1. How do we know ourselves?

expressed by people who are important in our

life, we adopt those attitudes as our own
(1) Our sense of self is who we believe we are - sense of ourself = how others respond to us
a. sense of self: who you believe you are (= self
concept) e. Sociometer theory
- include memories, experiences, personal - the affective aspect of the self
characteristics, and physical appearance - self-esteem is a mechanism for monitoring the
- influence: how you think, the way you behave, likelihood of social exclusion
how you feel - self-esteem = sociometer: internal monitor of
social acceptance or rejection
b. Self-Schema - high possibility of rejection = low self-esteem
- integrated set of memories, beliefs, - low self-esteem is highly correlated with social
generalizations about ourselves that is organized anxiety
as a network of interconnected knowledge about
the self f. Self-esteem and life outcomes
- increase memory for information relevant to - self-esteem is weakly related to objective life
you outcomes
-> self awareness: activity in the middle of the - the ssuccess might be what leads to high
frontal lobes of the brain self-esteem
- very high self-esteem have some downsides
c. Working Self-concept -> violence
- immediate experience of the self in the here - ‘Narcissism’: inflated self-esteem.
and now(at THIS moment) -> self-centered, view self in grandiose terms,
- limited to personal information being processed manipulative, feel entitled to special treatment
at one moment in time -> poor relations with others, become angry
- the sense of self varies from moment to when challenged, tend to be unfaithful
moment -> affect how you act in different -> Increasing narcissism among American
situation college students: debate 있음. ‘Generation Me’
- when we consider who we are, we often - self-esteem through life: decrease during
emphasize characteristics that make us distinct adolescence -> lowest in age 18~22(especially
from others women) -> increase during adulthood –> peak
ex) 10 women, 1 man -> man: I’m male in sixties -> falling off toward the end of life
10 whites, 1 black -> black person: I’m black
- however, people generally avoid standing out (2) We try to maintain a positive sense of self
too much from the crowd - favoritism: people rate letters in their own
name, especially their initials, as being more
d. Self-esteem beautiful than letters not in their name.
- evaluation of how we feel about our personal -> ‘better than-average effect’
characteristics -> ‘positive illusions’: better than-average effect,
- “Am I worthy?” unrealistic beliefs about how much they can
- we can objectively believe positive things about control what happens, unrealistically optimistic
self while having low self-esteem about their futures / adaptive behavior
- ‘reflected appraisal’: how we believe others
perceive us What helps us maintain a positive sense of self?
- when we internalize the values and beliefs a. Social comparisons
- occurs when we evaluate our own actions, a. Unconscious Conflicts
abilities, and beliefs by contrasting them with - conscious level: the thoughts that we are aware
those of other people of
- when there is no objective standard -> 더 함 - preconscious level: content that is not currently
- important means of understanding our actions in our awareness but that could be brought to
and emotions awareness (= long term memory)
- ‘downward comparisons’: high self-esteem -> - unconscious level: material that the mind
contraste themselves with people inferior to cannot easily retrieve.
them -> hidden memories are often in conflict ->
-> ‘temporal comparison’: people view their anxiety or psychological discomfort
current selves as better than their former selves ->’Freudian slips‘: we accidentally reveal a
- ‘upward comparisons’: low self-esteem -> hidden motive. but these are not accident.
contrast themselves with people superior to unconscious conflicts determine behavior
them
b. Three structures of personality
b. Self-serving biases - Id: completely submerged in the unconscious.
- high self-esteem tend to take credit for success -> operates according to the ‘pleasure principle’
but blame failure on outside factors which pushes us to seek pleasure and avoid pain
- members of group prone to discrimination -> ‘libido’: the force that drives the pleasure
maintain positive self-esteem by taking credit principle, acts on impulses and desires
for success and blaming negative feedback on - Superego: acts as a brake on the id.
prejudice -> develops in childhood and is the
- we are extremely well equipped to protect our internalization of parental and societal standards
positive beliefs about ourselves of behavior.
- self-serving biases reflect healthy psychological -> Rigid structure of morality, or conscience.
functioning - Ego: mediates between the id and the superego.
-> tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while
(3) Our sence of self is influenced by cultural being responsive to the rules of the superego.
factors -> operates according to the ‘reality
- ‘collectivist cultures’: emphasize connections to principle’(rational thought and problem solving)
family, social groups, and ethnic groups,...
-> one’s sense of self is determined largely by - Conflicts between the id and the superego lead
people’s social roles and personal relationships to anxiety.
- ‘individualist cultures’: emphasize rights and - Ego copes with anxiety through various ‘defense
freedoms, self-expression, and diversity mechanisms’.
-> children are encouraged to be self-reliant - ‘Defense mechanism’: unconscious mental
and to pursue personal success, even at the strategies that the mind uses to protect itself
expense of interpersonal relationships. from distress. -> Anna Freud
-> nowdays: defense mechanism protect
2. How can we understand personality? self-esteem

refusing to acknowldge source of

(1) Psychodynamic Theory denial
anxiety
- Sigmund Freud excluding source of anxiety from
repression
- unconscious forces determine behavior awareness
projection attributing unacceptable qualities
 of the self to someone else. 1) Humanistic approaches
warding off an uncomfortable - ways of studying personality that emphasize
reaction
thought by overemphasizing its ‘self-actualization’, where people seek to fulfill
formation
opposite. their potential through greater self-understanding
creating a seemingly logical - Abraham Maslow
rationalizati
reason or excuse for behavior a. ‘person-centered approach’ - Carl Rogers
on
that might otherwise be shameful ⓵ our personal understanding of our lives –
shifting the attention of emotion
displaceme sense of self
from one object to another,
nt ⓶ how others see us and evaluate us
easier target
-> two issues affects personality
channeling socially unacceptable
- therapeutic technique: supportive and accepting
sublimation impulses into constructive, even
environment
admirable, behavior
- importance of the way parents show affection
for their children
c. Psychosexual development
-> ‘conditions of worth’: parents give
- early childhood experiences -> personality
conditional love and support (<->) ‘unconditional
- libidinal urges to experience pleasure
positive regard’
- ‘psychosexual stages’: libido is focused on
erogenous(sexually arousing) zones
(3) Social cognitive approaches focus on how
⓵ oral stage(birth~18 months)
thoughts shape personality
- pleasure with sucking
- Social cognitive approaches: ways of studying
⓶ anal stage(2~3years old)
personality that recognize the influence of how
- toilet training -> focuse on anus
people think
⓷ phallic stage(3~5years old)
- libido on genitals
a. expectancy theory
- ‘Oedipus complex’: unconscious wishes to kill
- Julian Rotter
their same sex parent, applied mostly to boys
- our behaviors are a part of our personality
⓸ latency stage
- how we think about –> ‘expectancies’ for
- suppress libidinal urges or channel them into
reinforcement, ‘values’ we ascribe to particular
doing other works
reinforcers
⓹ genital stage(adolescents and adults)
- people’s personalities are based on their ‘locus
- mature attitudes about sexuality and adulthood
of control’(whether people control the rewards
and punishments that they experience)
- some people become ‘fixated’ at a stage
- internal locus of control: I influence outcomes
: oral personality(pleasure with mouth:smoking),
- external locus of control: forces beyond control
anal-retentive personalities(stubborn and highly
influence outcome
regulating)

b. Reciprocal Determinism
d. Psychodynamic theory today
- Albert Bandura
- neo Freudians：focus on social interactions
- three factors influence how a person acts:
- ‘object relations theory’: our mind and sense of
environment, person factors, behavior
self develop in relation to others
- each factors affects the others to determine how
- Freud’s theory is now abandoned
personality is expressed through behavior

(2) Humanistic Approaches Emphasize Goodness in

(3) Trait Approaches Describe Characteristics
People
§ Trait approaches: ways of studying personality b. adoption study
that are based on people’s characteristics, their - 부모 다른 두 형제: no more alike in perosnality
tendencies to act in a certain way over time than any two strangers randomly plucked off
and across circumstances. the street

- traits exist on a continuum(      따르는 듯)
-> parenting style has much less impact than has
a. The big five long been assumed, but parents are still
- five factor theory(OCEAN) important(adequate parenting is needed)

openness to
imaginative and independent? (2) Our temperaments are innate
experience
conscientiou - temperament: the general tendency to feel or
organized or disorganized?
sness act in certain ways/ innate biological structures
extraversion social or retiring? of personality
agreeablenes
trusting and helpful?
s a. three aspects of temperament
neuroticism worried or calm?
- Arnold Buss, Robert Plomin
- emerge across cultures, ages,...
⓵ Activity levels: overall amount of energy and
- 내가 측정하나 남이 측정해주나 결과 같음
behavior we exhibit
- 점수가 행동 예측함
⓶ Emotionality: intensity of emotional reactions
(쉽게 화가 난다, 자주 운다. 등)
b. Biological trait theory
⓷ Sociability: general tendency to affiliate with
- Hans Eysenck
others
- demension of personality: how outgoing/
-> main three personality factors influenced by
emotion is stable?/Psychoticism
genes / heredity has a powerful effect on these
⓵ Outgoing: Introversion/Extraversion -> reflects
core temperaments
differences in biological process
⓶ Emotion?(neurotic): Stable/Unstable ->
b. Long-term implications of temperament
⓷ Psychoticism(constraint/conscientiousness): mix
- early childhood temperament appears to
of aggression, poor impulse control,
influence behavior and personality significantly
self-centeredness, lack of empathy
throughout a person’s development
- temperament types classifications at age 3 ->
3. How Does Biology Affect Personality?
good predictor of personality and behaviors that
appeared in early adulthood
(1) Personality is affected by genes and the
- shyness: strong biological influence + social
environment
component
- certain genes can be linked with some
personality traits ->ex) novelty seeking: genes
(2) Personality is Influenced by Physiology
that regulates dopamine receptor + an
- Hans Eysenck: differences in arousal produce
environment where the trait is encouraged and
the behavioral differences between extraverts
supported
and introverts
- ‘reticular activating system’: brain/ affects
a. identical twin research
alertness -> affects differences between
- 일란성 쌍둥이는 이란성 쌍둥이보다 성격이 비슷하다
extraverts and introverts
- strong correlation between personality traits for
- extraverts: below the optimal level of arousal
older twins
- introverts: above their optimal level of arousal
(3) Personality stability is influenced by biology - people will project their mental contents onto
and situation the ambiguous items
- genetic makeup predispose people to have ⓵ Rorschach inkblot test
certain personality traits or characteristics - someone looks at an apparently abstract inkblot
- gene expression -> depends on development and describes what it appears to be
circumstances ⓶ Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)
- childhood temperament may predict behavioral - to study motives related to personality
outcomes in early adulthood - someone is shown an ambiguous picture and
- Clinical psychology: people can do change asked to tell a story about it. ->
important aspects of their lives including scored(motivational scheme)
personality - motivational scheme: reflect the storyteller’s
- whether personality is fixed or changeable personal motives
depends largely on how we define the essential - useful for measuring motivational traits:
features of personality achievement, power, affiliation
- personality traits -> quite stable over the adult - reliably predicts how interpersonally dependent
life span people are
- personality changes in childhood but becomes
more stable by middle age. -> holds in b. Self-report measures
different cultures - personality tests that use questionnaires to let
- personality sometimes changes due to life event people respond to items that reveal traits and
-> death of spouse(neuroticism increase) behaviors
- do not attempt to uncover hidden wishes or
a. Robert McCrae, Paul Costa conflicts
- Basic tendencies: determined largely by - how much the answers predict behavior?
biological processes -> stable ⓵ NEO Personality Inventory
- Characteristic adaptation: adjustments to - consists of 240 items that are designed to
situational demands -> do not mean change in assess the five factor theory personality traits
basic tendencies
- problem: can be affected by the desire to avoid
* personality is usually stable because looking bad and to view oneself in a good light
environments tend to be relatively stable. + difficult to compare self-reported measures
However, major life events can lead to changes in directly because it is subjective
personality
c. Personality in everyday life
4. How do we assess personality ⓵ Electronically activated record(EAR)
- wear a device the tracks their real-world
(1) Several Methods are used to assess personality moment to moment interactions, picking up
- three aspects of personality: thoughts, feelings, snippets of conversation and other auditory
behaviors info.
- show that self-reports on the five-factor theory
a. Projective measures traits predict real-world behavior
- personality tests that examine unconscious - Sam Gosling: personality leaks out in many
processes by having people interpret ambiguous situations
stimili - 공적 자료 -> 그 사람 성격 추측 가능
- psychodynamic theory
d. Observational methods - Africans: high agreeable, conscientious/ low
- we come to know others better over time neuroticism
- low observability + low evaluativeness (anxious): - women and men are much more similar
내가 더 잘 안다
- high observability + low evaluativeness
(talkative): 친구가 좀 더 잘 알음
- low observability + high evaluativeness
(creative): 친구가 많이 잘 알음
- 위에건 차트 아래건 설명
- higly evaluative traits: our feelings -> I know
well
- easy to observe: friends know well(talkative)
- easy to observe + highly meaningful to
people(creativity): judged accurately by friends

(2) Behavior is influenced by personality and

situations
- personality traits predict behavior over time and
across situations
- Social norms influence behavior regardless of
personality

a. Person/situation debate
- Walter Mischel
- Situationism: behaviors are determined more by
situations than by personality traits
- personality is relatively stable across situations
and circumstances by definition
- Person/situation debate 결론: both the person
and the situation are important

b. Interaction of personality and situation

- strong situations(job interviews, funeral): mask
differences in personality
- weak situations(parks, bars,..): reveal differences
in personality
- Interactionists: behavior is determined jointly by
situations and underlying disposition
- we affect our social environment: we choose
situations. cf. reciprocal interaction

(3) There are cultural and sex differences in

personality
- asians: low in extraversion, agreeableness,
conscientiousness/ high in neuroticism