Wear 523 (2023) 204764

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Wear
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

On the low temperature tribological behaviour of brake block materials for

railway applications under dry and icy conditions
L. Pelcastre a, *, L.-M. Weniger a, J. Hardell a
a
Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Division of Machine Elements, Sweden

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Incidents in the Swedish railway have been observed where a significant and sudden loss of brake performance
Sub-zero tribology occurs in winter conditions, on trains equipped with composite tread brake blocks (CBB). There is a necessity to
Tribotesting establish test methods that can be used for the evaluation of brake materials under well-controlled laboratory
Railway tribology
conditions, to facilitate an understanding of the friction mechanisms between brake block and steel wheel. This
Composite brake materials
work sought to characterise the tribological behaviour of different CBB materials at room temperature and
− 15 ◦ C, focusing on understanding the materials response with and without presence of ice in the contact, as well
as the effect of temperature on the tribological behaviour. A pearlitic cast iron brake block was used as a
reference and four CBB materials were investigated, two organic and two sintered. The sintered CBB showed
similar friction coefficient to the reference material and higher than the organic CBB, both at room and at low
temperature. This was also seen when ice was formed on the wheel steel counter surface at − 15 ◦ C. Higher wear
was observed for the sintered CBB compared to the organic CBB. The results suggest that sintered CBB can
provide higher friction under winter conditions compared to organic CBB.

1. Introduction
Tread brake blocks are commonly used in train braking systems due
to their relatively simple geometry and reliability [1]. The friction
response between the steel wheel and brake blocks directly influences
the braking operation of train sets, where low values of friction can
result in extended braking distances. According to Ref. [2], friction co­
efficient levels between 0.1 and 0.3 are necessary for reliable braking
operation. However, as in any tribological system, the friction response
is affected by the operating conditions. Parameters such as temperature
or humidity can affect the friction values, and thus the braking dis­
tances. Humidity has been acknowledged to impact braking perfor­
mance as well as the wheel/rail interaction, where an increase of
humidity reduces friction between the surfaces [3–6], and extreme
operating temperatures can change the mechanical properties of brakes,
wheels, and rail, hence also the tribological behaviour of the system
changes [5]. In countries with severe winter conditions, sub-zero tem­
peratures introduce challenges such as ice formation, fly-off snow, as
well as increased brittleness of the operating materials [5]. The presence
of snow, and eventual melting due to frictional heating, can lead to a
reduction of the friction due to permeation of a water film into the
contact.
Traditionally, cast iron has been used in train applications due to its
reliability in terms of braking performance, as it is not significantly
affected by changes in temperature and operates well even under snow
and winter conditions [7,8]. However, cast iron has also several disad­
vantages such as high noise pollution and high airborne particle emis­
sions [6,9]. Thus, efforts are being made towards implementing
alternative materials. These materials include composite organic or
sintered materials and these offer significant improvements in terms of
noise reduction without compromising braking performance. Studies
have shown that these types of materials lead to lower friction than cast
iron in the brake block/wheel contact, lower the noise, and lead to lower
particle emissions. However, their performance is sensitive to the
operating temperatures and humidity [6,10]. In an incident report by
the Swedish Transport Agency in 2017 [11], a reduction of the braking
performance (long braking distances) of train sets using composite brake
blocks (CBB), and operating at temperatures below 0 ◦ C, was high­
lighted. Additionally, it was observed that ice formation took place on
brake blocks made of composite materials, whereas this was not the case
for cast iron blocks. In a follow-up case study done on trains operating in
the Swedish railway system, it was highlighted that a loss of braking

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: leonardo.pelcastre@ltu.se (L. Pelcastre).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2023.204764
Received 19 September 2022; Received in revised form 28 November 2022; Accepted 4 January 2023
Available online 20 March 2023
0043-1648/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
L. Pelcastre et al.
performance is more dominant on empty or lightly loaded trains, due to
a low braking force. The problem was particularly severe at tempera­
tures below - 15 ◦ C and with fly-off snow present, and it was observed
directly after starting the train as well as during operation [12].
The presence of snow and its melting can lead to a reduction of
friction due to a separation of the surfaces. Olofsson et al. [7] have
pointed out that this effect can be alleviated by modifying the surface
topography of the brake blocks. However, ice has also been reported to
form on the brake blocks and it is not currently known if an actual thin
layer of ice is formed in the contact and, if so, how this affects the
friction response of the system. There is also a wide variety of composite
materials that are yet to be explored regarding their behaviour at
sub-zero temperatures. The current study focuses on evaluating the
tribological performance of different composite brake block materials at
room and sub-zero temperatures, and under vacuum and vented/icy
conditions, in order to characterise the friction and wear response of the
materials and their susceptibility to varying ambient conditions, such as
presence or lack of ice on the surface, or the influence of humidity on
their tribological response.
2. Experimental procedure
Two different test configurations have been used in this study. A
block-on-ring test configuration under ambient conditions, and a pin-on-
disc configuration where low temperature tests have been performed in
presence of ice or in vacuum. This section describes the experimental
methods and materials.
2.1. Test materials
The experimental materials consisted of five different commercially
available brake block materials. A commercially available cast iron P10
with graphite flakes was used as a reference. Two organic CBB were
evaluated, a type LL Icerail/Becorit IB116* (hereafter referred to as
IB116*), and a type K Jurid 822 (referred to as J822). Two sintered CBB
were also considered, a type LL CoFren C952 (referred to as C952) and a
type K CoFren C333 (referred to as C33). Type LL are considered low
friction materials, and type K are high friction materials. These were
Fig. 1. Appearance of the tests specimens used for the a) block-on-ring tests, and b) specimens for the pin-on-disc tests.
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Wear 523 (2023) 204764
machined into rectangular blocks from new brake blocks using band
saw, turning, and milling.
The counter specimens were machined from a used train wheel made
from ER7 steel. The hardness of the wheel steel specimens at the test
surface was 245 HV0.3 for the rings and 270 HV0.3 for the discs. Since the
specimens were taken from a worn train wheel, the hardness was higher
near the surface due to strain hardening that occurs during operation.
The contact surface in the tribological tests with the block-on-ring was
within the bulk of the wheel, whereas the contact surface of the discs
was near the surface of the wheel, and thus slightly harder.
In case of the block-on-ring tests, the dimensions of the block spec­
imens were 11.6 mm × 9.75 mm x 6.3 mm, and the ring specimen di­
mensions were Ø35 mm and 8.8 mm wide. The pin-on-disc tests were
conducted using pin specimens of Ø6 mm and 8 mm height and disc
specimens of Ø50 mm and 3 mm thickness. The appearance of the
different test specimens after manufacturing can be seen in Fig. 1.
The surface topography of the as-manufactured rings and the discs
consisted of a defined surface lay, and in both cases, sliding was done
parallel to the orientation of the grooves. The surface roughness (Sa)
measured prior to the tribological tests was 0.93 μm for the rings and
0.35 μm for the disc specimens. Surface roughness measurements were
performed on a Zygo NewView 3D optical profiler, and the stated
roughness values are averaged over three samples each.
The measured surface roughness for the brake block materials after
manufacturing was as follows; Cast iron had the highest surface
roughness (Sa), 4.22 μm. The C333 material exhibited a higher Sa value
(3.31 μm) compared to the C952 specimen (1.71 μm). For the organic
materials, J822 was higher in roughness (3.27 μm) compared to the
IB116* specimen (1.78 μm). It is important to note that no brake block
specimen showed a preferential orientation of the surface.
Fig. 2 shows the microstructures of the different brake materials.
Cast iron has randomly distributed graphite flakes. Sintered C952 had a
ferrous matrix and the main aggregates incorporated large Cu-rich
phases, Cr-rich particles, Mn-rich particles, and other particles con­
taining Ca, Al, Si, and Mg likely in oxidised form, as well as carbonous
aggregates. The sintered C333 material consisted of multiple phases and
particles in a ferrous matrix. The larger aggregates identified were Cr-
rich particles, Al-rich particles and particles containing oxidised Al,
L. Pelcastre et al. Wear 523 (2023) 204764

Fig. 2. Microstructure of the brake material specimens. a) Cast iron, b) sintered type LL C952, c) sintered type K C333, d) organic type LL IB116*, and e) organic type
K J822.

Ca, Si, Mg and Ca. Other agglomerates with particles containing Ti, Cu,
Mo, Mn, V and S, furthermore, carbonous phases were also observed.
The organic material IB116* was primarily composed of a carbon matrix
with Fe, Al, Ca, and Si aggregates. J822 had overall smaller aggregate
size distribution and a larger number of phases. Elements such as Fe, Al,
Zn, Ti, Zr, Mg, Ca, S, Na and K were detected for this material. All of the
brake materials showed porosity, however, the sintered materials
showed larger pores.

2.2. Test procedure: block-on-ring

For the friction and wear studies at room temperature, a CETR UMT
tribometer with a block-on-ring test setup was employed. The trib­
ometer consists of an upper carriage and a lower rotational drive, Fig. 3.
The upper carriage incorporates a load cell that can measure both the
Fig. 3. The block-on-ring test set up (left) and close-up of the test specimen
friction force and the applied normal force. The lower part of the trib­ mounted in the test rig (right).
ometer has a rotational drive with a shaft onto which the ring specimen
is mounted.
contact pressure towards the end of the test, the projected area of the
The test parameters are given in Table 1. The test was initiated by
worn surfaces of the block materials was calculated. Representative
starting the rotation of the ring specimen and thereafter applying the
images of the wear scars are shown in Fig. 4.
normal load to engage the block with the rotating ring. In these tests, the
The estimated final contact pressures for each material combination
block and ring specimens were first run in for a period of 300 s, corre­
based on the wear scar measurements is given in Table 2. These vary
sponding to a sliding distance of 825 m. The test was then stopped and
between 0.3 and 0.6 MPa, which is in the same order of magnitude as in
restarted without manipulating the test specimens. The second part of
the pin on disc tests done on this study, and as the maximum pressures in
the test was 1000 s corresponding to 2750 m sliding distance.
a brake shoe to wheel contact as stated by Olofsson [13].
It is important to highlight that as the test progresses, the contact
area changes as wear of the block specimen takes place. To estimate the

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L. Pelcastre et al. Wear 523 (2023) 204764

Table 1
Test parameters used for the block-on-ring tests.
Parameter Value Table 2
Contact pressure at the end of the block-on-ring tests.
Load 5N
Contact pressure (Hertzian line contact) 30 MPa Material Average CP (MPa) Std dev.
Sliding speed 2.75 m/s cast iron 0.36 0.04
Rotational speed 1500 rpm C952 0.33 0.05
Sliding distance 825 + 2750 m C333 0.32 0.05
Temperature R.T. (23 ◦ C) IB116 0.43 0.04
Relative humidity 20–30% J822 0.59 0.02

2.3. Test procedure: pin-on-disc

The low temperature tests were conducted by means of an Rtec

MVT2 tribometer, Fig. 5. In this tribometer, the upper pin specimen,
which incorporates a load cell for measurement of the friction force and
control of the applied normal force, is loaded against the counter spec­
imen. The disc specimen is clamped onto a rotating drive, which can be
actively cooled by liquid nitrogen and heated by resistive heating. The
tribometer incorporates a chamber for environmental control, which
allows vacuum testing with a pressure of 10− 6 mbar.
Two types of tests were conducted per brake material. One was under
vacuum conditions, and the other was in vented (atmospheric) condi­
tions with a relative humidity of 25–35%. The vacuum conditions give
an indication of the friction behaviour of the brake materials at low
temperature without significant influence of ice or oxide formation,
whereas the tests with room atmospheric conditions allow the formation Fig. 5. MVT-2 low temperature and vacuum tribometer.

Fig. 4. Representative optical micrographs of the block specimen wear scars. a) cast iron, b) C952, c) C333, d) IB116* and d) J822.

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L. Pelcastre et al. Wear 523 (2023) 204764

of ice, thus giving an indication of the friction behaviour under icy

conditions.
For the tests, the lower drive was initially taken to the corresponding
rotation speed. The upper specimen was then loaded onto the lower
specimen until the desired load was reached. In these tests, an initial
running-in step was conducted for a sliding distance of 500 m, this was
done at room temperature in order to accommodate the surfaces to each
another. The running-in step was done in all cases at room temperature,
and it was done either in vacuum or in ambient atmospheric conditions
accordingly. After the running-in, the specimens were disengaged, and
cooling was initiated. Only the lower disc specimen is cooled down and
the specimen rotates at low speeds while cooling. Once the desired
temperature of − 15 ◦ C was reached, the upper specimen was once again
engaged, and the test was run for a sliding distance of 1000 m. The
detailed test parameters used for the experiments are given in Table 3.

3. Results and discussion

Fig. 6. Average coefficient of friction for the different test materials in the
block-on-ring test configuration at room temperature.
The following sections present and discuss the obtained results.

the tribological tests can be seen. The relative mass loss was calculated
3.1. Friction behaviour at room temperature
in relation to its initial weight. This presentation of the data was chosen
due to the large variation in density of the different brake block mate­
Fig. 6 shows the average friction without taking into consideration
rials. As seen, the CBB materials that underwent the most significant
the running-in stage of the block-on-ring tests at room temperature. The
wear were the type K sintered C333, followed by the type K organic
friction of the cast iron block was relatively repeatable and among the
J822. On the other hand, the type LL brake materials had similar relative
highest of all the brake block materials, showing an average coefficient
weight loss, but these two materials had significant difference con­
of friction (CoF) of 0.24. The type LL organic IB116* CBB showed a low
cerning their friction behaviour. In terms of wear of the wheel steel, this
average friction coefficient (0.05) with very low scatter compared to the
specimen undergoes the most significant wear after interaction against
other tests. The CoF for the type K organic J822 material was 0.15 with a
the sintered type LL C952 and the cast iron.
more significant scatter than the cast iron or the IB116* materials.
An example of the appearance of the topography of the cast iron
Concerning the sintered materials, the type K C333 material showed
block sliding against the wheel steel material is shown in Fig. 8. The steel
a large variation in friction behaviour and an average CoF of 0.21 was
ring underwent a smoothening of the surface asperities, changing from
calculated, which was higher than the organic type K. The type LL C952
an arithmetic surface roughness (Sa) of 0.93 μm–0.50 μm. In the case of
material presented a rather high friction coefficient (0.22) compared to
the cast iron brake sample, the surface developed a surface lay in the
that of IB116*, and even slightly higher than the type K sintered
direction of sliding, which mirrored that of the ring. A significantly
material.
smoother surface was left after the tribological tests, changing from a Sa
It is expected that the type LL materials should have similar friction
of 4.22 μm–0.35 μm.
between them, however, the friction level of C952 is similar to the type K
After the tribological tests with the sintered materials significant
sintered material and only relatively lower than cast iron. The type LL
wear was observed both on the steel ring and the CBB block for both
organic material (IB116*) is supposed to have lower CoF than the type K
cases (Fig. 9). In the tests corresponding to the type LL C952 brake
material (J822), which is seen in these results, but it deviates signifi­
material (Fig. 9a and b), the blocks developed a texture in the direction
cantly from the sintered type LL (C952). The observed behaviour in this
of sliding, with coarse grooves and high waviness. The surface roughness
study may be due to the test conditions. For example, it has been re­
in this case decreased from the initial values (1.7 μm) to values around 1
ported in other studies that the coefficient of friction of sintered mate­
μm. The rings also underwent significant topographical changes, where
rials is dependent on the sliding velocity. Ferrer et al. [14] observed
fine grooves developed and an increase in waviness took place. The
increased friction at lower speeds for the sintered materials, and they
also observed an inverse behaviour for cast iron, where lower speeds
resulted in lower friction coefficients. Only the IB116* showed values
significantly lower compared to other values reported in the open
literature [14], although it is important to highlight that those values
pertain to pin-on-disc test configurations.

3.2. Wear behaviour at room temperature

Wear of the specimens varied significantly depending on which

materials were in contact. In Fig. 7, the relative mass loss measured after

Table 3
Test parameters used for the pin-on-disc tests.
Test parameter Value

Load 10 N
Contact pressure 0.35 MPa
Sliding speed 2.3 m/s
Temperature − 15 ◦ C
Fig. 7. Relative mass loss of the block and ring test specimens after the
Sliding distance 500 + 1000 m
tribological tests.

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L. Pelcastre et al.
Fig. 8. Surface topography after the tribological tests using cast iron brake block. a) block surface, and b) ring surface. Arrows indicate sliding direction.
Fig. 9. Surface topography after the tribological tests. a) block surface, and b) ring surface from tests with C952 CBB. c) block surface, and d) ring surface from tests
with C333 CBB. Arrows indicate sliding direction.
roughness also varied depending on where it was measured, and it
ranged from a Sa of 0.30–0.70 μm.
High wear was also observed for the type K C333 sintered material
(Fig. 9c and d). In this case, finer grooves were developed on the block
compared to C952. In both cases, slight build-up at the peaks of the
surface lay could be observed. The ring underwent a slight smoothening
(from a Sa 0.9 to ~0.85 μm) whereas the block developed a surface
topography with an average surface roughness of ~0.65 μm, which was
significantly lower than the initial measured roughness (3.31 μm).
The surface topography of the organic CBB materials is presented in
Fig. 10. For the tests with the type LL IB116* specimen (Fig. 10a and b),
the surfaces underwent uniform wear. Small grooves that mirror the
surface of the ring could be observed on the block specimens. The sur­
face of the ring remained largely unaffected, only minor instances of
build-up, likely due to material transfer, could be observed at the peaks
of the surface lay. The measured surface roughness Sa after the test was
~0.35 μm and ~0.93 μm for the block and the ring, respectively. The
CBB specimen underwent clear smoothening, with the peaks of the new
surface lay being smaller than those in the previous cases. This may also
correlate with the low friction measured for this material combination,
as a smooth surface was developed, and thus the influence from the
ploughing component of friction from this surface was lower.
Regarding the interaction between the type K J822 brake block
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Wear 523 (2023) 204764
material and the wheel steel material (Fig. 10c and d), mild wear of the
steel ring was observed, with instances of material transfer. The
measured Sa varied between 0.70 and 1 μm. The block developed a
surface lay mirroring the ring surface, and the final surface roughness
was measured between 1.0 and 1.6 μm.
In general, there was no specific trend linking the wear of the block
materials and their friction behaviour. For example, IB116* showed the
lowest friction values, but underwent neither the lowest nor highest
wear. On the other hand, cast iron and the sintered brake block materials
all had similar levels of friction, but no clear trend in regard to wear of
the blocks could be observed. Contrasting to this, the wear occurring on
the ring surface had a more direct correlation with the levels of the
coefficient of friction observed, where the tribosystems with the highest
wear on the rings showed the higher values in friction. This highlights
that friction levels cannot be directly linked to lower wear or particle
generation, which is somewhat contrasting with other studies that have
shown that cast iron has increased friction and particle emission,
whereas organic brake materials show low friction and low particle
emission [6]. It is important to note however, that the materials in that
study as well as the test conditions are different, but it showcases the
complexity of the tribosystem.
L. Pelcastre et al.
Fig. 10. Surface topography after the tribological tests. a) block surface, and b) ring surface from tests with IB116* CBB. c) block surface, and d) ring surface from
tests with J822 CBB. Arrows indicate sliding direction.
3.3. Friction behaviour in sub-zero conditions
The behaviour of the friction coefficient as a function of time for the
low temperature tests is exemplified and discussed in this section. In
these figures, the initial dashed part of the curve corresponds to the
running-in period (500 m), which was done in all cases at room tem­
perature. The following part of the curve corresponds to the test at low
temperature (1000 m). In all cases, a representative curve from the three
tests was selected. It is important to note that although ice was devel­
oped on the disc surface when the test chamber system was cooling
down, the ice tended to melt after the specimens were engaged.
Fig. 11 shows the friction behaviour for the cast iron. As seen, during
the running-in period, the cast iron stabilises its friction coefficient at
values around 0.5 in both vacuum and icy conditions. In vacuum, it
shows an increasing tendency with time, whereas in icy condition, it
shows transitions from 0.04 to 0.07 throughout the entire duration of
the test.
The evolution of the coefficient of friction with time for the sintered
materials can be seen in Fig. 12. These materials showed a relatively
stable behaviour under vacuum conditions. After the running-in, friction
did not change significantly, and it quickly stabilised. Under icy
Fig. 11. Evolution of the friction coefficient as a function of time for the cast
iron at low temperature (− 15 ◦ C). Dashed lines indicate running-in.
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Wear 523 (2023) 204764
conditions, the behaviour was much more stable for the C952 material
than it was for C333. The latter had significant changes in friction
throughout the test, and it also showed more variance from test to test,
where the friction coefficient varied from 0.05 to 0.15. This indicates
that even though the average friction level is higher compared to other
tests, the C333 material can at times also experience similarly low co­
efficient of friction compared to the other brake materials.
In the case of the organic materials (Fig. 13), stable and low friction
was observed under vacuum. Type LL IB116* had a reducing tendency
with time, whereas type K J822 remained stable. Under icy conditions,
the coefficient of friction varied throughout the test within a range of
0.03–0.07 for IB116* and from 0.025 to 0.09 for J822. In this case, in dry
and vacuum condition, both materials exhibited lower and stable fric­
tion coefficient compared to the sintered materials.
In Fig. 14, the average friction coefficients of all the tested materials
under low temperature, and vacuum and icy conditions are shown.
These values are calculated only after the running-in has taken place.
Under vacuum, the friction coefficient was the highest for the cast iron
(0.65) followed by the sintered materials, C952 (0.57) and C333 (0.58),
type LL and type K respectively. The organic materials had the lowest
friction coefficient, with the type LL IB116* being the lowest (0.25), and
type K J822 being the highest (0.35). These values give an indication on
the direct effect of temperature on friction for cast iron as well as
different CBB materials without any influence from oxidation and other
contaminants such water and/or ice. When no oxidation or water is in
the contact, the coefficient of friction of different brake materials re­
mains relatively high, with the notable exception of the IB116*. This is
in agreement with other results from the literature, where it has been
observed that sintered brake materials show higher coefficient of fric­
tion than organic materials [10].
Under icy conditions, all of the materials showed low coefficients of
friction, where the cast iron and the organic IB116* material were the
lowest at 0.045 and 0.041 respectively. The type K J822 had a slightly
higher coefficient of friction (0.049). Under these conditions, the ma­
terials with the highest friction coefficient were the sintered materials,
where type K C333 was the highest (0.098) followed by type LL C952
(0.057). This indicates that formation of an ice layer in the contact can
be problematic for all types of brake materials.
Some studies and case-study reports highlight the possibility of ice
L. Pelcastre et al.
Fig. 12. Evolution of the friction coefficient as a function of time for the sintered materials at low temperature (− 15 ◦ C). a) C952, and b) C333. Dashed lines indicate
running-in.
Fig. 13. Evolution of the friction coefficient as a function of time for the organic materials at low temperature (− 15 ◦ C). a) IB116*, and b) J822. Dashed lines indicate
running-in.
Fig. 14. Comparison of the average coefficient of friction for the different
brake block materials at low temperature (− 15 ◦ C).
developing under the bogie area of the trains, at the brake clamp region,
leading to problems related to ice melting and water entering the contact
between the wheel and the brake block [11,15,16]. In an experimental
evaluation concerning the effects of snow on the friction behaviour of
different brake block materials, it was observed that the coefficient of
friction is significantly lower when snow enters the contact, due to
melting of the snow [7]. This problem is also present at higher tem­
peratures, as braking distances are known to increase under wet con­
ditions [1] due to the lubricating effects of water. In contrast to the
observations in this study, a report from field studies done for the
Swedish Transport Agency in 2021 [17], organic type LL IB116* mate­
rial has shown good performance in sub-zero temperatures, as minimal
braking distance increase was observed when using brake blocks of this
CBB. However, the report does not specify whether there was significant
presence of ice around the brake pads nor the details of the study such as
running-in procedure for different brake block materials, condition of
wheels sets during testing, and weather conditions during the different
tests. This highlights one of the main challenges with field tests, namely
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Wear 523 (2023) 204764
varying conditions both in terms of materials as well as environment.
In the present study, it was observed that the nature of the CBB
material, whether organic or sintered, has an effect on how low or high
the friction coefficient can be under icy conditions. It was particularly
clear that composite sintered materials have a higher coefficient of
friction than cast iron, particularly C333, albeit with high scatter.
3.4. Wear mechanisms after tests in sub-zero conditions
Fig. 15 shows the worn surfaces from the tests at − 15 ◦ C using the
cast iron brake material. Adhesive wear was the dominant wear mech­
anism for the vented and icy condition. However, vacuum resulted in
more severe adhesive wear, as larger plastic deformation in the form of
surface flattening was observed, with higher severity on the disc.
Delamination wear as a result of the cyclic nature of the test was
observed on the plastically deformed regions. Furthermore, the pins
from the vacuum tests also showed presence of abrasive wear.
Concerning the vented, icy tests, adhesive wear was also seen on the
worn surfaces but with milder severity compared to the vacuum tests.
Furthermore, formation of tribolayers containing oxygen and other el­
ements from the cast iron was found on both specimens, and these tri­
bolayers had a smooth appearance. The observations concerning
formation of said tribolayers are in agreement with reports from the
open literature, where in the presence of snow or wet condition,
oxidation was observed [4,6,10]. Fig. 15c shows an EDS measurement
taken in the adhesive wear region that resulted in a deformed flattened
surface (feature marked as “A” in the figure) on the wheel steel disc
material, in vacuum conditions, where no significant oxidation takes
place. Fig. 15f shows the EDS from a tribolayer measured on the disc
surface from the icy tests (feature marked as “T”), where significant
presence of oxide can be observed.
The type LL sintered material C952, showed significantly different
wear behaviour compared to the cast iron. As seen in Fig. 16, under
vacuum conditions, adhesive and abrasive wear were both present on
the wheel steel specimen. Furthermore, the brake material underwent
severe adhesive wear, and delamination and fragmentation were
observed in the regions with significant plastic deformation.
L. Pelcastre et al. Wear 523 (2023) 204764

Fig. 15. Worn surfaces from the low temperature tests (− 15 ◦ C) using cast iron. a) disc surface under vacuum, b) pin surface under vacuum, c) EDS spectra from the
flattened area “A”, d) disc surface under vented/icy condition, e) pin surface under vented/icy condition, and f) EDS spectra from the tribolayer “T”.

Fig. 16. Worn surfaces from the low temperature tests (− 15 ◦ C) using C952. a) disc surface under vacuum, b) pin surface under vacuum, c) EDS spectra from the
flattened area “A”, d) disc surface under vented/icy condition, e) pin surface under vented/icy condition, and f) EDS spectra from the tribolayer “T”.

In the icy tests, tribolayers containing oxygen were also formed on
the disc surface, but in this case, the presence of both adhesive and
abrasive wear was also observed. The abrasive wear was more dominant
although relatively mild, with mostly micro-cutting taking place. Ad­
hesive wear and flattened, smooth regions, were observed on the surface
of the brake material. This highlights that the presence of ice and/or
water reduced the influence of adhesion, hence the ploughing compo­
nent, and abrasive wear as a result, became more significant. This in­
dicates that the low friction observed under these conditions, is a result
of the interaction between the smooth load-bearing regions developed
on the pin, the mild abrasive wear and likely the presence of water and/
or ice in the contact, which reduced the adhesive component from the
system.
The worn surfaces from the tests using the type K C333 sample are
given in Fig. 17. Under vacuum conditions, adhesive wear was prevalent
for this material combination. In this case, however, material transfer
and tribolayer formation was observed on the disc, and smooth load-
bearing regions were also observed. The pin specimens, on the other
hand, showed only dominant influence from adhesive wear. Despite the
differences observed between the two sintered materials, the friction
behaviour was relatively similar for both cases.
The tests with the vented chamber led to the formation of tribolayers
containing oxygen and elements from the brake block material, and mild
abrasive wear. The surfaces of the wheel steel were very similar for the
tests sliding against sintered materials under icy conditions. However,
wear of the CBB itself was more severe in the tests using the type K C333
material. Deep grooves were observed in the matrix of the brake mate­
rial, as well as flattened regions. The presence of deep grooves and the
relatively smooth countersurface suggest that fragments of the sintered
material detach and plough mostly through its own surface, this is likely

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L. Pelcastre et al. Wear 523 (2023) 204764

Fig. 17. Worn surfaces from the low temperature tests (− 15 ◦ C) using C333. a) disc surface under vacuum, b) pin surface under vacuum, c) EDS spectra from the
tribolayer “TV”, d) disc surface under vented/icy condition, e) pin surface under vented/icy condition, and f) EDS spectra from the tribolayer “Ti”.

the main contributing factor for the higher friction observed under icy
conditions with this block material (Fig. 14).
The tests under vacuum conditions using type LL IB116* material
resulted in a relatively smooth surface on both mating surfaces (Fig. 18).
The disc specimen had traces of transferred organic material and flat­
tened load-bearing areas. The LL IB116* surface on the other hand,
showed relatively uniform wear across the surface as well as detached
metallic particles. This mechanism seems to initiate by the initial wear of
the organic matrix around the larger particles, which makes them pro­
trude from the surface, thus facilitating their detachment from the
matrix.
The tests under icy conditions showed similar mechanisms as the
vacuum conditions, only the severity was milder. Smooth regions with
material transfer and oxidation were developed on the disc specimens.
The brake material underwent uniform wear, and in this case, it was
possible to see the occurrence of mild abrasive wear on the metallic
aggregates.
The type K organic material J822 also resulted in smooth surfaces in
both test conditions, as seen in Fig. 19. In vacuum, uniform abrasive
wear was observed with presence of transferred organic material on the
disc specimen, whereas the brake specimen undergoes wear mostly of
the organic matrix. For these tests, back-transfer and smearing of ma­
terial onto the larger metallic aggregates (Fe rich particles) was
observed.
In the icy condition, the transfer of the brake material onto the disc
was reduced, and only agglomeration of oxidised debris was observed in
some regions. A larger area containing agglomerated and compacted
wear debris was observed on the pin surface under this test condition.
Smeared material was also observed on the metallic aggregates, but in
this case, a larger portion of the surface was covered by compacted wear
debris from the organic matrix compared to the tests in vacuum.
One of the main observations from the different tests was that the

Fig. 18. Worn surfaces from the low temperature tests (− 15 ◦ C) using IB116*. a) disc surface under vacuum, b) pin surface under vacuum, c) EDS spectra from the
tribolayer “TV”, d) disc surface under vented/icy condition, e) pin surface under vented/icy condition, and f) EDS spectra from the tribolayer “Ti”.

10
L. Pelcastre et al.
Fig. 19. Worn surfaces from the low temperature tests (− 15 ◦ C) using J822. a) disc surface under vacuum, b) pin surface under vacuum, c) EDS spectra from the
tribolayer “TV”, d) disc surface under vented/icy condition, e) pin surface under vented/icy condition, and f) EDS spectra from the tribolayer “Ti”.
sintered brake materials undergo fragmentation during sliding. This
effect is reduced in icy conditions due to the lower tribological stresses
that develop in this tribosystem. The C333 material was able to maintain
friction close to 0.1 even under icy conditions. However, since a large
number of fragments or particles are formed, airborne particle pollution
can be a point of concern from environmental and health perspectives
[18]. The organic CBB materials also generate a significant amount of
wear debris, however, in the current tests, they show a tendency to
remain in the contact due to transfer and back-transfer during sliding.
4. Conclusions
The tribological behaviour of five different brake block materials
(cast iron, two organic CBB, and two sintered CBB) has been studied in
ambient conditions using a block-on-ring test and in low temperature
conditions with and without vacuum using a pin-on-disc test. The main
conclusions from this study are:
- In dry conditions at room temperature, most of the materials show
similarly high coefficients of friction and stability. Only the organic
IB116* material showcases a reducing trend in friction under the
studied contact conditions.
- Friction at − 15 ◦ C and vacuum conditions was similar between the
cast iron and sintered CBB materials whereas it was lower for the
organic CBB materials, and it is controlled by the adhesive friction
component.
- At − 15 ◦ C and vented icy conditions, friction was highest for the
sintered CBB (especially C333) and similar between cast iron and
organic CBB.
- The adhesive friction component is reduced by the presence of ice
and/or water for all cases, changing the dominant wear mechanisms
from adhesive, and plastic deformation to mild abrasive and smooth
surface formation.
- The sintered materials undergo fragmentation even under icy con­
ditions, thus increasing the ploughing component in the sliding
contact, and maintaining a slightly higher friction in icy conditions.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
11
Wear 523 (2023) 204764
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the Swedish Transport
Agency for their financial support and inputs for the realisation of this
work.
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