
release into the environment. Example of primary Inundation of coastal lands
pollutants ammonia, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and Additional costs to protect coastal communities
carbon monoxide. While secondary pollutants form
when primary pollutants emitted directly from a How does the government address these threats? The
combustion process react in the atmosphere. Example government, through Department of Environment and
of these are, ground-level ozone, acid rain, and nutrient Natural Resources (DENR) together with the Legislative
enrichment compounds. Body of the Government crafted some mitigating
solution for the problems.
DENR Administrative Order No. 2018 (Subject:
Adoption of the law in forest and biodiversity
protection system as a national strategy for forest
and biodiversity protection in the Philippines)
Pursuant to Section 16, Article II of the 1987
Philippine Constitution, Presidential Decree No. 705, as
amended, Executive Order No. 192, series of 1987
which reorganized the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, RA No. 11038 or the “Expanded
National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 2018
(ENIPAS), RA No. 9072 which mandates the
management and protection of caves and cave
resources, and RA No. 9147 otherwise known as
“Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act”,
law in as a national strategy for forest and biodiversity
protection in the Philippines is hereby adopted.
Section 1. Basic Policy and Determination.
DENR AO No.2018-21 – mandated the adaptation of
Law in forest and Biodiversity Protection System
R.A. 8749 (Clean Air Act of 1999) that moves for an
effective air quality management program that will
mitigate the worsening problem of air pollution in the
country.
R.A. 8435 (Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization
Act of 1997) that establishes that the Department of
Agriculture together with other appropriate agencies,
should into account climate change, weather
disturbances and annual productivity cycles in order to
forecast and formulate appropriate agricultural and
fisheries programs.
Presidential Task Force on Climate Change
(PTFCC). The task force is mandated to address and
mitigate the impact of climate change in the Philippines,
paying special attention to adaptation, mitigation and
technological solutions. In particular, the task force
focuses on improving compliance to air emission
standards and acts to combat deforestation and
environmental degradation.
R.A. 9003 (Solid Waste Management Act of 2000)
that aimed at providing a comprehensive solution to the
country’s garbage problem and R.A. 9275 (Philippine
Clean Water Act of 2004) that moves for a
comprehensive water quality management scheme.
R.A. 9729 (Climate Change Act of 2009) which aims
to systematically integrate the concept of climate
change in the policy formulation and development
plans of all government agencies and units, to the end
that the government will be prepared for the impact of
climate change was enacted also creating the
Philippine Climate Change Commission (PCCC).
OBJECTIVES OF THE LAW:
 Sustainably manage forests and
watersheds
Targeting to have 15 million hectares of forested land,
50 percent of which may be production forest, the
following will be implemented to increase forest cover
by 600,000 hectares.
 Improve protection and conservation of
biodiversity.
Conserve, preserve, and manage protected areas,
wildlife, and their habitat.
 Enhance coastal and marine resources
management.
Develop and implement the national integrated coastal
management (ICM) program to include principles,
strategies and action plans in accord with EO 533.
 Manage a more equitable utilization of
mineral resources.
Review and harmonize mining policies and other related
policies.
 Develop and implement environment-
friendly enterprise and livelihood
opportunities.
The development of environment-friendly enterprise
and livelihood opportunities for local communities is
envisioned to address the prevailing poverty of
resource-dependent communities. This will also
motivate communities to protect natural habitat and
wildlife.
 Reduce air pollution in Metro Manila and
other major urban centers
Achieve a 30-percent reduction of 2009 levels of
pollution by 2011 and a 5-percent annual
reduction thereafter by 2016 in Metro Manila and other
major urban areas.
 Reduce water pollution to improve water
quality in Priority Rivers and other
economically and ecologically important
water bodies.
Establish, and operationalize the Water Quality
Management Fund and water quality management.
 Establish a healthier and livable urban
environment
Establish urban parks with dense greenery to minimize
heat island effects in town and cities. Adopt green
architecture with rooftop gardens in central business
districts; promote climate change-resilient building
designs in new urban centers for a cool and
refreshing environment.
 Strengthen institutional capacities of
national and local governments for Climate
Change Adaptation (CCA) and Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management (DRRM).
Mainstream and integrate DRR and CCA in national,
sectoral, regional and local development plans,
including integration of hazard and climate change
vulnerability maps in the updating of Comprehensive
Land Use Plan (CLUP) by LGUs and enforcement of
zoning regulations. Encourage more provinces to
mainstream DRR in their plans, and build capacities of
national and local agencies assigned to lead the effort.
  Enhance the resilience of natural systems
Conduct vulnerability assessment and mapping on the
different ecosystems. Issue guidelines for the review
and approval of design proposals and projects
that are climate change-resilient under the
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and risk
assessment system of the Environmental Management
Bureau (EMB). Establish a network of protected areas
in coordination with other LGUs based on ecological,
social and economic considerations (ecosystem
resiliency and biological connectivity) to address the
impacts of human-induced factors and climate change.

 Improve adaptive capacities of communities

Conduct geohazard mapping, vulnerability and risk
assessments especially for highly susceptible
communities and areas for the formulation and
implementation of disaster risk reduction and
management plans. Integrate CCA and DRRM in all
education levels and in specialized technical training
and research programs.

 Research, Development, Extension and

Knowledge Management
Pursue research, development and extension.
Demonstrate, develop and replicate low-cost
technologies to optimize the recycling, reuse, and
recovery of solid waste, including the conversion of
residual organic materials into clean renewable energy.
Establish valuation of resources and develop a system
of natural resources accounting. Determine the values
and potential benefits of the natural resources.
MODULE 3 – ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE AND VECTORS AND VECTOR-BORNE DISEASE
INFECTIOUS DISEASE Disease Causative Vectors Methods of
Lesson 1 – Changes to Habitats and the Density of Agents infection
Diseases-related Organisms
Covid19 Virus (novel Bats Food
corona virus)
There is ample evidence that human disruption
Malaria Protozoan Anopheles Bite
of ecological systems is changing the distribution of (Plasmodium mosquitoes
infectious disease. Human health and the health of the species)
environment are intimately connected. Both are Dengue Virus (Dengue Aedes Bite
necessary to satisfy basic human needs. The fever virus) mosquitoes
environment is a key factor in determining the health of
Encephalitis Virus (Herpes Culex Bite
people. At the same time, investments in human simplex virus) mosquitoes
healthcanhelpimprovethehealthoftheenvironmentandec
African Protozoan Tse tse fly Bite
ologicalsystems. sleeping (Trypanosoma
Wildlife habitats are vital to human survival and sickness brucei)
agricultural production. But these natural places — and
Dysentery Protozoan House fly Contamination
the plants and animals that inhabit them — face (amoebic) (Entamoeba of food
increasing pressure from human activity, leading to the histolytica)
emergence of new animal-to-human transmitted Cholera Bacteria House fly Contamination
diseases like COVID-19. This transfer, also known as (Vibrio of food
cholera)
zoonosis, occurs when an infection carried by an
animal, like a bat in the case of COVID-19, is
transmissible to a human. As humans continue to Malaria offers a good case study because of its
convert wildlife habitats and encroach on them for high death toll and its resistance to efforts at eradication
hunting and gathering purposes, they are setting and long-term prophylaxis. Malaria is transmitted by a
themselves up for the further spread of disease. wide variety of location specific mosquito species within
the genus Anopheles. Many of the most pervasive types
Furthermore, vector- borne diseases are those that are
of land use change, such as deforestation, dams, and
transmitted to humans by mosquitoes, ticks, fleas and agricultural development, affect the density of different
animals. Vectors transmit pathogens or causative Anopheles vectors, leading to increased disease
agents such as viruses, bacteria and protozoa. transmission.

Changes in habitat and Climate Drivers of global environmental change (e.g.,

↓ - Altering land-use change or climate change) can directly pose
health risks or impair ecosystem services that
subsequently influence health. For hazards that affect
Biological composition, structure, and complexity of
human health, however, exposures will be modified by
much of the global land surface
multiple layers of social or infrastructure barriers that
↓ - Changing can buffer or eliminate risk. Together, all components
must be considered to achieve realistic assessments of
Abiotic parameters that are often fundamental in population vulnerability.
defining the range and breeding habitat of numerous Our challenge will be to work to mitigate
vectors, hosts, and pathogens. environmental change and to increase the resilience of
↓ - Such as: populations to the impacts of any changes that we are
unable to mitigate. Along the way, there will be
Temperature Precipitation Exposure to substantial opportunities to identify co-benefits,
and soil patterns sunlight whereby a single intervention can both mitigate
moisture environmental threats and improve human health.
Addressing the health impacts of global environmental
Biogeochemical Nutrient Surface-water change needs to be a priority for the public health
cycles concentration chemistry community, environmental scientists, and natural
resource managers, as well as for governments and
↓ - Resulting to: intergovernmental bodies such as the United Nations
and multilateral development banks. What we need
Changes in the density or presence vectors, hosts, most are political will and financial resources. While
and pathogens. these resources will need to be large, they are small
compared to the cost of ignoring the impacts of large-
scale change and trying to address the overwhelming
problems of famine, epidemic disease, massive
population displacement, and civil strife that may ensue.
CHANGES IN LAND USE AND COVER SUMMARY ON CHANGES IN EXPOSURE
Deforestation, dams, and irrigation, agricultural PATHWAYS
extension and intensification, livestock management,
urbanization, road construction. Increase in global trade and transportation
+ - facilitate the rapid transport of disease-related
DETERIORATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES organisms around the globe.
Provision of nutrition, safe water, clean air, protection Ex: Nonimmune populations of workers moving
from natural hazards, regulation of infectious diseases, into endemic areas where they are exposed to
and maintenance of stable climate. infectious diseases with which they have little
+ experience.
CLIMATE CHANGE
Warming temperatures, more extreme storms, Direct incursions of people into wildlife habitat
hydrologic extremes, sea-level rise. - bush meat hunting – unsustainable hunting for
= consumption and trade of wild meat. The handling,
NEGATIVE HEALTH OUTCOMES slaughtering, and consuming wild animal species, is
- Population not approaching vulnerability threshold for such an incursion.
resource constraint Ex: Bush meat hunters who reported direct
- Population can replace locally damaged ecosystem contact with blood or body fluid of nonhuman primates
services with regional/Global ecosystem services have contracted simian foamy virus, a retrovirus that is
- Population is protected from environmental change by endemic in most Old World primates.
infrastructure/technology
- Population protected by learned or culturally Settlement and extension of agricultural land into
determined behaviors wildlife habitat
- Philanthropic safety net protects population - transmission of pathogens appears to be related to
other actors including population growth, forest
Lesson 2 – Changes in Exposure Pathways fragmentation, crop raising, interaction with
domesticated animals.
Global change is also altering routes of infectious - direct interaction of people and wildlife through
disease exposure. Some of these new farming, land clearing, scientific research, ecotourism,
exposurepathwayshavelittletodowithchangesinthenatur or conservation activities.
alworld—suchasincreases in trade and transportation
that facilitate the rapid movement of disease-related Urbanization
organisms around the globe. - serves as an important land-use trend and dominant
demographic trend of the 21st century.
MECHANISMS OF ALTERED INFECTIOUS DISEASE Ex: piles of waste, pools of contaminated water
EXPOSURE RESULTING FROM ENVIRONMENTAL like in old tires that are capable pf holding water, all
CHANGE create an excellent habitat for a variety of rodents hosts
and arthropod vectors.
Mechanism by
which Diseases Altering the fate or transport of disease pathogens
environmental known to be - the fate and transport of pathogens associated with
change alters Examples impacted by waterborne disease are impacted by both climate and
disease this land-use change
transmission mechanism Ex: warmer temperature in Europe correlate
with the increased incidence of food poisoning. Warmer
Changes in - Incursions into Malaria, temperatures allow the pathogen to survive and multiple
exposure wildlife habitat trypanosomiasis, in high numbers.
pathways can lead to new cryptosporidiosis,
exposure to giardiasis, Ebola,
zoonotic disease simian
Lesson 3 – Genetic Alteration
as seen in Ebola, retroviruses,
simian human
retroviruses, and immunodeficiency Genes was first described as an element of
human syndrome, heredity. This was first observed by Gregor Mendel in
immunodeficiency filariasis, Chagas 1865. His observation led him to conclude that specific
syndrome disease, plague, traits from the pea were passed on unchanged from a
- Dense urban leptospirosis, parent plant to the next generation.
settlements with typhus, diarrheal
poor sanitation, disease, food MENDELIAN GENETICS
waste disposal, or poisoning.
P F1
water treatment
can lead Flower color Purple x white Purple
increased Flower position Axial x terminal Axial
exposure to many Seed color Yellow x green Yellow
diseases – Seed shape Round x Round
diarrheal disease, wrinkled
dengue, and Pod shape Inflated x Inflated
leptospirosis.
constricted
 Pod color Green x yellow Green
Stem length Tall x dwarf Tall
Genes are passed from parents to offspring and
contain the information needed to specify traits. These
are arranged, one after another, on structures called
chromosomes. A chromosome contains a single, long
DNA molecule, only a portion of which corresponds to a
single gene. Humans have approximately 20,000 genes
arranged on their chromosomes.
Genetic alteration is the process of modification
of genetic makeup of any living organisms. This can
happen by controlled or selective breeding of plants,
animals and other living organisms. Modern
biotechnology has made it easier and faster to target a
specific gene for more-precise alteration of the
organism through genetic engineering. Through time
and advancing technology, alterations in the genetic
makeup of an individual is now feasible and fast.
THEN
Around 30,000 years ago “selective breeding” or
“artificial selection” happened already. It is a
phenomenon wherein organisms were carefully
selected based on the their most desired traits and
mating them with the intention of combining and
propagating these traits through their offspring.
Repeated use of this practice over many generations
can result in dramatic genetic changes to a species.
Ex: Mastiff (Large and strong but slow and not
aggressive) + Bulldog (aggressive and quick but small)
= BULLMASTIFF
In 1973, Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen
worked together to engineer the first successful
genetically engineered(GE) organism. They developed
a method to very specifically cut out a gene from one
organism and paste it into another. Using this method,
they were able to combine the gene that encodes
antibiotic resistance from one strain of bacteria into
another. A year after that discovery, Rudolf Jaenisch
and Beatrice Mintz utilized a similar procedure in
animals, introducing foreign DNA into mouse embryos.
This new technology opened up countless avenues of
research possibilities. However, there were various
concerns that were raised. Few of these were concerns
related to the effect on human health and ecosystem.
But despite the concerns, various experiments were still
pushed through.
NOW
Genetic engineering technology is quickly advancing.
Researchers have recently developed a new
technology called CRISPR, which takes advantage of
bacterial systems to simplify genetic editing, allowing for
easier development of genetically engineered
organisms. This technology could be used to expedite
development of useful genetically engineered crops,
facilitate disease elimination, cosmetic interventions, or
even alter entire ecosystems.
TIMELINE: How genetic modification developed
through time.
30,000 BCE
- Artificial selection of wolves began
7,800 BCE
- oldest evidence of artificially selected crops
1973
Artificial Selection/Selective Breeding Utilized
- Boyer & Cohen develop GE
1974
- Jaenisch & Mintz create 1st GE animal
(GE Experiment M)
1975
- Asilomar Conference sets guidelines for
future GE experiments
1980
- U.S. Supreme Court allows patenting of GE
organisms
Genetic Engineering Utilized
GE Pharmaceuticals Manufactured
1982
- FDA approves Humulin, the 1st
pharmaceutical manufactured using GE
technology
1992
- FLAVR SAVR Tomatoes become 1st GE
food crop approved by U.S. Department of
GE Food Consumed
Agriculture
1995
- US EPA approves the 1st insecticide-
producing crop
1996
- Herbicide-resistant crops 1st introduced
2000
-Golden Rice engineered to mitigate vitamin
A deficiency
2009
- The pharmaceutical; ATryn becomes the
1st biological produced by a GE animal to be approved by the
US FDA.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS VS
ECOSYSTEM
Genetically modified organisms are often
introduced in the environment with good intention.
However, there are risks that would cause a huge
damage in our environment. One is biodiversity loss. An
example of this is the expansion of GM herbicide-
tolerant corn and soy, which are twinned with
herbicides, has destroyed much of the habitat of the
monarch butterfly in North America. Another
environmental risk is pleiotropy. It happens when one
gene influence two or more seemingly unrelated
phenotypic (observable) traits. An example of this is a
GM maize in 2008, wherein it had an unpredicted
appearance of a new.
Lesson 4 – Changes in Life Cycle of Vectors or
Pathogens
The developmental stages that occur during an
organism's lifetime is called LIFE CYCLE. Various
organisms have various developmental stages. The
major features of life cycle are analyzed based on the
various ecological factors such as development,
reproduction, and survival.
VECTOR are organisms that are capable transmitting
infectious disease pathogens among organism,
between humans and animals. Species like mosquito is Flow of Genetic Pathogen Life
one of the most common vector. According to the WHO,
diseases spread by mosquitoes are considered to be a Host stage → Non-host stage→ Acquisition by
serious public health problem. Selection favors Increased novel host
traits that result in survival rates Barriers include
Zika – most people infected by Zika virus do not develop increased during this exposure to novel
symptoms. However, the virus can cause devastating pathogen phase, or use of hosts and
birth defects if it infects a pregnant woman. numbers being a vector are capacity to
West Nile Fever – 1 in 5 people infected with the virus exposed to naïve theorized to colonize.
will develop a fever with a headache, joint pain or rash. hosts. Ex. support higher
Increased
The virus 1st emerged in the Western Hemisphere in virulence.
shedding
1999 in New York and has since spread across the U.S.
(coughing) and
Yellow Fever – found in tropical and subtropical areas
overall increases
which has re-emerged despite of the existence of
in pathogen
vaccines. burden in the
Dengue Fever – it occurs mostly in tropical and host.
subtropical areas and causes headache, severe joint
pain, nausea, and fever.
Chikungunya – causes fever and joint pain, which can Host species A ↗ ↖Host species B
be severe and lasting. Large outbreaks have occurred.
Malaria – controls efforts have reduced the burden of Exit from novel
malaria, but there were still 214 million cases of this host.
parasitic disease in 2016 and 438,000 deaths, mostly Barrier to endemicity.
among African children. Once overcome may
also impact host
PATHOGEN are organisms that causes diseases. species A.
These are also called as infectious agent, which can
infect all organisms that belongs to biological kingdom.
There are different types of pathogens, few of these are ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE VS LIFE CYCLE
virus, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Organisms’ development and environmental
factors go hand in hand. Changes in the environmental
Vector-borne Disease - (VBD) are illnesses that are factors can also create a change in the life cycle of all
transmitted by vectors. These vectors are the carrier of types of organisms since development responds to
pathogens which can be transferred from one host to constantly changing environments.
another. According to the World Health Organization, One of the biggest contributions in the changes
there are two types of VBD transmission, these are in our environment is climate change. Increase in
Anthroponotic Infections and Zoonotic Infections. temperature can cause a change in the life cycle of
pathogens and their vectors. Early researchers found
that when temperatures are higher, vector development
Anthroponotic Infections speeds up, with faster completion of life cycles. With
Vector ← Humans ← Vector that, transmission of various pathogens can also spread
↓-----→ Humans ←------↓ fast.
Malaria, dengue, yellow fever
Anopheles, a mosquito that carries a parasite that
causes malaria, proliferates when there’s an increase in
Zoonotic Infections
temperature, rainfall, and humidity at higher altitudes,
Humans← Vector ← Animals ← Vector
resulting in an increase in malaria transmission.
↓→ Animals ←------↓
Lyme disease, hanta viral disease, most arboviral disease (WNV)

Lesson 5 – Changing Species Composition

The life cycle of pathogens depends on the
transmission of it from one host to another. In order for
a disease to develop, a pathogen must be present and
successfully invade a host tissues and cells. The chain
of events involved in disease development includes
inoculation, penetration, infection, incubation,
reproduction, and survival.
Species diversity refers to variation among
species. High species diversity tends to mean that an
area is healthier than when there is low species
diversity. Which means that an ecosystem is likely to
survive in terms of changing environmental conditions
as well as to respond to natural selection.
Throughout human existence, biodiversity has
faithfully provided us with enormous economic, medical
and social benefits as well as many other natural
services. And if biodiversity is threatened, natural
services are also threatened. And this is not a secret to
us, human activities have threatened the richness of
biodiversity in our environment.
Due to human activities such as urbanization,
farming, fishing, deforestation, mining, etc. The species
composition in the environment has change. With the
increase of human population, rapid over-exploitation of
natural resources followed, depleting the number of
species in a vast land area, example, a plantation of a
certain plant species.

It will lead to biodiversity loss. Biodiversity loss

can have significant direct human health impacts if
ecosystem services are no longer adequate to meet
social needs. Indirectly, changes in ecosystem services
affect livelihoods, income, local migration and, on
occasion, may even cause political conflict.
For an instance, biophysical diversity of
microorganisms, flora and fauna provides extensive
knowledge which carry important benefits for biological,
health, and pharmacological sciences. Significant
medical and pharmacological discoveries are made
through greater understanding of the earth's
biodiversity. Loss in biodiversity may limit discovery of
potential treatments for many diseases and health
problems.
Human activities are disturbing both the
structure and functions of ecosystems and altering
native biodiversity. Such disturbances reduce the
abundance of some organisms, cause population
growth in others, modify the interactions among
organisms, and alter the interactions between
organisms and their physical and chemical
environments. Patterns of infectious diseases are
sensitive to these disturbances. Major processes
affecting infectious disease reservoirs and transmission
include, deforestation; land-use change; water
management; migration and international travel and
trade; and the accidental or intentional human
introduction of pathogens.

As we see this coming, our government take some

solution to mitigate the impact of loss of biodiversity
such as follows:
Government restrictions and policies – through the
legislative branch together with DENR, our government
crafter laws and policies to protect the environment.

Education–awareness has been incorporated in

curriculum. LGUs were tasked to educate their localities
how to protect the environment.

Protection of species and Protection of habitats–

comprehensive policies for the protected areas were
crafted.

Stop deforestation –strict implementation of laws.

Prevent over hunting and overfishing –task force

was created to oversee the implementation of laws
against over hunting and over fishing.

Stop pollution –adapting the ideas of green technology

is being gradually Implemented e.g. eliminating diesel
jeepneys in larger cities.
MODULE 4 – ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, FOOD, Untreated effluents containing chemicals and
AND NUTRITION fibers from industrial washing processes, are dumped
Lesson 1 – Water and Sanitation into the river system. Other problems can arise when
poorly managed water and sanitation infrastructure
The evidence is increasing of the potential risks flood and over-saturate soils. Puddles and pools
to water and sanitation services posed by climate become a breeding ground for disease-carrying insects,
change. There are multiple risks derived from both or feces can end up in the soil and lead to intestinal
changes in precipitation and increases in temperature, worm infections.
which relate to damage to infrastructure leading to the Feces remain one of the world’s most
loss of services and environmental contamination and hazardous pollutants, and constitute a major threat to
to deterioration in water quality, impacts that will human health. Poor waste management, a lack of
increase risks to health. It is clear that these risks are sanitation and contamination of watercourses — all
widespread, affecting both poor and rich countries, and problems linked to poverty — are just some of the ways
countries in temperate and tropical environments. in which feces can enter the environment and cause
There is good evidence that impacts on water and disease. If sanitation is inadequate, there will be more
sanitation services from climate change will lead to feces in areas where people live and work, from where
direct impacts on health. This is primarily derived from it can travel — via fingers, food, fluids and flies — into
infectious disease, particularly diarrhea, but there is mouths. If drinking water is contaminated, people will
some evidence that non-communicable disease risks take it in directly. And if there isn’t enough water for
will also increase. washing, it is far harder to keep food and hands clean
Water and sanitation are environmental issues enough to interrupt transmission.
to their very core, and together constitute one of the top
drivers of development. Managing water supplies so Improved living environments for the rural and
they become neither depleted nor polluted, and urban poor could prevent most of this. In recent
providing good sanitation, are central to the health of decades’ mortality rates for children with diarrheal
communities and the environment on which they diseases have fallen because of better oral rehydration
depend. Poor water and sanitation provision can affect therapy. But it is prevention — via cleaner water, better
entire communities: one person’s bad sanitation is sanitation and hygiene — that has proven to be the
others’ contaminated food or water. Even piped most effective way of blocking transmission routes.
systems, if poorly managed, can concentrate any
“downstream” problems — such as pollution in rivers, Diseases related to water and sanitation endemic:
lakes and seas — and further degrade wildlife habitats
and contribute to human health problems. Where water Group Disease Route Route of
and sanitation deficiencies are severe, there are likely leaving infection
to be a range of serious public health hazards. host
Disease Cholera Feces Oral
Water and sanitation matter to the environment which are Typhoid Feces/Urine Oral
often water- Infectious Feces Oral
because: borne hepatitis
- Water is a finite although renewable resource that Giardiasis Feces Oral
needs careful management to meet the basic needs of Amoebiasis Feces Oral
populations while respecting the needs of the Dracunuliasis Cutaneous Cutaneous
environment. Diseases Bacillary Feces Oral
- Water and sanitation provision have an impact on the which are dysentery
health of the environment, through downstream often Enteroviral Feces Oral
pollution in particular. associated diarrhea
with poor Paratyphoid Feces Oral
- Water stress and scarcity are likely to intensify in the hygiene fever
future, particularly in developing countries vulnerable to Pinworm Anal Oral
the impacts of climate change. (enterobius)
- Good environmental management is critical to the Amoebiasis Feces Oral
Scabies Cutaneous Cutaneous
success of water and sanitation programs where waste Skin sepsis Cutaneous Cutaneous
treatment relies heavily on natural processes. Lice and typhus Bite Bite
- Risks to service delivery caused by flooding, erosion, Trachoma Cutaneous Cutaneous
depleted or polluted water resources and soil pollution Conjunctivitis Cutaneous Cutaneous
can be mitigated through sustainable management of Diseases Ascariasis Feces Oral
the natural environment. which are Trichuriasis Feces Oral
often related Hookworm Feces Oral
It’s supremely ironic that water — the source of to inadequate (Ancylostoma/
sanitation Necator
life — is also the ideal breeding ground or vehicle for
some of the most devastating diseases known, if correct Diseases schistosomiasis Feces/ urine Oral/
environmental management techniques are not with part of percutaneous
employed. Because water flows downstream, whatever life cycle of
parasite in
happens to it as it makes that journey will determine the
water
quantity and quality available for human use. Diseases Dracunculiasis Cutaneous Cutaneous
Wastewater disposal or sanitation practices can with vectors
introduce pollutants into water used for bathing, passing part
washing or fishing. of their life
cycle in water
Lesson 2 – Natural Disaster
Natural disasters are catastrophic events with
atmospheric, geological, and hydrological origins.
Example of these are droughts, earthquakes, floods,
hurricanes, and landslides. These disasters often
create damages, like fatalities, injuries, diseases, and
other negative physical and mental health effects.
Natural disasters also result in social grievances,
scarcity of resources, and migration of people.
Types of Natural Disasters:
The Philippines is highly vulnerable to natural
hazards because of its geographic location. There are
various types of natural disasters. In the Philippines, the
common natural disasters are typhoons, earthquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and fires.
Volcanic Eruption – occur when magma is
Avalanche
Hurricane
Heat Wave
Drought
Landslide
Tornado
Flood
Blizzard
Wildfire
EFFECTS OF NATURAL DISASTERS
The aftermath of natural disasters gives an
additional problem to the community or even
government. It disrupts the lives of the people by
displacements, destruction of livelihoods and property,
deaths, and injuries. Other than that, it also has a huge
impact in the environment.
IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTERS IN AN
INDIVIDUAL
The impact of natural disaster in an individual
level can often be felt physically, mentally, and
emotionally. Natural disaster does not just cause
physical injury and destruction of property; it also
causes loss of resources. And because of that, it usually
leads to population migration.
IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTER ON A
COMMUNITY
Every time a natural disaster hits, communities
usually loose so much in economic resources.
Establishments and houses are damaged. Recovery in
a community becomes difficult. However, there are
some communities who find an opportunity to rebuild
their community after the disastrous event. There are
also times that a certain percentage on the population
will migrate or forced to migrate to a place where people
feel safe and secured. Often times, people migrate
to urbanized area where livelihood, clean water, and
food source is available.
IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTER ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
Natural disasters have positive and negative
impacts in our environment, it can either totally destroy
the environment or reconstruct it after the disastrous
event. Natural disasters can defoliate the forest, destroy
the habitat of various species, cause erosion in
riverbanks, and a whole lot of more. In an urban
landscape, infrastructures and homes can also be
damaged. Despite the damages that it causes the
environment, natural disasters are not just considered
as endings, but also beginnings. A second chance to
begin again and reconstruct the surrounding to avoid
the same disastrous event from happening.
IMPACT OF NATURAL DISASTER ON FOOD
PRODUCTION
Agriculture is greatly affected by natural
disasters. It has an effect on livelihoods and food
security. According to a study done in 2015, droughts
have caused a great loss and damage, and 80% of it
affected the agriculture sector, especially the livestock
and crop production. Floods also have caused more
than half of the total damage and loss to crops. The
fisheries were overwhelmingly affected by tsunamis and
storms such as hurricanes and cyclones. The study
clearly depicts that natural hazards, specifically those
extreme weather events, regularly impacts the
agriculture and hamper the eradication of hunger,
poverty and the achievement of sustainable
development.
Lesson 3 – Population Displacement
Human activities have led to environmental
changes. These changes can directly or indirectly affect
the people in that particular environment. The changing
environment is expected to cause more heat stress;
increase in waterborne diseases; poor air quality; and
diseases transmitted by insects. With the sky rocketing
human population, we expect that the demand for food,
water and energy will increase. People will always find
ways to purchase these commercialized needs. Finding
the power to purchase these needs makes the people
migrate to Metropolitan and cities. Another factor that
can influence human migration is the effect of climate
change which is a result of human activities. Example
of these effects are increasing drought, frequent heavy
rainfall which contributes to flooding, sea-level rise,
abnormal high/low temperatures, etc. These effects
may lead to population displacement which can be
categorized in three ways:
• Those temporarily displaced but will likely
return to their original habitat;
• Those permanently displaced because of
permanent changes to their Habitat, and;
• Those who are permanently displaced
desiring to improved their quality of life because their
original habitat can no longer provide their basic
needs.
As people move from one to place to another,
health and lifestyle are deteriorating. Environmental
disasters such as drought and flood have led people to
suffer from severe lack of food and water. The health of
the population deteriorated due to severe food
insecurity and even acute watery diarrhea
(AWD)/cholera outbreaks in some countries. Due to
transitional settlement, displaced population tend to find
livelihood in order to obtain the resources they need,
which definitely change their lifestyle compared to their
previous settlement.
ENVIRONMENTAL DISEASES FROM A TO Z
The air, the water, the sun, the dust,
plants and animals, and the chemicals and
metals of our world... they support life. They make
it beautiful and fun. But, as wonderful as they are...
they can also make some people sick.
ALLERGIES AND ASTHMA (AZ-ma)
Slightly more than half of the 300 million
people living in the U.S. are sensitive to one or more
allergens. They sneeze, their noses run and their
eyes itch from pollen, dust and other substances.
Some suffer sudden attacks that leave them
breathless and gasping for air. This is allergic
asthma.
Asthma attacks often occur after periods of
heavy exercise or during sudden changes in the
weather. Some can be triggered by pollutant and
other chemicals in the air and in the home. Doctors
can test to find out which substances are causing
reactions. They can also prescribe drugs to relieve
the symptoms.
*Prevalence of Positive Skin Test Responses to 10 Common
Allergens in the U.S. Population: Results from the Third National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey” Jour. Allergy Clinical
Immunol. August 2005
BIRTH DEFECTS
Sometimes, when pregnant women are
exposed to chemicals or drink a lot of alcohol,
harmful substances reach the fetus. Some of these
babies are born with an organ, tissue or body part
that has not developed in a normal way. Aspirin and
cigarette smoking can also cause birth problems.
Birth defects are the leading cause of death for
infants during the first year of life. * Many of these
could be prevented.
*National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
CANCER
Cancer occurs when a cell or group of cells
begins to multiply more rapidly than normal. As the
cancer cells spread, they affect nearby organs and
tissues in the body. Eventually, the organs are not
able to perform their normal functions. Cancer is
the second leading cause of death in the U.S.,
causing more than 500,000 deaths each year. *
Some cancers are caused by substances in the
environment: cigarette smoke, asbestos, radiation,
natural and manmade chemicals, alcohol, and
sunlight. People can reduce their risk of getting
cancer by limiting their exposure to these harmful
agents.
*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Office of Minority
Health.
DERMATITIS
Dermatitis is a fancy name for inflamed,
irritated skin. Many of us have experienced the
oozing bumps and itching caused by poison ivy, oak
and sumac. Some chemicals found in paints,
dyes, cosmetics and detergents can also cause
rashes and blisters. Too much wind and sun make
the skin dry and chapped. Fabrics, foods, and
certain medications can cause unusual reactions
in some individuals. People can protect themselves
from poison ivy by following a simple rule:”
Leaves of three, leave them be. “Smart folks know
their poisons.
EMPHYSEMA
Air pollution and cigarette smoke can break
down sensitive tissue in the lungs. Once this
happens, the lungs cannot expand and contract
properly. This condition is emphysema. About 2
million Americans have this disease. For these
people, each breath is hard work. Even moderate
exercise is difficult. Some emphysema patients
must breathe from tanks of oxygen.
FERTILITY PROBLEMS
Fertility is the ability to produce children.
However, one in eight couples has a problem.
However, more than 10 percent of couples cannot
conceive after one year of trying to become
pregnant. * Infertility can be caused by infections
that come from sexual diseases or from exposure to
chemicals on the job or elsewhere in the
environment. Researchers at The National Institute
of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) have
shown that too much caffeine in the diet can
temporarily reduce a woman’s fertility. NIEHS
scientists have also pinpointed the days when a
woman is likely to be fertile.
*National Library of Medicine’s Medline Plus.
GOITER
Sometimes people don’t get enough iodine
from the foods they eat. This can cause a small
gland called the thyroid to grow larger. The thyroid
can become so large that it looks like a baseball
sticking out of the front of your neck. This is called
goiter. Since the thyroid controls basic functions
like growth and energy, goiter can produce a wide
range of effects. Some goiter patients are unusually
restless and nervous. Others tend to be sluggish
and lethargic. Goiter became rare after public
health officials decided that iodine should be added
to salt.
HEART DISEASE
Heart disease is the leading cause of death
in the United States and is a major cause of
disability. Almost 700,000 Americans die of heart
disease each year. * While these may be due in
part to poor eating habits and/or lack of exercise,
environmental chemicals also play a role. While
most chemicals that enter the body are broken
down into harmless substances by the liver, some
are converted into particles called free radicals that
can react with proteins in the blood to form fatty
deposits called plaques, which can clog blood
vessels. A blockage can cut off the flow of blood to
the heart, causing a heart attack.

*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
The immune system fights germs, viruses
and poisons that attack the body. It is composed of
white blood cells and other warrior cells. When a
foreign particle enters the body, these cells
surround and destroy this “enemy.” We have all
heard of AIDS and the harm it does to the immune
system. Some chemicals and drugs can also
weaken the immune system by damaging its
specialized cells. When this occurs, the body is
more vulnerable to diseases and infections.
JOB-RELATED ILLNESSES
Every job has certain hazards. Even a
writer can get a paper cut. But did you know that
about 137 workers die from job-related diseases
every day? This is more than eight times the
number people of who die from job-related
accidents. Many of these illnesses are caused by
chemicals and other agents present in the
workplace. Factories and scientific laboratories can
contain poisonous chemicals, dyes and metals.
Doctors and other health workers have to work with
radiation. People who work in airports or play in
rock concerts can suffer hearing loss from loud
noise. Some jobs involve extreme heat or cold.
Workers can protect themselves from hazards by
wearing special suits and using goggles, gloves, ear
plugs, and other equipment.
KIDNEY DISEASES
About 7.5 million adults have some
evidence of chronic kidney disease. * These
diseases range from simple infections to total
kidney failure. People with kidney failure cannot
remove wastes and poisons from their blood. They
depend on expensive kidney machines in order to
stay alive. Some chemicals found in the
environment can produce kidney damage. Some
nonprescription drugs, when taken too often, can
also cause kidney problems. Be sure to read the
label and use drugs as directed.
*National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information
Clearinghouse.
LEAD POISONING
Sometimes, infants and children will pick up
and eat paint chips and other objects that contain
lead. Lead dust, fumes and lead-contaminated
water can also introduce lead into the body. Lead
can damage the brain, kidneys, liver, and other
organs. Severe lead poisoning can produce
headaches, cramps, convulsions, and even death.
Even small amounts can cause learning problems
and changes in behavior. Doctors can test for lead
in the blood and recommend ways to reduce further
exposure.
MERCURY POISONING
Mercury is a silvery metal that is extremely
poisonous. Very small amounts can damage the
kidneys, liver and brain. Years ago, workers in hat
factories were poisoned by breathing the fumes
from mercury used to shape the hats. Remember
the “Mad Hatter” in Alice in Wonderland? Today,
mercury exposure usually results from eating
contaminated fish and other foods that contain
small amounts of mercury compounds. Since the
body cannot get rid of mercury, it gradually builds
up inside the tissues. If it is not treated, mercury
poisoning can eventually cause pain, numbness,
weak muscles, loss of vision, paralysis and even
death.
OSTEOPOROSIS
Over 10 million Americans have
osteoporosis, while 18 million others have lost bone
mass and are likely to develop osteoporosis in the
future. * This is called osteoporosis. About 25
million Americans suffer from some kind of bone
thinning. As people get older, back problems
become more common, and bones in the spine, hip
and wrists break more easily. Young people can
lower their chances of getting osteoporosis in later
years by exercising and eating calcium-rich foods
like milk and yogurt.
*Harvard Center for Cancer Prevention.
PNEUMOCONIOSIS
Ordinary house and yard dusts do not pose
a serious health hazard. But some airborne
particles can be very dangerous. These include
fibers from asbestos, cotton and hemp, and dusts
from such compounds as silica, graphite, coal, iron,
and clay. These particles can damage sensitive
areas of the lung, turning healthy tissue into scar
tissue. This condition is called pneumoconiosis, or
black lung. Chest pains and shortness of breath
often progress to bronchitis, emphysema, and/or
early death. Proper ventilation and the use of
protective masks can greatly reduce the risk of lung
disease.
QUEENSLAND FEVER
People do not usually get diseases from
farm animals. However, those who work with hides
and animal products can get sick from breathing the
infected dust around them. This illness is called
Queensland fever because it was first discovered
among cattle ranchers and dairy farmers in
Queensland, Australia. It is caused by a tiny
organism that infects livestock and then spreads to
the milk and feces. Symptoms include fever, chills,
and muscle aches and pains. Researchers have
developed vaccines to protect livestock workers
from this illness.
REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS
Beginning in the late 1940’s, many women
who were in danger of losing their unborn babies
were prescribed a synthetic female hormone called
DES (diethylstilbestrol). In 1971, scientists
discovered that some of the daughters of these
women were developing a very rare cancer of the
reproductive organs. Since then, the use of DES
and other synthetic hormones during pregnancy
has been discontinued. NIEHS and other agencies
are studying the possibility that some natural
chemicals and man-made pesticides may cause
similar problems. They are finding that some of
these chemicals are so similar to female estrogen
that they may actually” mimic “this important
hormone. As a result, they may interfere with the
development of male and female reproductive
organs. This can lead to an increased risk of early
puberty, low sperm counts, ovarian cysts, and
cancer of the breast or testicles.
SUNBURN AND SKIN CANCER
Almost everyone has stayed in the sun too
long and been burned. Too much sunlight can also
produce the most common type of cancer—skin
cancer. Some skin cancers are easy to treat
because they do not spread beyond the
surrounding tissue. Others, like melanoma, are
much more dangerous because they spread to
other parts of the body. Deaths due to melanoma
are increasing by 4 percent each year. More than
7,800 people died from melanomas of the skin in
2003. *
*Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
TOOTH DECAY
In the 1930’s, health experts noticed that
people who lived in areas where the water
contained natural chemicals called fluorides had
fewer cavities. Today, all U.S. residents are
exposed to fluoride to some degree, and its use has
resulted in a significant decline in tooth decay.
National surveys report that the incidence of tooth
decay among children 12 to 17 years of age has
declined from 90 percent in 1971 to 67 percent in
1988. Dentists can also protect young teeth by
applying special coatings called sealants.
Report titled “Recommendations for Using Fluoride to Prevent
and Control Dental Caries in the U.S.” from Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention.
URANIUM POISONING
Uranium is a dangerous element because it
is radioactive. This means it gives off high-energy
particles that can go through the body and damage
living tissue. A single high dose of radiation can kill.
Small doses over a long period can also be harmful.
For example, miners who are exposed to uranium
dust are more likely to get lung cancer. Uranium
poisoning can also damage the kidneys and
interfere with the body’s ability to fight infection.
While most people will never come in contact with
uranium, those who work with medical x-rays or
radioactive compounds are also at risk. They should
wear lead shields and follow recommended safety
guidelines to protect themselves from unnecessary
exposure.
VISION PROBLEMS
Our eyes are especially sensitive to the
environment. Gases found in polluted air can
irritate the eyes and produce a burning sensation.
Tiny particles from smoke and soot can also cause
redness and itching of the eyes. Airborne
organisms like molds and fungus can cause
infections of the eyes and eyelids. Too much
exposure to the sun’s rays can eventually produce
a clouding of the lens called a cataract.
WATERBORNE DISEASES
Even our clearest streams, rivers, and
lakes can contain chemical pollutants. Heavy
metals like lead and mercury can produce severe
organ damage. Some chemicals can interfere with
the development of organs and tissues, causing
birth defects. Others can cause normal cells to
become cancerous. Some of our waterways also
contain human and animal wastes. The bacteria in
the wastes can cause high fever, cramps, vomiting,
and diarrhea.
XERODERMA PIGMENTOSA
Xeroderma is a rare condition that people
inherit from their parents. When these people are
exposed to direct sunlight, their skin breaks out into
tiny dark spots that look like freckles. If this
condition is not treated, the spots can become
cancerous. These areas must then be removed by
a surgeon.
YUSHO POISONING
In 1968, more than one thousand people in
western Japan became seriously ill. They suffered
from fatigue, headache, cough, numbness in the
arms and legs, and unusual skin sores. Pregnant
women later delivered babies with birth defects.
These people had eaten food that was cooked in
contaminated rice oil. Toxic chemicals called PCB’s
(polychlorinated biphenyls) had accidentally leaked
into the oil during the manufacturing process.
Health experts now refer to this illness as” Yusho,”
which means” oil disease.”
For years, PCB’s were widely used in the
manufacturing of paints, plastics and electrical
equipment. When scientists discovered that low
levels of PCB’s could kill fish and other wildlife, their
use was dramatically reduced. By this time, PCB’s
were already leaking into the environment from
waste disposal sites and other sources. Today,
small amounts of these compounds can still be
found in our air, water, soil, and some of the foods
we eat.
ZINC DEFICIENCY/POISONING
Zinc is a mineral that the body needs to
function properly. In rare cases, people can be
poisoned if there is too much zinc in their food or
water. However, most people can take in large
quantities without any harmful effects. In areas
where nutrition is a problem, people may not get
enough zinc from their diet. This can lead to
retarded growth, hair loss, delayed sexual
maturation, eye and skin lesions, and loss of
appetite. *
*NIH Office of Dietary Supplements.
 Davao del Norte State College
Brgy. New Visayas, Panabo City, Davao del Norte,
Philippines, 8105
+63 824-1001-001
info@dnsc.edu.ph

PORTFOLIO ON CRAFTING AND

ANALYZING TEST
EXAMINATIONS
Group Portfolio

In the Fulfillment of the Requirement in the EDUC 311-Assessment in

Learning 1 for the 1st Semester of 2021-2022

Submitted to:

Ellvan C. Campos

Instructor

Submitted by:

Group 2

BSED SCIENCE 3A

January
2022
 INTRODUCTION

A portfolio is a collection of work samples, self-assessment, and goal statements

from students that demonstrate how far they have progressed. Assessment, on the
other hand, is the process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting students’
data/knowledge. The assessment result will help the student understand their level of
understanding and recognize their strengths and weaknesses as a student. Assessment
is critical in the process of learning and motivation. Students’ approaches to learning
tasks and learning strategies are influenced by the types of assessment activities
assigned to them. According to John Biggs, a higher education professor, “what and
how students learn depends on a large extent on how they believe they will be
assessed”.

A good assessment task can help you understand student learning, break down
learning barriers, and improve your teaching methods. A test or quiz is a method of
testing or examining a student’s knowledge to determine what they know or have
learned. Testing determines how far a student has progressed in terms of recalling,
comprehending, analyzing, and evaluating a subject’s concept. A different test type
inclining Bloom’s taxonomy is used by a teacher to determine a student’s level of
learning. The assessment test format that a teacher use should be based on the
learning objectives, not just the teacher’s personal preference. The main content of this
portfolio is on crafting and analyzing test examinations. First part focuses on the chosen
learning competencies which guides us in crafting the second part, which is the Table of
Specification (TOS) that is needed for the validity of the test and distribute the items into
the different levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Third part is he Test Questionnaire where we
utilize the Multiple-Choice type of test, inclining to Bloom’s Taxonomy which is effective
to test the learners’ level of knowledge. Fourth part is the fully answered test
questionnaires by the first years of DNSCs’ BSEd Science, where we arranged the
score from highest to lowest. The fifth and the sixth part is the fully filled out item
analysis table and computed statistical values, respectively, where we have to give
interpretations of the computed item values. And the last part is the test of reliability,
which tests the reliability and stableness of the questions presented and being
computed. The purpose of this portfolio is to introduce an example to the students who
crafted and analyzed the test examinations.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This project bears the synergy of different source of inspiration and

encouragement for the development and fulfillment of this group project
As the collaborative workers of this paper, we are glad to express our sincerest
gratitude to our Professor in EDUC 311- Assessment in Learning 1, Sir Elvan Campos,
for bestowing his knowledge and proficiency in this subject which greatly molded our
content knowledge and prepared us to the reality of the world of teaching. With honor, in
return to the effort and unrelenting endeavor of our professor, we express our thanks to
his role as a teacher and as our mentor, because undoubtedly, we acquired not just
learning, but skills from his expertise in service.
Next in line who deserve our extreme gratefulness are our precious families who
supported us throughout our college journey, specifically, in this discipline for their
unrelenting support and for their effort that we know we cannot repay. We also thank
them for the emotional care and financial provision that kept us steadfast as we work on
this group project.
We would also like to gratify our groupmates, classmates, friends, relatives, and
all those significant others who helped and expressed their support in convertible ways
from joy and validation of all the questions and suggestions, by which in simple way had
encouraged us to fulfill this project.
Above everything else, we would like to express our thanks and adoration to our
God, The Father, for the knowledge and wisdom, favor and blessings that gave us the
faith to pursue and be optimistic in accomplishing this paper. We also thank God for the
strength renewed every single day for despite sleepless night, we are still good and
blessed beyond measure.
All in all, we extend our sincere acknowledgment to all who had been part in
accomplishing this portfolio in this favored milestone.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE i
INTRODUCTION ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

PART I – Chosen Learning Competencies 1

PART II – Table of Specifications 3
PART III – Test Questionnaire 5
PART IV – Test Results 14
PART V – Item Analysis 16
PART VI – Computed Statistical Values with Interpretation 22
PART VII – Test of Reliability 32

APPENDICES 36
Appendix 1 37
Appendix 2 406

CURRICULUM VITAE 415

iv
 PART I –
Chosen Learning
Competencies
 SCIENCE 8 – LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Fourth Quarter

Learning Competency Code

A. Structures and Functions: Focus on the Digestive System

explain ingestion, absorption, assimilation, S8LT-IVa13

and excretion

explain how diseases of the digestive S8LT-IVb14

system are prevented, detected, and treated

identify healthful practices that affect the S8LT-IVc15

digestive system

B. Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

compare mitosis and meiosis, and their role S8LT-IVd16

in the cell-division cycle

explain the significance of meiosis in S8LT-IVe17

maintaining the chromosome number

predict phenotypic expressions of traits S8LT-IVf18

following simple patterns of inheritance

C. Biodiversity

explain the concept of a species S8LT-IVg19

classify organisms using the hierarchical S8LT-IVh20

taxonomic system

explain the advantage of high biodiversity in S8LT-IVh21

maintaining the stability of an ecosystem

D. Ecosystems

describe the transfer of energy through the S8LT-IVi22

trophic levels

analyze the roles of organisms in the cycling S8LT-IVi23

of materials

explain how materials cycle in an S8LT-IVi24

ecosystem
suggest ways to minimize human impact on S8LT-IVj25
the environment

2
PART II –
Table of
Specifications
 REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
PANABO NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
S.Y. 2016-2017
TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS FOR SCIENCE 8
FOURTH PERIODICAL EXAMINATION

Time (Hrs) Percentage Learning Competencies/Objectives Level of Cognitive Domain Points

Rem Und App Ana Eva Cre

A. Structures and Functions: Focus on the Digestive System

3 7.5 1. Explain ingestion, absorption, assimilation, and excretion. 2 2 1 5

#1,#2 #19,#20 #49

3 7.5 2. Explain how diseases of the digestive system are prevented, detected, and 2 2 1 5
treated.
#3,#4 #21,#22 #50

3 7.5 3. Identify healthful practices that affect the digestive system. 1 4 5

#5 #23-#26

9 22.5 Total Items 1 4 0 8 2 0 15

B. Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

4 10 1. Compare mitosis and meiosis, and their role in the cell-division cycle. 1 3 1 5

#6 #27-#29 #51

3 7.5 2. Explain the significance of meiosis in maintaining the chromosome number. 1 2 1 1 5

#7 #30,#31 #52 #54

3 7.5 3. Predict phenotypic expressions of traits following simple patterns of inheritance. 1 3 1 5

#8 #32-#34 #53

10 25 Total Items 0 3 3 5 3 1 15
C. Biodiversity

3 7.5 1. Explain the concept of a species. 1 2 1 1 5

#9 #35,#36 #55 #56

3 7.5 2. Classify organisms using the hierarchical taxonomic system. 1 2 2 5

#10 #37-#38 #39-#40

3 7.5 3. Explain the advantage of high biodiversity in maintaining the stability of an 2 1 1 4

ecosystem.
#11,#12 #41 #57

9 22.5 Total Items 0 4 2 5 2 1 14

D. Ecosystems

3 7.5 1. Describe the transfer of energy through the trophic levels. 2 2 4

#13,#14 #15,#16

3 7.5 2. Analyze the roles of organisms in the cycling of materials. 4 4

#42-#45

3 7.5 3. Explain how materials cycle in an ecosystem; and 2 2 4

#17,#18 #58,#59

3 7.5 4. Suggest ways to minimize human impact on the environment. 1 2 1 4

#46 #47,#48 #60

12 30 Total Items 2 4 1 6 2 1 16
40 100 GRAND TOTAL 3 15 6 24 9 3 60

Items written here are excluded for printing the TOS. This is for monitoring the
consistency of the values in the TOS.
Encode here.
# of Hours Spent in the Quarter: 40
# of Points of the Exam: 60
Note: The values you encoded on the gray cells should
equate to the computed values in the TOS.
Remembering and Understanding 30
Applying and Analyzing 50
Evaluating and Creating 20

Note: The first cell should be more or less 30%, the

second should be more or less 50%, and the third should
be more or less 20%.

Prepared by:
GROUP TWO
Grade 8 Teachers

4
 PART III –
Test Questionnaire
 Department of Education
Region XI
Division of Panabo City
PANABO CITY NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
Gredu, Panabo City

FOURTH PERIODICAL EXAMINATION

SCIENCE 8

Name: Date: Score: /60

MULTIPLE CHOICE
General Instructions: Read the following questions and provide the CAPITAL letter of your answer
before the number.

1. Why food must be masticated or chewed before swallowed?

i. To make it easier to absorb nutrient?
ii. To allow a more efficient break down by enzymes.
iii. To prepare for digestion.
A. i and ii only C. i and iii only
B. ii and iii only D. i, ii, and iii

2. Why saliva plays an important role in 4 stages of digestion?

A. It moistens and lubricates the food.
B. It allows chemical digestion of starches to begin.
C. It allows food from the mouth to move into the esophagus.
D. These fluids help to lubricate the partially digested food to emulsify fats and oils.

3. Food poisoning is caused by eating contaminated food. How can it be prevented?

A. Improper storage conditions
B. Putting the food in a dirty container
C. Cooking meat and poultry thoroughly
D. Eating unwashed fruits and vegetables

4. Which of the following describes to help prevent digestive diseases?

A. Bad eating habits.
B. Drink alcoholic beverage.
C. Eat unhealthy foods every day.
D. Avoid raw shellfish if you are not sure the source is a safe one.

5. Which part of the digestive system can we find the incisors?

A. Mouth C. Mouth
B. Small Intestine D. Large Intestine

6. How do you define mitosis and meiosis?

A. Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells and meiosis proves four unique
daughter cells.
B. Mitosis produces unique daughter cells and meiosis produces identical daughter cells.
C. They both produces genetically identical daughter cells.
D. They both produces unique daughter cells.

7. What is the importance of meiosis in chromosome numbers?

A. Produces two identical daughter cells that contains the same number of chromosomes as
their parent cell.
B. Make the number of chromosomes not remain constant in a species across generations.
C. Maintains the constant number of chromosomes by halving the same.
D. Disables organisms to reproduce effectively by sexual reproduction.

6
8. Based on the Punnett square below, a pure red-colored daisy is crossed with a pure white-
colored daisy, and the first three offspring reveal beautiful pink-colored daisies. What will be the
trait of the other offspring?

R R

W RW RW
W RW ?

A. RR B. RW C. WW D. RRWW

9. Which is true about the biological concept of a species?

A. It emphasizes the ability of a species to produce an offspring.
B. It explains the species’ vulnerability to diseases.
C. It emphasizes the ability of a species to survive.
D. It refers to the variety of life in the area.

10. Which of the following shows a correct order of categories based on the taxonomic system of
an organism?
E. Earthworm: Animalia, Annelida, Clitellata, Haplotaxida, Lubricidae, Terrestris, Lubricus
F. Humans: Animalia, Chordata, Mammalia, Primates, Hominida, Homo, Homo sapiens
G. Dog: Animalia, Mammalia, Chordata, Carnivora, Carnidae, Canis, Canis Lupus
H. Plants: Anthophyta, Plantae, Poales, Commelinids, Poaceae, Oryza, O. Sativa

11. What is the main advantage of high biodiversity in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem?
A. Creates balance.
B. Increases total biomass.
C. Resilience of communities and ecosystem.
D. Reduces a natural’s system ability to function.

12. What do you think will happen if the ecosystem is unstable?

A. All endangered species will do extinct.
B. Ecosystem will no longer function.
C. Ecosystem will automatically recover after disturbance.
D. Ecosystem will unable to adjust with environmental changes.

13. What is the other term for consumer?

A. Autotrophs C. Independent
B. Dependent D. Heterotrophs

14. At what trophic level does primary consumer belong?

A. 4th B. 3rd C. 2nd D. 1st

15. How can energy pass from one trophic level to another?
A. When an organism gets energy from the sun and produce their own food in the form of
glucose.
B. When organic molecules from an organism’s body are eaten by another organism.
C. When an organism eats healthy foods.
D. Through lights and oxidation.

16. What is the correct order of energy transfer?

1. Primary consumer 2. Tertiary consumer
3. Producer 4. Secondary consumer
A. 3,2,1,4 B. 1,2,3,4 C. 3,1,4,2 D. 4,2,3,1

17. How can you describe decomposition?

A. It has levels of carbon dioxide may contribute to global warming.
B. It produces a single substance from multiple reactants.
C. It breaks down decaying plants, animals, and waste.
D. It is the process of not breaking down dead tissues.

7
 18. What do you think could when water makes through the water cycle?
A. The water has finished that and moves onto a different cycle.
B. The water stays in the stage at which it finished.
C. The water starts to cycle all over again.
D. The water disappears.

19. What is the difference between absorption and assimilation in terms of digesting food in the
body?
A. Absorption is simply absorbing the food in the body, while assimilation is breaking down
the food.
B. Absorption is the movement of food into cell, while assimilation is making food part of the
cell.
C. Absorption is the same with assimilation, in which they make food move to the cell.
D. Absorption and assimilation do the digestion of food and secreting waste.

20. Absorption and assimilation are biological process that support life. What are the requirements
needed for assimilation but not in absorption?
A. Enzymes to synthesize new molecules. C. Blood capillaries
B. Dissolved nutrients. D. Microvilli

21. After surgery, most patients do not eat solid food yet, but they are fed a glucose or simple sugar
solution by injecting through the veins. Which of the following reasons does NOT support the
statement?
A. Injecting glucose is highly recommended by the doctor to provide energy to their cells and
body.
B. Injecting glucose is orally given to the patient to supply the energy that has been taken
away during surgery.
C. Injecting glucose is encourage in order to avoid indigestion, and other gastrointestinal
related complication.
D. Injecting glucose is given to the patient, it takes some time for the digestive system to
recover and return to its normal functioning after surgery.

22. Sometimes a person can suffer from gallstones, which are crystal of minerals and salts that
form in bile. Why do you think this digestive problem happens?
A. This happens because of a very low intake of calories.
B. This happens because of drinking dairy milk products and coffee.
C. This happens because of eating contaminated raw fish and meats.
D. This happens because of eating high-contained fats, like fish and olive oil.

23. Princess sometimes forget to eat until she felt pain and discomfort in the lower part of her
stomach. It turns out to be ulcer. What should she do during ulcer attacks?
A. Eat lean meats C. Eat high-fiber food
B. Drink plenty of water D. Eat food with probiotics

24. Justine cannot move her bowels and have difficulty moving them out so she consulted a doctor.
It turns out to be constipation. What do you think the doctor would advise to her?
A. Avoid overeating C. Drink enough water
B. Chew her food slowly D. Brush her teeth three times a day

25. Jubileen eats too much and too quickly. While eating, she felt discomfort in her upper part of
abdomen. She had indigestion. What should she do to avoid indigestion?
A. Chew food slowly C. Eat fibrous food
B. Drink plenty of water D. Eat food with probiotics

26. Rick felt discomfort and belching in his abdomen, it is because he is eating quickly and
swallowing large chunks of food without properly chewing. It turns out to be flatulence, what
should he do to avoid flatulence?
A. Exercise daily C. Eat probiotics
B. Drink plenty of water D. Eat meals and snacks slowly and carefully

27. A mouse has a mutation whose sister chromatid cannot separate during cell division. What
phase of mitosis should researchers target to alleviate the condition using drug therapy?
A. Anaphase B. Metaphase C. Prophase D. Telophase

8
 28. Mitosis and meiosis are processes by which animal and plant cells divide. Which statement
best describes the difference between mitosis and meiosis?
A. Meiosis is a multi-step process.
B. Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells.
C. Meiosis is used in the repair of an organism.
D. Mitosis produces genetically identical daughter cells.

29. The homologous chromosomes are positioned in the center of the cell, facing opposite poles,
during metaphase I. This is crucial in determining the genes carried by a gamete. How does the
orientation of homologous chromosomes metaphase I of meiosis contribute to greater variation in
gametes?
A. During metaphase I, homologous chromosomes separate from the spindle fibers and
travel randomly to the daughter cells.
B. During metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes are closely paired and undergo
crossover as the synaptonemal complex develops a lattice around them.
C. Because the homologous chromosomes are not joined at their centromeres,
recombination of material and paternal chromosomes occurs in metaphase I.
D. The random alignment of homologous chromosomes at the metaphase plate ensures that
the chromosomes in the daughter cells have random destination.

30. What inference can you make when the number of chromosomes would experience a two-fold
increase in each generation?
A. increased possibly of having twins C. health problems may occur
B. there is an endangerment of species D. high chance of successful pregnancy

31. The significance of meiosis is that it brings about a reduction in the chromosome number from
a diploid condition to a haploid condition. What is the main difference between haploid and diploid?
A. Diploid contain only one complete chromosome set while haploid has complete set.
B. Diploid refer to the number of complete chromosomes set while haploid contain only one.
C. Haploid refer to two complete set while diploid has one.
D. Diploid and haploid cells contain two complete sets.

32. Enrique with AB blood type mates with Camila with BO blood type. Which of the following is
NOT a possible phenotype for their offspring?
A. A B. B C. AB D. O

33. Perform a dihybrid cross for two individuals. The male has normal blood clotting, but the female
is heterozygote for hemophilia. Both male and female are heterozygous for nose size. Which of
the following is the correct ratio for the females: “normal with large nose: carrier with large nose;
normal with small nose: carrier with small nose”?
A. 16:8:4:1 B. 9:3:3:1 C. 1:1:1:1 D. 1:2:1:2

34. A homozygous dominant male with cleft chin (AA) and bushy eyebrows (aa) has children with
a woman who is heterozygous for both traits. What would be the expected phenotypic ratio of
their children for these traits?
A. 25% cleft chin with bushy eyebrows; 75% cleft chin with fine eyebrows
B. 50% cleft chin with bushy eyebrows; 50% without cleft with fine eyebrows
C. 50% cleft chin with bushy eyebrows; 50% cleft chin with fine eyebrows
D. 100% cleft chin with bushy eyebrows

35. Why is having a way of defining species and distinguishing between them important for the
study of evolution?
A. In the study of evolution, the species is the unit over which change is measured.
B. To know the group of distinct species because divergence can only occur at the species
level.
C. A distinction between species allows scientists to understand the common origin of all
species.
D. A common definition of species allows scientists to agree on all aspects of the theory of
evolution.

9
36. In what situation will hybrid reproduction result in the fusion of two species?
A. Separate species cannot interbreed, so hybrid reproduction does not occur in nature.
B. If two species occupy the same niche in the same area, they can either compete or they
collaborate and reproduce with each other, eventually fusing into a single species.
C. Two species that have recently diverged from each other can reproduce with each other,
creating hybrid individuals that belong to the species of the parents’ common ancestor.
D. If the hybrid offspring are more fit than the parents, reproduction would likely continue
between both species and the hybrids, eventually bringing all organisms under the
umbrella of one species.

37. In a forest, you notice a flying animal. You also notice that it spends the daylight hours hanging
from a cave and has a thin layer of hair. What order of animal is it?

A. Bird B. Fish C. Mammals D. Reptiles

38. A students discovered a spider with a segmented abdomen, long legs, and no sting. He used
the dichotomous key below. What kind of arachnid did discover?

1. a) Segmented Abdomen …………. go to 2

b) Not segmented Abdomen …. …. go to 4
2. a) Abdomen with tail ……………… go to 3
b) Abdomen without tail ………….. go to 5
3. a) Tail with sting ………………….. Scorpion
b) Tail without sting ………………. Whip Scorpion
4. a) Legs longer than body ………… Daddy Long Legs
b) Body longer than legs …………. Wind Scorpion
5. a) With Spines …………………….. Mite
b) Few Spines …………………….. Tick

A. Scorpion C. Whip Scorpion

B. Wind Scorpion D. Daddy Long Legs

39. If you were to find a new primate species, you would name it after the family and then after the
species taxon. What is the error in the sentence?
A. primate B. family C. species D. No error

40. Tyrannosaurus rex is the scientific name for a giant dinosaur. What is the name of the genus
that this dinosaur belongs to?
A. animal B. dinosaur C. rex D. Tyrannosaurus

41. It has been demonstrated that an area’s biodiversity has a significant impact on the ecosystem
stability of the location. What do areas with a lot of species and genetic variety more like to have?
A. cause of spread of disease.
B. excess of wild animals can harm the humans.
C. a more complex ecosystem with a wider range of food webs and biotic interactions.
D. more of animals and plants, hence, the population and living humans can be restricted.

42. Which of the following is an example of respiration?

A. The burning of fossil fuels.
B. Dead plant transfers carbon to the soil.
C. The ocean surface removes carbon from the atmosphere through diffusion.
D. Plants use glucose for food, and carbon is released back into the atmosphere.

43. What is the difference about the phosphorous cycle from water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles?
A. It is not a cycle.
B. It is not needed by organisms.
C. The atmosphere is not involved in the phosphorus cycle.
D. It is not as important as from water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.

44. Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, move carbon through the carbon cycle.
Which other processes also precipitate in the carbon cycle?
i. Chemical process
ii. Biological process
iii. Geochemical process
A. i and ii only C. i and iii only
B. ii and iii only D. i, ii, and iii

10
45. Temperature controls the rate of respiration and changes the amount of organic matter stored
in soil. Based on your knowledge about respiration, would you expect to find more carbon stored
in soil in a cool or warm climate.
A. Cool, because there is less sunlight available which reduces the rate of photosynthesis.
B. Cool, because microbes in the soil are less active as evidences through lower rates of
respiration.
C. Warm, because microbes in the soil have higher rates of respiration which releases more
carbon into the soil.
D. Warm, because sunlight is readily available which means plants increase their rate of
photosynthesis, leading to more carbon produced.

46. In minimizing the human impact on the environment, which of the following should human
observe?
A. Plant trees C. Burn plastic
B. Throw wastes in the ocean. D. Support deforestation

47. Which of the following human activity would be most likely to have positive impact on the
environment?
A. Planting trees to control soil erosion.
B. Throwing of waste chemicals products to open seas.
C. Using high-energy consuming appliances and light bulbs.
D. Clearing forest to make room for urban and suburban development.

48. Why do you think human’s negative impact to environment should be minimized?
A. It should be minimized to avoid flashfloods.
B. It should be minimized because if not, we will all die.
C. It should be minimized to regulate the circulation of the ecosystem to its components.
D. It should be minimized to prevent the world’s increasing temperature and will improve the
essential quality of life.

49. Which among the choices below provides the respective pair of relationship of the given
statements?
Ingestion: Taking food into the mouth;
Absorption: __________________;
Assimilation: _________________;
Excretion: ___________________.

A. Diffusion of food from small intestine into the blood;

Using digested nutrients to make new material;
Removal of undigested water material.
B. Diffusion of food from small intestine into the blood;
Removal of undigested waste material;
Using digested nutrients to make new material.
B. Using digested nutrients to make new material;
Diffusion of food from small intestine into the blood;
Removal of undigested waste material.
C. Using digested nutrients to make new material;
Removal of undigested waste material;
Diffusion of food from small intestine into the blood.

50. Who among the following does NOT show proper practice to avoid having peptic ulcer disease?
A. Aina washes her hands regularly and consumes foods that have been cooked thoroughly.
B. Teressa avoids eating food that can irritate her stomach.
C. Mark avoids smoking cigarettes and other tobacco use.
D. Crisfe regularly uses certain pain medications.

51. Can cell cycle continue if a cell does not copy DNA chromosomes before it divides?
A. Yes, because it will not activate the S phase cyclin but the cell can progress to the G2
phase.
B. Yes, because it can continue but grow uncontrolled which can eventually lead to tumor
formation and cancer.
C. No, because cell may enter a resting state but may resume if dividing conditions improve.
D. No, because if the cell has not properly copied its chromosomes, the cell cycle will not
proceed to the next phase and the cell will undergo cell death.

52. Is it possible for crossing-over not to occur during meiosis?

11
 A. No, because crossing-over allows the daughter cells of meiosis to be genetically unique
from one another.
B. No, because it replicated non-sex cells needed for growth and development.
C. Yes, because crossing-over is a biological occurrence that happens during mitosis.
D. Yes, because if chromosomes pair up, there is no chance for crossing-over.

53. Is it possible that the genotypes of the children will not be seen using a Punnett square?
A. Yes, because it only allows people to see inheritance patterns throughout their family
history.
B. Yes, because it simply uses symbols to represent family members.
C. No, because a Punnett square depicts how the alleles of the parents could mix in
offspring.
D. No, because the data from a Punnett square may be used to identify how specific alleles
are inherited.

54. Typically, a baby is born with 46 chromosomes. As a doctor, how will you best explain to your
apprentice why the newly born baby on your hospital has Down Syndrome? Babies with Down
Syndrome have 47 chromosomes.
A. This error occurs in meiosis when both parents have 24 chromosomes each and reduced
by one chromosome during fertilization.
B. This error occurs in mitosis by which an extra copy of chromosome 21 is contained on the
offspring.
C. This error occurs in meiosis by which an extra copy of chromosome 21 is contained on
the offspring.
D. This error occurs when both parents have 23 chromosomes during fertilization.

55. Is it possible for biodiversity to maintain stability without human intervention?

A. No, because proper education, and by demanding that governments make decisions to
preserve biodiversity, the human population can actually able to sustain life on earth longer.
B. No, because biodiversity is a result of human influence.
C. Yes, because nature can often be surprisingly resilient without the need for human
interventions just by letting nature take its course.
D. Yes, because humans are just pollution to maintaining stability of biodiversity.

56. Species are groups of potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated
from other such groups. Some of it are facing a very high risk of extinction. As a human what can
you do to safeguard the lives of endangered animal species?
A. Protect wildlife habitat.
B. Create a backyard wildlife habitat.
C. Pet and bring it in your house to preserve its species.
D. Use the advancement of technology to produce more of endangered animal
species.

57. “An ecosystem with a high biodiversity can sustain other organisms as it makes them stable for
the next generation.” Is the statement true?
A. Yes, because the larger the number of plant species in the ecosystem, the greater he
variety of crops that can be consumed.
B. Yes, because when there is a greater number of predator than the prey, the more the
predator can control the population of the prey.
C. No, because the stability of the ecosystem does not depend on how high the biodiversity
is.
D. No, because a greater number of species in the ecosystem will only lead to
overpopulation and ecological imbalance.

58. FACT: Material cycles in the ecosystem play important roles to all biotic factor of the
environment. Which of the following statements does not support the fact?
A. Carbon dioxide in the air or dissolved in water is used by photosynthesizing plants, algae,
and bacteria as a raw material to build organic molecules.
B. During precipitation in the water cycle, some of the seeps into the Earth’s surface and
become part of the groundwater.
C. For light dependent reaction in photosynthesis, phosphorus provides the main source of
energy for plants.
D. Nitrogen cycle provides nitrogen to the ecosystem from the atmosphere, ground, and
oceans.

12
59. Plants and animals need each other to survive in the ecosystem. Which of the following
statements does NOT support the statement?
A. Animals release carbon dioxide that plants need in photosynthesis.
B. Animals consume plants for food as a source of oxygen and nitrogen.
C. Plans absorb carbon from animals to release another carbon for animals to inhale.
D. Plants contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in a form of protein in food to
provide energy for animals.

60. Humans have a variety of effects on the physical environment, including pollution, the use of
fossil fuels, and deforestation. As a citizen, how could you be able to minimize these impacts in
the environment?
A. Join an organization that promotes nurturing out nature.
B. Use chemical fertilizers rather than organic fertilizers.
C. Throwing garbage in the river.
D. Burning plastic cellophanes.

“Study hard, do good, and the good life

will follow.” Good Luck on
your Exam!

13
PART IV –
Test Results
 Test Results in taking Science 8 about Living Things and Their Environment
No. Name of Student Test Score
1 HABEL, FRECH R. 47
2 MAQUIRAN, IVY C. 44
3 MORADO, JHAYD L. 43
4 ELEGARLE, ASHLEIGH VHONE 42
5 TATING, KYLE G. 42
6 BUDOG, ARMAN NEIL J. 39
7 SENARIO, KLINE SHELBE J. 39
8 ADCAN, REANNE F. 38
9 CELOCIA, ISMAEL JR. 37
10 DANOCO, BABY ANGELA C. 37
11 SALGADOS, FLORTHERESA Z. 37
12 CAMINERO, DUENN 36
13 LABIANA, KHRYSTIAN RYAN L. 36
14 MAYNOPAS, SHEENA BLESS 36
15 ORDANIZA, KYLE T. 36
16 VALENZONA, MARIEL ANN S. 36
17 DAP-OG, MARY GRACE A. 35
18 FLORES, HAZEL S. 35
19 IGHOT, MARRIE I. 35
20 LEDESMA, CHRISJHON A. 35
21 ONG-OY, JOANNA MAE J. 35
22 SUAREZ, RONEL M. 34
23 MODERNO, ALYZZA MARRIE I. 33
24 ELEC, JOHN ARHON 33
25 ANANA, RONALYN 33
26 ALVAREZ, IVAN V. 33
27 ABIERA, CHRISTMALYN P. 32
28 BASANEZ, NHIELCIJANO J. 32
29 CEBALLOS, CRISTYL ANNE 32
30 LEGASPINO, JESSA 32
31 NIPES, RACYL S. 32
32 PETALLAR, KYAN D. 32
33 REAMBONANZA, EJOY A. 32
34 CASAS, JOHN ALJO C. 31
35 JUANICO, ARLENE M. 31
36 MILLORIA, TRICHE AMOR B. 31
37 PINO, MARIA ESTRELLA R. 31
38 REDOBLE, ALYZA MAE 31
39 ALINGIG, CLEONNY 29
40 GILO, PRINCES JASMINE M. 29
41 MORALES, EMERALD QUEEN 29
42 FA-OCBIT, IAN MIGUEL L. 27
43 MEDALLA, LADYL KAYE S. 27
44 PELONES, JAMAICA E. 27
45 DOLIGON, NHYL ADRIAN I. 26
46 PUEBLOS, VINCENT M. 26
47 GALENDEZ, LESTER JOHN D. 24
48 RODRIGUEZ, IRISH JOY A. 23
49 FUENTES, KEREN S. 22
50 ASOQUE, RHEANNE GAYLE S. 21

15
PART V –
Item Analysis
 ITEM ANALYSIS

The test scores were arranged from highest to lower scores. There are 50
learners, we do the 50-50 split to get the upper group (highest scores) and lower group
(lowest scores). This will be use to get the D value and P value to interpret the obtained
values.

Item Options Upper Lower Difference D R P Interpretation

Group Group Value Value

1. A 1 0
B 4 6
C 4 6
*D 17 12 5 0.20 29 0.58 May need
Revision
2. *A 6 4 2 0.08 10 0.20 May need
revision
B 8 4
C 1 0
D 10 17
3. A 2 4
B 0 0
*C 22 20 2 0.08 42 0.84 May need
revision
D 1 1
4. A 1 1
B 0 0
C 0 0
*D 24 24 0 0 48 0.96 May need
revision
5. *A 20 14 6 0.24 34 0.68 Accept
B 0 5
C 4 4
D 1 2
6. *A 24 19 5 0.20 43 0.86 May need
revision
B 0 5
C 0 0
D 1 1
7. A 10 17
B 2 3
*C 12 4 8 0.32 16 0.32 Accept
D 1 1
8. A 1 1
*B 21 21 0 0 42 0.84 May need
revision
C 1 1
D 2 2
9. *A 23 18 5 0.20 41 0.82 May need
revision
B 0 1
C 0 2
D 2 4
10. A 3 0
*B 15 17 2 0.08 32 0.64 May need
revision
C 5 3
D 2 5
11. A 7 10
B 6 6
*C 11 8 7 0.28 19 0.38 Accept

17
 D 1 1
12. A 7 8
B 0 5
C 0 0
*D 18 12 6 0.24 30 0.60 Accept
13. A 1 7
B 1 5
C 0 2
*D 23 11 12 0.48 34 0.68 Accept
14. A 0 0
B 0 1
*C 24 16 8 0.32 40 0.80 Accept
D 1 8
15. A 5 7
*B 19 18 1 0.04 37 0.74 May need
revision
C 1 0
D 0 0
16. A 0 1
B 0 2
*C 24 22 2 0.08 46 0.92 May need
revision
D 1 0
17. A 0 0
*B 0 2 -2 -0.08 2 0.04 May need
revision
C 24 23
D 1 0
18. A 4 2
B 1 2
*C 20 21 -1 -0.04 41 0.82 May need
revision
D 0 0
19. A 12 17
*B 12 3 9 0.36 15 0.30 Accept
C 1 2
D 0 3
20. *A 20 18 2 0.08 38 0.76 May need
revision
B 2 4
C 2 3
D 1 0
21. A 2 1
*B 17 4 13 0.52 21 0.42 Accept
C 1 14
D 5 6
22. A 1 5
B 3 0
C 4 5
*D 17 15 2 0.08 32 0.64 May need
revision
23. A 0 1
B 0 2
C 11 5
*D 14 17 -3 -0.12 31 0.62 May need
revision
24. A 1 11
B 2 1
*C 22 12 10 0.40 34 0.68 Accept
D 0 1
25. *A 20 20 0 0 40 0.80 May need
revision
B 1 1

18
 C 1 2
D 3 2
26. A 0 3
B 0 2
C 3 0
*D 22 20 2 0.08 42 0.84 May need
revision
27. *A 16 7 9 0.36 23 0.46 Accept
B 7 13
C 1 3
D 1 2
28. A 1 2
B 5 6
C 0 1
*D 19 16 3 0.12 35 0.70 May need
revision
29. A 9 2
B 7 14
C 4 7
*D 5 2 3 0.12 7 0.14 May need
revision
30. A 17 14
*B 1 3 -2 -0.08 4 0.08 May need
revision
C 5 6
D 2 2
31. A 2 9
*B 21 16 5 0.20 37 0.74 May need
revision
C 2 0
D 0 0
32. A 8 4
B 1 5
C 3 1
*D 13 15 -2 -0.08 28 0.56 May need
revision
33. A 5 5
B 7 8
*C 5 2 3 0.12 7 0.14 May need
revision
D 8 10
34. A 5 5
B 4 14
*C 9 5 4 0.16 14 0.28 May need
revision
D 7 1
35. *A 6 4 2 0.08 10 0.20 May need
revision
B 4 7
C 10 13
D 5 1
36. A 5 4
B 5 6
C 7 6
*D 9 8 1 0.04 17 0.34 May need
revision
37. A 7 10
B 0 0
*C 18 12 6 0.24 30 0.60 Accept
D 0 3
38. A 2 2
B 1 6
*C 17 9 8 0.32 26 0.52 Accept

19
 D 5 8
39. A 8 10
*B 6 4 2 0.08 10 0.20 May need
revision
C 3 2
D 10 7
40. A 0 0
B 2 11
C 2 5
*D 21 9 12 0.48 30 0.60 Accept
41. A 1 2
B 0 0
*C 22 17 5 0.20 39 0.78 May need
revision
D 2 6
42. A 1 0
B 3 4
C 2 5
*D 19 16 2 0.08 35 0.70 May need
revision
43. A 0 3
B 2 1
*C 21 16 5 0.20 37 0.74 May need
revision
D 2 5
44. A 6 2
B 3 4
C 7 13
*D 9 6 3 0.12 15 0.30 May need
revision
45. A 6 5
*B 0 1 -1 -0.04 1 0.02 May need
revision
C 8 5
D 11 14
46. *A 22 20 2 0.08 42 0.84 May need
revision
B 0 1
C 1 3
D 2 1
47. *A 25 20 5 0.20 45 0.90 May need
revision
B 0 0
C 0 2
D 0 3
48. A 0 2
B 0 2
C 6 6
*D 19 15 4 0.16 34 0.68 May need
revision
49. *A 16 12 4 0.16 28 0.56 May need
revision
B 4 8
C 4 5
D 1 0
50. A 1 8
B 4 5
C 4 2
*D 16 10 6 0.24 26 0.52 Accept
51. A 4 3
B 2 7
C 1 1
*D 18 14 4 0.16 32 0.64 May need

20
 revision
52. *A 11 8 3 0.12 19 0.38 May need
revision
B 5 7
C 3 6
D 6 4
53. A 7 4
B 0 4
*C 3 9 -6 -0.24 12 0.24 Discard
D 15 8
54. A 8 12
B 7 7
*C 6 2 4 0.16 8 0.16 May need
revision
D 4 4
55. A 14 9
B 0 3
*C 11 11 0 0 22 0.44 May need
revision
D 0 2
56. *A 22 19 3 0.12 41 0.82 May need
revision
B 0 1
C 0 2
D 3 3
57. *A 13 10 3 0.12 23 0.46 May need
revision
B 3 4
C 2 5
D 7 6
58. A 9 11
B 4 5
*C 6 4 2 0.08 10 0.20 May need
revision
D 6 5
59. A 4 9
B 0 2
*C 17 5 12 0.48 22 0.44 Accept
D 4 9
60. *A 25 22 3 0.12 47 0.94 May need
revision
B 0 2
C 0 1
D 0 0

21
 PART VI –
Computed
Statistical Values
 GRADE 8 QUARTER EXAMINATION SCORES

The table below is the tally of score of First year BSEd Science 1A and 1B of
DNSC arranged from lowest scores to highest scores who have taken the Grade 8
Quarterly Examination, which will be use in the analytical techniques below.

Name of Student Score Name of Student Score

ASOQUE, Rheanne Gayle S. 21 ANANA, Ronalyn 33
FUENTES, Keren S. 22 ELEC, John Arhon 33
RODRIGUEZ, Irish Joy A. 23 MODERNO, Alyzza Marrie I. 33
GALENDEZ, Lester John D. 24 SUAREZ, Ronel M. 34
DOLIGON, Nhyl Adrian I. 26 DAP-OG, Mary Grace A. 35
PUEBLOS, Vincent M. 26 FLORES, Hazel S. 35
FA-OCBIT, Ian Miguel L. 27 IGHOT, Marrie I. 35
MEDALLA, Ladyl Kaye S. 27 LEDESMA, Chrisjhon A. 35
PELONES, Jamaica E. 27 ONG-OY, Joanna Mae J. 35
ALINGIG, Cleonny 29 CAMINERO, Duenn 36
GILO, Princes Jasmine M. 29 LABIANA, Khrstian Ryan L. 36
MORALES, Emerald Queen 29 MAYNOPAS, Sheena Bless 36
CASAS, John Aljo C. 31 ORDANIZA, Kyle T. 36
JUANICO, Arlene M. 31 VALENZONA, Mariel Ann S. 36
MILLORIA, Triche Amor B. 31 CELOCIA, Ismael Jr. 37
PINO, Maria Estrella R. 31 DANOCO, Baby Angela C. 37
REDOBLE, Alyza Mae 31 SALGADOS, Flortheresa Z. 37
ABIERA, Christmalyn P. 32 ADCAN, Reanne F. 38
BASANEZ, Nhielcijano J. 32 BUDOG, Arman Neil J. 39
CEBALLOS, Cristyl Anne 32 SENARIO, Kline Shelbe J. 39
LEGASPINO, Jessa 32 ELEGARLE, Ashleigh Vhone 42
NIPES, Racyl S. 32 TATING, Kyle G. 42
PETALLAR, Kyan D. 32 MORADO, Jhayd L. 43
REAMBONANZA, Ejoy A. 32 MAQUIRAN, Ivy C. 44
ALVAREZ, Ivan V. 33 HABEL, Frech R. 47

23
 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEAN

Given Consider the following set:

21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 26, 27, 27, 27, 29, 29, 29, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31,
32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 33, 34, 35, 35, 35, 35, 35,
36, 36, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 39, 42, 42, 43, 44, 47.

Solution
∑x
x̅ =
�

21 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 26 + 26 + 27 + 27 + 27 + 29 +
29 + 29 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 31 + 32 + 32 + 32 +
32 + 32 + 32 + 32 + 33 + 33 + 33 + 33 + 34 + 35 +
35 + 35 + 35 + 35 + 36 + 36 + 36 + 36 + 36 + 37 +
x̅ = 37 + 37 + 38 + 39 + 39 + 42 + 42 + 43 + 44 + 47
50

1655
x̅ =
50

� = ��. �

Interpretation The mean score of the learners is 33.1.

Since there are 50 learners, we do the 50-50 split. This

means that our passing rate is 50% of 60 items test as the
average value, which is 30. Therefore, the mean or the average
score that the Science 1-A and 1-B test result is accepted
(passed).

24
 MEDIAN

Given Consider the following set:

21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 26, 27, 27, 27, 29, 29, 29, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31,
32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 33, 34, 35, 35, 35, 35, 35,
36, 36, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 39, 42, 42, 43, 44, 47.

Solution
The 25th and 26th place are the middle place with the values of
33 and 33.

33 + 33
MD =
2

33 + 33
MD =
2

�� = ��

Interpretation The median score of the learners is 33.

There are 50 learners, so there will be two middle

values. We have assumed that the school standard has 50%
passing rate. Therefore, the median value which is the middle
score that the result of BSEd Science 1-A and 1-B test is
accepted (passed).

25
 MODE

Given Consider the following set:

26, 26, 27, 27, 27, 29, 29, 29, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 32, 32, 32, 32,
32, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 33, 35, 35, 35, 35, 36, 36, 36, 36, 36, 37,
37, 37, 39, 39, 42, 42.

Solution
There were two individuals who scored 26.
There were three individual who scored 27.
There were three individual who scored 29.
There were five individuals who scored 31.
There were seven individuals who scored 32.
There were four individuals who scored 33.
There were four individuals who scored 35.
There were five individuals who scored 36.
There were three individual who scored 37.
There were two individuals who scored 39.
There were two individuals who scored 42.

Interpretation The mode of the given set of score of the learners is 32.

The data is multimodal because the most occurring

frequency value which is the learners’ score appeared seven
(7) times is 32.

26
 MEASURES OF DISPERSION/VARIABILITY

RANGE

Given Consider the following set:

21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 26, 27, 27, 27, 29, 29, 29, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31,
32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 33, 34, 35, 35, 35, 35, 35,
36, 36, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 39, 42, 42, 43, 44, 47.

Highest value = 47
Lowest value = 21

Solution
R = HV – LV

R = 47 – 21

R = 26

Interpretation The range of the scores of the learners is 26.

Consider that there are 12 learners who scored below

the passing rate, and other 38 learners scored within the
passing rate. With 50 learners who took the test, a range of 26
signifies that the learners are diverse.

27
 VARIANCE and STANDARD DEVIATION

Given x = 33.1
x = Data values or score {21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 26, 27, 27,
27, 29, 29, 29, 31, 31, 31, 31, 31, 32, 32, 32, 32,
32, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 33, 34, 35, 35, 35, 35, 35,
36, 36, 36, 36, 36, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 39, 42, 42,
43, 44, 47}

Note: σ2 – variance
σ – standard deviation

Solution
I. Computation of Deviation from the Mean and the
Squared Deviation.

Data Values Deviation from Squared

the Mean Deviation
( x − x) ( x − x̅)2
21 -12.1 146.41
22 -11.1 123.21
23 -10.1 102.01
24 -9.1 82.81
26 -7.1 50.41
26 -7.1 50.41
27 -6.1 37.21
27 -6.1 37.21
27 -6.1 37.21
29 -4.1 16.81
29 -4.1 16.81
29 -4.1 16.81
31 -2.1 4.41
31 -2.1 4.41
31 -2.1 4.41
31 -2.1 4.41
31 -2.1 4.41
32 -1.1 1.21
32 -1.1 1.21
32 -1.1 1.21
32 -1.1 1.21
32 -1.1 1.21
32 -1.1 1.21
32 -1.1 1.21
33 -0.1 0.01
33 -0.1 0.01
33 -0.1 0.01
33 -0.1 0.01
34 0.9 0.81
35 1.9 3.61
35 1.9 3.61
35 1.9 3.61
35 1.9 3.61
35 1.9 3.61

28
 36 2.9 8.41
36 2.9 8.41
36 2.9 8.41
36 2.9 8.41
36 2.9 8.41
37 3.9 15.21
37 3.9 15.21
37 3.9 15.21
38 4.9 24.01
39 5.9 34.81
39 5.9 34.81
42 8.9 79.21
42 8.9 79.21
43 9.9 98.01
44 10.9 118.81
47 13.9 193.21

∑( x − x̅)2 = 1414.49

II. Computation of variance using the data.

∑( x − x̅)2
σ2 =
�−1

1414.49
σ2 =
50 − 1

σ2 = 28.86714286

�� = ��. ����

III. Computation of standard deviation using the

variance.

∑( x − x̅)2
σ=
�−1

σ = 28.8671

σ = 5.372811182

� = �. ����

Interpretation
The variance and standard deviation of the scores of the
learners of BSEd Science 1-A and 1-B are 28.8671 and 5.3728,
respectively. The result illustrate that the learners scores are
less diverse which means that learners most likely to have
similar abilities in terms of learning that help them to have good

29
 performance in class.

NORMALITY OF DISTRIBUTION PRESENTED IN BAR GRAPH

Given For this 60-item test, there are:

• 4 learners who scored ranging 21-25.
• 8 learners who scored ranging 26-30.
• 22 learners who scored ranging 31-35.
• 11 learners who scored ranging 36-40.
• 4 learners who scored ranging 41-45.
• 1 learner who scored ranging 46-50.

Solution
Bar Graph and Distribution of Test scores

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

30
Interpretation
The graphs illustrate a normal distribution. With this, it
can be said that all values of mean, median, and mode are the
aligned to justify that the class performance is doing good or
diverse.

31
PART VII –
Test of Reliability
 Internal Consistency Method: Spearman Brown Formula
The test of reliability utilized is the split-half half method where the test is divided
into half, the odd and even number technique. From the table shown below, “x” group
forms the odd-numbered items while “y” group forms the even-numbered items. Fifty
students took the 60-item test. Below are the results.

Student’s Name Odd (x) Even (y) X2 y2 xy

Petallar, Kyan Dela Serna 15 17 225 289 255
Maquiran, Ivy C. 22 22 484 484 484
Gilo, Princess Jasmine M. 12 17 144 289 204
Fa-ocbit, Ian Miguel L. 12 15 144 225 180
Ledesma, Chrisjhon A. 17 18 289 324 306
Galendez, Lester John D. 8 16 64 256 128
Alvarez, Ivan V. 16 17 256 289 272
Suarez, Ronel M. 16 18 256 324 288
Caminero, Duenn 16 20 256 400 320
Pino, Maria Estrella R. 15 16 225 256 240
Basañez, Nhelcijano J. 10 22 100 484 220
Alingig, Cleonny 14 15 196 225 210
Moderno, Alyzza Marrie 17 16 289 256 272
Budog, Arman Neil J. 19 20 361 400 380
Tating, Kyle G. 20 22 400 484 440
Millora, Triche Amor B. 17 14 289 196 238
Doligon, Nhyl Adrian I. 11 15 121 225 165
Abiera, Christmalyn P. 17 15 289 225 255
Flores, Hazel S. 15 20 225 400 300
Ordaniza, Kyle T. 18 18 324 324 324
Redoble, Alyza Mae 12 19 144 361 228
Dap-og, Mary Grace A. 17 18 289 324 306
Danoco, Baby Angela C. 16 11 256 121 176
Pelones, Jamaica E. 9 18 81 324 162
Labiana, Khrystian Ryan 14 22 196 484 308
Anana, Ronalyn 14 19 196 361 266
Medalla, Ladyl Kaye S. 14 13 196 169 182
Morado, Jhayd L. 21 22 441 484 462
Maynopas, Sheena Bless 16 10 256 100 160
Habel, Frech R. 22 25 484 625 550
Ceballos, Cristyl Anne 14 18 196 324 252
Senario, Kline Shelbe J. 18 21 324 441 378
Ighot, Marriel 17 18 289 324 306
Fuentes, Keren S. 10 12 100 144 120
Celocia, Ismael Jr 19 18 361 324 342
Salgados, Flortheresa Z. 17 20 289 400 340
Ong-oy, Joanna Mae 13 22 169 484 286
Legaspino, Jessa 12 20 144 400 240
Juanico, Arlene M. 16 15 256 225 240
Elegarle, Ashleigh Vhone 19 23 361 529 437
Reambonanza, Eljoy A. 15 17 225 289 255
Morales, Emerald Queen B. 11 18 121 324 198
Elec, John Arhon 16 17 256 289 272
Valenzona, Mariel Ann S. 16 20 256 400 320
Casas, John Aljo C. 13 18 169 324 234
Nipes, Racyl S. 14 18 196 324 252
Adcan, Reann F. 18 20 324 400 360
Asoque, Rheanne Gayle S. 10 11 100 121 110
Pueblos, Vincent M. 8 18 64 324 144
Rodriguez, Irish Joy S. 8 15 64 225 120

Ʃx:746 Ʃy:889 Ʃx2:11740 Ʃy2:16323 Ʃxy:13487

33
The second and third columns are given based on the result of the test. For the fourth
and fifth column, it is done by finding the square of x and y variables. The last column is
the product of x and y. The last row provides the sum of all the columns.

n= 50
Given Ʃx = 746
Ʃy = 889
Ʃx2 = 11740
Ʃy2 = 16323
Ʃxy = 13487

Substitute all the data to Pearson r equation;

Solution
rh = n(Ʃxy) – (Ʃx)(Ʃy)

[nƩx2 − (Ʃx)2 ] [nƩy2 − Ʃy)2 ]

rh = 50(13,487) – (746)(889)
[50(11,740) − (746)2] [50(16,323) − (889)2 ]

rh = 674,350 – 663,194
[587,000 − 556,516] [816,150 − 790,321]

rh = 11,156
30,484 (25,829)

rh = 11,156
787,371,236

rh = 11,156
28,060.14

rh = 0.40 the correlation between two parts

Then adjust and re-evaluate correlation using Spearman

Brown formula:

r tt = 2 rh
1 + rh

r tt = 2 (0.40)
1 + 0.40

r tt = 0.8
1.4

r tt = 0.57

The reliability of the test is 0.57 which is a poor reliability.

Interpretation The result suggests need for revision of the test, unless it is
quite short (ten or fewer items). The test definitely needs to
be supplementary by other measures (e.g. more tests) for
grading.

34
 Kuder-Richardson 20/21

Given N = 60
Ʃpq = 12.087
s2 = 30.95
Solution r = N (s2 – Ʃpq)
N-1 s2

r = 60 (30.95 – 12.087)
60-1 30.95

r = 60 (18.86)
59 30.95

r = 60 (0.609)
59

r = 1.02 (0.609)

r = 0.62

Interpretation Somewhat low. This test needs to be supplemented by

other measures (e.g. more tests) to determine grades.
There are probably some items which could be improved.

35
 Davao del Norte State College
Brgy. New Visayas, Panabo City, Davao del Norte,
Philippines, 8105
+63 824-1001-001
info@dnsc.edu.ph

COMPENDIUM OF TASK
DESIGN FOR SCIENCES IN
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
In the Fulfillment of the Requirement in the EDUC 321A-Assessment in
Learning 2 for the 2nd Semester of 2021-2022

Submitted to:

Ellvan C. Campos

Instructor

Submitted by:

BSED SCIENCE 3A

January
2022
 GRADE 9
QUARTER 1
 Process-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment Task

Performance Standard
Conduct an information dissemination activity on effective ways of taking care of the
respiratory and circulatory systems based on data gathered from the school or local
health workers.

Process-Oriented Assessment Learning Objectives

The learners should be able to:
1. explain how the respiratory and circulatory systems work together to transport
nutrients, gases, and other molecules to and from the different parts of the
body;
2. infer one’s lifestyle can affect the functioning of respiratory and circulatory
systems.

Output Title
“Healthy Lungs & Happy Heart”

Rationale
The adverse effects of our habits and practices usually cause the state of our health.
It is a good thing that students learn how the respiratory and circulatory system works but
it is better if this knowledge is shared and applied. Identifying factors that affect human
health is a one-way of directing oneself into better and healthier habits. If the idea of
taking care of our well-being is shared then everyone can be happy and healthy. This
process-oriented performance-based assessment task will develop the learners’
creativity, collaboration, and communication skills.

Expected Output
Learners will craft a brochure comprising different ways of taking care of circulatory
and respiratory systems. The brochure will be printed in multiple copies and to be handed
out to the Panaboans for public information. The following images show a sample of the
brochure and students handing them out.

Persons Involved in the Task

This task requires the class of 30 students to divide into 2 groups. One of each group
will create a brochure on caring for the heart while the other focuses on taking care of the
lungs. Each group must divide the team into two (8 & 7) – one with 8 members are
assigned for the making of the brochure and one for the dissemination part. Each group
must have the following roles to attain:
1. The making team.
a. Leader (1). The leader of the group will handle all the final planning and is the
one who look-out for the good of the members.
56
 b. Data Collectors (3). They are the ones who will gather the data that they will
be needing for the inputs of the brochure. This includes the citations, the
references, and the images.
c. Draft creator (2). They will make the initial picture of the brochure and plan
what elements will be needed for the making.
d. Editors (2). They are to craft the brochure itself with any computer or device
where they can edit the objects and texts needed for the brochure.

2. The dissemination teams.

a. Leafleteers (4). These members will be the ones to disseminate the brochures
in a specific location.
b. Cameraman (1). He will take photos for documentation of the information
dissemination process.
c. Editors (2). They will compile the photos for documentation through a video
and will share them online.

List of Possible Materials

1. Any editing device (computer, laptop, cellphones).
2. At least 30 copies of the brochure.
3. A clean sheet of paper for drafting.
4. A pen or pencil.
5. Camera (could be cellphones).
6. USB drive

Process of Making the Outputs

1. The class will be grouped and assigned the roles for each member.
2. The group will then decide on how they are going to execute every part of the task.
They will create a draft of what the final brochure would look like and prepare the
materials they will be needing.
3. The group will now gather the data from the school library, school clinic, online, or
even to professionals on what are the specific ways and habits in taking care of
the respiratory and circulatory systems.
4. Make sure that the brochure includes contact information of who or where to call
when experiencing circulatory and respiratory problems.
5. The group will be given time in making and editing the brochure. The final copy will
be printed into at least 30 copies and should be folded the way they are supposed
to be.
6. The group will decide and plan on where will they disseminate the brochures and
set a time and date for the activity.
7. The dissemination of the brochures could be at Panabo City Park, Panabo
terminal, Gaisano Mall, or just outside the school premises.
8. After dissemination, the class will be given time to watch the videos of their
successes.
Note: Take a picture of doing all the steps in this task. (At least 10 pictures in total).
Be creative!

57
Timeline:
Date/Time Part Procedure Output
Forming of The class will be divided into 2 Draft of the
March 23, groups. groups and assign roles to brochure and the
2022 members. They will then create a list of members and
draft of the brochure containing their roles.
the elements that might include in
taking care of the heart and lungs.
Data The group will now collect Draft of the images
March 24, gathering, information that they are needing and texts that the
2022 in order to complete the idea they brochure needed.
have presented in their draft
brochure.
March 25, Brochure The editing of the brochure and The final
2022 making. printing the final copy. look/image of the
brochure.
March 26, Dissemination. The dissemination team will find a The attendance of
2022 place to give away the brochure to the members will be
the public. collected.
March 27 & Video editing. The editing of the documentation The final video
28, 2022 of the activity. documentation.
Presentation The watching of the videos of Presentation of
March 29, day. documentation and rating of the compilation videos.
2022 success from brochure and the
documentation.

Date of Submission:
The submission of a copy of the final brochure will be on March 25, 2022, 11:59pm.
It should be submitted via email madria.jonnahlie@dnsc.edu.ph . Only the leader of the
group will do the submission. The file must be in pdf format and named according to the
group’s task with grade and section (ex. Heart group – G9A). The subject of the email
must be named: Subject – Grade level. (ex. Science – 9).
The video presentation of the documentation of the task will be on March 28, 2022
during our class schedule. Each video must not exceed and not less than 3-5 minutes.
One member of the group must save the video in mp4 format on a USB drive.

Rubrics:
Before:
Peer Assessment Tool Checklist
Criteria Observed Not
Observed
Shared relevant information
during small group sharing.
Helped the group develop
good ideas for the written
report.
Gave helpful suggestions
regarding the making of the
brochure and video
presentation.
Accepted suggestions from
others.

58
 Listened carefully to other
group members during
brainstorming activity.
Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p12

During:
Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric
Criteria/ 4 3 2 1
Contribution Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs
Level Satisfactory Improvement
Participation Group Group member Group member Group member
member participated participated but did not
participated most of the time wasted time participate,
fully and was and was on task regularly or was wasted time, or
always on most of the time. rarely on task. worked on
task in a unrelated
group. material.
Leadership Group Group member Group member Group member
member sometimes usually allowed did not assume
assumed assumed others to leadership or
leadership in leadership in an assume assumed it in a
an appropriate way. leadership, nonproductive
appropriate alternatively, or manner
way when often dominated
necessary by the group.
helping the
group stay on
track,
encouraging
group
participation,
posing
solutions to
problems,
and having a
positive
attitude.
Listening Group Group member Group member Group member
member usually listened sometimes did did not listen to
listened to others’ ideas. not listen to others and often
carefully to others’ ideas. interrupted
others’ ideas. them.
Feedback Group Group member Group member Group member
member offered occasionally did not offer
offered constructive offered constructive or
detailed, feedback when constructive useful feedback.
constructive appropriate. feedback, but
feedback sometimes the
when comments were
appropriate inappropriate or
not useful
Cooperation Group Group member Group member Group member
member usually often did not did not complete
treated completed complete most of the

59
 others assigned tasks assigned tasks assigned tasks
respectfully on time and did on time, and on time and
and shared not hold up held up often forced the
the workload progress on the completion of group to make
fairly. projects project work. last-minute
because of adjustments and
incomplete work changes to
accommodate
missing work.
Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p13

Summary of the Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric

Group Particip Leadership Listening Feedback Coopera Time-
Member ation tion Manage
ment

Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p14

Rubrics for Brochure

Very Needs
Criteria Outstandi Satisfacto Acceptable Improvement Weight Score
ng (4) ry (3) (2) (1)
The The The The brochure x 2
brochure brochure brochure does not
includes at includes a vaguely mention
Content least 3 few factors discusses factors
& factors that that affect factors affecting the
Accuracy affect the the health affecting the health of the
health of of the health of the respiratory &
the respiratory respiratory circulatory
respiratory & & circulatory systems.
& circulatory systems.
circulatory systems.
systems.
The The The The brochure x 1
brochure is brochure is brochure is is not arranged
Neatness arranged organized simply at all.
& accordingly but some organized.
and

60
Organizat interestingl are
ion y neat. irrelevant.
Correct There are a There are The idea is x 1
Writing & grammar few errors several hardly
Grammar and in grammar errors in presented due
spelling are and grammar to a lack of
properly misspelling and grammar.
observed. s. spelling.
Pictures Some Pictures are No pictures or x 1
Graphics are much pictures discriminati graphics at all.
& related and are ng.
Pictures represent irrelevant.
the
citations.
Total: _/20

Rubrics for Video Documentation:

POINTS CRITERION SCORE
The video presentation is pleasing and is interesting.
10 pts. The background music is lively. It shows the gradual
steps in making the whole activity. Video clips and
pictures are actual and real. Introduction and a short
idea are presented.
The video presentation is nice. The background music
9 pts. is good. The process of the activity is barely shown.
Images are missing some parts of the activity. No
introduction but the idea is present.
The video presentation is dull. Music choice needs
8 pts. improvement. Pictures are taken in a few moments of
the task. The idea is barely presented.
0 No video presentation.
Total: _______/10

61
 Product-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment Task

Performance Standard
The learners demonstrate creativity and skills in making the task and develop
interpersonal skills. The interpretation of the ideas must be seen on their output.

Product-Oriented Assessment Learning Objectives

The learners shall be able to:
1. Describe what are the beneficial and harmful interactions in the
environment;
2. Apply understanding through performing activities; and
3. Construct a model of ecosystem using three-dimensional figure.

Output Title
“Diorama Making”

Rationale
This product-oriented performance-based assessment task highlights the ability of
the learners to generate creative ideas and demonstrate knowledge and skills in
constructing Diorama. Moreover, since this is a group task, hence, it will develop their
collaborative skills, communication skills, creativity and interpersonal skills.

Expected Output
The expected output in this task is a three-dimensional figure showing a scene in
the ecosystem, depending on the students’ chosen concept and materials.

Person Involved in the task

This task requires the class of 30 students to divide into 3 groups, with 10 members
each group.

List of Possible Materials

 Modeling Clay
 Construction Paper
 Glue
 Scissors
 Paint and Paintbrush
 Markers
 Felt
 Fabric Scraps

Process of Making and Preparation of outputs

In making Diorama students are given an example and methods in preparing and
constructing their planned theme. They will make a list of the items needed to prepare

62
 Diorama, make a rough sketch of their desired style and design, and they will choose a
concept or theme before finalizing their work. Moreover, learners demonstrate
collaboration and communication in making the task. For the time frame of Diorama
making, students will be given 4 days to prepare their task and pass it on the 5th day.

Rubrics:
4 3 2 1 Score
Appearance The The The appearance The
of the appearance of appearance of of the output is appearance of
Project the output is the output is somewhat poor. the project is
professionally quite Some quite poor.
and polished professional distractive Many
without and polished elements. distractive
distractive with few elements.
elements. distractive
elements.
Neatness The diorama is The diorama is The diorama is The diorama is
neat and it is mostly near sloppy and it is very sloppy
easy to see all and it is easy to difficult to see all and cannot see
the features. see all the the features. all the features.
features.
Creativity Output is Good creative Some attempt Little attempt to
excellently effort. Project is made to add add color or
presented neat and color and originality.
reflecting shows originality. Project has
creativity and a evidence of Project is neat. sloppy
lot of thought. time spent on appearance.
it.
Knowledge The diorama the diorama The diorama The diorama
demonstrates a demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates
thorough good some very little
knowledge of knowledge of knowledge of knowledge of
the subject the subject the subject the subject
matter. matter. matter. matter.

63
 GRADE 9
QUARTER 2
 Process – Oriented Performance Based Assessment

Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to analyze the percentage composition of different
brands of two food products and decide on the products’ appropriate percentage
composition.

Process-Oriented Assessment Learning Objectives

The learners shall be able to:
1. Explain the importance of percent composition in everyday living.
2. Create a video presentation analyzing the percentage composition in nutrition
labels of different brands of two food products and;
3. Discuss how the product’s percentage composition of certain elements affects the
consumer.

Output Title
“Percent Composition for Everyday Living”

Rationale
Understanding what is in the foods and beverages we consume can assist us in
making healthier choices. According to National Institute of Aging 2022, many countries,
including the United States, include nutrition and ingredient information on the labels of
packaged foods and drinks, which come in cans, boxes, bottles, jars, and bags. Learning
how to analyze percent composition is significant because it allows one to determine the
chemical composition of various substances (Writer, 2020). This process-oriented
performance-based assessment task will develop the learners’ analytical skills, creativity,
collaboration, and communication skills.

Expected Output
The expected output in this task is a video presentation that contains analysis of
percentage composition in nutrition labels of different brands of two food products, and
discuss how the product’s percentage composition of certain elements affects the
consumer. Every group must have different products, it can be biscuits, junk foods,
canned goods, and etc.

Persons Involved in the Task

This task requires the class of 30 students to divide into 3 groups, with 10 members
each group. Every member must speak and have a part in video presentation.

List of Possible Materials

• 2 products (by choice)
• Smartphone/Camera
• Scientific Calculator
• Notebook
• Ballpen/Pencil

Process of Making and Preparation of Outputs

1. The class of 30 will be grouped into 3 with 10 members each group.
2. The group will then decide on what are the possible products, it can be biscuits,
junk foods, canned good or any products that contains “Nutritional Facts”.
3. Groups will be given “Peer Assessment” before and during the making of their
video presentation. This is to evaluate and provide structured learning process for
students to provide feedback to each other on their work.

65
 4. Speakers may opt to use vernacular language but they should attach subtitles in
English.
5. In making the video presentation, it must be minimum of 5 minutes and maximum
of 8 minutes.
6. In the last part of the video presentation, add all the documentation from day 1
preparation up to the last day of editing.
7. The group will be given 2 weeks to submit their video presentation.

Date of Submission
The submission of the Video Presentation will be on April 01, 2022, 11:59pm. It
should be submitted via email patris.rovikent@dnsc.edu.ph. Only the leader of the group
will do the submission. The file must be in mp4 format and named according to the group
name with grade and section (ex. Heart_group – G9A). The subject of the email must be
named: Products – Grade level. (ex. Nagoya and Nachos – 9).

Rubrics
Peer Assessment Tool Checklist
Before:

Criteria Observed Not

Observed
Shared relevant information during small
group sharing
Helped the group develop good ideas for the
written report.
Gave helpful suggestions regarding the
making of the video presentation.

Accepted suggestions from others.

Listened carefully to other group members

during brainstorming activity.

Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p12

Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric

During:
Criteria/ 4 3 2 1
Contribution Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs
Level Satisfactory Improvement
Participation Group member Group Group member Group member
participated member participated but did not
fully and was participated wasted time participate,
always on task most of the regularly or was wasted time, or
in a group. time and was rarely on task. worked on
on task most unrelated
of the time. material.
Leadership Group member Group Group member Group member
assumed member usually allowed did not assume
leadership in an sometimes others to leadership or

66
 appropriate assumed assume assumed it in a
way, when leadership in leadership, nonproductive
necessary, by an appropriate alternatively, or manner
helping the way. often
group stay on dominated the
track, group.
encouraging
group
participation,
posing
solutions to
problems, and
having a
positive
attitude.
Listening Group member Group Group member Group member
listened member sometimes did did not listen to
carefully to
usually not listen to others and often
others’ ideas.listened to others’ ideas. interrupted them.
others’ ideas.
Feedback Group member Group Group member Group member
offered member occasionally did not offer
detailed, offered offered constructive or
constructive constructive constructive useful feedback.
feedback when feedback feedback, but
appropriate when sometimes the
appropriate. comments were
inappropriate or
not useful
Cooperation Group member Group Group member Group member
treated others member often did not did not complete
respectfully usually complete most of the
and shared the completed assigned tasks assigned tasks on
workload fairly. assigned on time, and time and often
tasks on time held up forced the group
and did not completion of to make last-
hold up project work. minute
progress on adjustments and
the projects changes to
because of accommodate
incomplete missing work.
work
Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p13

Summary of the Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric

Group Participatio Leadersh Listening Feed back Cooperati Time
Member n ip on Managem
ent

67
Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p14

Rubrics for Video Presentation:

CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Overall look The products The products The product The products
and used by the used by the used is not used are not
uniqueness group are group are not unique, and one unique and the
relative to unique and unique but product is the two products is
other groups distinct from distinct from same with other the same with
other groups. other groups. groups. other groups.
Content The video The video The video The video
presentation presentation presentation presentation
covers all the includes basic includes basic includes minor
objectives with knowledge and knowledge and details about
details and analysis about analysis about the topic and it
examples. The the topic. the topic, but it has several
analysis and has 1-2 mistakes in
knowledge are mistakes in analyzing the
excellent. analyzing percent
percent composition.
composition..
Creativity The video Good use of Minimal use of The video
and presentation graphics, and graphic design. presentation
Elements of has excellent some Some videos elements of
Design sense of transitions are and design distracts
design. Videos inappropriately documentations the viewers.
and placed. Some are out of topic. There are too
documentations videos and No transitions. many
are in very good documentations documentations
quality. are in good and video clips
Transitions are quality. that are not
appropriate. necessary.
There are too
many
transitions that
distracts from
content.
Technical The overall Most of the The quality of The quality of
Quality quality of the quality of the the audio and the video and
(Video and video and audio video and audio the video is not audio are not
Audio were excellent. were excellent. that good but very good.
Quality) also not that
bad.

68
Submission The output is The output is The output is The output is
of the video submitted submitted on submitted a day submitted two
before the the deadline. after the days or more
deadline. deadline. after the
deadline.

69
 Product-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment Task

Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to analyze the percentage composition of different
brands of two food products and decide on the products’ appropriate percentage
composition.

Product-Oriented Assessment Learning Objective

The learners shall be able to:
• improvise ionic and covalent bonding models.

Output Title
‘‘Making Chemical Bonds‘‘

Rationale
This product-oriented performance-based assessment task emphasizes the
learner’s ability to apply their skills and knowledge learned about ionic and covalent
bonding by creating a model to represent its underlying structure. It allows learners to
understand that the bonding characteristics of carbon result in the formation of large
variety of compounds. Thus, realizing that these compounds are important in our daily
life. In addition, knowing how atoms form bonds (ionic and covalent) with other atoms by
the transfer or sharing of electrons gives learners a better grasp of the real world and
allows them to draw conclusions about how the rest of the world functions. In addition,
making chemical bonds as a group is also the ideal way for them to learn and improve
their collaboration, communication, and interpersonal skills. As a result, active
involvement and interest in science would be nurtured even further.

Expected Output
The expected output in this task is to make an ionic and covalent model. The model
should have at least one example of organic compounds showing how atoms combine
with other atoms by the transfer or sharing of electrons.

Persons Involved in The Task

This task requires the class of 30 students to divide into 3 groups, with 10 members
each group.

List of Possible Materials

• Illustration board
• Pentel Pen Marker
• Stick Glue
• Glue Gun
• Scissors
• Molding Clay (different colors)
• Oil Pastel

70
Process of Making and Preparation of Outputs
In improvising the ionic and covalent bonding model, the students will be grouped
into 5. Each group will conceptualize how this project would be look like by using the
materials being presented. They are free to choose what design or ideas that they would
be put into. The model must include the underlying structure of ionic and covalent bonds
like the electron shell, electrons, and ions. For the time frame of making, learners may
create the models in their vacant time and submit on it on the next meeting. Each group
has 5 minutes to present the model.

Rubrics for Model Output

Criteria
Needs Developing Observed Proficient Weigh Gr
Improvemen (2 points) (3 points) (4 points) t ad
t (1 point) e
Knowle The model The model The model The model
dge demonstrates demonstrates demonstratedemonstrat
very little some s good es a
knowledge of knowledge of knowledge thorough x 1.5
the subject the subject of the knowledge
matter. matter subject of the
matter. subject
matter.
Craftm Haphazard The model was The model The model
anship craftsmanship well assembled was well was
. with several assembled seamlessly
pieces (3-4) with only a assembled. X 1
that are not few pieces Pieces are
well cut or (1-2) that are precisely
glued down not well cut cut and well
out or glued glued down.
down.
Creativ Minimal Only a few Most of the An
ity creativity areas of the model exceptional
model reflect reflects degree of
student student creativity is
creativity creativity displayed in X 1
creating the
model,
showing
flexibility of
thought &
originality.
Design The model The The The
did not unify organization of organization organization
and appeared the model of the model of the
disjoined synthesized all synthesized model
but a couple (3) all but a synthesized
areas into couple (2) independen X 1
singular work areas into t parts into
of art that singular singular
unifies and work of art work of art
balances. that unifies that unifies
and and
balances. balances.

71
 GRADE 9
QUARTER 3
 Process-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment Task

Performance Standard
The learners discuss an understanding whether or not popular beliefs and
practices with regard to constellations and astrology have scientific basis.

Process-Oriented Assessment Learning Objectives

The learners shall be able to:
• make and present a report discussing popular beliefs and practices with
regard to constellations and astrology.
• infer whether or not these beliefs and practices have scientific basis.

Output Title
“Prove it First, Before I Believe”

Rationale
This process-oriented performance-based assessment task emphasizes the
learner’s ability to apply their knowledge and skills learned about constellations especially
in proving and providing scientific basis whether or not popular beliefs and practices with
regard to constellations and astrology are true. By making a report, learners will be able
to clearly communicate their key messages about why their scientific findings are
significant. In addition, it allows learners to enhance their communication and
collaboration skills as well as their skills investigating, researching and in examining
claims in various things with credible sources as a group. Moreover, Reporting
presentations related in the subject's topic will assist students in developing self-
confidence in public presentations as well as profound liberation in social
awareness by providing scientific evidence as to whether or not a belief or practice is true.

Expected Output

Persons Involved in the Task

This task requires the class of 30 students to divide into 6 groups, with 5 members
each group.

73
List of Possible Materials
• Laptop or PC
• PowerPoint presentation or Visual aids
• Other materials

Process in Making the Output

1. Student will be given time to search for articles with credible sources about
different beliefs and practices about constellations and astrology and find
proofs if these beliefs and practices are true. After gathering substantial
information, make a written report containing all the information needed stated
in the task objectives.
2. Do not forget to cite your references using APA format.
3. The font of the title must be 12, bold, Times New Roman
4. The body must be 12, regular, arial, 1.5 spacing, bold heading, normal margin.
5. Observe proper indentions and arrangement of contents.
6. The file should be in pdf form, in a short bond paper.

Timeline
Time Part Procedure Output
March 21, Finding of The class will form four List of members and
2022 members and groups and once they all checklist of a peer
planning have a group, they select assessment tool.
their leader and organize for
brainstorming.
March 23, Data gathering The group will start Draft of the written
2022 researching the information report
they need for the written
report and presentation.
March 25, Written Report Students will finalize their Submitted written report
2022 written report as basis for and Peer Assessment
their presentation. Collaboration Rubric
March 28, Practice for Students will practice and Attendance of each
2022 presentation rehearse for their group members is
presentation. collected.
March 30, Presentation Students will readily present Presentation of the
2022 day their report in a harmonious report
flow.

Submission of Final Written Report

The submission of the written report will be on March 25, 2022, 11:59 pm, at my
email sasil.teressa@dnsc.edu.ph . Only one from the group will do the submission.
Subject must be named: Grade 9 Quarter 3 Written Report Task. File name must be in
this format: Grade & Section_Written Report_Group Number.

The presentation of the report will be on March 30, 2022 at our class schedule,
each group is only allowed to present within 15 minutes.

74
Rubrics
Before:
Peer Assessment Tool Checklist

Criteria Observed Not

Observed
Shared relevant information during small
group sharing
Helped the group develop good ideas for the
written report.
Gave helpful suggestions regarding the
making of the written report and presentation.

Accepted suggestions from others.

Listened carefully to other group members

during brainstorming activity.

Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p12

During:
Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric
Criteria/ 4 3 2 1
Contribution Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs
Level Satisfactory Improvement
Participation Group member Group Group member Group member
participated member participated but did not
fully and was participated wasted time participate,
always on task most of the regularly or was wasted time, or
in a group. time and was rarely on task. worked on
on task most unrelated
of the time. material.
Leadership Group member Group Group member Group member
assumed member usually allowed did not assume
leadership in an sometimes others to leadership or
appropriate assumed assume assumed it in a
way when leadership in leadership, nonproductive
necessary by an appropriate alternatively, or manner
helping the way. often
group stay on dominated the
track, group.
encouraging
group
participation,
posing
solutions to
problems, and
having a
positive
attitude.

75
Listening Group member Group Group member Group member
listened member sometimes did did not listen to
carefully to
usually not listen to others and often
others’ ideas.listened to others’ ideas. interrupted them.
others’ ideas.
Feedback Group member Group Group member Group member
offered member occasionally did not offer
detailed, offered offered constructive or
constructive constructive constructive useful feedback.
feedback when feedback feedback, but
appropriate when sometimes the
appropriate. comments were
inappropriate or
not useful
Cooperation Group member Group Group member Group member
treated others member often did not did not complete
respectfully usually complete most of the
and shared the completed assigned tasks assigned tasks on
workload fairly. assigned on time, and time and often
tasks on time held up forced the group
and did not completion of to make last-
hold up project work. minute
progress on adjustments and
the projects changes to
because of accommodate
incomplete missing work.
work
Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p13

Summary of the Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric

Group Participatio Leadersh Listening Feed back Cooperati Time
Member n ip on Managem
ent

Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p14

Reporting Grading Rubric

Criteria 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 points
Organization Students Students Audience has Audience
present present difficulty cannot
information in information in following understand
logical, logical presentation presentation
interesting sequence because because there
sequence which which student jumps is no sequence
audience can audience can around. of information.
follow. follow.

76
Subject Students Student is at Student is Student does
Knowledge demonstrate full ease with uncomfortable not have grasp
knowledge expected with of information;
(more than answers to all information student cannot
required) by questions but and is able to answer
answering all fails to answer only questions
class questions elaborate. rudimentary about subject
with explanation questions.
and elaboration.
Graphics Student’s Student’s Students Students use
graphics explain graphics relate occasionally superfluous
and reinforce to text and use graphics graphics or no
screen text and presentation. that rarely graphics.
presentation. support text
and
presentation.
Mechanics Presentation Presentation Presentation Student’s
has no has more than has three presentation
misspellings or two misspellings has four or
grammatical misspellings and/or more spellings
errors. and/or grammatical errors and/or
grammatical errors. grammatical
errors. errors.
Eye Contact Students Students Students Students read
maintain eye maintain eye occasionally all of report
contact with contact most of use eye with no eye
audience, the time but contact, but still contact.
seldom frequently read most of
returning to return to notes. report.
notes.
Elocution Students useGroup’s voice Student’s voice Student
clear voice and is clear. is low. Student mumbles,
correct, preciseStudent incorrectly incorrectly
pronunciation ofpronounces pronounces pronounces
terms so that all
most words terms. terms, and
audience correctly. Most Audience speaks too
members canaudience members have quietly for
hear members can difficulty students in the
presentation. hear hearing back of class to
presentation. presentation. hear.
Source: STS Reporting Rules and Rubrics

77
 Product-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment Task

Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to participate in activities that reduce risks and lessen
effects of climate change.

Product-Oriented Assessment Learning Objectives

The learners shall be able to:
• explain how different factors affect the climate of an area; and
• describe certain climatic phenomena that occur on a global level.

Output Title
“The Debris: A Digital Reflection Journal of Awareness”

Rationale
Climate change is a relevant issue that continues to escalate on a global scale. It
is a serious phenomenon that should be addressed constantly because it affects not just
one sector but everyone: environment, economy and most especially, the people.
This product-oriented performance-based assessment task emphasizes the
learners’ ability to apply their knowledge and skills learned about climate: the factors that
affect it and the global climate phenomenon by involving themselves in society situation
and activities that would help reduce the risks and lessen the effects of climate change.
By making a reflected journal about the effects of climate and be published online, it
allows learners to improve their critical thinking skills and their technical skills because
their task involves the digital platform which includes the manipulation of
computers/websites for posting and for editing.

Expected Output
The expected output in this task is a social media post (preferably a Facebook
post) with a series of pictures with respective captions each picture.

(Cellphone view)

78
or (Desktop view)

Person/s Involved in the Task

The task will be done individually.

List of Possible Materials

• Computer/Laptop/Cellphone
• Photo Editor
• Google/Any website for source of data
• Social media account (preferably Facebook)
• Other materials

Process in Making the Output

1. Students will be tasked to compile pictures or short video clips of real and national
scenarios of the hazardous effects of climate change such as floods, typhoons,
drought, and the likes (i.e., typhoon Yolanda event).

2. Every real-life scenarios, students will write a caption based on what he/she has
reflected from it (1-3 paragraphs).
3. At the end of the journal, there will be an overall reflection that will tackle the effects
of climate change and promote ways on how they can help mitigate its hazardous
effects. They must write at least 3 key points.
4. Every student will post the said awareness project on his/her social media account
publicly (preferrably Facebook) and tag the teacher with the Facebook account
name Mary Christine Coraje. References of data/photos must be cited.

79
Timeline:

Time Part Procedure Output

April 1, Discussion of the The teacher will discuss Final Deadline
2022 project the mechanics, the
rubrics, and the timeline of
the project.
April 4-5, Data gathering Each learner will gather Raw data
2022 the necessary data they
need in their output.
April 6-12, Editing/Writing of Students will edit the Draft of photo/video
2022 Captions photo/video clips to be and caption.
included in their posts.
April 13, Extension/Finalization Students will be finalizing Draft post
2022 their outputs: checking the
grammar of their outputs,
final editing of
photos/videos, testing the
social media platform.
April 14, Posting Students will post their Social media post
2022 outputs in the social media (preferably Facebook
platform. post)

Submission of Proof of Output:

The submission of proof of the output (screenshot of the post and the final draft)
will be on April 15, 2022, 11:59 pm, at the teacher’s email
coraje.marychristine@dnsc.edu.ph. Subject must be named: Grade 9 Quarter 3 Proof of
Reflection Journal Task. File name must be in this format: Grade & Section_Reflection
Journal_Surname (example: Grade 9-Mabini_ReflectionJournal_Coraje).

Rubrics:
RUBRIC FOR REFLECTION JOURNAL: DIGITAL AWARENESS PROJECT
4 3 2 1
Relevance of The contents The contents The content The content
Content are relevant to are relevant to has more has no
the given the given topic unconnected relevance at
topic. but few parts topics than all.
has no relevance.
connection.
Organization of The ideas are The ideas are Many ideas All ideas are
Idea well organized, are misplaced. misplaced.
organized. with few
misplaced
ideas.
Pictures The pictures Some pictures Most pictures All pictures are
included are are not real are not real an not real and
all real and and national national national
national scenarios. scenarios. scenarios.
scenarios.

Grammar/Spelling There is no There is/are There are The caption is

grammatical few many grammatically
error and grammatical incorrect and

80
mispelled grammatical errors and most of the
words in the error/s and mispelled words are
caption. mispelled words in the mispelled.
word/s in the caption.
caption.

81
 GRADE 9
QUARTER 4
 Process-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment Task

Performance Standard
Propose ways to enhance sports related to projectile motion.

Process-Oriented Assessment Learning Objective

The learners shall be able to:
• develop and demonstrate a fun five-minute team drill that will apply projectile
motion concepts and principles to the learning and development of three motor
skills in volleyball.

Output Title
“DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION OF A VOLLEYBALL TEAM DRILL”

Rationale
Students in the classroom commonly learned theories and may be exposed to pen
and paper activities, they learn just inside the fourth corner of the classroom. This fun
five-minute team drill activity will allow them to learn differently from the conventional
mode of learning. It can help enrich students' learning by showing them real-life
applications of theories that they are learning inside the classroom. Hence, this activity
will primarily assess the learners how they will develop ways to enhance three motor skills
of volleyball based on the learned concepts and principles of projectile motion. Moreover,
this will allow learners to develop their communication and collaboration skills along the
process of making the written proposal for their proposed ways and as they perform the
demonstration as a team.

Expected Output
The expected output in this task is a demonstration of a volleyball team drill
proposal that applies projectile motion concepts and principles to the learning and
development of three motor skills in volleyball. However, they are required to submit a
written proposal contains the proposed ways to enhance the three motor skills, including
the required playing area diagrams and computations for ranges, heights and time, as
their basis for the demonstration.

WRITTEN PROPOSAL OUTPUT DEMONSTRATION OF A VOLLEYBALL TEAM DRIL

Persons Involved in the Task

This task requires the class of 30 students to divide into 5 groups. Each group will
be tasked to develop and demonstrate a five-minute team drill that will apply projectile
motion concepts and principles to the learning and development of their selected three
motor skills in volleyball.

83
 The making team.
a. Leader and editor in chief(1). The leader of the group will handle all the final
planning and is the one who look-out for the good of the members. He/she will
also compile the content and finalize the draft of the written proposal.
b. Draft creator (2). They are assign to create a draft of their written proposal
based on their agreed plan.
c. In-charge for the materials needed (All members). All members are assign
to take charge for the preparation for the materials needed in their volleyball
drill proposal.
d. Demonstrator (3). They are assign to demonstrate and perform the selected
three motor skills executing all the concepts, tactics, sequence and movements
crafted in their written proposal.

List of Possible Materials

1. Volleyball
2. Stop watch
3. Meter stick/tape meter
4. Other materials selected by proposing team
5. Written proposal

Process of Making and Preparation of Outputs

1. Conduct the group meeting and plan out the role of each member in the
development of the volleyball drill proposal.
2. Select from the following volleyball skills (receive, set, underarm serve, blocking
and spike) three motor skills which will be enhanced in the proposed team drill.
3. Develop together the mechanics of a five-minute drill in terms of:
A. target motor skill
B. Materials needed
C. Sequence and duration of drill movements
D. Evaluation of the skill test
E. Safety precautions
F. Analysis and application of projectile motion concepts and principles.
(Show playing area diagrams and computations for ranges, heights and time)

4. Write your group proposal.

5. Get a venue and try out your team’s proposed drill sequence and movements.
Practice the final drill for presentation of proposal and demonstration of team drill
for the next session.

Timeline:
Date/Time Part Procedure Output
March 21, The class will be List of the members of
2022 Groupings divided into 5 groups each group.
composed of 6
members each.
March 22, Conduct group meeting Record minutes of their
2022 Planning and plan out the role of plan.
each member in the
development of the
volleyball drill proposal.
March 23- Draft for written The group will start Draft of written
24, 2022 proposal making draft for their proposal
written proposal.

84
 March 25, Finalizing the written
The group will finalize The final output of their
2022 proposal their written proposal written proposal.
as basis for their
demonstration.
March 28, Preparation for the The group will gather Gathered complete
2022 materials need all the materials needed materials.
needed.
March 29, Practice for Group Try out/Practice the The group mastered
2022 Presentation team’s proposed drill their presentation.
sequence and
movements.
March 30, Presentation Day Final presentation of Final performance of
2022 fun five minute team the team.
drill

Date of Submission
The submission of the written proposal will be on March 28, 2022, 11:59 pm, at
my email cubero.jackyloujean@dnsc.edu.ph. Only one from the group will do the
submission. Subject must be named: Grade 9 Quarter 4 Performance Task Written
Proposal. File name must be in this format: Grade & Section Written Proposal Group
Number.
The demonstration of a volleyball team drill will be on March 30, 2022 during class
schedule.

Rubrics
Before:
Peer Assessment Tool Checklist

Criteria Observed Not

Observed
Shared relevant information during small
group sharing.
Helped the group develop good ideas for the
written proposal.
Gave helpful suggestions regarding the
making of the written proposal and final
demonstration.
Accepted suggestions from others.

Listened carefully to other group members

during brainstorming activity.

Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p12

85
During:
Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric
Criteria/ 4 3 2 1
Contribution Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs
Level Satisfactory Improvement
Participation Group member Group Group member Group member
participated member participated but did not
fully and was participated wasted time participate,
always on task most of the regularly or wasted time, or
in a group. time and was was rarely on worked on
on task most task. unrelated
of the time. material.
Leadership Group member Group Group member Group member
assumed member usually allowed did not assume
leadership in sometimes others to leadership or
an appropriate assumed assume assumed it in a
way when leadership in leadership, nonproductive
necessary by an appropriate alternatively, or manner
helping the way. often
group stay on dominated the
track, group.
encouraging
group
participation,
posing
solutions to
problems, and
having a
positive
attitude.
Listening Group member Group Group member Group member
listened member sometimes did did not listen to
carefully to usually not listen to others and often
others’ ideas. listened to others’ ideas. interrupted them.
others’ ideas.
Feedback Group member Group Group member Group member
offered member occasionally did not offer
detailed, offered offered constructive or
constructive constructive constructive useful feedback.
feedback when feedback feedback, but
appropriate when sometimes the
appropriate. comments
were
inappropriate or
not useful
Cooperation Group member Group Group member Group member
treated others member often did not did not complete
respectfully usually complete most of the
and shared the completed assigned tasks assigned tasks
workload fairly. assigned on time, and on time and often
tasks on time held up forced the group
and did not completion of to make last-
hold up project work. minute
progress on adjustments and

86
 the projects changes to
because of accommodate
incomplete missing work.
work
Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p13

Summary of the Peer Assessment Collaboration Rubric

Group Participatio Leadersh Listening Feed back Cooperati Time
Member n ip on Managem
ent

Source: CHEd Educ321A Module 3 p14

Rubrics for the Demonstration:

CRITERION 20 15 10 5
COMMUNICATIO The group The group The group The group
N OF PROPOSAL communicate communicate communicate was able to
d the ideas d clearly the d the ideas present their
and explained ideas and and selected ideas but not
concept explained the concept the concept
applications selected applications. applications.
clearly and concept
effectively. applications
only.
USE OF PHYSICS Used Used Used Unclear used
KNOWLEDGE techniques for techniques for techniques for of technique
3 motor skills 2 motor skills 1 motor skill for skills
based on based on based on based on
physics physics physics physics
concepts and concepts and concepts and concepts and
principles and principles and principles and principles and
used terms used terms used a term or used terms
appropriately appropriately two inappropriatel
throughout the in some parts inconsistently y most of the
presentations. of the during the duration of the
presentation. presentation. presentation.
MOVEMENT Created a Created Selects some Has some
COMPOSITION wide range of athletic moves athletic moves difficulty in
athletic moves that were appropriate to creating
were appropriate to the moves
appropriate to the demonstration appropriate to
the demonstration of one or two the
demonstration of all two motor skills. demonstration
of all three motor skills. The drill of motor skills.
motor skills. The drill sequence The drill
The drill sequence showed a sequence was
sequence showed a simple use of a simple use
showed a competent space, time, of space, time,

87
 sophisticated use of space, level, force, level, force,
use of space, time, level, and flow. and flow.
time, level, force, and
force, and flow.
flow.
PERFORMANCE The group The group The group The group
performs with performs with perform with performs with
a high degree appropriate some energy little energy
of precision, degree of and precision. and precision.
style, and precision, The group The group
energy. The style, and applies some shows
group applies energy. The movements, awareness of
movements, group applies concepts and movements,
concepts and movements, tactics concepts and
tactics in a concepts and appropriately. tactics but has
critical and tactics difficulty in
effective appropriately. applying.
manner.

88
 Product-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment Task

Performance Standard
Create a device that shows the conservation of mechanical energy.

Product-Oriented Assessment Learning Objectives

The learners shall be able to:
1. explain energy transformation in various activities/events (e.g., waterfalls,
archery, amusement rides);
2. perform activities to demonstrate conservation of mechanical energy; and
3. infer that the total mechanical energy remains the same during any process.

Output Title
“The Dance of the Pendulum”

Rationale
In this product-oriented performance-based assessment task, the learners’ ability in
creativity, collaboration, and resourcefulness will be used in developing a working
pendulum. This task will help the students fully understand the relation of Potential Energy
and Kinetic Energy in producing a conserved total mechanical energy from simple and
common things we found around us. This task also allows learners to enhance their skills
in researching and exploring stuffs as they find the perfect material they needed for this
project.

Expected Output

Persons Involved in the Task

This task requires the class of 30 students to divide into 6 groups, with 5 members
each group. A leader must be selected in every group to help manage the whole group’s
performance in completing the task.

List of Possible Materials

1. Wood plank
2. Scissors
3. String, rope, or the like
4. Any adhesive material
5. Anything that the group needs to supply their creativity.

Process in Making the Outputs

1. The group will be given time to brainstorm ideas or search for samples online in
making their own pendulum.

89
 2. This project must be big enough to clearly demonstrate the conservation of
mechanical energy in the device and small enough to carry. (1-3 feet high only)
3. You can use any of the wood, plastic, or metal for the material of your base and
stand.
4. For the format. The font must be 12, regular, arial narrow, 1.5 spacing, bold
headings, normal margin, and in a long bond paper.
5. Do not forget to include putting your group number in the last portion of the
document together with the list of members.

Basic concept:
A simple pendulum consists of a light string tied at one end to a pivot point and attached
to a mass at the other end. The period of a pendulum is the time it takes the pendulum to
make one full back-and-forth swing.

Set A. Length of the Pendulum

1. Set the string of the pendulum such that it measures 65 cm.
2. Leave sufficient length such that it will still have a length of 65 cm after attaching
the mass and after attaching it to a fix point.
3. Hang a mass (washer) at the end of the string that will serve as the bob of the
pendulum.
4. Pull the mass back such that it makes an angle of 30° with its usual vertical
orientation.
5. Release the mass, allowing it to swing back and forth.
6. Use a stopwatch to measure the time it takes the pendulum to complete five full
swings.
7. Use the measured time as the period of the pendulum.
8. Perform at least 3 replicates.
9. Record your observation in you in the attached sheet.
10. Repeat steps 4-7, but this time, reduce the length of the string following these
recommended lengths:
a. 55 cm
b. 45 cm
c. 35 cm
d. 25 cm
e. 15 cm
11. Plot an appropriate line graph of the data.
12. Infer how the length of the string affects the period of the pendulum.
13. DO NOT FORGET TO TAKE PICTURES DURING THE CONDUCT OF
THE ACTIVITY AND ATTACH A HARD COPY ON YOUR SUBMISSION.

Set B. Mass of the Pendulum

1. Set the string of the pendulum such that it measures 65 cm.
2. Leave sufficient length such that it will still have a length of 65 cm after attaching
the mass and after attaching it to a fix point.
3. Hang a mass (washer) at the end of the string that will serve as the bob of the
pendulum.
4. Pull the mass back such that it makes an angle of 30° with its usual vertical
orientation.
5. Release the mass, allowing it to swing back and forth.
6. Use a stopwatch to measure the time it takes the pendulum to complete five full
swings.
7. Use the measured time as the period of the pendulum.
8. Perform at least 3 replicates.
9. Record your observation in your laboratory.

90
 10. Repeat steps 4-7, but this time, add the mass of the bob following these
recommended numbers of washers:
a. 2
b. 3
c. 4
d. 5
e. 6
11. Plot an appropriate line graph of the data.
12. Infer how the mass of the string affect the period of the pendulum.
13. DO NOT FORGET TO TAKE PICTURES DURING THE CONDUCT OF
THE ACTIVITY AND ATTACH THEM ON YOUR SUBMISSION.

COMPLETE THE DATA TABLE BELOW

Table 1. Varying the Length of the String

Period (s)
Length (cm) Replicate 1 Replicate 2 Replicate 3 Average
65
55
45
35
25
15

Graph 1:
- Insert a graph

Question:
How does the length of the string affect the period of the pendulum?

Table 2. Varying Mass of the Bob of the Pendulum

Period (s)
No. of Replicate 1 Replicate 2 Replicate 3 Average
washers
1
2
3
4
5
6

Graph 2:
- Insert a graph

Question:
How does the mass of the bob affect the period of the pendulum?

~ PICTURES DURING THE CONDUCT OF THE ACTIVITIES

91
Timeline:
Time Part Procedure Output
March 28, Finding of The class will form four List of members and
2022 members and groups and once they all attendance.
planning have a group, they select
their leader and organize for
brainstorming.
March 30, Preparation of The group will start Prepared possible
2022 materials researching information and materials
finding materials they need
for the performance task.
March 30, Performing of Students will perform the set Completed data of the
2022 Set A A of the given task. set A
April 1, Performing of Students will perform the set Completed data of the
2022 set B B of the given task. set B
April 4, Task Students will be reviewing Completed draft of the
2022 completion their work and data and will whole task.
be answering the questions
as well as organizing their
documentation.

Date of Submission
The submission of the task will be on April 4, 2022, during our class schedule.
Leaders will be the one to submit the group’s task.

Rubrics
Criteria 10 pts 8 pts 6 pts 4 pts 2 pts
Data for All data Most data Some data Few data Only 2-3
Set A entries are entries are entries are entries are entries are
complete. present. present. present. present.
Data for All data Most data Some data Few data Only 1-2 data
Set B entries are entries are entries are entries are entries are
completely present. present. present. present.
presented.
Graph Both Both graphs Only 1 of the Both graphs Both graphs
graphs are are graphs is are are
completely completely completely completely incompletely
labeled labeled and labeled and labeled but labeled and
and with few appropriately inappropriatel inappropriatel
appropriat points plotted. y plotted. y plotted.
ely plotted. inappropriatel
y plotted.
Pictures 5 or more 4 pictures are 3 pictures are 2 pictures are 1 pictures is
pictures posted; All posted; All posted; All posted; It is
are posted; pictures are pictures are pictures are relevant to
All pictures relevant to relevant to relevant to the actual
are the actual the actual the actual experimentati
relevant to experimentati experimentati experimentati on.
the actual on. on. on.
experiment
ation.

92
Inference Inferences Inferences Inferences Inferences Highly
are based are based on are based on are not based inconsistent
on tangible tangible data tangible data on tangible inferences.
data with but with few but with some data with a
no inconsistenci inconsistenci number of
inconsiste es. es. inconsistenci
ncies. es.

93
 Davao del Norte State College
Brgy. New Visayas, Panabo City, Davao del Norte,
Philippines, 8105
+63 824-1001-001
info@dnsc.edu.ph

COMPENDIUM OF PORTFOLIO
TASK DESIGN AND AFFECTIVE
ASSESSMENT TOOLS FOR
SCIENCES IN JUNIOR HIGH
SCHOOL
In the Fulfillment of the Requirement in the EDUC 321A-Assessment in
Learning 2 for the 2nd Semester of 2021-2022

Submitted to:
Ellvan C. Campos

Instructor

Submitted by:
BSED SCIENCE 3A

January
2022
GRADE 9
PORTFOLIO TASK
DESIGNS
 44

PROCESS PORTFOLIO

Performance Standard
The learners should be able to make a multimedia presentation of a timeline of
extinction of representative microorganisms, plants, and animals.

Objectives
The learners should be able to:
1. Analyze how microorganisms and other organisms go extinct.
2. Relate species extinction to the failure of population of organisms in the
changes of environment.
3. Create a process portfolio for students to monitor and facilitate their growth
over time.

Output Title
“Science Investigatory Project: A Process Portfolio in Quarter 1”

Rationale
A process portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that documents the
student growth from novice to master. Students can use portfolios to take more
ownership and responsibility for their learning. Portfolios are a tool for students to
examine and evaluate their work and academic achievement. Portfolios provide context
for documented evidence of teaching from a range of sources, not only student ratings.
Selecting and organizing materials for a portfolio can aid in reflection and improvement
of teaching.
This Process Portfolio Task emphasizes the learning process of the learners in
conducting science investigatory project by creating a multimedia presentation of the
timeline of extinction of representative microorganisms, plants, and animals. It includes
the systematic process by means of compiling all their drafts and revised papers in
every process together with the description and the reflection of the learners. In
addition, this portfolio will allow the learners to evaluate and see the importance of
investigating processes in a certain field. Lastly, this portfolio can be displayed during
parent-teacher conference that will deserve as their evidence on how far the learner
progress throughout the quarter.

Expected Output
The expected output of this portfolio is a compilation of all the processes that you
have undergone prior to achieving your final output in science investigatory project by
creating a multimedia presentation of a timeline of extinction of representative
microorganisms, plants, and animals.

Inclusion of Entries
In the making of your research paper, prior to achieving your output, you have
undergone series of drafts, revisions, and proposals. These will serve as a basis for
monitoring and facilitating your growth and progress in achieving your final output.
Include all the processes you have undergone along the way, like:

First output will be your drafts and scratch before conducting your Science
Investigatory Project.
Second output is your checked and revised concept paper.
Third output will be your proposal manuscript.
Fourth output will be your revised proposal manuscript after you have undergone
series of proposal defense.
Fifth output is the data collection phase, wherein you have gathered and
analyzes the data.
 45

Sixth output is your final manuscript that includes your chapters for results and
discussion, and recommendation and conclusion.
Seventh output is your revised final manuscript after you have undertaken series
of final defense.
Eight and the last output will be your final output in science investigatory project
by creating a multimedia presentation of the timeline of extinction of
representative microorganisms, plants, and animals

Order of Entries
The entries should be arranged in chronological order of all the processes you
have undergone prior to achieving your final output. In addition, each entry should have
a date attached at the upper right of the portfolio.

Profiling of Dates
You should state the date when the portfolio is processed, produced, submitted,
and evaluated. Date of each entry is very important not only for the order of entries but
to easily identify and monitor your progress and growth over time.

Students’ self-reflection
In every process you have undergone, after each process you have to include a
reflection about your experiences in the process of making your final output.
The following questions will be your guide questions in making your reflection paper:
What do you want to improve in this specific process?
What are the important things that you considered in this specific process?
For the last page in your portfolio, you will also include a reflection in making this
portfolio. The following questions will be your guide questions in making your reflection
paper:
As you accomplished your final output and as you make this process portfolio,
what are the significant things you have acquired and what are the learnings you
have encountered along the way?

Mode of providing feedback

As your teacher in science – 9, this process portfolio will be a big help for me and
for you to assess if you have effectively met the performance standard, and also to
evaluate if my guidance and teaching is effective as you progress in this quarter. I will
give feedback by writing comments about the portfolio entries and pointing down
significant things, like your growth over time.

Persons involved in the portfolio

The persons involved in the making of portfolio are the Science Grade 9
students.

Presentation of Final Output

As mentioned in the inclusions of entries of the portfolio, your portfolio must be
presented in this way:
Front page (The title of your output would be Science Investigatory Project:
A Process Portfolio in Quarter 1)
Cover letter (this will answer the questions “Who are you as a writer?”,
“What my portfolio shows about my progress as a learner?”)
Table of Contents
Divider containing the phrase “DRAFTS/SCRATCH”
Put all your entries on that component
Your Reflection
 46

Divider containing the phrase “CHECKED AND REVISED CONCEPT

PAPER”
. . . repeat the arrangement in inclusion of entries until you will reach “FINAL
OUTPUT”
Page numbers will not appear for every divider, thus the count for 1 should begin
on the first divider. The front-page paging will begin with the small Roman Numeral i
however it will not appear on the front page and will finish with the table of contents
section.
The ARIAL 12 font style should be used, with a spacing of 1.15; however, titles,
divider names, section names, and other texts that require emphasis may be larger than
font size 12, and may be bolded, italicized, and/or underlined.

Date of Submission:
The submission of your portfolio will be on June 16, 2022, 11:59pm. I will require
you to submit it as hardcopy, but for those who do not have money for printing, you may
opt to send it as softcopy through this email gludo.princesskeith@dnsc.edu.ph The file
must be in pdf format and named according to your Surname with grade and section
(ex. Juanito– G9A). The subject of the email must be named: Process Portfolio in
Science – 9 Quarter 1. For those who choose hardcopy, you can submit it in my faculty.

Rubrics
Once outputs have been submitted, process portfolio will be checked based on
the rubrics below.

Rubric for Assessing the Process Portfolio

CRITERION Highly Developed Emerging Weight SCORE
developed
(4) (3)
(5)
Content of The inclusion of There are few The are X3
the the portfolio is missing some
Portfolio complete. inclusions in missing
the portfolio. inclusions in
the portfolio.
Growth There is There is a There are X5
excellent significant just some
growth seen amount of growths
from the first growth from the seen in
draft to finishing first draft to making the
the output. finishing the output.
output.
Reflection The student The student The student X5
provides great provides only
reflection in the significant provides
making the reflection. little
output. significant of
reflection in
making the
output.
Total / 65
 47

SHOWCASE PORTFOLIO

Performance Standard:
The learners shall be able to analyze the percentage composition of different
brands of two food products and decide on the products’ appropriate percentage
composition.

Learning Objectives:
The learners should be able to:
• Present the relevance of the mole concept in determining the
percentage composition of a compound given its chemical formula and
vice versa.
• Create a showcase portfolio for students to monitor their progress and
growth in learning.
• Reflect and apply to real-life situations the knowledge that has gained.

Output Title:
“Showcase Portfolio – Quarter 2 – Science 9”

Rationale
A showcase portfolio is intended to showcase a learner's best work. This could
be done to emphasize student achievement or to display a range of accomplishments a
student has made through time. This portfolio allows students to describe and share
their own stories by presenting their work. Students can evaluate and discuss their work
and why they chose it by showcasing and presenting it. Students are held accountable
to always perform their finest work when they have a display, and they have a variety of
options when deciding what to present.
This portfolio is important in the teaching-learning process since it focuses on the
learning product and showcases the best student's work. It enables students to meet
the standards set by their teachers. This provides the connection between the teaching-
learning relationship, with abilities and accomplishments highlighted as educational
evidence of their academic progress.

Expected Output:
The expected output of this portfolio is a compilation of all your BEST outputs in
the 2 Quarter – Matter, starting from lessons 1 to 3. That includes written works such
nd

as essays, laboratory reports, reflection papers, data recording and analysis, graphs,
etc. as well as the performance activities such as laboratory experiments, multimedia
presentations, etc.

Inclusion of Entries:
The best outputs to be included in the portfolio are composed of written works
and performance outputs. Written works that are printed may be scanned or
photographed. Documentation pictures are for the performance output. For the grouped
works, members of the group may utilize the same pictures and attachments.
Additionally, for the multimedia presentations, you may attach a screenshot of a part of
it.

Order of Entries and Profiling of Dates:

In attaching your checked outputs in each lesson, they should be grouped
according to their type of output with the order: first, written works, then followed by the
performance outputs. Indicate the date of each output because it shall be
chronologically arranged, with the earliest date at first.
Example sequence:
A. Written Works
• Laboratory Report 1 (August 25, 2022)
 48

• Essay 1 (September 10, 2022)

B. Performance Outputs
• Presentation 1 (August 20, 2022)
• Video 1 (September 18, 2022)

Student’s Self-Reflection and Teacher’s Feedback:

At the end part of your final output, write a reflection about your overall
experience of this quarter and mention the skills that you have enhanced or developed.
The teacher will give feedback after all the students have submitted their portfolios. If it
is in written form, your portfolio will be returned to you and the teacher’s feedback can
be seen on the left side of your total score. On the other hand, if it is in oral form, the
teacher will inform you of your schedule.

Persons Involved:
All grade 9 students are expected to compile and submit individually.
Preliminary Parts of the Portfolio:
The following are the parts that should be seen in the portfolio:
• Front page (The title of your output would be Showcase Portfolio –
Quarter 2 – Science 9)
• Introduction
• Acknowledgement
• Table of contents
• Divider containing the phrase “LESSON 1: Chemical Bonding”
• Best outputs under Lesson 1
• Divider containing the phrase “LESSON 2: The Variety of Carbon
Compounds”
• Best outputs under Lesson 2
• Divider containing the phrase “LESSON 3: Mole Concept”
• Best outputs under Lesson 3
• Student’s Reflection

Page numbers will not appear for every divider, thus the count for 1 should begin
on the first divider. The front-page paging will begin with the small Roman Numeral i
however it will not appear on the front page and will finish with the table of contents
section.
The ARIAL 12 font style should be used, with a spacing of 1.15; however, titles,
divider names, section names, and other texts that require emphasis may be larger than
font size 12, and may be bolded, italicized, and/or underlined.
Submission of the Final Output:
The submission of the output will be on June 30, 2022, at 11:59 pm. You may
either send an e-copy to mejorada.marial@dnsc.edu.ph or a hardcopy.

Rubrics
Criteria Poor Fair Good Excellent Score
(1 pt.) (2 pts.) (3 pts.) (4 pts.)
Clarification of Instructions Students Students Students in
Students’ to students receive receive the program
Tasks for portfolio instructions instructions understand
development for their that the portfolio
provide portfolios, but describe the requirement
insufficient they still have teacher’s and the
detail for problems expectations rationale for it,
 49

them to know determining in detail and and they view

what the what is include the the portfolio as
teacher required of purpose of helping them
expects. them and/or the portfolio, develop self-
Instructions why they are types of assessment
may not compiling a evidence to skills. The
identify portfolio. include the teacher may
outcomes to role of the monitor the
be reflective developing
addressed in essay, and portfolio to
the portfolio. the format of provide
the finished formative
product. feedback
and/or advise
individual
students.
Components Only a few of Some of the Most of the All the
Completeness the required required required required
components components components components of
of the of the of the the portfolio
portfolio are portfolio are portfolio are are present
present and present and present and and followed
followed the followed the followed the the flow
flow format. flow format. flow format. format.
Organization The structure The structure The The structure
of the of the structure of of the portfolio
portfolio is portfolio is the portfolio is very well
not organized is organized.
organized. but needs organized.
Needs a lot some
of improvement.
improvement.
Selection of Only a few Some Most All outputs
Outputs outputs outputs outputs attached have
attached attached attached met the
have met the have met the have met purpose of the
purpose of purpose of the purpose portfolio.
the portfolio. the portfolio. of the
portfolio.
Teacher’s Feedback: Total Score:
 50

Documentation Portfolio

Rationale
A portfolio is a collection of a student's work that demonstrates how the student
can satisfy the learning objectives. A typical portfolio includes the student's work, the
rationale for their selection, and self-reflection on the learning process. Because a
portfolio is a developmental process, it encompasses not just the output that the student
or teacher evaluates, but also the learning process through which the student grows
over time. A portfolio is a type of assessment that tracks the progress and development
of a student's learning.
Furthermore, the purpose of a Documentation Portfolio is to highlight the growth
and progress of student learning through time. It frequently encompasses a variety of
objects, ranging from thought ideas to rough drafts to completed goods.

Expected Output
The expected output of this portfolio is a compilation of all your quizzes, written
reports, graded activities, printed outputs, and projects in the whole school year in this
science subject.

Inclusion of Entries
Detailed Description for Quizzes to be included:
In every lesson that we tackle each day, after the discussion you have answered
assessments and applications. Long and short quizzes must also be included. This will
be the inclusion criteria for the quizzes you have to compile, if there are instances that
the application and assessment is by group, each member of the group must get a copy
by printing or scanning the paper.

Detailed Description for written reports to be included:

In the latter part of every quarter, you are tasked to have a reporting about a
specific topic, and I require you to also have a written report. If there are instances that
the application and assessment is by group, each member of the group must get a copy
by printing or scanning the paper.

Detailed Description for graded activities to be included:

For every lesson I have integrated activities that are related to every topic we
discuss. Omit those activities that are just for fun and not graded, just include those
activities that are graded. For example, on the topic about volcanoes you undergone
jigsaw puzzle activity that is graded. If there are instances that the activity is by group,
each member of the group must get a copy by printing or scanning the paper.

Detailed Description for printed outputs to be included:

In the latter part of every quarter, you are tasked to make a synthesis paper that
summarizes all your learnings in that specific quarter. This will be included as part of
your printed outputs to show how you progress in each quarter.

Detailed Description for projects to be included:

At the end of every semester, you are required to submit a project related to the
lessons we have conducted in every quarter. Every project must be included in your
portfolio. If there are instances that the activity is by group, each member of the group
must get a copy by printing or scanning the paper and if the project is a 3d, you will just
take a picture of it then that will be your entry in your portfolio.

Order of Entries
The entries should be arranged in chronological order of all entries you have
included. In addition, each entry should have a date attached at the upper right of the
portfolio. In organizing your documentation portfolio, this will be the final arrangement:
 51

• With a minimum and maximum of 10 pages, compile all your outputs, including
your quizzes on June 1 – August 31.
• With a minimum and maximum of 10 pages, compile all your outputs including
your quizzes on September 1 – November 30.
• With a minimum and maximum of 10 pages, compile all your outputs, including
your quizzes on December 1 – February 28.
• With a minimum and maximum of 7 pages, compile all your outputs, including
your quizzes on March 1 – April 30.

Profiling of Dates
You should state the date when the portfolio is, produced, submitted, and
evaluated. Date of each entry is very important not only for the order of entries but to
easily identify and monitor your progress and growth over time.

Students’ self-reflection
After each component of your order of entries, you must write down your
reflection about your growth/progress on that specific time frame. The following
questions will be your guide questions in making your reflection paper:
What do you want to improve in this specific time frame?
What are the important things that you considered in this specific time frame?
For the last page in your documentation portfolio, you will also include a
reflection in making this portfolio. The following questions will be your guide questions in
making your reflection paper:
As you finished this subject and as you make this documentation portfolio, what
are the significant things you have acquired and what are the learnings you have
encountered along the way?

Mode of providing feedback

As your teacher in science – 9, this documentation portfolio will be a big help for
me and for you to assess if you have effectively met the performance standards, and to
evaluate if my guidance and teaching is effective as you progress in this school year. I
will give feedback by writing comments about the portfolio entries and pointing down
significant things, like your growth over time.
Persons Involved in the Task
Students enrolled in Grade-9 Science subject. Each student is tasked to compile
all of their individual and grouped outputs in order for them to monitor their progress in
this subject.

Presentation of Final Output:

As mentioned, this portfolio is a compilation of entries in whole school year. Your
portfolio should be presented in this way:
Front page (The title of your output would be DOCUMENTATION
PORTFOLIO IN SCIENCE – 9)
Cover letter (this will answer the questions “Who are you as a writer?”,
“What my portfolio shows about my progress as a learner?”)
Table of Contents
Divider containing the phrase “ENTRIES ON JUNE 1 – AUGUST 31”
Put all your entries on that specific time frame.
Reflection
Divider containing the phrase “ENTRIES ON SEPTEMBER 1 –
NOVEMBER 30”
. . . repeat the arrangement until you will reach “ENTRIES ON MARCH 1 –
APRIL 30”
 52

Page numbers will not appear for every divider, thus the count for 1 should begin
on the first divider. The front-page paging will begin with the small Roman Numeral i
however it will not appear on the front page and will finish with the table of contents
section.
The ARIAL 12 font style should be used, with a spacing of 1.15; however, titles,
divider names, section names, and other texts that require emphasis may be larger than
font size 12, and may be bolded, italicized, and/or underlined.

Date of Submission:
The submission of your portfolio will be on June 16, 2022, 11:59pm. I will require
you to submit it as hardcopy, but for those who do not have money for printing, you may
opt to send it as softcopy through this email patris.rovikent@dnsc.edu.ph The file must
be in pdf format and named according to your Surname with grade and section (ex.
Juanito– G9A). The subject of the email must be named: Documentation Portfolio in
Science – 9. For those who choose hardcopy, you can submit it in my faculty.
 53

AFFECTIVE
ASSESSMENT
TOOLS
 54

OBSERVATION CHECKLIST

Goal: The purpose of this checklist is to evaluate the student's work habits, study
habits, and social skills toward the activity on Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
Working with the other Organ System content.

Description: Put a check mark (/) on the “Not Yet”, “Sometimes”, or “Frequently” box to
evaluate each statement.

Name: Subject: Date:

Type of Assignment:

A. Work Habits Not Yet Sometimes Frequently

1. Complete task within the

timeframe.

2. Never hesitate to ask help when

needed.

3. Proactively get things done.

B. Study Habits

4. Organize a study plan.

5. Write down key facts.

6. Manage time wisely.

C. Social skills

7. Works well with others.

8. Listen to others.

9. Offer help proactively.

Comments:

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________
 55

Observation Checklist Interpretation

Response Description

Not Yet The behaviour does not meet by the

student as of the moment.

Sometimes The behaviour may be observed to the

student at some point, but not always.

Frequently The behaviour meets by the student

regularly.
 56

RATING SCALE

Goal: The aim of this rating scale is to evaluate students’ performance towards
Refraction of Light in Mirror Experimentation.

Direction: Put the score on the column for each of the statements as it applies to you.
Use 1 to 5 as you rate, 1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest.
SCORE
1. I am able to understand the topic though the
experiment.
2. I enjoy the experiment since it will also be applied
on real life scenario.
3. I am having a hard time to understand the
experiment.
4. I am skeptic in doing the experiment because of
the experiment because of different perspective
and ideas of my classmates.
5. It is easy for me to observe real life applications
along experiment
6. I am comfortable to demonstrate the experiment.
7. I can easily demonstrate experiment.
8. I do participate in the experiment to learn.
9. I am enjoying the experiment because I discover
new ideas that is very important in my chosen
field.
10. I can now apply what I learned from the
experiment in my daily life.

Rating Scale Interpretation

Score Description

1-10 The experiment incompetently helps the

students in understanding the topic.

11-20 The experiment sufficiently helps the

students in understanding the topic.

21-30 The experiment competently helps the

students in understanding the topic

31-40 The experiment excellently helps the

students in understanding the topic.
 57

LIKERT SCALE

Goal: The goal of this scale is to evaluate the student’s stimulus towards the laboratory
activity on Electricity and Magnetism.

Direction: Write a check (✓) on the column that corresponds your answer.

Legend:
(1) Strongly Agree
(2) Agree
(3) Neutral
(4) Disagree
(5) Strongly Disagree

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree
1. I am confident to participate on
the laboratory activity because
the topic was introduced and
explained clearly by our teacher
beforehand.
2. My knowledge on the topic is
insufficient for me to feel the
eagerness in doing the activity.
3. I feel enthusiastic to do the
laboratory activity.
4. I feel unmotivated in
participating to the laboratory
activity.
5. I perform better because it’s a
collaborative activity.
6. I perform fairly because I prefer
to work on the activity
individually.
7. I am satisfied with my
performance during the
laboratory activity.
8. I do not feel the satisfaction to
my performance during the
activity.
9. I learn better on the topic
because it is associated with
laboratory activity.
10. I find it more difficult to
comprehend the lesson due to
the laboratory activity.

Scale Results Interpretation

 58

Total Score Description

Students may have encountered several

50-45 difficulties in responding and participating
to the laboratory activity.

44-35 Students are trying to adopt learning by

participating in the laboratory activity.

Students are showing interest and

33-16 developing eagerness in doing the
laboratory activity.

25-10 Students are motivated and responding to

efficient learning through the conduct of
laboratory activity.

.
 60

SENTENCE COMPLETION

Goal: The goal of this sentence completion is to know and evaluate the perception of
students on the science subject, specifically on the topic relating to living things and
their environment.

Direction: After encountering the topic relating to living things and their environment,
complete the following sentences by filling in the space provided below the number.

1. As a student, I think science is

Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
2. My experience in learning science is
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
3. When learning about science I feel
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
4. The significance of learning science for me is
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
5. My level of motivation when learning science is
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
6. It is interesting to learn science when
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
7. I think learning science is helpful in a way that
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
8. I face difficulty in learning science when
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
9. I think learning science motivates me to
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory
10. My level of confidence when asked about science is
Complete the sentences based on your evaluation of virtual laboratory

Note: Since sentence completion is under constructed response, interpretation can be

seen on what their responses are. The response of students will be gathered and
analyzed based on the goal of the test.
 80

(n.d.). Stark State College - community college in North Canton, Ohio.

https://www.starkstate.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/REVISED-MASTER-
RUBRIC.pdf

Sentence completion test « history of projective testing. (n.d.). History of Projective

Testing. https://projectivetests.umwblogs.org/popular-tests/sentence-completion-
test/

Polytechnic University of the Philippines. (n.d.). Rubrics for Field Study Portfolio.
https://imgv2-2-
f.scribdassets.com/img/document/original/f6acbc87a8/1568766438?v=1

Tsateri, R. (2021, February 28). B2 essay checklist. Freeed. Retrieved June 14, 2022,
from https://www.freeed.com/articles/2605/b2-essay-checklist

Turngren, H. (2013). Unit 1.9: Earth and Space Science – Earth’s Orbit & Review.
Minnesota Literacy Council.
https://www.literacymn.org/sites/default/files/curriculum/unit_1.9_earths_orbit_an
d_space_science_review.pdf