Theory of Computation EduEngg

Check out : www.eduengineering.
net For all subject Notes

Check out : www.eduengineering.net For all subject Notes
Strictly as per Revised Syllabus of

Anna University
Semester - VIII (IT) (Elective - III)
Semester - V (CSE)
Theory of Computation
Mrs. Anuradha A. Puntambekar

M.E. (Computer)
Formerly Assistant Professor in
P.E.S. Modern College of Engineering,
Pune
® TM
ISBN 978-93-332-0207-7
TECHNICAL
PUBLICATIONS
An Up-Thrust for Knowledge 9 789 333 20 207 7
(i)
Theory of Computation
Semester - V (CSE)
First Printed in India : January 2013

First Edition : June 2015 (As per revised syllabus of Anna University)
Second Revised Edition : June 2016
Third Revised Edition : June 2017
Fourth Revised Edition : January 2018
This edition is for sale in India only. Sale and Purchase of this book outside of India is
unauthorized by the publisher.
ã Copyright with Author

All publishing rights (printed and ebook version) reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book
should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and
retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune.
Published
®
by : TM
Amit Residency, Office No.1, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411030, M.S. INDIA
TECHNICAL Ph.: +91-020-24495496/97, Telefax : +91-020-24495497
PUBLICATIONS Email : orders@technicalpublications.org Website : www.technicalpublications.org
ISBN 978-93-332-0207-7
9 789 333 20 207 7
AU 13
9789333202077 [4] (ii)




 


TM
TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TM

 
 
 
 
 
 
    
TM

 
2
2
a
2
b
a
b
a2
b2

a
b
2
TM

TM

n n ( n  1)
i 2
i0
n  n  1 1 1  1 2
2 2 2
k  k  1
2
1  2  3 ...  k  k 1
k  k  1
 k 1
2
k  k  1  2  k  1
2
 k  1  k  2
2
 k  1  k  1  1
2
TM

n n  n  1  2n  1
12  2 2  3 2  ....  n 2   i2 
6
i  1
1(1  1)(2.1  1) 6
6 6
k k(k  1)(2k  1)
 i2  6
i1
k 1 (k  1)(k  1  1)(2(k  1)  1)
 1 2  2 2  3 2 ........... (k  1) 2  i2  6
i1
1 2  2 2  3 2 ......... k 2  (k  1) 2
k(k  1)(2k  1)  k(2k  1) 

 (k  1) 2 (k  1)   (k  1) 
6  6 
TM

 k(2k  1)  6k  6   2k 2  k  6k  6 
(k  1)   (k  1)  
 6   6 
 2k 2  7 k  6  (k  1) (2k 2  4 k  3k  6)
(k  1)  
 6  6
(k  1) (2k(k  2)  3(k  2)) (k  1) ((2k  3)(k  2))

6 6
(k  1) ((k  2)(2k  3)) (k  1) (k  1  1)(2(k  1)  1)
6 6
n(3n  1)
1  4  7  ....... (3n  2)
2
(3.1  2)
1(3.1  1) 2
  1
2 2
k(3k  1)
1  4  7  .......  (3k  2)
2
1  4  7 ...... + (3k  2)  (3(k  1)  2)
k(3k  1) k(3k  1)  2 3(k  1)  2

 (3(k  1)  2)
2 2
3k 2  k  6k  2 3k 2  5k  2
2 2
3k 2  2 k + 3 k  2 (2k  2)  (3k 2  3k)

2 2
TM

2(k  1)  3k(k  1) (k  1)(3k  2) (k  1)(3(k + 1)  1)

2 2 2
2n  n 3 n  10
2 10 (10) 3
2K K3
2 K  1
2 2K
3
1 
  1   2
K
 10 
3
1
  1    2 K
 K 
2K  K 3 2K K3
3
1
  1   K3
 K 
3
K  1
   K3
 K 
K  1 3
 K 3
K3
 K  1 3
TM

2K  1  K  1 3
2n  n 3 n  10
2n  n
2n
21
2n  n  0
2K
2K  K
2K  K
2K  K
 1
2K   K  1
2 K  2   K  1
2K  K  t
(K  t)  2  K  1
 1
2K  K 1 2n  n
  
TM

 
n 0 4 2n  1  3n  2
4 21  1  3 1 2
4 3 33
91 which is  13  7
4 2n 1  3 n 2
4 2 k 1  3 k 2
4 2 k 1  1  3 k 1  2
4 2 k  1  2  3k  2  1
TM

4 2  4 2k  1  4 2  3 k  2 – 3 k  2   3 1  3 k  2

4 2 4 2 k  1  3 k 2   3 k  2 – 4 2  3
4 2 13m  3 k 2  – 13

13 4 2 m – 3 k  2 
n
 i 3 {n ( n  1) 2} 2
(1) 3
2 2
 1 (1  1)  2
   
 2  2
2
 k(k  1) 
1 3  2 3  3 3  ...  k 3  
 2 
2
 k(k  1) 
 1 3  2 3  3 3  ...  k 3  
 2 
TM

1 3  2 3  3 3  ...  k 3  (k  1) 3
2
 (k + 1)(k  2) 
 
 2 
2
 k(k  1) 3  k 2 (k  1) 2
   (k  1) 3  (k  1) 3
 2  4
 
k 2 (k  1) 2  4 (k  1) 3
4
k 2 (k 2  2k  1)  4 (k 3  3k 2  3k  1)
4
k 2 (k 2  2k  1)  4k 3  12k 2  12k  4
4
k 4  2k 3  k 2  4 k 3  12k 2  12k  4
4
k 4  6k 3  13k 2  12k  4
4
2
 (k  1)(k  2) 
 
 2 
(k  1) 2 (k  2) 2
4
(k 2  2k  1)(k 2  4k  4)
4
k 4  4k 3  4k 2  2k 3  8k 2  8k  k 2  4k  4
4
k 4  6k 3  13k 2  12k  4
4
TM


a A
0, 1, 2, 3, 4
 a, e, i, o, u 
 0, 1, 4 , 9, 16, ........ 100 

TM



 
 
 , 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 3, 2, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3 
 
TM

A
A

 A B a, b a  A and b  B 
A B  (a,0), (a,1), (a,2), (b,0), (b,1), (b,2)
A1 A2
TM

a
a a
a
a a a a
a a
a
TM

a a a
a a
a a a a
 
 
0 1 2 
  a , b          .......
   , a , b , aa , bb , ab , ba , aba , aaa , bbb , baba , abaab , ......
 1 2 3
     
  2 3
  a , b        ........
*


  
TM



 
 


V1
E4 E1
V4 V2
E3 E2
V3
TM

V1
E4 E1
V4 V2
E3 E2
V3
n=4
n=3 V1
n=1 n=2 V1
V1 V1 V2 V2 V3
e=0 e=1 V2 V3
e=3 V4
e=6
TM

Computer
CPU Monitor Keyboard Mouse
Keys Left Right

Mother Menu Cathod ray button button
board button tube
Memory Hard disk
10
9 11
12
8 7
13
TM

e–  k
 a, b, c ....... z
TM

 

 , 0, 00, 000, ..... 
TM

y
{a nb n n  1} {a m b n n  0}
TM

Q, ,  , q 0 , F

q0 q0 q0  Q
TM

a b a b a b a Input tape
Tape reader
reading the input
symbol
Finite
control
q w
| q , w 
|* ( q, )
Finite Automata
Deterministic Non Deterministic

Finite Automata Finite Automata
(DFA) (NFA)
TM

S1 Represents the state
Represents transition from

one state to another
S–
0
Start state
OR Start
S0
S+
n

Final state
Sn
F K
  
S1
S0 1
0
S1 S0
S0 S2
S4 S2 1
0
S4 S3
0
a a b b
S0 S1 S2 S3 S4
TM

S0 S4   a, b
S1 , S2 , S 3
q0 q1
q1 q2
q2 q2
a
a
S0 S2
S0 ' a' b
S2 S0
S1 S1


TM



, 
Z  0, 1
1 0 1
S1 S2 S3 S4
0
S2
0
S0 1
0
S1 1 S1
S2
1
 0 S 2 1000
01 S 1 000
TM

010 S 2 00
0100 S 2 0
01000 S 2
 1S 1 011
10S 2 11
101S 1 1
1011S 1
S1
 S0 S2 S1
S1 S2 S1
S2 S2 S1
S0
S2 S1
S0 S2
0
1 0
A B C
1
1
TM

0
S1
1
S0 1
1
S1
0 S2
S2 S1 0
1 input ends here

in which is a final state
0 S1
in
1 S2
in
1
S2
in
0 S1
in
1 S2
in
0 S2
in
1 S1
Start in
state S1
q0 q1 q2 q3
TM

 q0 q1
q1 q2
q2 q3
q3 q1
q3
q0
1 q 1 11111
11 q 2 1111
111 q 3 111
1111 q 1 11
11111 q 2 1
111111 q 3 
(2,5,8)
(2,5,8) (0,3,6,9)
S S2
(1 (1,4,7)
,4
(0,3,6,9) ,7
)
(2,5,8)
(1,4,7)
S0 S0 S1
S1
(2,5,8) (0,3,6,9)
S2 (0,3,6,9)
(1,4,7)
TM

S0 , S1 S2 S0
From
start 3 6
go to state S0
3 6
from S0 to S0
36
1 S 1 21
input ends and we are in
12 S 0 1 final state S0
121 S 1
0
S S0
   0, 1
1 1
1
S0 0
S1 S2 S1 S2 1
0 1 0
  
S0 S1 S2
S2
1 0 0 1
   
S1 S2 S1 S0
TM

0
q0 q1
0
1 1 1 1
0
q3 q2
q0
q0
q1
q2
q3
 q0 q1 q3
q1 q0 q2
q2 q3 q1
q3 q2 q0
1 0
Start q0 0 q1 0 q2
TM

Start
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
q2 q0 q1 q0 q1 q2 q0 q0 q1 q2
q0
q0 q2 q1
q1 q3 q0
q2 q0 q3
q3 q1 q2
1
q0 q1
1
0 0 0 0
1
q2 q3
1

b b
aaa aaaaaa aaa
a q0
a
q1
a
q2
a
q3
TM

a a b
S0 S1 S2
b
S0 a
S1
S2
a a
0 0
1,0
q0 1 q1 0 q2 1 q4
1
0
q3
1
0 0
1,0
q0 1 q1 0 q2 1 q4
1
0
q3
TM

   a, b 
q0 a q1 b q2 b q3
b a
Start a b b
q0 q1 q2 q3
a
b a
1
0 0
Start 1
q0 q1 q2
a,b
Start a,b a,b a,b a,b

q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
TM

 q 1 , abbb  |  q 2 , bbb 
|  q 3 , bb 
|  q 4 , b 
|  q 5 ,  
  q 1 , ababa  |  q  2 , baba
|  q , aba
3
|   q 4 , ba 
 5 
|  q , a
|  q ,  
1
W W  0 , 1  
q0 1 q1 1 q2 1 q3
0 0 0 0, 1
Start 1 1 1
q0 q1 q2 q3
 Q , , q 0 , F 
q0 , q1, q2 , q 3 
  0, 1 
q0 , q1, q2 
TM

||
¦ ¦
S14 S15 return (operator, OR)
& &
S12 S13 return (operator, AND)
< =
S0 S1 S2 return (operator, LE)
Other
S3 return (operator, LT)
! Other
=
S4 S5 return (operator, EQ)
> =
S9 S6 S7 return (operator, GE)
= Other Other
S16 return S8 return (operator, GT)
(operator, NOT)
S10 Other return

S11
(operator, NE)
  {a , b}
b b b
a a
q0 q1 q2
q3
a,b
TM

q0 q1 q0
q1 q2 q1
q2 q3 q2
q3 q3 q3
0, 1
0 0 0 0
q0 1 q1 1 q2 1 q3
  {a , b}
( ab) n n 0
n
( ab) n 1

a

q0 q1
  q 0 , ab  |  q 1 , b a b
q0 q1 q2
|  q 0 , 
a
q0
TM

  q 0 , ab  |  q 1 , b
|  q 2 , 
q2
1-9
q0 q1
0
0-9
a
a,b
q0 b q1 a,b q2
q0
q2
q2 q2
L  an b | n  0 
1 1
0
q0 0 q1 0 q2
TM

a
q0 q1
a
b b b b
a
q3 q2
a
q0 1 q1 1 q2 1 q3
1 1
q4
q0 1 1 q2 1 q3
q1
1 1
q4
TM

  { a , b },
L { b m a b n : m , n  0} .
b + ab +
b b
q0 b q1 a q2 b q3
b a
q0 a q1
b
a
q2
q0
q1 q2
q0
q0 q1
a
Input b b a
Path q 0 q0 q1
Input b b a
Path q 0 q0 q2
Input b b a
Path q 0 q1 q1
TM



q0
FQ
L1
L2 a n  bn
L1
0,1 0,1
0
Start 0 1 0 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
q0
q1
0q 0 | 010101
00q 0 | 010101
TM

000q 1 | 10101
0001 q 2 | 01 01
00010q 3 | 101
000101q 4 | 01
0001010 q 4 | 1
00010101q 4 |
00010101 q4
L2
L2 a

q1
Start
q0
b

q2
q1 q2 
q0


q0 q0 , q1 q0 , q2

q1 q3
q2 q2 , q3 q3
q3 q3 q3
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3  ,  0, 1 ,  , q 0 ,  q 3 
  q 0 , 0 q 0 , q 1
TM

  q 0 , 1 0,1
q 0 , q 2 
Start
  q 1 , 0 q 3  q0 0 q1
  q 2 , 0 q 2 , q 3 
1 0
  q 2 , 1 q 3 
  q 3 , 0 q 3  0,1
q2 q3
  q 3 , 1 q 3 
0,1
0
 q0 q0 q1
q1 q3 q0
q2 q0 q3
q3 q1 q2
0
1
q 0 |
q0 q1
1q 1 |
1 0
| q 3 0 0
1
| q 2 q2 q3
| q 3
1
| q 1
| q 0
q 0 |
q 1 |
TM

q0
q1
q0
q1
M  q 1 , q 2 , q 3 ,  , q 1 , q 3  
  q 1 , 0 q 2 , q 3    q 1 , 1 q 1
  q 2 , 0 q 1 , q 2    q 2 , 1 
  q 3 , 0 q 2    q 3 , 1 q 1 , q 2 

 q1 q2, q3 q1
q2 q1, q2 
q3 q2 q1, q2
1
0
q1 0 q2
0
1 0 0,1
q3
  {a , b}
TM

a,b
a a,b a,b
q0 q1 q2 q3
q0
q0 q1
  {0, 1}
0,1
q0 0 q1 1 q2
a a
q0 q1 q2
a,b
a
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ,  , q 0 , q 2 
Start a a
q0 q1 q2
  q 0 , a a a |   q 0 , a a
|   q 1 , a
|   q 2 , 
TM

  q 0 , a a a |   q 0 , a a
|   q 0 , a
|   q 1 , 
  {0, 1}
1 1
q0 q1 q2
1 1 0 0
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
0,1 0,1
Start 1 1 0 0
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
q0 q 0 , q1 q0
q1 q2
q2 q3
q3 q4
q4 q4 q4
TM

  q 0 , 111000 |   q 0 , 1100
|   q 0 , 100
|   q 1 , 00
q1
  q 0 , 11100 |   q 0 , 1100
|   q 1 , 100
|   q 2 , 00
|   q 3 , 0
|   q 4 , 
q4
a , b
a,b a, b
q0 a q1 a q2 b q3 b q4
  {0, 1}
1 1
q0 0 q1 0 q2
1 0
TM

0,1
q0 1 q1 1 q2 q3
0,1


TM

 0 1 2
q0 0,  q1 1,  q2
 q0
1
q0 q1


q0 q1
q1
q0 q2
q1 q2


 


 Q, ,  , q 0 , F
Q, ,  , q 0 , F 

 Q    
q0

  q0
TM

a b c
Start q0  q1  q2
 
q0 q0   q1
q1  q1  q2
q2   q2 
 q0 |   q 0 , abbcc
|   q 0 , bbcc
|  (q 0 , bbcc)
|   q 1 , bbcc
|   q 1 , bcc
|   q 1 , cc
|   q 1 , cc
|   q 2 , cc
|   q 2 , c
|   q 2 , 

 
 
   q, 

TM

 
a b c
q0  q1  q2
 q 0   q 0 , q 1 , q 2  
 q 1   q 1 , q 2  q1 q2
q1 
 q 2   q 2 
TM

Fib(4) = 3
Fib(3) = 2 + Fib(2) = 1
Fib(2) = 1 + Fib(1) = 1 Fib(1) + Fib(0)
1 1 0
Fib(1) + Fib(0)
1 0
TM

 



q0

 

q0 0 q1 0 q2
, , q 0 , F

q0
0
1 0
A B C
1 1
q0 1 q1 0 q2 1 q3
TM

b b b b a,b
q0 a q1 a q2 a q3 a q4
Dead
state
, a , aa , aaa , ab, aba , ... q 0 , q 1, q 2 and q 3 q4
0
q0 q1
0
The valid strings are

1 1 1 1
{1, 001, 100, 010,...}
0
q3 q2
0
0,1 *
TM

1 1, 0
q0 0 q1 0 q2 0 q3
1 1 1 1 1
q0 0 q1 0 q2 0 q3 0 q4
0 1
q0 1 q1 1 q2 0 q3 0, 1
0 1
0, 1
q0 1 q1 1 q2 0 q3
0, 1
TM


  
letter | digit
q0 letter q1
  0,1 0' s
1 0, 1
q0 0 q1 0 q2

q0 q 0 Q
F Q
.
TM

  q0
1
0
q0 0 q1 1 q2 0 q3 1 q4
1 0
TM

 
TM




 
a  a a
L1 L2
L1  L2
L1 L2
L*1
 a
 a aa aaa aaaa
a
a 
L+ L
 
 a R  a
a aa aaa aaaa
  L+
  a
a a
a
TM

 a aa aaa
a
a
  a
a aa aaa
a
 a aa a a a a a a
a a
(a  b) 
  0, 1
TM

1  0  1 * 0
a a
a a
a a a a a aa aaa
a a
   a , b , c
a a
a
a

  a , b , c
a  b  c
L1  L2
TM

L1
L2
L1 L2
L1
L1
L2
00  110  1 *  0  1 * 00  11

   a , b
rd
3
a a a
3 rd 2nd 1st
a a a a
a aaa a a aaa
  a , b
a a a
  a , b
a a a
a a
a
TM

0  1 * 0 0  1 * 1 0  1 *  0  1 * 1 0  1 * 0 0  1 * 
   0
  {0}
  1
b * aaa * b *  *
aaa
a
  a , b
a
aaa a a a a a a
a a a
TM

  {a , b}
 a aa a aa
a
a 
 a
a
a
(0  1  0  1  ) 

  NFA NFA
with without DFA
 
 

 q i qi  Q
   


TM

Q, ,  , q 0 , F 
M  Q, ,   , q 0 , F
F F   q 0 
M    
   

   q 0 ,   q 0
   q 0 ,   q 0 
   q 0 , a    q 0 , a
   q 0 , wa      q 0 , w  , a
  q 0 , w     q 0 , w 
   q 0 , wa
     
   q 0 , w 
      q 0 , wa
 
   q 0 , wa    q 0 , wa

  q, a   - closure    q,  , a 
  q ,    - closure  q 
 
TM

 q 0 
qi
qi
  (q i , a)
q i , a 
 0 1 2
  
q0 q1 q2
 
 q 0  q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
 q 1  q 1 , q 2 
 q 2  q 2 
 q 0 
q2 q1 q2 

 (q 0 , 0)   q 0 , , 0

  - closure q 0  , 0
TM

 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , 0
 q 0 , 0  q 1 , 0   q 2 , 0
 q 0     
 q 0  q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
 (q 0 , 1)   q 0 , , 1
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , 1
 q 0 , 1  q 1 , 1   q 2 , 1
   q 1   
 q 1 
 (q 0 , 1) q 1 , q 2 
 (q 1 , 0)   q 1 , , 0
  - closure q 1  , 0
 q 1 , q 2 , 0
 q 1 , 0  q 2 , 0 
    
  

 (q 1 , 1)   q 1 , , 1

   - closure q 1 , 1
 q 1 , q 2 , 1
  q 1 , 1   q 2 , 1
 q 1   
 q 1 
q 1 , q 2 
 (q 2 , 0)   q 2 , , 0
   - closure q 2 , 0
 q 2 , 0
TM

  

 (q 2 , 1)   q 2 , , 1

   - closure q 2 , 1
 q 2 , 1
  
 (q 2 , 1) 
 (q 0 , 2)   q 0 , , 2

  - closure  q 0  , 2
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , 2
 q 0 , 2  q 1 , 2   q 2 , 2
     q 2 
 q 2 
q 2 
 (q 1 , 2)   q 1 , , 2
  - closure q 1 , 2
 q 1 , q 2 , 2
 q 1 , 2   q 2 , 2
   q 2 
q 2 
 (q 2 , 2)   q 2 , , 2
   - closure q 2 , 2
 q 2 , 2
 q 2 
 q 2
TM


  q 0 , 0  q 0 , q 1 , q 2    q 0 , 1  q 1 , q 2    q 0 , 2  q 2 
  q 1 , 0     q 1 , 1  q 1 , q 2    q 1 , 2  q 2 
  q 2 , 0     q 2 , 1     q 2 , 2  q 2 
q0 q 0, q1, q 2 q1, q 2 q2
q1  q1, q 2 q2
q2   q2
0 1
0,1
q0 q1
q0 q1 q2
 q 0   q 1   0,1,2
1,2
q 2  q2
q2
 

a
4 5
 
Start a b  
0 1 2 3 8 9
 
6 7
b
TM

 

 - closure
 - closure
 - closure
 - closure
 - closure
 - closure
 - closure
 - closure
 - closure
 - closure

  0, a 
 - closure    0,  , a 
 - closure   - closure ( 0), a 
 - closure   0, a
 - closure 1
1
  0, b  
 - closure    0,  , b 
 - closure   - closure  0 , b 
 - closure   0, b 
 - closure  

 1, a 
 - closure   1,  , a 
 - closure   - closure 1 , a 
TM

 - closure  1, a

 1, b  
 - closure   1,  , b 
 - closure   - closure 1 , b 
 - closure  1, b 
 - closure  
2 3 4 6 9
  2, a 
 - closure    2,  , a 
 - closure   - closure  2 , a 
 - closure   2, 3, 4, 6, 9 , a
 - closure   2, a   3, a    4, a    6, a    9, a
 - closure     5     
  2, b  
 - closure    2,  , b 
 - closure   2, 3, 4, 6, 9 , b 
 - closure   2, b    3, b     4, b     6, b     9, b 
 - closure       7   
  3, a 
 - closure    3,  , a 
 - closure   3, 4, 6 , a
 - closure   3, a   4, a    6, a
TM

 - closure   5   
  3, b  
 - closure    3,  , b 
 - closure   3, 4, 6 , b 
 - closure   3, b    4, b     6, b 
 - closure     7
  4, a 
 - closure    4,  , a 
 - closure   4, a
   4, b  
 - closure    4,  , b 
 - closure    4, b 

 5, a 
 - closure   5,  , a 
 - closure   3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 , a
 - closure   3, a   4, a   5, a
   6, a    8, a    9, a
 - closure   5           
 5, b  
 - closure   5,  , b 
TM


 - closure   3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 , b 
 - closure   3, b    4, b    5, b 
   6, b     8, b     9, b 
 - closure       7     
  6, a 
 - closure    6,  , a 
 - closure   6, a

  6, b  
 - closure    6,  , b 
 - closure   6, b 
 7, a 
 - closure   7,  , a 
 - closure   3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 , a
 - closure   3, a   4, a    6, a   7 , a
   8, a    9, a
 - closure   5         
 7, b  
 - closure   7,  , b 
 - closure   3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 , b 
 - closure   3, b    4, b     6, b    7 , b 
TM

   8, b     9, b 
 - closure     7       
  8, a 
 - closure    8,  , a 
 - closure   3, 4, 6, 8, 9 , a
 - closure   3, a   4, a    6, a    8, a    9, a
 - closure   5       
  8, b  
 - closure    8,  , b 
 - closure   3, 4, 6, 8, 9 , b 
 - closure   3, b    4, b     6, b     8, b     9, b 
 - closure     7     
  9, a 
 - closure    9,  , a 
 - closure   9, a

  9, b  
 - closure    9,  , b 
 - closure   9, b 

TM


 
  a 
q0 q1 q2
 q0, q1 q2
 q 0   q 0
 q 1   q 1 , q 2
 q 2   q 2

  q 0 , a 
 - closure   q 0 ,  , a 
 - closure   - closure  q 0  , a 
 - closure   q 0 , a
 - closure  q 1 
 q 1 , q 2
TM

  q 0 , b  
 - closure   q 0 ,  , b 
 - closure   - closure  q 0  , b 
 - closure   q 0 , b 

  q 1 , a 
 - closure   q 1 ,  , a 
 - closure   q 1 , q 2  , a
 - closure   q 1 , a    q 2 , a
 - closure    

  q 1 , b  
 - closure   q 1 ,  , b 
 - closure   q 1 , q 2  , b 
 - closure   q 1 , b     q 2 , b 
 - closure   q 2 
 q 2
  q 2 , a 
 - closure   q 2 ,  , a 
 - closure   q 2 , a

  q 2 , b  
 - closure   q 2 ,  , b 
 - closure   q 2 , b 
 q 2
TM

 q0 q1, q 2 
q1  q 2
q2  q 2
q1 q2 b
 q1 q2 a b
q0 q1 q2
q2
 b a
q0  q1  q2
0
a
 - closure
 - closure (q 0 ) {q 0 , q 1 , q 2 }
 - closure (q 1 ) {q 1 , q 2 }
 - closure (q 2 ) {q 2 }

 (q 0 , a) 
 - closure  ( (q 0 , ), a) 
 - closure  ( - closure (q 0 ), a) 
 - closure  ( (q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ), a)
 - closure  (q 0 , a)   (q 1 , a)   (q 2 , a)
 - closure (  q 1  q 1 )
 - closure (q 1 )
{q 1 , q 2 }
TM

 (q 0 , b) 
 - closure  ( (q 0 , ), b) 
 - closure  ( - closure (q 0 ), b) 
 - closure  ( (q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ), b) 
 - closure  (q 0 , b)   (q 1 , b)   (q 2 , b) 
 - closure (q 0    q 0 )
{q 0 , q 1 , q 2 }
 (q 1 , a) 
 - closure  ( (q 1 , ), a) 
 - closure  ({q 1 , q 2 }, a)
 - closure  (q 1 , a)   (q 2 , a)
 - closure (q 1  q 1 )
{q 1 , q 2 }
 (q 1 , b) 
 - closure  ( (q 1 , ), b) 
 - closure  ( (q 1 , q 2 ), b) 
 - closure  (q 1 , b)   (q 2 , b) 
 - closure (  q 0 )
{q 0 , q 1 , q 2 }
 (q 2 , a) 
 - closure  ( (q 2 , ), a) 
 - closure  (q 2 , a)
{q 1 , q 2 }
 (q 2 , b) 
 - closure  ( (q 2 , ), b) 
 - closure  (q 2 , b) 
{q 0 , q 1 , q 2 }
TM

 q0 {q 1, q 2} {q 0, q 1, q 2}
q1 {q 1, q 2} {q 0, q 1, q 2}
q2 {q 1, q 2} {q 0, q 1, q 2}

0 1
q0 q1





    
  
 

    
  
 

    
  
TM

 
 
 
    
  
 



 q0 {q 0, q 1} {q 1}
 q1  {q 1}
0 1
q0 0,1 q1


TM

Q, ,  , q 0 , F M
M Q ,  ,   , q 0 , F
M M Q  2Q
F
Q q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ... q i 
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2,......   1 2 qi
q , q , ... Q
q0 q 0  q 0 .
  q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ... q i  , a  p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , ... p j 
 q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , .... q i  , a p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , ... p j
q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ... q i 
a  
p 1 , p 2 , ... p j
q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , .... q i , a  a
 p 1 , p 2 , ... p j 
q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ... q i  p 1 , p 2 , ... p j 
  q 0 , x q 1 , q 2 , ... q i 
  q 0 , x q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ... q i 
 q 0  q 0 

  q 0 , x a      q 0 , x , a
  q 0 , x  p 1 , p 2 , ... p j 
  q 0 , x p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , ... p j

  p 1 , p 2 , ... p j , a  r1 , r2 , .... rk 
 p 1 , p 2 , ... p j a  r1 , r2 , ... rk

TM

  q 0 , x a r1 , r2 , .... rk 
  q 0 , x a r1 , r2 , ... rk
M
Q , ,  , q 0 , F
M  Q  ,  ,   , q 0 , F M
M
Q
[q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ......... q i ] Q 
   q 1 , q 2 , ....... q i  , a  q 1 , a   q 2 , a ........  q i , a
 q 1 , q 2 , ...... q k 
 q 1 , q 2 , ...... q k  Q

 q 1 , q 2 , ...... q k .  q 1 , q 2 , ...... q n  Q
Q
 q 1 , q 2 , ...... q n   Q 
 1 , q 2 , ...... q n 
q
 F
{ q 0 , q 1}, { a , b },  , q 0 , { q 1} 
TM


q0 { q0 , q1 } { q1 }
q1  { q0 , q1 }
M  Q ,    , q 0 , F

  q 0 , 0  q 0 , q 1   q 0 , 0  q 0 , q 1 
q0 q 0 .

  q 0 , 0   q0 q 0, q1 q1    q 0, 1
  q1 , 0  q1  q 0, q1    q1, 1

q 0 , q 1 , q 0 , q 1 
q 0 , q 1 .
 q 0 , q 1, 0   q 0 , 0    q 1 , 0
q 0 , q 1  
 q 0 , q 1
  q 0 , q 1  , 0 q 0 , q 1 
  q 0 , q 1, 1   q 0 , 1    q 1 , 1
q 1  q 0 , q 1
q 0 , q 1
  q 0 , q 1  , 1 q 0 , q 1 
q1 q1
q 1  q 0 , q 1 
q 1  , q 0 , q 1 
TM

0 0
[q0] [q0,q1]
1 1
 q0 q 0, q1 q1
1
q1  q 0, q1
[q1]
q 0, q1 q 0, q1 q 0, q1
0
0,1
q 0  A C
q 1  1
1
q 0 , q 1 
B









TM




TM

F
TM

0 0
[p] [p,q] [p,q,r]
1 1
1 1
Part I
1 0
[p,r,s] [p,q,s] [p,r]
0 0
0
[p,q,r,s]
0
q
1
[p,s] 1
0,1
0
r s 0,1
Part II
q1 0 q2
1
0
q0
1 1
0 q3 q4
 q0 q 0, q1 q 0, q 3
q1 q 2 
q2  
q3  q 4
q4  
TM

  q 0 , 0 q 0 , q 1
  q 0 , 0 q 0 , q 1 
 q 0 , 1 q 0 , q 3 
q 0 , q 1  
 q 0 , q 1 , 0   q 0 ,0   q 1 , 0
q 0 , q 1  q 2 
 q 0 , q 1 , 0 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
 q 0 , q 1 , 1   q 0 , 1    q 1 , 1
q 0 , q 3   
q 0 , q 3 
 q 0 , q 1  , 1 q 0 , q 3 
q 0 , q 3    q 0 , 1
 q 0 , q 3  , 0   q 0 , 0    q 3 , 0
q 0 , q 1  
q 0 , q 1
 q 0 , q 3 , 0 [q 0 , q 1 ]
 q 0 , q 3 , 1   q 0 , 1    q 3 , 1
 q 0 , q 3   q 4
q 0 , q 3 , q 4 
  q 0, q 3 , 1 [q 0, q 3 , q 4 ]
 q 1  , 0 [q 2 ]
 q 1  , 1 
 q 2  , 0 
 q 2  , 1 
TM

 q 3  , 0 
 q 3  , 1 [q 4 ]
 q 4  , 0 
 q 4  , 1 
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2  , 0   q 0 , 0    q 1 , 0    q 2 , 0
q 0 , q 1  q 2   
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2  , 0 [q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ]
  q 0 , q 1 , q 2  , 1   q 0 ,1    q 1 , 1    q 2 , 1
q 0 , q 3     
q 0 , q 3 
  q 0 , q 1 , q 2  , 1 [q 0 , q 3 ]
 q 0 , q 3 , q 4  , 0   q 0 , 0    q 3 , 0    q 4 , 0
q 0 , q 1    
 q 0 , q 3 , q 4  , 0 [q 0 , q 1 ]
 q 0 , q 3 , q 4  , 1   q 0 , 1    q 3 , 1    q 4 , 1
q 0 , q 3    q 4   
q 0 , q 3 , q 4 
 [q 0 , q 3 , q 4 ] , 1 [q 0 , q 3 , q 4 ]
[q0 ] [q0, q1] [q0, q3 ]
[q1] [q2 ] 
[q 2 ]  
TM

[q 3 ]  [q 4 ]
[q 4 ]  
[q 0 , q1 ] [q 0 , q1 , q 2 ] [q 0 , q 3 ]
[q 0 , q 3 ] [q 0 , q1 ] [q 0 , q 3 , q 4 ]
[q 0 , q1 , q 2 ] [q 0 , q1 , q 2 ] [q 0 , q 3 ]
[q 0 , q 3 , q 4 ] [q 0 , q1 ] [q 0 , q 3 , q 4 ]
[q 2 ], [q 4 ], [q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ] [q 0 , q 3 , q 4 ]
Disconnected
part
q1
q0
1 0
1 0
[q0,q3] 0 [q0,q1]
q2
1 0 1
1
q3
0
[q0,q3,q4] [q0,q1,q2] 1
1
q4
q0
1 0
q 1, q 2 , q 3 q4 1
[q0,q3] [q0,q1]
0
1 0 1
[q0,q3,q4] [q0,q1,q2]
1
0
0
TM

0
q1
0 0
Start
q0 1 0 1 q3
0
q2 0
q0  q1 , q 2 
q1  q1 , q 2 
q2   q1 , q 3
q3  q1 , q 2 
  q 0 , 0 q 1 , q 2 
 [q 0 ], 0 [q 1 , q 2 ]
[q 1 , q 2 ]
[q 0 ]
 [q 0 ], 1 
  q 1 , 0  q 1 , q 2
 [q 1 ], 0 [q 1 , q 2 ]
 [q 1 ], 1 
 [q 2 ], 0 
  q 2 , 1  q 1 , q 3
 [q 2 ], 1 [q 1 , q 3 ] [q 1 , q 3 ]
TM

 [q 3 ], 0 [q 1 , q 2 ]
 [q 3 ], 1 
 [q 1 , q 2 ] [q 1 , q 3 ].
 [q 1 , q 2 ], 0  [q 1 ], 0   [q 2 ], 0
 q 1 , q 2  
q 1 , q 2 
  [q 1 , q 2 ], 0 [q 1 , q 2 ]
 [q 1 , q 2 ], 1  [q 1 ], 1   [q 2 ], 1
   q 1 , q 3
q 1 , q 3 
  [q 1 , q 2 ], 1 [q 1 , q 3 ]
 [q 1 , q 3 ], 0  [q 1 ], 0   [q 3 ], 0
 q 1 , q 2   q 1 , q 2
q 1 , q 2 
  [q 1 , q 3 ], 0 [q 1 , q 2 ]
 [q 1 , q 3 ], 1  [q 1 ], 1   [q 3 ], 1
 
  [q 1 , q 3 ], 1 
TM


 q 0 q1, q 2 
q1 q1, q 2 
q 2  q1,q 3
q 3 q1, q 2 
q1, q 2 q1, q 2 q1,q 3

q1,q 3 q1, q 2 
0 q1
[q1,q2]
0
0
q0
0 1 q3
[q1,q3]
q2
0
q 1, q 2 , q 3
[q1,q2]
0
q0
0 1
q0 q1 [q1,q3]
q1
[q 1 , q 3 ] [q 1 , q 2 ]
TM

0 1
Start q0 0 q1 1 q2
 - closure  q 0  q 0 
  '  A , 0  - closure   q 0 , 0
q 0 , q 1
 '  A , 1  - closure   q 0 , 1
 '  B , 0  - closure   q 0 , q 1  , 0
 - closure   q 0 , 0    q 1 , 0
 - closure  q 0 , q 1   
q 0 , q 1
 '  B , 1  - closure   q 0 , q 1  , 1
 - closure   q 0 , 1    q 1 , 1
 - closure    q 2 
q 2 
The required DFA is -

0
 '  C , 0  - closure   q 2 , 0  0
A B
 - closure   

1
 '  C , 1  - closure   q 2 , 1 
q 2  C
TM

 
 ([p], a)
 ([p], b) 
 ([q], a)
 ([q], b)
 ([r], a) 
 ([r], b) 

 ([p, q], a) 
 ([p, q], b) 
 ([p, r], a) {p  
 ([p, r], b) {p, q}  
 ([p, q, r], a)  
 ([p, q, r], b)  
TM

  
a
b
[p] [p,q]
b b a b
a
[p,q,r] [p,r]
a
0,1
q0 0 q1 1 q2
 Input 0 1
States
 q0 {q0, q1} {q0}
  q1  {q2}
 q2  
 
 


TM



 

 
 
'



  
 Input
States 0 1
[q0] [q0, q1] [q0]

  
[q1]  [q2]

[q2]  
[q0, q1] [q0, q1] [q0, q2]
 [q0, q2] [q0, q1] [q0]
1 0
0
[q0] [q0, q1]
1 1
[q0, q2]
0
This part
1 can be
[q1] [q2] neglected.
TM

1 0
0
[q0] [q0, q1]
1
1
0
[q0, q2]
 q0  q 0, q1 q0
q1 q2 q1
q2 q3 q3
q3  q2

 q 0 , 0 q 0 , q 1
  q 0 , 0 q 0 , q 1 
 q 0 , 1 q 0 
  q 0 , 1 q 0 
q 0 , q 1 .
 q 0 , q 1 , 0  q 0 , 0   q 1 , 0

 q 0 , q 1   q 2 
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
TM

  q 0 , q 1 , 1  q 0  , 1   q 1  , 1

 q 0    q 1
 q 0 , q 1
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
q 0 q 0, q1 q 0
q 0, q1 q 0, q1 , q 2 q 0, q1
q 0, q1 , q 2 q 0, q1 , q 2, q 3 q 0, q1 , q 3
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3  q 0 , q 1 , q 3 ,
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , 0   q 0  , 0    q 1  , 0    q 2  , 0
 q 0 , q 1   q 2    q 3 
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 
 q 0 q 0, q1 q 0
q1 q 2 q1
q 2 q 3 q 3
q 3  q 2
q 0, q1 q 0, q1 , q 2 q 0, q1
q 0, q1 , q 2 q 0, q1 , q 2 , q 3 q 0, q1 , q3 
q 0, q1 , q3  q 0, q1 , q 2 q 0, q1 , q 2
q 0, q1 , q 2 , q 3 q 0, q1 , q 2 , q 3 q 0, q1 , q 2 , q 3
TM

0,1
1 0,1 0,1
q0 q1 q2 qf
Input 0 1
States
q0 q0 {q0 ,q1}
q1 q2 q2
q2 qf qf
qf _ _
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

TM




Input 0 1
State
[q0] [q0] [q0, q1]
[q1] [q2] [q2]
[q2] [qf] [qf]
* [qf] – –
[q0, q1] [q0, q2] [q0, q1, q2]
[q0, q2] [q0, qf] [q0, q1, qf]
[q0, q1, q2] [q0,q2, qf] [q0, q1,q2, qf]
* [q0, qf] [q0] [q0, q1]
[q0, q1, qf] [q0,q2] [q0, q1,q2]

*
[q0, q2, qf] [q0,qf] [q0, q1,qf]
*
[q0, q1,q2, qf] [q0,q2, qf] [q0, q1,q2,qf]
*
a , b
a, b
a b a
q0 q1 q2 q3
TM

q0 q 0 , q1 q0
q1  q2
q2 q3 
q3  
  q 0 , a q 0 , q 1  q 0 , q 1 
  q 0 , b q 0 
  q 1 , a 
  q 1 , b q 2 
  q 2 , a q 3 
  q 2 , b 
  q 3 , a 
  q 3 , b 
 q 0 , q 1  , a q 0 , q 1 i. e. q 0 , q 1 
 q 0 , q 1  , b q 0 , q 2  = q 0 , q 2 
 q 0 , q 2  , a q 0 , q 1 , q 3   q 0 , q 1 , q 3 
 q 0 , q 2  , b q 0 
 q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , a q 0 , q 1 
 q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , b q 0 , q 2 
TM

b a
a
q0 [q0,q1]
q 0 q 0 , q1 q 0
b
q1  q 2
q 2 q 3  a
a
q 3  
[q0,q1,q3] [q0,q2]
q 0 , q1 q 0 , q1 q 0 , q 2
q 0 , q 2 q 0 , q1 , q 3 q0  b
q 0 , q1 , q 3 q 0 , q1 q 0 , q 2
q 1, q 2 q3
M  a , b , c , d, 0,1  , a b , d


b , d b
b , c
(0  1)  01
0,1
q0 0 q1 1 q2
TM

q0 { q 0 , q1 } { q0 }
q1 { q2 }
q2  
 

  
Q, ,  , q 0 , F 

MD Q D , ,  D , q 0 , FD 
 - closure  q 0   p1 , p2 , p 3 , pn p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , pn 
p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , pn   Q D
 p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , p n 
 D [p 1 , p 2 , p n ], a  - closure   p 1 , a    p 2 , a    p n , a
n
 - closure d  p i , a
i  1
 
p 1 , p 2 , p 3 , pn   Q D
pi
TM

b a

Start 
q0 q1 q2

a

  q 0  q 0 , q 1 , q 2
  q 1  q 1 , q 2
  q 2  q 2

  q 0  q 0 , q 1 , q 2
 ( A , a)  (( A , a))
 (( q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ), a)
 ( q 0 , a)  ( q 1 , a)  ( q 2 , a)
  q 1
 q 1 , q 2
 ( A , b)  (( A , b))
 (( q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ), b )
 (q 0 , b)  ( q 1 , b)  ( q 2 , b)
  q 0
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
 ( A , a)
 ( A , b)
q 1 , q 2 
 ( B , a)  ( ( q 1 , q 2 ), a )
TM

  q 1
q 1 , q 2 
 ( B , b)  (( q 1 , q 2 ), b )
 (q 1 , b)  ( q 2 , b)
 q 0 
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
b a
a b
a
A B A A B
b
B B A
0 1 2
q0  q1  q2
 (q 0 ) q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
 (q 1) q 1 , q 2 
 (q 2 )  q 2
  (q 0 ) q 0 , q 1 , q 2 
 , 0   (( q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ), 0)
 ( q 0 , 0)  ( q 1 , 0)  ( q 2 , 0)
  q 0
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2
 , 1   (( q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ), 1)
 ( q 0 ,1)  ( q 1 ,1)  ( q 2 ,1)
TM

  q 1
 q 1 , q 2
 , 2   (( q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ), 2)
 ( q 0 , 2)  ( q 1 , 2)  ( q 2 , 2)
  q 2
 q 2
 ( A , 0)
 ( A ,1)
0
 ( A , 2)
1
A B
 ( B , 0)   ( q 1 , q 2 ) , 0  C
  ( q 1 , 0)  ( q 2 , 0) 
  

 ( B , 1)   ( q 1 , q 2 ) , 1 
  ( q 1 ,1)  ( q 2 ,1) 
 q 1 
 q 1 , q 2
 ( B , 2)   ( q 1 , q 2 ) , 2 
  ( q 1 , 2)  ( q 2 , 2)  0
1
  q 2
1
A B
 q 2
2
2
 ( B , 0) 
C
 ( B , 1)
 ( B , 2)
TM

 ( C, 0)   ( q 2 , 0) 
  
0

1
 ( C, 1)   ( q 2 , 1)  A B 1
   2
2

C
 ( C, 2)   ( q 2 , 2) 
2
 q 0 , q 1 , q 2 q 1, q 2 
q 2 
 
  
c
, b, c
 p , q , r p q
a
, c
   A , a  - closure   A , a b
 - closure  p , q , r , a
r
 - closure   p, a    q , a    r , a 
c
 - closure   p   
 - closure  p
TM

p , q , r
   A , b  - closure   A , b 
 - closure  p , q , r, b 
 - closure   p , b     q , b     r , b 
 - closure  q  r   
 - closure  q    - closure  r
q  r
q , r
   A , c  - closure   A , c
 - closure  p, q , r , c
 - closure   p, c    q , c    r , c
 - closure  q , r  q  r
 - closure  q , r 
 - closure  q    - closure  r
q , r
   B , a  - closure   B , a 
 - closure   q , r , a 
 - closure   q , a    r , a 
 - closure  p   
 - closure  p 
p , q , r
   B , b  - closure   B , b  
 - closure   q , r , b 
 - closure   q , b     r , b  
 - closure  r   
 - closure  r 
TM

   B , b r
   B , c  - closure   B , c 
 - closure   q , r , c 
 - closure   q , c    r , c 
 - closure  q  r 
q , r
   C , a  - closure   C, a
 - closure   r , a 

   C, b   - closure   C, b 
 - closure   r , b 
   C, b  
   C, c  - closure   C, c
 - closure   r , c
 - closure  r 

a c
b, c
A B
a
b
Input
a b c
State
 A A B B C
 B A C B c
 C   C
TM

 p q r 
q r  p

r  p q

 p
a a

b
p q

   A, a  - closure  A, a c b

 - closure   p, a c
r
a
   A, b   - closure  A, b
 - closure   p, b 
 - closure  q 
   A, b 
  (A, c)  - closure ( (A, c))
 - closure ( (p, c))
 - closure (r) = {q, r}
   B, a  - closure  B, a

 - closure   p, q  , a
 - closure   p, a    q, a
 - closure  p  q 
TM

 - closure
 - closure (p)   - closure (q)
p  q  p, q

    B, a
   B, b   - closure  B, b
 - closure   p, q  , b 
 - closure   p, b     q, b 
 - closure  q  r
 - closure
 - closure (q)   - closure (r)
p, q  q, r  p, q, r

    B, b 
   B, c  - closure  B, c
 - closure   p, q  , c
 - closure   p, c    q, c
 - closure  r   
 - closure
   B, c
   C, a  - closure  C, a

 - closure   q, r , a
 - closure   q, a    r, a
 - closure  q  r 
 - closure (q)   - closure (r)
p, q  q, r
TM

   (C, a)
   C, b   - closure  C, b
 - closure   q, r , b 
 - closure   q, b     r, b 
 - closure  r   
 - closure
   (C, b)
   C, c  - closure  C, c
 - closure   q, r , c
 - closure   q, c    r, c
 - closure   p 
 - closure
   (C, c)
   D, a  - closure  D, a

 - closure   p, q, r , a
 - closure  p, a    q, a    r, a
 - closure  p  q  r 
 - closure (p)   - closure (q)   - closure  r
   (D, a)
   D, b   - closure  D, b
 - closure   p, q, r , b 
 - closure   p, b     q, b     r, b 
 - closure  q  r   
TM

 - closure  q, r
 - closure (q)   - closure  r
   (D, b)
   D, c  - closure  D, c
 - closure   p, q, r , c
 - closure  p, c    q, c    r, c
 - closure  r    p
 - closure (r)   - closure  p
q, r  p
   (D, c)
a c
A C
b
c
b c a
b
B D
a
a,b,c
TM

 - closure p 0 0
  A, 0  - closure  A,0 1
 - closure  p,0 p q

p 1 
 A, 0
  A, 1  - closure  A,1
 - closure  p,1 r
 - closure  q  0
p, q
  A, 1
 A, 1
  B, 0  - closure  B,0
 - closure  p, q  ,0
 - closure  p,0   q,0
 - closure p, q 
 - closure p   - closure q 
p, q
  B, 0
  B, 1  - closure  p, q  ,1
TM

 - closure  p,1   q,1

 - closure  q  r
 - closure q    - closure r
p, q  p, q, r
p, q, r
  B, 1
  C, 0  - closure p, q, r ,0
 - closure p,0   q,0   r,0
 - closure p  q  r
 - closure p   - closure q    - closure r
p  p, q  p, q, r
p, q, r
  C, 0
  C, 1  - closure p, q, r ,1
 - closure p,1   q,1   r,1
 - closure q  r,  
 - closure q    - closure r
p, q  p, q, r
p, q, r
  C, 1
0 1
0 0 0, 1
A A B
1 1
A B C
B B C
 C C C
TM



q2 0 q3
 
  0 0
q0 q1 q6 q7 q8 q9
 
q4 1 q5
 - closure q 0  q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7 
  A,0  - closure q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7  ,0
 - closure q 3 , q 8 
 - closure q 3    - closure q 8 
q 3 , q 6 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7   q 8 
q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 
   A, 0
  A, 1  - closure q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7  ,1
 - closure q 5 
q 5 , q 6 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7 
q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7  
   A, 1
   B, 0  - closure q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8  ,0
 - closure q 3 , q 8 , q 9 
q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 , q 9 
TM

   B, 0
  B, 1  - closure q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8  ,1
   B, 1
  C, 0  - closure q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7  ,0
 - closure q 3 , q 8 
  C, 0
  C, 1  - closure q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7  ,1
  C, 1
  D, 0  - closure q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8  ,0
 - closure q 3 , q 8 , q 9 
  D, 0 0
A B
  D, 1  - closure q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 , q 9  ,1
1
 - closure q 5  1 0
0
  D, 1
C D 0
1
  NFA   closure
letter
5 6
 
letter   
1 2 3 4 7 10
 digit 
8 9
 { 1}
  ( A, letter)   closure ((1, letter)
TM

  closure ( 2)
{2, 3, 4 , 5, 8, 10}
   (A, letter)
  ( A, digit)   closure ((1, digit))

   (A digit) 
  (B, letter)   closure ((2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10), letter)
{ 6, 7, 4, 5, 8, 10}
{ 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}
   (B, letter)
   (B, digit)   closure ((2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10), digit)
  closure (9)
{ 9, 7, 4, 5, 8, 10}
{ 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10}
   (B, digit)
   (C, letter)   closure ((4, 5, 6, 7 , 8, 10), letter)
   (C, letter)
  (C, digit)   closure ((4, 5, 6, 7 , 8, 10), digit)
   (C, digit)
  (D, letter)   closure ((4, 5, 7 , 8, 9, 10), letter)
   (D, letter)
  (D, digit)   closure ((4, 5, 7 , 8, 9, 10), digit)
TM

   (D, digit)
letter
A B
 
letter
t
gi
di

digit
letter
D C

letter
digit

letter / digit
letter
A B
TM

( q 1 , x) ( q 2 , x)
x   
0  0   Q 01 , Q 02  Q 01
 
Q 02  Q – Q 01
K  1 K QK
i K q1
q2 QK
i ( q 1 , a) ( q 2 , a)
( q 1 , a) ( q 2 , a)
K
QK
i
QK
i K K  1
n n  n 1
a
b
b
Start b a
q0 q3 q4 q5
b
b a a
a a a
b
q1 q2 q7 a q6
b b
TM

 q0 q1 q0
q1 q0 q2
q2 q3 q1
q3 q3 q0
q4 q3 q5
q5 q6 q4
q6 q5 q6
q7 q6 q3
q3 Q 01 Q 02
Q 01  q 3  q 3
Q 02 Q  Q 01
q 0 , q 1, q 2 , q 4 , q5 , q 6 , q7
0 {{q 3 }, {q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 }}
1
q0 q2
q0 q1 q0
q2 q3 q1
q0 q2 q1 q3 q1 q3
q0 q4
q0 q1 q0
q4 q3 q5
q0 q4 q1 q3
q0 q4 q0 q7
q0 q7 q0 q 1 q5 q6
TM

Q 1 q 3 
Q 2 q 0 , q 1 , q 5 , q 6 
q2 q4
Q 3 q 2 , q 4 
q3 q2 q4 q2
q4 q1 q5 q1 q5 q2 q4
Q 02 q7
 Q 4 q 7 
1 {q 3 }, {q 0 , q 1 , q 5 , q 6 }, {q 2 , q 4 }, {q 7 }
2
Q 21 q 3 
q0 q6
a b
q0 q1 q0
q6 q5 q6
Both lie in same set.
q0 q1 q5
a b a b
q0 q1 q0 q0 q1 q0
q1 q0 q2 q5 q6 q4
Do not lie in same set.
Q 22 {q 0 , q 6 }
q1 q5
TM

Q 23 {q 1 , q 5 } a b
q1 q0 q2
q2 q4
Q 24 {q 2 , q 4 } q5 q6 q4
Q 52 {q 7 }
Lie in Lie in
one set. one set.
2 {q 3 }, {q 0 , q 6 }, {q 1 , q 5 }, {q 2 , q 4 }, {q 7 }
3
Q 13 {q 3 }
q0 q6
Q 23 {q 0 , q 6 }
q1 q5
Q 33 {q 1 , q 5 }
q2 q4
Q 43 {q 2 , q 4 }
Q 53 {q 7 }
 3 {q 3 }, {q 0 , q 6 }, {q 1 , q 5 }, {q 2 , q 4 }, {q 7 }
 3  2 2
 [q 0 , q 6 ] [q1 , q5 ] [q 0 , q 6 ]
[q1 , q5 ] [q 0 , q 6 ] [q 2 , q 4 ]
[q 2 , q 4 ] [q 3 ] [q1 , q5 ]
 [q 3 ] [q 3 ] [q 0 , q 6 ]
[q 7 ] [q 0 , q 6 ] [q 3 ]
TM

b b
[q0,q6] q3 q7
a
a a a
b
[q1,q5] [q2,q4]
b
Start q0 0 1 q3
0
0
q1 1 q2 1
1
0 0
q5
1
q6 1
1 0
1
0
q4 0 q7
 q0 q1 q5
q1 q6 q2
q2 q0 q2
q3 q2 q6
q4 q7 q5
q5 q2 q6
TM

q6 q6 q4
q7 q6 q2
Q 01
Q 01 { q 2} 
Q 02 Q 01
{q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 }
0  {q 2 } {q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 }
1
{q 2 } Q 1  {q 2 }
0 {q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 }
q0
Input Input
0 0 1
State 1 State
q0 q1 q5 q0 q1 q5
q1 q6 q2 q3 q2 q6
0 0
Here q5  Q 2 and q2  Q 1 .
Here q1  Q02 and q2  Q01 .
Hence they are not 1-equivalent.
Hence they are not 1-equivalent.
Input Input
0 1 0 1
State State
q0 q1 q5 q0 q1 q5
q5 q2 q6 q7 q6 q2
Here q1  Q02 and q2  Q01 . Here q5  Q02 and q2  Q01 .

Hence they are not 1-equivalent. Hence they are not 1-equivalent.
q0 q 3 , q5 q7
q0 q4, q6
TM

Input Input
0 1 0 1
State State
q0 q1 q5 q0 q1 q5
q4 q7 q5 q6 q6 q4
Same states
Both  Q02 Both  Q02
{q 0 , q 4 , q 6 }
1 Input
0 1
State
Q 2 {q 0 , q 4 , q 6 }
q1 q6 q2
{q 1 , q 3 , q 5 , q 7 } q3 q2 q6
q1 q 3 q5
q6  Q02 and q2  Q01 .
q7
 Both are not 1-equivalent.
q1 q7
{q 1 , q 7 }
Q 3  {q 1 , q 7 }
Input Input
0 1 0 1
State State
q1 q6 q2 q1 q6 q2
q5 q2 q6 q7 q6 q2
q6  Q02
q6  Q02 and q2  Q01 . q2  Q01
Both are 1-equivalent.
 Both are not 1-equivalent. Both are 1-equivalent.
q3 q5
 Q 4 {q 3 , q 5 }
TM

Input
1 {q 2 }, {q 0 , q 4 , q 6 }, {q 1 , q 7 }, {q 3 , q 5 } State
0 1
2 q3 q2 q6
1 {q 0 , q 4 , q 6 }
q5 q2 q6
q0 q4 q6
q0 q4 q0, q6
Clearly both the states
q3 q5 are 1-equivalent.
q1 q7
 2  {q 2 }, {q 0 , q 4 }, {q 6 }, {q 1 , q 7 }, {q 3 , q 5 }
Input Input
0 1 0 1
State State
q0 q1 q5 q0 q1 q5
q4 q7 q5 q6 q6 q4
Belongs to Q3 Not 2-equivalent.

Both are
Hence are 2-equivalent. same
q0 q4
q1 q7
q3 q5
2   3 2
Q , {0, 1},  , q 0 , F
 [q 2 ], [q 0 , q 4 ], [q 6 ], [q 1 , q 7 ], [q 3 , q 5 ]
q 0 [q 0 , q 4 ]
F [q 2 ]
TM


[q 0, q 4 ] [q1, q7 ] [q3, q5 ]
[q1, q7 ] [q6 ] [q2 ]
[q2 ] [q0, q4 ] [q2 ]
[q3, q5 ] [q2 ] [q6 ]
[q6 ] [q6 ] [q 0, q 4 ]
q0 q4 q1 q7 q 3 q5
Start 0 1
[q0,q4] [q2]
0 1
1
0 [q1,q7]
0
[q3,q5] 1 0
[q6]
TM


 
0 1
Start 0 1 0
A B C D
1
0
1
0 1
0
1 1 0
E F G H
1
0
TM

A B C D E F G
C X X
D X
E X
F X
G X
H X
A B C D E F G
B X
C X X
  D X X X
  E X X X
  F X X X X
G X X X X X X
H X X X X X X
A B C D E F G
 
 
TM

0 1
A B D
B G C
C A C
D C G
G G A
 (p, w)  (q, w)
 (p, w)  (q, w)
TM

 (G, 0)  (G, 1)
 (H, 0)  (H, 1)
 (E, 0)  (E, 1)
 (H, 0)  (H, 1)
TM

 (E, 0)  (E, 1)
 (G, 0)  (G, 1)
 (E, 0)  (E, 1)
 (F, 0)  (F, 1)
 (D, 0)  (D, 1)
 (H, 0)  (H, 1)
 (D, 0)  (D, 1)
 (G, 0)  (G, 1)
 (D, 0)  (D, 1)
TM

 (F, 0)  (F, 1)
 (D, 0)  (D, 1)
 (E, 0)  (E, 1)
 (B, 0)  (B, 1)
 (G, 0)  (G, 1)
 (B, 0)  (B, 1)
 (F, 0)   F, 1
 (B, 0)  (B, 1)
 (E, 0)  (E, 1)
 (B, 0)  (B, 1)
 (D, 0)  (D, 1)
 (A, 0)  (A, 1)
 (H, 0)  (H, 1)
 (A, 0)  (A, 1)
 (G, 0)  (G, 1)
TM

 (A, 0)  (A, 1)
 (E, 0)  (E, 1)
 (A, 0)  (A, 1)
 (B, 0)  (B, 1)
TM

q1
1
0 0 0
1
q0 q3 q4 0,1
1 0 1
q3
 q0 q1 q3
q1 q2 q4
q2 q1 q4
q3 q2 q4
q4 q4 q4
Q 01 Q 02 q4
Q 01 {q 4 }
Q 02 Q  Q 01  {q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 }
 {q 4 }, {q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 }
TM

q0 q1 q1 q2
q1 q2 Q 02 q0 q1
q 3, q4 q 3  Q 02 q 4  Q 01
q0 q2 q0 q2
q1 q0 q2 q3 q4 q 3  Q 02
q 4  Q 01 q0 q2 q0
q3
Q 1 {q 4 }
Q 2 {q 0 }
Q 3 {q 1 , q 2 , q 3 }
1 {q 4 }, {q 0 }, {q 1 , q 2 , q 3 }
{q 1 , q 2 , q 3 } q1 q2 q2 q1
q4 q1 q3
{q 2 , q 3 }
2 {q 4 }, {q 0 }, {q 1}, {q 2 , q 3 }
3 {q 0 }, {q 2 }, {q 4 }, {q 1 , q 3 }
0,1
q0 q1
0 1
 q0 q1 q1 0
q2 q4
q1 q2 q4
1
q2 q1 q4
0,1
q4 q4 q4
TM

Can be
Can be Regular
converted
converted expression
to
Deterministic
NFA with
finite
 moves
automatas
Can be Can be
converted NFA without converted
  moves
to
 
a a 
Start a
q0 q0 q1 q0
r= r= r=a

(no path to final state)
r  r1  r2 r1 r2
TM

M 1  Q 1 ,  1 ,  1 ,  f1
M2 Q 2 ,  2 ,  2 ,  f2 
M 1  L  r1  r1
M1 M 2  r2 
Q1 M1
Q2 M2
Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2
q0 f0
Q 1  Q 2   q 0 , f0 ,  1   2 ,  q 0  f0 

  q 0 ,   q 1 , q 2
 a 1 a Q 1   f1 a  1  
 a  a Q 2   f2  a  2  
  f1 ,     f2 ,   f0 
q1 M1 f1
 
Start
q0 f0
 q2 M2 f2 
q0 f0
q1 q2 
q1
M1
f1 f0  q2
M2 f2 f0  M 1   L M 2 
M1 M2
r1 r2 r1 r2 M1 M2
M 1  r1  M 2  r2 
Q 1  Q 2 ,  1   2 ,   q 1, f2 
TM


 a  a
Q 1   f1   1   Start 
q1 M1 f1 q2 M2 f2
  f1 ,   q 2
 a  a
Q2 a  1  
q1 a f1 
f1 q2 f2 q2
f2
a
a M 1  M 2 
M 1  M 2 
r1* r1
M1 L  M 1   L  r1 
 1  0 , f0 ,  1 ,  q 0 ,  f0 
Q  q

  q 0 ,    f1 ,  q 1 , f0 

 a  a
Q 1   f1 a  1  
Start  
q0 q1 M1 f1 f0
M1

q0 q1
 q0 f0

f1 q1 f1 f0 
 a aa aaa a
M 1  *
b  ba *
TM

a r1 r2
r1
r2 a
r1
Start b
q1 q2
r1
r2 a r3 r4 r3
r4 a
Start b
r3 q3 q4
r4 r3
Start  a 
q5 q6 q7 q8
r4
r2 r2  r 3  r4

Start b   a 
q3 q4 q5 q6 q7 q8

r2
r1  r2 a
b 
 q1 q2
Start 
q0 q9

 b   a 
q3 q4 q5 q6 q7 q8
TM

( 0  1)  ( 00  11)
r1 r2
0
q2 q3
 
 
q0 q1 q6 q7
 1
q4 q5 
 0 0
q8 q9 q10 q11

q15
1 1 
q12 q13 q14

TM

q15


q11
1 q14
0q10
1 q13
0
q12
q9


q8

q7

q6


q3
q5


1
0
q2
q4


q1

q0
Start
TM

q1 a q2 q8 a q9
   
 b
q0 q5 q6 q7 q12
b   b  
 q3 q4 q10 q11
q13
 
q14 q16
a b
q15 q17
 
q18
  0
0  00 *
Start 0
q1 q2
r1 r2
r1
r2   00 *

Start  0 0 
q3 q4 q5 q6 q7
Start q0  q1 0 q2  q3   0 
q4 q5 q6 q7
TM

01  2 * 1
r1
r1  r2  r 3 Start 0 1
q1 q2 q3
r1 r2 r3
r2

r3
Start  2 
q4 q5 q6 q7 Start 1
q8 q9
0 1
q1 q2 q3
 
Start  1
q0  q8 q9 q10
  2 
q4 q5 q6 q7 
1 0
q0 q1 q2
TM

0
q5 q6
 
q3  q4 q7  q10
 1
q8 q9 
0 1 q13
q11 q12
 1  q3 0 q4
q0 q1 q2 q3
q0  q1 1 q2  q3 0 q4

q7
 0
q5 q6 
TM

1
0

 q14
q13
q12
q11
q10


q7
q9

1
0

q6
q8




0
1q5
q4
q3
q2
q1
q0
Start
TM

q1 1 q2  q3 1 q4


q0 
q7 q12
 0  0  1 
q6 q7 q8 q9 q10 q11
 0 
q13
0  1 
q2 q3 q4 q5 

   0  
q0 q1 q6 q13 q14 q15 q16 q17
 0  0  1 
q7 q8 q9 q10 q11 q12 
TM



q1 b q2
 
q0 q5  q6 b q7  q8 a q9  q10
 
q3 q4 a
a
 q11

 (q 0 ) q 0 , q 1, q 3 , q 6
 (q 1 ) q1
 (q 2 ) {q 2 , q 5 , q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 6 }  {q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 5 , q 6 }
 (q 3 ) q3
 (q 0 ) {q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 6 }
   { (q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 6 ), a}
 { (q 0 , a)  (q 1 , a)   (q 3 , a)   (q 6 , a)}
 {    q 4  }
 {q 4 }
{q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 }
 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 6 ), b}
 { (q 0 , b)  (q 1 , b)  (q 3 , b)  (q 6 , b)}
 {  q 2    q 7 }
 {q 2 }   {q 7 }
{q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 5 , q 6 }  {q 7 , q 8 }
{q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 }
TM

 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 ), a}
 {(q 0 , a)   (q 1 , a)   (q 3 , a)   (q 4 , a)   (q 5 , a)   (q 6 , a)}
 {    q 4      }
 {q 4 }
 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 ), b}
 { (q 0 , b)   (q 1 , b)   (q 3 , b)   (q 4 , b)   (q 5 , b)   (q 6 , b)}
 {  q 2        q 7 }
 {q 2 }   {q 7 }
 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 ), a}
 { (q 0 , a)   (q 1 , a)   (q 2 , a)   (q 3 , a)
  (q 5 , a)   (q 6 , a)   (q 7 , a)   (q 8 , a)}
 {      q 4        q 9 }
 {q 4 }   {q 9 }
{q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 }  {q 9 , q 10 }
{q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 9 , q 10 }
 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 ) , b}
 { (q 0 , b)   (q 1 , b)   (q 2 , b)   (q 3 , b),
  (q 5 , b)   (q 6 , b)  (q 7 , b)   (q 8 , b)}
 {  q 2        q 7    }
 {q 2 }   {q 7 }
TM

 
  {{q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 9 , q 10 }, a}
 { (q 0 , a)   (q 1 , a)   (q 3 , a)   (q 4 , a)   (q 5 , a)
  (q 6 , a)   (q 9 , a)   (q 10 , a)}
 {     q 4         q 11}
 {q 4 }   {q 11}
{q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 }  {q 11}
{q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 11}
 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 9 , q 10 ), b }
 (q 0 , b)   (q 1 , b)   (q 3 , b)   (q 4 , b)   (q 5 , b)
  (q 6 , b)   (q 9 , b)   (q 10 , b)}
 {  q 2        q 7    }
 {q 2 }   {q 7 }
 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 11 ), a}
 { (q 0 , a)   (q 1 , a)   (q 3 , a)
  (q 4 , a)   (q 5 , a)   (q 6 , a)   (q 11 , a)}
 {    q 4        }
 
  { (q 0 , q 1 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 11 ), b}
 { (q 0 , b)   (q 1 , b)   (q 3 , b)   (q 4 , b)
  (q 5 , b)   (q 6 , b)   (q 11 , b)
 {  q 2        q 7  }
 {q 2 }   {q 7 }
TM

 
b b
A C
a b a
b
E a D
( a|b)  ab


q2 a q3
 
q0  q1 q6  q7 a q8 b q9
 q4 b q5 
 closure (q 0 ) {q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7 }
   A  a  closure ( (q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7 ), a)
 closure (q 3 , q 8 )
{q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 }
TM

   A  a
   A a
   A  b  closure ( (q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7 ), b)
 closure (q 5 )
{q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 }
   A b
   B a  closure ( (q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 ), a)
    B a
   B b  closure ( (q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 ), b)
{q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 9 }
    B b
   C a)  closure ( (q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 ), a)
    C a)
   C b)  closure ( (q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 ), b)
 closure (q 5 )
    C b)
   D a)  closure ( (q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 9 ), a)
    D a)
   D b)  closure ( (q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 9 ), b)
    D b)
TM

a
i/p
a b a
State A B
A B C
b a b
a
B B D
C B C C D b
D B D
b
a
b
i/p a
a b A B
State
A B A b
a
B B D
D
D B D
b
 
10  ( 0  11) 0 * 1
TM

10+(0+11)01
q0 qf
10
q0 qf
(0
+1
1)
0
1
q1
0
1
q0 qf
(0+11)
01
q2
q1
1 0
q0 qf
(0+11)
1
q2
1
q0 q1
0
1
0 q2 qf
1 1
q3
TM

q0 q3 { q1, q2 }
q1 qf 
q2  q3
q3 q3 qf
qf  
[q0 ] [q3 ] [q1, q2]
[q1] [q f ] 
[q 2 ]  [q 3 ]
[q 3 ] [q 3 ] [q f ]
[q1, q2] [q f ] [q3 ]
[q f ]  

(a + b) a

(a + b) a + b
q0 q1 q0 q1
TM

a,b
 a
(a + b) a
q0 q1 q2
q0 q1
b
b
( 0  1)  ( 00  11)( 0  1) 
( 0  1) ( 00  11) ( 0  1) 
(0+1)* (00+11) (0+1)* (0+1)* (00+11) (0+1)*

q0 qf q0 q1 q2 qf
q1 0 q2


 (00+11) (0+1)*
q0 q3 q6 q7 qf
 1 
q4 q5
 
q1 0 q2 q8 0 q9
 
 
 (00+11) 
q0 q5 q6 q7 q12 q13
 1   1 
q3 q4 q10 q11
 
TM


0,1 0,1
q0 00+11 q1
0,1 0,1
0,1 0,1 0 0
q0 q1 qf
q0 00 q1
1 1
q0
11 is the required FA.
Input
0 1
State
A A B
B C B
C A B
0
1
1 0
A B C
1
0
1
0
0*1
A B C
1
0
0*11*
A B C
1
0
TM

+
0*1 0(10)*0
+
0*1 0(10)*
A B A
 0 * 1  0 10 * 0 * 
 x  y x  x  y *
x, y
x, y x
q0 q1 q2
q 0 | xxyx
x q 1| xyx
x x q 2 | y x
x x y q 2 | x
x x y x q 2 |
 a  b  a  b  * aa
(a+b)(a+b)*a a
q0 q1
(a+b) (a+b)* a a
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
a, b
q0 a, b q1 a q2 a q3
TM

 q 0 , a q 1 
 q 0 , b  q 1  q0 q1 q1
 q 1 , a q 1 , q 2   q1 q1,q2 q1
 q 1 , b  q 1  q2 q3
 q 2 , a q 3  q3
 q 2 , b  
 q 3 , a  b b
 q 3 , b   a, b a
q0 q1 [q1,q2]
q 1 , q 2 , a q 1 , q 2 , q 3  
q 1 , q 2 , b  q 1  a
b
q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , a q 1 , q 2 , q 3 
q1,q2,q3
q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , b  q 1 
a
a | b *


q2 a q3
 
Start   a
q0 q1 q6 q7 q8
 
b
q4 b q5
q9

b
q10
 (q 0 ) q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7 
  A, a   q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7  , a
 q 3 , q 8 
TM

q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 
  A, a
  A, b    q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 7  , b
 q 5  q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 
 A, b
  B, a   q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8  , a
 q 3 , q 8 
  B, a
 B, b   q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 6 , q 7 , q 8 , b
 q 5 , q 9 
q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 9 
  B, b
  C, a   q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , , a
 q 3 , q 8 
  C, a
  C, b   q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7  , b
 q 5 
  C, b
  D, a   q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 9  , a
 q 3 , q 8 
  D, a
  D, b    q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 9 , b
 q 5 , q 10 
q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 10 
  D, b
  E, a   q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 10  , a
 q 3 , q 8 
  E, a
  E, b    q 1 , q 2 , q 4 , q 5 , q 6 , q 7 , q 10  b 
TM

 q 5 
  E, b
I/P a b b
State
A B C C
b
B B D b a
b
C B C a b
A B D E
D B E a
a a
E B C
b
a b
A B D E
a
b
a a
 
0
0
q0 0 q1 1 qf
0* (01) (0/111)*
q0 qf
111
0
0
q0 0 q1 1 qf 1 q2
1
1
q3
TM

Input 0 1
State
q0 q0, q1 
q1  qf
q2  q3
q3  qf
qf qf q2
*
 
 


Input 0 1
State
q0 q0,q1 
q1  qf
q2  q3
q3  qf
qf qf q2
q0,q1 q0,q1 qf
0
q0 0 q0,q1
q2
1 0
qf
1
1
q3
TM

( ab  a)  .
q2 a q3 b q4
 
q0  q1 q7  q8
 q5 q6
a
q0 a q1
 
0,1 0,1
q0 0 q1 1 q2 0 q3 1 q4
TM

q 1 , q 2 , .... q n ,   , q 1 , F
rikj   q i , x  q j qi qj
rikj
rikj rikk 1 rkkk1 * rkkj 1  rikj 1
ri0j

  |   q i ,    q j 
if i  j

 
  |   q i ,    q j   i  j
rikj
rikj ri0j
 ri0j   q i , a  q j ri0j
a a 
a 
rikj
rikj r  r  * r   r
k 1
ik
k 1
kk
k 1
kj
k 1
ij
rinj
rinj rinj 1  rinj 2  .... rinj p
 q j 1 , q j 2 , q j p
TM

Start 0
q1 q2
ri j
r11 
qi qj 
i j qi qj  r12
0 r21 
r11
0 r22 
r11
qi qj 
0
r11
0
r12 q1 q2
0
r12
0
r21 q2 q1 ij

0
r22 q2 q2
r  * r
1 k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
r11 rikj ri k  ri j
kk kj

1
r11 0
r11  r110  * r110   r110
  *    
1
r11 
TM

 r110  * r120   r120

1 1 0
r12 r12 r11
1
r12   *  0  0
 0  0
    
1 1 0 r0 * r0  r0
r21 r21 r21 11 11 21
  *    
     

   
1 1 0 r0 * r0  r0
r22 r22 r21 11 12 22
   *  0   
 

2
r12 q2
q1
2
r12 r121  r221  * r221   r121 
0  *   0
00
2
r12
1
Start 0
q1 q2
rijk
k 1
rik r  * r   r
k 1
kk
k 1
kj
k 1
ij
TM

r11 
r12
r21 
r22 1 
r11
1
r11 0
r11  r110  * r110  r110
   *    
1
r11 
r12
1
r12 0
r11  r110  * r120  r120
 0  0
1
r12
r21 1
r21 0 r
r21  11  * r110  r21
0
    
1
r21 
r22 1
r22 r21  r11  * r12
0  r0
22
  * 0   1   1 
q1 q2
 2
r12 1
r12  
1
r22 1
* r22 1
 r12
0  1 * 1    0
2
r12 01 * 0
TM

1 0,1
1
1 2
rijk rijk 1  rik

k 1 k 1  k 1
(rkk ) rkj 
r11  1
r11 0
r11 0
 r11 (r11 )  r11
0

   

   
  
  
1 
r11
r12 1
r12 0
r12 0
 (r11 0  0
) (r11 ) r12

 

  
  
 
1   
r12 
r21  1
r21 0
r21 0
 r21 (r11 )  r11
0

   
   
1
r21    
r22     1
r22 0
r22 0
 r21 0  0
( r11 ) r12

  
   
   
2
r12
2 1 1 1  1
 r12 r12  r12 ( r22 ) r22
TM

  
 
 
  
   
 
   

 
1 0,1
0
1 2
rijk rijk 1  (rik

k 1  k 1
) rkj
 1
r11 0
r11  (r11 )  r11
0 0
r11

   
1 
r11
1 0 0 0  0
r12 r12  (r11 ) (r11 ) r12

 

  
1 
r12
 1
r21 0
r21 0
 r21 (r11 )  r11
0

   
 
1
r21 
TM

 1
r22 0
r22 0
 r21 (r11 )  r12
0

  
 

2
r12
2 1 1 1 
 r12 r12  r12 (r22 ) r22
  
 
 
  
 

   

 
q1 0 q2 1 q3
0 0,1
rijk rijk 1  rik

k 1 (r k 1 )  r k 1
kk kj

0
r11 
0
r12
0
r13
0
r21
TM

0
r22 
0
r23
0
r 32
0
r 31 
0
r 33 
1 0 0 0  0
r11 r11  r11 (r11 ) r11
1
r11 
1
r12 0
r12 0 0  0
 r11 (r11 ) r12  
1
r13 0
r13 0 0  0
 r11 (r11 ) r13  
1 0 0  0 0
r21 r21 (r11 ) r11 + r11
1
r22 0
r22 0 0  0
+ r21 (r11 ) r21  
1
r22 
1
r23 0
r23 0 0  0
+ r21 (r11 ) r13  
1
r23
1 0 0 0  0
r 31 r 31 + r 31 (r11 ) r11
1
r 31 
1 0 0 0  0
r 32 r 32 + r 31 (r11 ) r12 
1
r 32
1
r 33 0
r 33 0
+ r 31 0  0
(r11 ) r13   
1
r 33 
2 1 1 1  1
r11 r11  r12 (r22 ) r21
  
   
2 
r11
TM

2 1 1 1  1 
r12 r12  r12 (r22 ) r22  
2 
r12
2 1 1 1  1 
r13 r13  r12 (r22 ) r23 
  

  
 
 



2 
r13
2 1 1 1  1
r21 r21  r22 (r22 ) r21

 

  

2 1 1 1  1
r22 r22  r22 (r22 ) r22

   

   

 
 

2 1 1 1  1
r23 r23  r22 (r22 ) r23

 

  

 
   
  
 
2 
r23
2 1 1 1  1
r 31 r 31  r 32 (r22 ) r21

 


2 
r 31
TM

2 1 1 1  1 
r 32 r 32  r 32 (r22 ) r22  

  
  
 
  

2 1 1 1  1 
r 33 r 33  r 32 (r22 ) r23  
  
 
 
   
2   
r 33  
3 2 2 2  2
 r12 r12  r13 (r 33 ) r 32
   

      

q1
q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , ... q n qj

 ji qj qi
qi
qi  ji  q j
qi
qi  ji q j  
TM

a b
Start b q2 a q3
q1
q1 q 1 a 
q1  a q1 q1

q2 q1 bq2 b
q1
q1 q1 a 
q1 q1 a
q1  a
q1  a *
q1 a 
q1 q2
q2 q1 bq2 b
q2 a q2
q2 a
 q2 a 
R
q2 a  b
q2
q 2  a * b a
TM

Start q1
1
1
0 q2
1
q3 0
q1 q 1 0  q 3 0 
q2 q 21  q 3 1  q 1 1
q3 q20
q1
q2 q 2 1  q 2 01  q 1 1
q2 q 2 1  01  q 1 1
q2 q1 P  1  01
q2 q 1 1 1  01 *
q1
q1 q 1 0  q 3 0  q 1 0  q 2 00   q 1 0  q 1 1 1  01 * 00  
q1 q 1 0  1 1  01 * 00  
q1

0  11  01 * 00
q1   0  p 1  01 * 00*
q1 0  1 1  01 * 00* 
0 1 0,1
Start 1 0 q3
q1 q2
TM

q1 q 1 0 
q2 q11 q2 1
q3 q 2 0  q 3  0  1
q1 q2 q1 q2
q1
q1  q1 0
q1    0 *
q1 
q2
q2 0*1  q 2 1
q2 0 * 1 1 * 
q1 q2 
1 1  1*  1 
0
q1 q2
0 1 0
q3 q4 0,1
1
q1 q 2 1  q 3 0 
q2 q1 0
q3 q11
q4 q 2 0  q 3 1  q 4  0  1
q1
q1 q 2 1  q 3 0 
TM

q1 q 1 01  q 1 10  
q1 q 1  01  10  
q1    01  10 * 
q1 01  10 * q1  01  10
01  10 *
q1 q1
Start q0 0,1
q0
q0 q 0 0  q 01 
q0 q 0  0  1  
   0  1 *
q0 0  1 *
q0 q0
0  1 *
, 0, 00, 1, 11, 10, ....
q2 a,b
b
q0
a
q3
a,b
q0 
q3 q 3 aq 3 bq0 a
q0 q3
q3 q3 a  a
TM

q3 q3 a a 
q3 a a a a q3
a,b
Start q0 q1
a,b
q0 q 1 a  q 1 b 
q1 q0 a
q0
q0 a q 1 
q0 q1
q1  a  b  q 1    a
q1 a a q1 a
q1 a a a
 q1 a   a  b   a  b  *
0,1
Start 0,1 q1 q2
q0
0,1
q2
q0 
TM

q1 q0 1q0 0q2 1q2 0

q2 q11q1 0
q0 q1
q1   1    0  q 2  0  1
q1 1  0  q 2 0  1
q2
q2 1  0 q 1 1  0 1  0  q 2 1  0
q2 1  0  1  0  q 2 1  0 1  0
q2 1  01  0 1  0 1  0
q2 1  0 1  0 1  01  0*
0,1
1 0+1 0+1
A B C D
 
A (0 + 1) +
R P Q
( 0  1) * ( 0  1) *

 



TM

 

0
1
1 0
q1 q2 q3
1
0
 


TM









 

 

 
0 1
1
q0 q1
0
0 0
q3 q2
1
q0
q0 q00  q20  q 30  
q1 q 0 1  q 11  q 3 1
q2 q 10
q3 q 21
q2
q3 q 1 01
q1 q 0 1  q 1 1  (q 1 01) 1
q1 q 0 1  q 1 1  q 1 011
TM

q1 q 1 (1  011)  q 0 1
R R P Q
q1 q 0 1 (1  011)  R  Q  RP R  QP
q0
q0 q00  q20  q 30  
q 0 0  (q 1 0) 0  (q 1 01)0  
q0 q 0 0  q 1 (00  010)  
q 0 0  q 0 1 (1  011)  (00  010)  
q0 q 0 (0  1 (1  011)  (00  010))  
 q0  ( 0  1 (1  011)  ( 00  010)) 
q3 q 1 01
q 0 1 (1  011)  01
q3 (0  1(1  011)  (00  010))  1 (1  011)  01
q3 q3
 (0  1(1  011)  (00  010))  1 (1  011)  01)
a a
q1 b q2 q3
b
q1 = q1 a + 
R R P Q
TM

 
 

 


q2 = q2 a + a* b
R R P
Q
 

 
 
 
TM

R R  R
*  
( ) *  
R R  
  R
R
(R * ) * R*
  RR * R*
(P  Q) * (P * Q * )  (P *  Q * ) *
R * (  R) (  R) R *  R *
(R  ) * R*
  R* R*
(PQ) * P P (QP) *
R* R  R R* R

QP *


TM

QP *
Q  Q P* P
Q (  P * P)
QP *   R* R  R*
QP *
QP *

Q  QP  RP 2
Q  QP  (Q  RP) P 2
Q  QP  QP 2  RP 3
 1
Q  QP  QP 2  ....  QP i  RP i
Q (  P  P 2  .... P i )  RP i  1
Q (  P  P 2  ....  P i )  RP i  1
 1
Q (  P  P 2  ...  P i  RP i
P*
 QP *  RP i  1
RP i  1
RP i  1
QP *
QP *
TM

1  00 * 1  1  00 * 10  10 * 1 * 0  10 * 1  0 * 1 0  10 * 1 *
1  00 * 1  1  00 * 1 0  10 * 1 * 0  10 * 1
1  00 * 1
1  00 * 1   0  10 * 1 * 0  10 * 1

 R*R where R   010*1
 
 1  00 * 1 0  10 * 1 *
1  00 * 1 0  10 * 1 *

  00 * 1 0  10 * 1 *
  00*  0 *
0 * 1  0  10 * 1 *
0 * 1 **  0  1 *
0 * 1 * *
, 0, 00, 1, 11, 111, 01, 10, ...
0  1 *
, 0, 00, 1, 11, 111, 01, 10, ....
TM

a b *  a * b *
a  a a a a a a
a  a aa aa a
a a a a
a a a a a a

r  s *  r *  s *





r  s  t  r s  r t
 
)* ) * ]*
)*
TM

)*
)* )* )*
)*
)* b*

)* b*
b* )* b*
  1 * ( 011) * (1 * ( 011) * ) *  (1  011) *
  1 * ( 011) * (1 * ( 011) * ) *
1 * ( 011) * P1
  P1 P1*
P1*   P1 P1*  P1*
P1 1 * ( 011) *
(1 * ( 011) * ) *
P2 P3  (011)
*
 P2* P3*
(P2  P3 ) * (P * Q * ) *  (P  Q) *
(1  011) *
TM

  1 * (011) * (1 * (011) * ) * (1  011) *
(  aa*)b + (a  aa * a) b
(  a  ) b  (a  a  ) b *
 a *b  a  b*
 (b  ab *  aa * b  aa * ab * ) (a * b  a  b * )
a * (b  ab * )
a *b  a *a b*
a * b  a+b*
 a * (b  ab * ) a *b  a  b*
(a  b) *  aa (a  b) *  aaa (a  b) *
TM

  
i 0 v i
M   Q, ,  , q 0 , F
a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , .... a m , m  n 
  q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ... q i   q i
aj+1....ak
ai.....aj ak+1....am
qm q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , ... q m q0 qj = qk qm
a 1 , a 2 , ... a j a k 1 a k 2 ...... a m
q0
qm qj
a j  1 .... a k

 q 0 , a 1 , a j a k 1 ... a m   
  q 0 , q 1 , ... q j , a k 1 .... a m 
  q j , q k+1 ... q m 
  q k , q k+1 ... q m 
qm
L  b i | i  1
2
 
L   0i / i is an integer ; i  1
2
 
2
L  bi
TM

2
b1 12
2
b2 22
2
bn n2
n2
 |v|  n
uvi w
n2
1 | v |  n
n 2 1  | u v w |  n  n 2
n 2 1  | u v w |  n 2  n  n 1
n 2  1  | u v w |   n  1 2
n 2  | u v w |   n  1 2
2
bi
TM


L  0 2n| n  1 
0 2n
2n  u v i w

L  a p | p is a prime 
aP
uvi w

TM

P1

L  0n 1n 1 | n  0 
0 n 1 n 1
 

 
TM

 



 
  
ab ab ba ba
n n n n
a b ab ba ba
u 1 w
TM


L

L
L

00 1 222
u v w
TM


00 1 222
u v w


2 2
1n 11
2 2
1n 12
2
1n
1 v  n
1 v  n
 
TM

 
 
 
 
2
1n
2
12
 
TM




a,b
q0 a,b q1

 

W= a a a b b
x
y z
TM

W= a a a b b
x z
y
w = aaabb
z
x y
 

 
TM

w = 0 0 010000
x y z
 
w = 0 0 1 1 0000
x y z
w =0 0 1 0 0 0
x y z
TM

TM

L1 L2 L1  L2
L1 L2 L 1  L (R 1 )
L 2  L (R 2 ) L 1  L 2  L (R 1  R 2 ) L1  L2
L1
M  (Q, ,  , q 0 , F) L1
M'  (Q, ,  , q 0 , Q  F)  M'
M'
M'
L1 M'
L1 L2 L1  L2
TM

L1 M1
L1 (Q 1 , ,  1 , q 1 , F1 ) L2
M2  (Q 2 , ,  2 , q 2 , F2 )
L1  L2
M  (Q, ,  , q, F)
Q1  Q2
 1  2

F1  F2 M1 M2
L1  L2
L1 L2
L1  L2
L 1 and L 2 L1  L2
L1  L2 L1  L2
L1 M  (Q,   q 0 , F)
L1 L1 M  (Q, ,  , q 0 , Q  F)
M
L 1 and L 2
L 1  L(R 1 ) L 2  L (R2 )
L 1  L 2  L (R 1 + R2 ). L1  L2
L1  L2
wR L (w R )  (L(w)) R
w    wR  
() R  ( ) R  
L(w R )
w1w2
(w 1 ) R  (w) R
TM

w1 w2
w1
w2
wR
1
wR
2
wR
1
wR
2
L1 L 1  L(R *1 )
L1
L1 L2 L1  L2
L1 L2 L 1  L(R 1 )
L 2  L(R 2 ) L 1  L 2  L(R 1  R 2 )

 * 
h  a 1  h  a 2  ... h  a n 
 h  w  : w L 
 a , b
TM

* 
 
L  ,
h 1  L w w L
Q , ,  , q 0 , F
010, 010010, ...
TM

0 1 a bb
q0 q1 q2 q0 q1 q2
i.e.
a
0 h(L)
L
a bb
q0 q1 q2
a
–1
h (L)
TM

 



 
0 1 0,1
1 0
A B C
 



 
TM


L1 
L1 




1  1
2  2
q1 M1 f1

Start q0 f0

q2 M2 f2
    2 



TM

L  { a 2n | n  1}
|z|  n
 |v|  1  uv i w
L
M
a b
q0 a q1 b q2
 
 
 Start q0  q1 
f1 f0
   
  a, b
TM


a, b a a, b
q0 a q1 b q2
Input
a b
State
q0 {q0, q1} {q0}
q1 {q1} {q0, q2}
 q2 {q2} {q2}
   0,1
0 1, 0
0
q0 1 q1 0 q2 1 q4
1
0
q3
1
0 1, 0
0
q0 1 q1 0 q2 1 q4
1
0
q3
1
TM


   a, b, c, d.
a
q0  q1 q2  q3  q4 c q5 d q6
10,11
1 0, 1
q1 0 q2 0 q3
TM

1 0, 1
q1 0 q2 0 q3
0n1n
0 0n
z L L 0n
|z|
u viw
|uvvw|
z  a, b
b * a b * a b * a  *
( 0  1)*
, 0, 1, 00, 11, 01, 10, 111, ....
Any number of 0' s and 1' s including null string
TM

0 n 1 n 
0 p|p - is a prime number
*
 a  zA  Z a  zA  Z 0  9
0  9 
0,1 *
0 * 100 * * 1 * 1  01*0  01 *

110  0 * 100 * * 1 *

{ 0,1} 
0, 1
q0 0, 1 q1
0  1 *1  0 *  0  1 *
TM

1 0  11 *
 a / b *
,
a, b, aa, bb, ab, ba, ....
Any number of a' s and / or b' s including null string
 0  1 * 00
 
a,b
q0 a* b* qf a,b
q0 q1

 
 
L1
TM

0,1
q0 0 q1 1 q2
0,1
0 1
q0 q1 q2






TM





1 0
Start 0 1
{q0} {q0,q1} {q0,q2}
 
0 1 2
q0  q1 
q2

0,1 2
Start
q0  q2
0,1,2
 Start
q0

TM



a b c
 
q0 q1 q2



 
 
0 1 2
 
q0 q1 q2
 


1 0 0,1
q0 0 q2 1 q1
 
2 3 6

1
 b
a
4 5 7

TM







 
   q, 


0 1
q0 1 q1
r  s*  r *  s *
 r  s *
, r, rr, s, ss, rs, sr,... , r, rr, rrr, s, ss, sss, ...
, any combination of r and s , any combination of only r or any combination of only s


( 0 1  ) ( 0  1) 
1 11 .
TM

|z|  n, |uv|  n, |v|  1 i  0, uv i w
 a  b|c
q0  q1 a q2  q3 b q4
{0n 12n|n  0}
W L {0 n 1 2n }
0 011 11
x y z
xy i z  L
xy i z
02 12 01 14  L
TM

(b|c)



TM

TM

TM

 A   , , 
 
TM

G = (V, T, P, S)









TM

  
aA   a 
a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , .... a m 
a1  a2
a2  a 3
a m 1  a m
*
a1  am
G


a
 a
 a  a
   a
 a
TM

 
aaaaa
a
aa
aaa
aaaa
aaaaa
aaaaa
aaaaa
a  a aa aaa

S,  a , b, P , S
S  aSb 
 
S  a b 
a a
 a
a

aa

aaa
 a aaaa
a
L  a n b n where n  1 
TM

0  1 *


0  1 *
 

a
 a a
a 
 a a a
a a  a
a
a a
a a a
L  w cwT w   a , b *
aa aa a a a a
 a a


L wcwT  a
 a a  a
a a
a a a 
b a
a a 
b c 
b a
a a
TM

   a , b
madam
read read
 a
a  It is the same !
a
 a a

 a

 
a a a a
a a a b a a b a
a a a a a b a a b a
a aa a a b a a b a
a aa a a b a a b a
0  1 * 000 0  1 *

 

TM

a a 
a a 
a

a
a
a a a a a
aa a a a a
aa  a
a a b 
aa a  a
a a b a
aa a  a b
a a b  
 a
 a a
 a
a

a
a



a
TM

a
aa
aa
aa
aa a
aa a
aa a
aa a a
aa a a
a
aa
aa
aa a
aa a
a
A  aa
a
a  a
TM

 one occurrence 
     anything 
 of double a 
 aa
 a 
a
a aa
a a aa a
a 
abaa 
a 
abaa 
a aa a b aa
  aa
a aa a b aa
  b 
a aa a b aa
  b 
a aa a b aa
  b
  0, 1

 
 
   1  10  1 * 0
0 0  1 *
L  a n b 2n n1
a n bn
 a a
TM

a x b y | x  y


 bR2 | b
r.e. = (110 + 11)* (10)*
Can be represented
by the non
 terminal
A B
 
 

 
 




TM







0 i 1 j 2 k | j  i  k
j
0i 1 2k
i i k p k
L = 0 1 1 1 2
This will be
greater than
i+k
i i p k k
L= 0 1 1 1 2
define
rule using define rule
define using
rule using B
C
NT A
 

 

 

 
TM

0 i 1 j 2 k | i  j
i j k
L= 0 1 2
A B
 
 
 
0 i 1 j 2 k | j  k

j
L1 0i 1 2j
j
L2 0i 1 2k

 

 



TM

q0 b q1 b q2
a i b j c k|i  j or jk
 
 R1| R2
R1  aAbbBC| aaAbBC
R2  AbBccC| AbbBcC
 aA|
 bB|
 cC|
  
a n b m a m b n|n, m  1
 

TM

0m1n|1  m  n
S, A
0,1







{ a n|n is odd }

 
TM

b b
S
b S b
 a
b b
S
b S b


 
TM

a a
S We have chosen S aSa
b b We have chosen S aSb

S
a a We have chosen S aSa

S
 S  is chosen
 a
 a a
 a
aa a a
S
a a
a a a a B
aa 
a B B
aa 
aa a a b S b S
aa a  b A
b A
aa a 
a
aa a a  a a
*
 a
a
TM

S1 S3
Sn
S2
*

*

* S1 S3

SK
S2
T1 S3
TK
T2
*
ai Si Si S i  ai Si
* *
 
TM

 
a  a
a  a
a a a a
*
 A
Read from left to right
*
 A
lm
A1 A2 ••••• An
*
 w1 w2
•••••
wn
Ai

A i  w i.

TM

*

lm
*
  Ai Ai An
lm
Ai
*

lm
Ai
Ai Ai    
lm lm lm
 Ai   
lm lm
 
lm


lm


lm



TM

b A
a S
a B
a B B
b S
b A b S
a b A

 



 



TM

 



 


 


TM

( T
)
,
T S
S a
( T )
,
T S
S ( T )
( T ) ,
T S
, a
T S S

S a



TM











' _*  abc / de'
B
S, A, B, C, D, E
,–,*,/, a, b, c, d, e – S
S
D
* S S
/ S S
+ S S E

c E E
 E E
 d e
a b





E  D (E ) E  E E  E E  E E E / E
D  0 1 2 3|...9
1+ 2  3.
TM

E E
E E
E + E or *
+
1 E * E E E 3
2 3 1 2
 





*
 

TM

 

E E
E E
E + E *
Or
id E + E
E * E id
id id id id




TM

S S
iCtSeS
e S
ibtSeS i C t S
ibtiCtSeS
ibtibtSeS a
i C t S
ibtibtaeS
ibtibtaea b
b a
(a) (b)
S S
i C t S e S i c t S
b i C t Sa b i c t S
b i C t S b i c t S e S
b a b a a
Parse tree 1 Parse tree 2

(c) (d)




TM




S S
S b S S b S
S b S a a S b S
a a a a
 
S S
a S b S a S b S


b S a S a S b S
   
(a) Parse tree 1 (b) Parse tree 2
S  a|abSb|aAb , A  bS|aAAb
TM

S S
a b a b
b S A
a A b b S
S a b
S
b
b
a a
(a) Tree 1 (a) Tree 2
  

0 B
 
0 B B
1 S 1
1 A
0 S
1 A
 
  
TM

S
S
A a B
a a B
a b
Reduced grammar
Removal of Elimination of Removal of

useless symbols  production unit production
TM


 
*
 a p
*
a p 
 








TM







 
 


 a  aa  aaa

 a

TM

V , , R , S
















 S  aA
A  a aA
D  ab Ea
E  aC d
TM



S  aA
A  aA a
D  ab Ea
Ea








    


TM












     
 


 


 
TM



  
  


 
 
  
Y 








 
 
TM










 a a

 

 a a 
 aa
 

 a a aa


 
 




 
TM

 








 a a a
 


     




 aa
 a aa a a


 a aa a a


TM






 a 
 


 a
 a
  
   


 
 



 a a
 a a



TM





 


 

 






 
*
  X 1 X 2 X 3 ..... X n 
 X 1 X 2 X 3 .... X n
TM





 









 
 


TM




 

















TM











   
   




TM









TM

 aaaa
 aaaa
 a


 P1
P1 
 P1
P1
P1  P2
P1  P2
P2 
P2  P3
P2  P3 P3 
P2 P3
 P1
P1  P2
P2  P3
P3 
TM


 
P4 P5
 P4 P5
P4 P5
 P4 P4
 P1
P1  P2
P2  P3
P3 
 P4 P4
P4 
 a

 a


a a a
a
a
a 


TM

A1
 A1 
 both are in CNF
A1  

A2
 A2
A2 
 A1
A1 
 a
 A2
A2 

 a


 
 








  
TM







G  V , T , P , S
a 
 
a a
a a
R1  a
 R1 a
R2 
 R2 
 a
 a
 R1

 R2 R3
R3 
 R2 R 3
 a
 R2
 a
TM

 R1 R1  a
R4 
 R1 R4
 R1
 R2
 R1
 R2 R 3
 R2
 R1 R4
R1  a
R2 
R3 
R4 





 

A  BP

P  CD

TM

B  YQ

Q c

C  RA

R g

D  TA

T d








 R1 R2
R1 
R2 



 R1 R2
R1 
R2 
TM

 ~ S|[S  S ]|p|q




 [S  S]




 










 




TM

  















 B 










TM









A  bAB  , B  BAa 

A  bAB | bA | bB | b
B  BAa | Ba |Aa | a
A  bAB  A  PQ
P b
Q  AB
A  bA  A  PA
A  bB  A  PB
A b
B  BAa  B  RS
R  BA
S a
B  Ba  B  BS
B  Aa  B  AS
A a
S  AB aB , A  aab| B  bbA
TM

S  AB
S  aB  S  PB
P a
A  aab  S  QR
Q  PP
R b
S B
S  bbA  S  TA
T  RR
B  bbA  B  TA
T  RR











 
TM

  

  

  








    









TM










S  aAD , A  aB|baB , B  b , D  d
 


 
 



G1
G1 ({S , A , B}, {a , b}, {S  ASB| , A  aAS|a , B  SbS|A|bb }, S )
NT  NT  NT
NT  terminal

S  AB|ASB
A  aA|aAs|a
B  Sb|bS|b|aA|aAS|a|bb
TM

S  AB
S  ASB S  AP
P  SB
A  aA A  QA
Q a
A  aAS A  QR
R  AS
A a
B  Sb B  ST
T b
B  bs B  TS
B b
B  aA B  QA
B  aAS B  QR
B a
B  bb B  TT



 







TM







G L (G) – { }

 aAb|

 aDa|bDb|

    







 

 

 

 
TM

 


 
 
 

 

 
 
 
 is in GNF
 
 
 is not in GNF
 
A 1, A 2 , A 3
TM

A i  A jA k
A i  A jA k
A  A|
A  A |
A   |

 
S  abSb
S  aa
NT  t  (set of NT)

S  abSb S  XY
X  AB
Y  SB
A a
Bb
S  aa S  AA
S  XY A 1  A 2 A3
X  AB  A 2  A 4 A 5
Y  SB  A3  A 1 A 5
TM

A  a  A4  a
B  b  A5  b
Ai,Aj Ai<Aj
A1  A2A3
A2  A4A5
A3  A1A5 A3  A1 A5 Here i > j

  i.e. 3 > 1
A4  a Ai Aj
A5  b
A1
A3  A1 A5
 
A3  A2 A3A5 A1  A2A3

A3  A4A5A3A5
A i  A jA k
A 1  A 2A 3
A 2  A 4A 5
A 3  A 4A 5A 3A 5
A4 a
A5  b
A2 A 3 A4
A 1  A 2A 3
A 2  aA 5
A 3  aA 5 A 3 A 5
A4 a
A5  b
TM

A 1  A 2A 3
A2
 A 1  aA 5 A 3
A 1  aA 5 A 3
A 2  aA 5
A 3  aA 5 A 3 A 5
A4 a
A5  b
S  ABA
A  aA|
B  bB|

S  ABA|BA|AB|AA|A|B
A  aA|a
B  bB|b
S  A|B
S  ABA|BA|AB|AA|aA|a|bB|b
A  aA|a
B  bB|b
S  ABA|BA|AB|AA
A i,A j,A k
TM

S  ABA S  aA BA|aBA
S  BA S  bBA|bA
S  AB S  aAB|aB
S  AA S  aAA|aA
S  aABA|aBA|bBA|bA|aAB|aB|aAA|aA
S  aA|a|bB|b
A  aA|a
B  bB|b
S  AA|0
A  SS|1
S  AA|0 A 1  A 2 A 2|0
A  SS|1 A 2  A 1 A 1|1
A1  A2 A2

Ai and Aj with i < j This is allowed.
A2  A1 A1 | 1

Ai and Aj with i > j This is not allowed.
A1
A 2  A 2 A 2 A 1|0A 1|1
TM

A2  A2A2A1 | 0A1 | 1
This is left recursion
A  A| A  A |
A   A |
A2  A2A2A1 | 0A1 | 1
 1 2
A 2  0A1A |1A |0A 1|1
A   A 2 A 1 A |A 2 A 1
A2
A1
A 1  A 2 A 2|0
A2
 A 1  0A 1 A A 2|1A A 2|0A 1 A 2|1A 2|0
A1 A2
A A
A   A 2 A 1 A |A 2 A 1
A2
 A   0A 1 A A 1 A |1A A 1 A |0A 1 A 1 A |1A 1 A 
A   0A1A A 1|1A A 1|0A 1 A 1|1A 1
A 1  0A 1 A A 2|1A A 2|0A 1 A 2|1A 2|0

A 2  0A 1 A |1A |0A 1|1
A   0A 1 A A 1 A |1A A 1 A |0A 1 A 1 A |1A 1 A 
A   0A 1 A A 1|1A A 1|0A 1 A 1|1A 1
TM

S  AB , A  BS|b , B  SA|a
A 1, A 2 , A 3
A1 A2 A 3
A 1  A 2A 3
A 2  A 3 A 1|b
A 3  A 1 A 2|a
A 1  A 2A 3
A 2  A 3 A 1|b
A i  A jA k
A 3  A 1 A 2|a
A 3
A 3  A 1 A 2|a
A 3  A 2 A 3 A 2|a A 1  A 2A 3
A 3  A 3 A 1 A 3 A 2|bA 3 A 2|a A 2  A 3 A 1|b
A3  A3A1A3A2 | bA3A2 | a
left recursion
A  A| A  A |
A   A |
 A 3  bA 3 A 2 A |aA 
A3  A3A1A3A2 | bA3A2 | a
 1 2
TM

A   A 1 A 3 A 2 A |A 1 A 3 A 2
A 3
A2
A 2  A 3 A 1|b
A 2  bA 3 A 2 A A 1|aA A 1|b
A2
A1
A 1  A 2A 3
A 1  bA 3 A 2 A A 1 A 3|aA A 1 A 3|bA 3
A1
A
A   A 1 A 3 A 2 A |A 1 A 3 A 2
A   bA 3 A 2 A A 1 A 3 A 3 A 2 A |aA A 1 A 3 A 1 A 3 A 2 A 
|bA 3 A 3 A 2 A |bA 3 A 2 A A 1 A 3 A 3 A 2|aA A 1 A 3 A 3 A 2|bA 3 A 3 A 2
A
A 1  bA 3 A 2 A A 1 A 3|aA A 1 A 3|bA 3
A 2  bA 3 A 2 A A 1|aA A 1|b
A 3  bA 3 A 2 A |aA 
A   bA 3 A 2 A A 1 A 3 A 3 A 2 A |aA A 1 A 3 A 1 A 3 A 2 A 
bA 3 A 3 A 2 A |bA 3 A 2 A A 1 A 3 A 3 A 2|aA A 1 A 3 A 3 A 2|bA 3 A 3 A 2




TM




  

  


  
 



 S  AB
A1  XR1 S  aAYB
R1  AY Yb
Xa S  bAXB
Yb Xa
A  YR2 S  aB
R2  AX A  aAY
Aa A  bAX
B  YR3 Aa
R3  YA B  bYA
B  XR4 B  aXB
R4  XB B  aAYB
B  AB B  bAXB
B  aB
TM

 


 


    


 
 
 

 


 


 
 
TM

 

 

 

 
 




A 1, A 2 , A 3 A4
A 1  A 2 A 3|A 4 A 4
A 4  b|A 1 A 4
A2 
A 3 
Ai  Aj

A4  A1 A4
A4 A1 A4
Replace this by
A2 A3 or A4 A4
TM

 A1  A2 A 3
A4 A2 A3 A4
Replace this by
b
 A 4  bA3 A 4
A4 A1 A4
Replace this by
A4 A4
 A4  A4 A4 A4
A 1  A 2 A 3|A 4 A 4
A 4  A 4 A 4 A 4|bA 3 A 4|b
A2 
A 3 
A4 A4 A4 A4  b A3 A4  b
 A | 1| 2
  1 A | 2 A 
A    A'|

A 4  bA 3 A 4 A'|bA'
A   A 4 A 4 A |A 4 A 4
TM

A4
A   bA 3 A 4 A  A 4 A |bA  A 4 A |bA 3 A 4 A  A 4|bA  A 4
A 1  A 2 A 3|A 4 A 4
A 4  bA 3 A 4 A |bA 
A2 
A 3 
A1
A 1  A 2 A 3|A 4 A 4
A1  A2 A 3
A 1  bA3
A1  A4 A4
A 1  bA3 A 4 A A 4|bA A 4
A 1  bA 3|bA 3 A 4 A  A 4|bA  A 4
A 1  bA 3 A 4 A |bA 
A2 
A 3 
TM






id = E T
E + E
;
F id
id
Types of parser
Top down
Bottom up
parser
parser
Backtracking Predictive Shift

LR parser
parser reduce parser
SLR LALR LR
parser parser parser
TM

 


 
*

* S

a S
*
 A
a
     S b A
a b a
  


 

 
TM

E * E
E E*E E + E id
E+E*E
id + E * E
id + id * E
id + id * id id id
E + E
E E+E id E * E
id + E * E
id + id * E
id + id * id
id id
    

 
 
TM





 
*





S  0B | 1A , A  0 | 0S | 1AA, B  1| 1S | 0BB.
TM

S


0 B

 1 S

1 A


0

S

 a B

B
 a
B

b S
a
 B B
 b A
b S
 b
 a
a B

  {a, b, (, ), ,  . . . 

TM

*



 

S S
S a S S
b
S b S S b S S a
a S b S a a a
a a
(a) Tree1 (b) Tree2
S  aSb aAb
A  bAa
A  ba.
a m b n a n b m  m , n 1 


M w
G
TM

  
M w S   M S   M
G2 G1 G2
M 
 
S   M 
G1 G1
 
S w S  w
G G1








V, T, P, S 
 S, A, B 
a, b
 



S  SS (S )|(S )| S (S )S | 
TM

S S
S S S ( S ) S
 
( S )
( ) ( S )
S  

 
 

  
  



 
a n n
ba |n  0 
a n ba m|n, m   1



TM

b S b
b S b




TM







 Rule A  B is replaced by
bAY
 A  bAb and then converted




TM










a, b
G  V, T, P, S
S
a, b
S  aSa bSb 


 Va , Ta , Pa , S a  Ga
TM

S  aB | bA A  a | aS | bAA B  b| bS | aBB
{ S  0S0|1 S1|  }
  S



TM

  (a, b).



(a  b)  c
 E  E|E  E|(E)|id

E E
E c
(E)  c
(E  E)  c
(E  b)  c
(a  b)  c
id  id  id
E E
E * E E + E
E + E id id E * E
id id id id
Parse tree 1 Parse tree 2
TM



TM

TM

TM

 b
Input tape a a b b $     
Finite
control
Stack


q0 q0 
Z0 


TM

START Start symbol

b Follow this
branch for i/p b
ACCEPT Accept state (which is always a final state)
Read
next a
Follow this
REJECT Reject state i/p branch for i/p a
Connecting edge
  {a , b}
b a b
q0 q1
q0
q1
Start
b a
Read 1 Read 2 ACCEPT
a
PDA
  
TM













0 0 1
q0 q1 q2 q3
q0 q3
START

0 0 1 
READ READ READ READ ACCEPT
1 1 0
REJECT REJECT REJECT
TM

q0
q1
PUSH POP
q2
a n bn n 1
START
b a b
READ POP READ
 
a
PUSH a
REJECT a
POP REJECT
a 
n 5
ACCEPT
aaaaa
a a
a
a
 
a
a a   
a n bn
TM

a
 

a
a
a a 
b 
 
b 
b 
START
( (
READ POP
(
     
     PUSH ( (
POP REJECT

ACCEPT
TM

( ( ( ( ( ( 
( Push (
Read
( ( ( ( ( ( 
(
( Push (
Read
( ( ( ( ( ( 
( Pop
( (
Read
( ( ( ( ( ( 
(
Push (
(
Read
( ( ( ( ( ( 
( Pop (
(
Read
( ( ( ( ( (  Pop (
( ( ( ( ( (  Stack is empty if you

pop, you will get 
a n bn
a2 S1
Z1 S2
TM

a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a1 a2 a3 a4 a5
Current
input
Current S1 Z1 S2 X1
state Current
stack Z2 X2
symbol
Z3 Move Z1
Z4 Z2
Z3
Current stack top  (q0, x, y) =  (q1, )
 (q0, x, Z0) =  (q1, x Z0) Pop

Change
the the stack
Push x onto read input state from
the stack on tape q0 to q1
read input Change the
on the tape state from Current stack
q0 to q1 top
(a) Push operation (b) Pop operation
L  a n bn | n  1
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q 0 , aZ 0 )
 (q 0 , a, a) (q 0 , a a)
 (q 0 , b, a) (q 1 , )
 (q 1 , b, a) (q 1 , )
 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 ) (q 2 , )
q0 q2
TM

(q 0 , aaabbb, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , aabbb, aZ 0 )
| (q 0 , abbb, aaZ 0 )
| (q 0 , bbb, aaaZ 0 )
| (q 1 , bb, aaZ 0 )
| (q 1 , b, aZ 0 )
| ( q 1 ,  , Z 0 )
| (q 2 , )
{ a n b 2n | n  1}
a n b2n
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q 0 , a a Z 0 )
 (q 0 , a, a) (q 0 , a a a)
q0 q1
 (q 0 , b, a) ( q 1 , )
q1
  (q 1 , b, a) ( q 1 , )

 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 ) ( q 2 , )
{q 0 , q 1 , q 2 }, {a, b}, {a, Z 0 }, , q 0 , Z 0 , {q 2 }
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q 0 , aaZ 0 )
TM

 (q 0 , a, a) (q 0 , aaa)
 (q 0 , b, a) ( q 1 , )
 (q 1 , b, a) ( q 1 , )
 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 ) ( q 2 , )
(q 0 , aaabbbbbb, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , aabbbbbb, aaZ 0 )

| (q 0 , abbbbbb, aaaaZ 0 )
| (q 0 , bbbbbb, aaaaaaZ 0 )
| (q 1 , bbbbb, aaaaaZ 0 )
| (q 1 , bbbb, aaaaZ 0 )
| (q 1 , bbb, aaaZ 0 )
| (q 1 , bb, aaZ 0 )
| (q 1 , b, aZ 0 )
| (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )
| (q 2 , )
q 0 , q 1 , q 2 ,a , b , c,a , b , Z 0 ,  , q 0 , Z 0 , q 2  
R1  q 0 , a , Z 0   q 0 , a Z 0 
R2  q 0 , b, Z 0   q 0 , b Z 0 
R3   q 0 , a , a   q 0 , a a
R4  q 0 , b, a   q 0 , b a 
R5  q 0 , a , b  q 0 , a b
R6  q 0 , b, b  q 0 , b b
R7  q 0 , c, Z 0   q 1 , Z 0 
R8   q 0 , c , a   q 1 , a
R9   q 0 , c, b    q 1 , b R 10   q 1 , a , a   q 1 ,  
R 11   q 1 , b , b    q 1 , 
R 12   q 1 ,  , Z 0   q 2 , Z 0 
TM

a,a/
b,b/
R1 R 12
(q 0 , bbacabb, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , bacabb, bZ 0 ) q0 q1 q2
c,Z0/Z0 ,Z0/Z0
| (q 0 , acabb, bbZ 0 ) c,a/a
a,Z0/aZ0 c,b/b
| (q 0 , cabb, abbZ 0 )
b,Z0/bZ0
| (q 1 , abb, a bbZ 0 ) a,a/aa
b,a/ba
| (q 1 , bb, bbZ 0 ) a,b/ab
b,b/bb
| (q 1 , b, bZ 0 )
| (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )
| (q 2 , Z 0 )
wCw R | w  (a  b) *  wR
w w (a  b) * and na (w)  nb (w) 
 
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q 0 , aZ 0 )
 (q 0 , b, Z 0 ) (q 0 , bZ 0 )
 (q 0 , a, a) (q 0 , aa)
 (q 0 , b, b) (q 0 , bb)
 (q 0 , a, b) (q 0 , )
 (q 0 , b, a) (q 0 , )
 (q 0 ,  , Z 0 ) (q 1 , Z 0 )
q0 q1 
 (q 0 , aababb, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , ababb, aZ 0 )
| (q 0 , babb, aaZ 0 )
TM

| (q 0 , abb, aZ 0 )
| (q 0 , bb, aaZ 0 )
| (q 0 , b, aZ 0 )
| ( q 0 ,  , Z 0 )
| (q 1 , Z 0 )
{w|w ( a  b) * and n a ( w)  n b ( w)}

n a (w) n b (w)
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q 0 , aZ 0 )
 (q 0 , b, Z 0 ) (q 0 , bZ 0 )
 (q 0 , a, a) (q 0 , aa)
 (q 0 , b, b) (q 0 , bb)
 (q 0 , a, b) (q 0 , )
 (q 0 , b, a) ( q 0 , )
 (q 0 ,  , a) (q f , a)
{q 0 , q f }, {a, b}, {a, b, Z 0 },  , q 0 , Z 0 , {q f }
 (q 0 , aababab, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , ababab, aZ 0 )
| (q 0 , babab, aZ 0 )
| (q 0 , abab, aZ 0 )
| (q 0 , bab, aaZ 0 )
| (q 0 , ab, aZ 0 )
TM

| (q 0 , b, aaZ 0 )
| (q 0 ,  , aZ 0 )
| (q f , a)
n a ( w)  n b ( w)

w  ( a  b)
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q 0 , aZ 0 )
 (q 0 , b, Z 0 ) (q 0 , bZ 0 )
 (q 0 , a, a) (q 0 , aa)
 (q 0 , b, b) (q 0 , bb)
 (q 0 , b, a) ( q 0 , )
 (q 0 , a, b) ( q 0 , )
 (q 0 ,  , b) (q f , b) 
 (q 0 , abbab, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , bbab, aZ 0 )
| (q 0 , bab, Z 0 )
| (q 0 , ab, bZ 0 )
| (q 0 , b, Z 0 )
| (q 0 ,  , bZ 0 )
| (q f , b)
TM

q0
  (q 0 , (, Z 0 ) | (q 1 , ( Z 0 )
 (q 0 , [, Z 0 ) | (q 1 , [ Z 0 )
 (q 0 , {, Z 0 ) | (q 1 , { Z 0 )
  q 1 , (, (  q 1 , ( ( 
  q 1 , [, [  q 1 , [ [ 
  q 1 , {, {  q 1 , { { 
  q 1 , (, [  q 1 , ( [ 
  q 1 , (, {  q 1 , ( { 
  q 1 , [, (  q 1 , [ ( 
  q 1 , {, (  q 1 , { ( 
  q 1 , {, [  q 1 , { [ 
 q 1 , [ , {  q 1 , [ { 
   q 1 , ), (  (q 1 , )
  q 1 , ], [  (q 1 , )
  q 1 , }, {  (q 1 , )

Z0
q0
 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 ) (q 0 , Z 0 )
 (q 0 , (, Z 0 ) (q 1 , ( Z 0 )
TM

 (q 0 , [, Z 0 ) (q 1 , [ Z 0 )
 (q 0 , {, Z 0 ) (q 1 , { Z 0 )
 (q 1 , (, ( ) (q 1 , ( ( )
 (q 1 , [, [ ) (q 1 , [ [ )
 (q 1 , {, {) (q 1 , {{)
 (q 1 , (, [ ) (q 1 , ( [ )
 (q 1 , (, {) (q 1 , ( {)
 (q 1 , [, ( ) (q 1 , [ ( )
 (q 1 , {, ( ) (q 1 , {( )
 (q 1 , {, [ ) (q 1 , {[ )
 (q 1 , [, {) (q 1 , [ {)
 (q 1 , ), ( ) (q 1 ,  )
 (q 1 , ], [ ) (q 1 ,  )
 (q 1 , }, {) (q 1 ,  )
 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 ) (q 0 , Z 0 )
 { q 0 , q 1 }, { (, [, {, ), ] , } }, { [, (, {, Z 0 },  , q 0 , Z 0 , { q 0 }
  q 0 , ( { } [ ] ), Z 0  |q 1 , { } [ ] , (Z 0 )
|  q 1 , } [ ]  , { (Z 0 )
|  q 1 , [ ]  , (Z 0 )
|  q 1 , ]  , [ (Z 0 )
| (q 1 , ), (Z 0 )
| q 1 , , Z 0 
(q 0 , Z 0 )
L  a m b m c n | m, n  1
TM

 (q 0 , a, Z 0 )  (q 0 , a Z 0 )
 (q 0 , a, a)  (q 0 , aa)
 (q 0 , b, a)  (q 1 , )
 (q 1 , b, a)  (q 1 , )
 (q 1 , c, Z 0 )  (q 1 , Z 0 )
 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )  (q 2 , Z 0 )
 (q 0 , aabbccc , Z 0 ) |  (q 0 , abbccc , aZ 0 )
|  (q 0 , bbccc , aaZ 0 )
|  (q 1 , bccc , aZ 0 )
|  (q 1 , ccc , Z 0 )
|  (q 1 , cc , Z 0 )
|  (q 1 , c , Z 0 )
|  (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )
|  (q 2 , Z 0 )

L  0 n 1 m 0 n | m, n  1 
 (q 0 , 0, Z 0 )  (q 0 , 0 Z 0 )
 (q 0 , 0, 0)  (q 0 , 00)
 (q 0 , 1, 0)  (q 1 ,0)
 (q 1 , 1, 0)  (q 1 , 0)
 (q 1 , 0, 0)  (q 1 , )
 (q 0 ,  , Z 0 )  (q 2 , Z 0 ) 
TM

0011100 Pushing 0
0
0
0011100 Pushing 0
0
0
0011100 Skip 1
0
0011100 0
0 Skip 1
0011100 0
0 Skip 1
0011100 0 Pop 0
0011100 Pop 0
0011100 ACCEPT
 (q 0 , 0011100, Z 0 ) |  (q 0 , 011100, 0Z 0 )
|  (q 0 , 11100, 00Z 0 )
|  (q 0 , 1100, 00Z 0 )
|  (q 1 , 100, 00Z 0 )
|  (q 1 , 00, 00Z 0 )
|  (q 1 , 0, 0Z 0 )
|  (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )
|  (q 2 , Z 0 )
,  

 

  


    
TM

  


  

    
  |  
|   
| 
| 
|   


 
  
 
   
 Z 0 | 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
TM

|  
| 
|  
| 
|  
|  
|  
(Q, ,  ,  , q 0 , Z 0 , F)
 (p,  ,  )}
{w | (q 0 , w, Z 0 ) |
L wwr  {ww R | w is in (0  1)  }
ww R
TM

ww R
(q 0 , ww R , Z 0 ) |
 (q , w R , w R Z ) | (q , w R , w R Z )
0 0 1 0
 (q ,  , Z ) | (p,  , Z )
| 1 0 0
q1 q1 wR wR
ww R
 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 ) | (p,  , Z 0 )
q1 Z0
 q1  Z0
(q 1 , w R , w R Z 0 )
 (q 0 , x,  ) | (q 1 ,  ,  ) ww R

ww R  

(q 0 , x,  ) | (q 1 , x, )

(q 0 ,  ,  ) | (q 1 ,  ,  )
a 1 , a 2 , ... a n
(q 0 , x,  ) | (q 1 , x,  ) q1
 (q ,  , )
(q 1 , x,  )|   
1
(q 0 , a 1 , a 2 ... a n ,  ) | (q 0 , a 2 ... a n , a 1  )
(q 1 , a n a 1  ) | (q 1 ,  ,  )
a1  an a 2 .... a n 1 yy R
ww R
L wwr
TM

(Q, ,  ,  , q 0 , Z 0 , F)
 (p,  , )}
{w | (q 0 , w, Z 0 ) |
L wwr
ww R
(q 0 , ww R , Z 0 ) |
 (q 0 , w R , w R Z 0 ) | (q 1 , w R , w R Z 0 )

| (q 1 ,  , Z 0 ) | (q 2 , )
L wwr
N(P1 ) P1 P2 L (P2 )
L (P1 ) P1 P2
N(P2 )
N(P1 ) P1  (Q, ,  ,  , q 0 , Z 0 )
L(P2 )
X0 P2
P2 X0 P1
, X0/ 
, X0/ 
,X0/Z0X0 Indicates
p0 q0 P2 p2 acceptance
by final state
, X0/ 
, X0/ 
P1
TM

p0 Z0
q0 P2 P2 P1 P1 P2
X0 p2
P2 P1 P2
(p 0 , w, X 0 ) | (q 0 , w, Z 0 , X 0 ) | (p,  , X 0 ) | (p 2 , , )
P2 P2
P2
L (P1 ) P2 N(P2 )
P2 X0 P2  s
P1 P2
Indicates
, any/ acceptance by
empty stack
q
, X0/Z0X0
p0 q0 P1 p
, any/
, any/
, any/
P2
p0  s P1
P1 P2  s
P2 (Q  {p 0 , p}, ,  ,  {X 0 },  N , p 0 , X 0 }
P1
N N
 N (p 0 ,  , X 0 ) = {(q 0 , Z 0 , X 0 )} P1
P1
 N (q, a , Y)  F (q, a , Y)
    F
P2 P1
qF Y 
X0  N (q,  , Y) = (p, )
TM

P1 P2
P1
P1 P2
P2
L(P1 )
N
(q 0 , w, Z 0 ) | ( q,  ,  ) 
P1
P1 P2 X0
P2 P2
(p 0 , w, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , w, Z 0 X 0 ) | (q,  ,  X 0 ) | (p,  , )
P1 P1 P2
P2 P2
P2
P2 X0
P2 X0 P1
P2 P1
P2
 N (p 0 ,  , X 0 ) | (q 0 , Z 0 X 0 )
P2
(p 0 , w, X 0 ) | (q 0 , w, Z 0 X 0 ) | (q,  ,  X 0 ) | (p,  , )
P2 P2 P2
P1 P1 X0
(q 0 , w, Z 0 ) | (q,  ,  )
P1
P1 P1
TM

p0
P1 P2
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   
   
   
{ 0n1n|n  1}
TM

(q 0 , 0, Z 0 )  ( q 0 , 0Z 0 )
(q 0 , 0, 0)  ( q 0 , 00)
(q 0 ,1, 0)  ( q 1 , )
(q 1 ,1, 0)  ( q 1 , )
( q 1 ,  , Z 0 )  ( q 2 , )
q0 q2
(q 0 , 0011, Z 0 ) | (q 0 , 011, 0Z 0 )
| (q 0 , 11, 00Z 0 )
| (q 1 ,1,0Z 0 )
| (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )
| (q 2 , )
  a , b
 a a a aa a a aa aa
TM

a a b b a a  
Part 1 Part 2
a a b b a a 
Part 1 is
b pushed in
now we a
are reading a
it !
(reading Part 2)
a a b b a a  b
a
a
a a a a a
b b 
a
a a b b a a 

a a b b a a 
TM

Start
a
a a
POP
a 
PUSH READ READ POP
POP 
b
PUSH b b
b ACCEPT
  a, b
a, b
START a
POP
a
a X  
PUSH READ READ POP ACCEPT
b
b POP
PUSH
(Q, ,  ,  , q 0 , Z 0 , F)



q0
Z0
TM

 (q, a, X)
 (q, a, X) a   (q,  , X)
{w| w  ( a  b)  n a ( w)  n b ( w)}
 (q 0 , a , Z 0 ) (q 0 , a Z 0 )
 (q 0 , b , Z 0 ) (q 0 , b Z 0 )
 ( q 0 , a , a) ( q 0 , a a)
 ( q 0 , b , b) ( q 0 , b b)
 ( q 0 , a , b) ( q 0 , )
 ( q 0 , b , a) ( q 0 , )
 ( q 0 ,  , a) ( q f , a)
a,Z0/aZ0
b,Z0/bZ0 ,a/a
q0 qf
b,b/bb non
determinism
a,a/aa
b,a/
a,a/aa
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q f , a Z 0 ) b,Z0/bZ0 a,Z0/aZ0
a,Z0/aZ0 b,a/
 (q 0 , b, Z 0 ) (q 0 , b Z 0 )
q0 qf
 (q 0 , b, b) (q 0 , b b)
 (q 0 , a, b) (q 0 , ) b,Z0/Z0
b,b/bb
 (q f , a, Z 0 ) (q f , a Z 0 ) a,b/
 (q f , a, a) (q f , a a)
 (q f , b, a) (q f , )
 (q f , b, Z 0 ) (q 0 , Z 0 )
 (q f ,  , a) (q f , ) 
TM

a n bn n 1
 (q 0 , a, Z 0 ) (q 1 , a Z 0 )
 (q 1 , b, a) (q 2 , )
 (q 2 , b, a) (q 2 , )
 (q 2 ,  , Z 0 ) (q 2 , )
a,a/aa b,a/
a,Z0/aZ0 b,a/
 (q 0 , aabb, Z 0 ) | (q 1 , abb, aZ 0 ) q0 q1 q2
| (q 1 , bb, aaZ 0 )
,Z0/
| (q 2 , b, aZ 0 )
| (q 2 ,  , Z 0 )
| (q 2 , )
{L  a n b n n  1} DCFL
CFL
Regular ww
R
language
n
(ab)
ww R|w  (a, b)  n n
a b
wcw R|w  (a, b) 
TM

{L  wcw r|w  (0  1)  }
001 C100 
x y
{0} 
Start
PUSH S POP
 POP
PUSH B

PUSH A
 a
a
a
S
b POP READ


 
POP READ ACCEPT
TM

S  AB
A  CD
B  b
C  a
D  a
Start
PUSH S POP
 S
PUSH B
PUSH A

POP
PUSH D
PUSH C
  
D
POP
B C
b
READ READ READ
a a
TM

Start b a
READ READ
PUSH S a
B
C
D
POP READ

S
A READ
PUSH B PUSH D 
ACCEPT
PUSH A PUSH C
aa
aa  
aa  
aa  
aa  
aa  
aa  
aa  
aa  
aa  
a a   a
a a  
a a   a
a a  
a a b  
a a b  
a a b  
TM

 (q,  , Z 0 ) (q, S Z 0 )
 (q, w, S) (q, AB)

 (q, w, A) (q, CD)
 (q, b, B) (q, )
 (q, a, C) (q, )
 (q, a, D) (q, )
 (q,  , Z 0 ) (q, S Z 0 )
 (q, aab, S) |
| (q, aab, CAB)
| (q, ab, DB)
| (q, b , B)
| (q, )
0  1 *
 





TM


 






0 1
READ READ READ

Start
A B S
PUSH  
POP READ ACCEPT
S
S S
PUSH S PUSH S
PUSH A PUSH B
 (q,  , Z 0 ) (q, SZ 0 )
 (q, w, S)
 (q, w, S)
 (q,  , S) ( q , )
TM

 (q, 0, A) ( q , )
 (q, 1, B) ( q , )
 (q,  , Z 0 ) (q, S, Z 0 )
 (q, 0101, S) | (q, 0101, A S)

|
| (q, 1 01, B S)
|
| (q, 01, A S)
|
|
| (q,  , S)
| (q, )


a n bn n 1
 S  AR1
 S  AR2
 R1  SR2
R2  b
A  a
TM

b
a
START
RE
A
R2
RE
AD
A
PUSH S POP READ ACCEPT

S S
R1
PUSH R1 PUSH R2 PUSH R2
PUSH A PUSH S PUSH A
 
 
  R1
 R1 
 AR1 
 R1 
  R2
 R2 
 S R2 
 R2  R2
 R2R2 
 A R2R2 
 R2R2 
 R2R2 
 R2 
TM

 R2 
 
 
 
 (q,  , Z 0 ) (q, SZ 0 )
 (q, w, S) (q, AR 1 )
 (q, w, S) (q, AR 2 )
 (q, w, R 1 ) (q, SR 2 )
 (q, b, R 2 )  (q, )
 (q, a, A)  (q, )
(q,  , Z 0 ) | (q, SZ 0 )
| (q, aabb, AR 1 )
| (q, abb, R 1 )
| (q, abb, SR 2 )
| (q, abb, AR 2 R 2 )
| (q, bb, R 2 R 2 )
| (q, b, R 2 )
| (q, )
TM



 
   
 
 

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
  
  
  
   
 | 
| 
|  
|  
TM

a m bn cm , n, m  1

 (q 0 , a , Z 0 )   q  , aZ 0 ) 


 ( q 0 , a , a)   q  , aa)
 ( q 0 , b , a)   q  , a) 

 ( q 1 , b , a)   q  , a) 
 ( q 1 , c, a )   q  , ) 
 (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )  q  , Z 0 )
S aAA
A  aS| bS| a
 ( q 1 , a , S)   q  AA )
 ( q 1 , a , A )   q  , S)
 ( q 1 , b , A )   q 1 , S
 ( q 1 , a , A )   q 1 , 
 ( q 1 ,  , Z 0 )   q 1 , 
 ( q 1, abaaaa , S) |   q  , baaaa , AA )
|   q  , aaaa , SA )
|   q  , aaa , A AA )
|   q  , aa , A A )
|   q  , a , A )
|   q  ,  , Z 0 )
|   q  , )
S  aSbb aab.
TM

  

  





  q  , a , S)   q  , SBB)
  q  , a , S)   q  , AB)
 q  , a , A )   q  , )
  q  , b , B)   q  , )
 q  ,  , z 0 )   q  , )
  
 
 

(q,  , S) {(q, cCD), (q, dTC), (q, )}
(q,  , C) {(q, aTD), (q, c)}
(q,  , T) {(q, cDC), (q, cST), (q, a)}
(q,  , D) {(q, dC), (q, d)}
(q, c, c) {(q, )}

(q, d, d) {(q, )} 

(q, a, a) {(q, )} 

TM

 (q,  , S) |–  |– 
|–  |– 
|–  |– 
|–  |–  (q, dd, dD)
|–  |– 
|– 
ab n cdn|n  0
 q 0 , a, z 0  q 1 , z 0 
 q 1 , b, z 0    q 2 , bz 0 
 q 2 , b, b    q 2 , bb 
 q 2 , c, b   q 3 , b  
 q 3 , d, b    q 3 ,  
q 3 ,  , z 0  q 3 , z 0  
   
 

 
 
 
 
 
  

  
TM

  
 

 
  
  

  
S  0S1 / A ; A  1A 0 / S / 
q, 0,1, S, A,0,1,  , q, S, 


  q,  , S (q, 0S1, q, A }
  q,  , A  (q, 1A0, q, S q, }
  q,0,0 q, 
  q , 1, 1 q , 
  q,  , S |   q, 0101, S
|   q, 101, S1
|   q, 101, 1A01
|   q, 01, A01
|   q, 01, 01
|   q, 1, 1
|   q, 

 I|E  E|E  E|(E)
{{q}, {a, b, 0, 1}, {I, E, 0, 1, a, b},  , q, E, }

TM


 (q,  , E) {(q, I), (q, E  E), (q, E  E), (q, (E)}
 (q,  , I) {(q, a), (q, b), (q, Ia), (q, Ib), (q, I 0 ), (q, I 1 )}
 (q, a, a) {(q, )} 

 (q, b, b) {(q, )} 
 (q,  , E) |  (q, (a  b), E)

|  (q, (a  b), (E))
|  (q, a  b), E))
|  (q, a  b), E + E))
|  (q, a  b), I + E))
|  (q, a  b), a + E))
|  (q ,  b), +E))
|  (q, b), E))
|  (q, b), I))
|  (q, b), b))
|  (q, ), ))
|  (q,  , )
| (q, )
 (q,  , E) |  (q, a   , E)
|  (q, a  , I)
|  (q, a   , a)
|  (q,  , )
TM

 
lm lm

i i
P


 
i i i



i

n  , 
   q 0 Z0 q n
V, T, P, S
q0 qn [q 0 Z q n ]
 (q i , a, Z 0 )  (q i+1 , Z 1 Z 2 )
 (q i Z 0 q i  k)  a (q i  1 Z 1 q m ) (q m Z 2 q i  k)
qi k, qm Z0 , Z1 , Z2
TM

 (q i , a, Z 0 )  (q i + 1 , ) (q i Z 0 q i  1 )  a
A  ({q 0 , q 1}, {0,1}, {A, Z},  , Z, {q 1}) 

 ( q 0 , 0, Z) ( q 0 , AZ)
 ( q 0 , 1, A) ( q 0 , AA)
 ( q 0 , 0, A) ( q 1 , )
S  [q 0 , Z, q 0 ] S  [q 0 , Z, q 1 ]

 (q 0 , 0, Z) (q 0 , AZ)
 (q i , a, Z 0 ) (q i  1 , Z 1 Z 2 )  (q i Z 0 q i  k )  a (q i  1 Z 1 q m ) (q m Z 2 q i  k )
qi  q0 q i 1  q 0 Z1 Z2
 (q 0 , 0, Z) (q 0 , AZ)
(q 0 Z q 0 )  0(q 0 A q 0 ) (q 0 Z q 0 ) | 0(q 0 A q 1 ) (q 1 Z q 0 )
(q 0 Z q 1 )  0(q 0 A q 0 ) (q 0 Z q 1 ) | 0(q 0 A q 1 ) (q 1 Z q 1 )
 (q 0 , 1, A) (q 0 , AA)
(q 0 A q 0 )  1(q 0 A q 0 ) (q 0 A q 0 ) 1(q 0 A q 1 ) (q 1 A q 0 )
 (q 0 , 0, A) (q 1 , )
 (q i a, Z 0 ) (q i+ 1 , )
(q i Z 0 q i+1 ) 
(q 0 A q 1 ) 
S  [q 0 , Z 0 , q 0 ] S  [q 0 , Z, q 1 ]
(q 0 Z q 0 )  0(q 0 A q 0 ) (q 0 Z q 0 ) 0(q 0 A q 1 ) (q 1 Z q 0 )
TM

(q 0 A q 1 ) 
{q 1}
[q 0 Z q n ] (q 0 Z q 1)
P  ({q 0 , q 1}, {0, 1}, {A , Z},  , q 0 , Z ,  )


 (q 0 , 0, Z) (q 0 , AZ)
 (q 0 , 0, A) (q 0 , AA)
 (q 0 , 1, A) (q 1 , )
 (q 1 , 1, A) (q 1 , )
 (q 1 ,  , A) (q 1 , )
 (q 1 ,  , Z) (q 1 , )
 [q 0 Z q 0 ]
 [q 0 Z q 1 ]

 (q 0 , 0, Z) (q 0 , A Z)
 (q 0 , 0, A) (q 0 , AA)
 (q 0 , 1, A) (q 1 , )
(q 0 A q 1 ) 
 (q 1 , 1, A) (q 1 , )
(q 1 A q 1 ) 
 (q 1 ,  , A) (q 1 , )
TM

(q 1 A q 1 )  
 (q 1 ,  , Z) (q 1 , )
(q 1 Z q 1 )  

 

1.  (q 0 , a , Z 0 )  {(q 0 , a Z 0 )} 

2.  (q 0 , a , a)  {(q 0 , aa)} 
3.  (q 0 , b, a)  {(q 1 , a)} 

4.  (q 1 , b, a)  {(q 1 , a)} 
5.  (q 1 , a , a)  {(q 1 , )} 

6.  (q 1 ,  , Z 0 )  {(q 1 , )} 

|   





TM














 

  

 



 
 
  
  
TM












 

 

  

  

  
  

 


TM








  




 







TM

w | w| 
 

 p q i r si t
S
w
2 i1
 a
 2 i1 20  1
' a'
|w 
n  2 k | w|  |w   2 k 1
w w w w  2 i1
w
A, B, C, a, A  BC

TM


 a
B  b, A  A
*
 a B C
|w   2 i  1 3  22 b B A
Path
| w|  2 i  1  n b a
 a nbm a n bn  m|m, n  0 
a nbma n bn  m 
 a n b m a n b n b m
a nbma n bn bm  L
z L
n m n n m
 a. . . a b . . . b a. . . a b . . . b b . . . b
  
p qrs t
pq i rs i t L
 a n bm t a n u bn v bm  a nbma nbnbm
zL
TM

n m n n m
a. . . a b . . . b a. . . a b . . . b b . . . b
 
pqrs t
pq i rs i t pq 2 rs 2 t
a n t  u bm a nbn bm  a nbma nbnbm
n m n n m
a. . . a b . . . b a. . . a b . . . b b...b
 
p qrst
pq i rs i t pq 2 rs 2 t
a n bm a nbn bm  t  u  a nbma nbnbm
a nbma n bn  m 
L  a i b j c k | i  j and i  k 
w
  a
p qi r si t

a w
0 0
w  pq rs t a
a nbn cn|n  0
TM

w L
a n b n cn
n n n
a. . . a b . . . b c . . . c
n n n
a. . . a b . . . b c . . . c
  
p qrs t
pq i rs i t  L i  0
n n n
a. . . a b . . . b c . . . c
  
p q 0 rs 0 t

r
 a n b n – m – kcn  a n b n cn
w L
n n n
a. . . a b . . . b c . . . c
 
pqrs t
pq i rs i t L
n m k n n
a. . . a b . . . b c . . . c
 
pq 2 rs 2 t
a n  m  k b n c n L
{ a n b n cn}
TM

 a n2|n  1
 
 
 

2
an
n n
a...... a
 pq i r s i t L
 pq 2 r s 2 t
n2 – m m
 a...... a a...... a
pq i r s i t
n 2 – m t m
 a..... a a..... a
 |n 2 – m  t  m|
n2 – mt m  n2
n2 – m m
 a..... a a..... a
pq i r s i t
n 2 – m– t m
 a..... a a..... a
TM

 |n 2 – t|
n2 – t  n2
aib j c k : i j  k

i j k
Z= a . . . ab . . . bc . . . c
p i i
q rs t
i j+m k
Z= a . . . ab . . . bc . . . c
i j k
Z= a . . . ab . . . bc . . . c
p i i
q rs t
a i (ab) m b j  m c k  a i b j c k L
TM


L  a m b m  1 c m  2 |m  0 

a m b m  1 cm  2
pq i rs i t
pq 2 rs 2 t
m  m  1 n m  2
a... ab... b c... c

t
pq 2 rs 2
a m+n b m  1 c m  2  L
pq 0 rs 0 t
m n m 1 m 2
a... a b... b c... c  L

pq r t
TM


 
 





 

TM


 





L 1L 2


 







TM


 





L1


 


L1
 



TM

 
 






L 1
L 1 L 2
( L 1  L 2 L 1  L 2 

L 1 L 2
L1 L2 G1 G2
G 1 L 1 G 2 L2 G 1 {V 1 , , P1 , S 1} P1
P1  {
TM

S 1  A 1 S 1 A 1|B 1 SB 1|
A1 
B1 
V 1  {S 1 , A 1 , B 1} S1
G 2  {V 2 , , P2 , S 2 } V 2  {S 2 , A 2 , B 2 } S2
P2
P2  {
S 2  aA 2 A 2|bB 2 B 2
A2 
B2 
L L1  L2 G  L.
{V,  , P, S}
{S 1 , S 2 , A 1 , A 2 , B 1 , B 2 }
P1  P2
 S 1|S 2
S 1  A 1 S 1 A 1|B 1 SB 1|
A1 
B1 
S 2  aA 2 A 2| bB 2 B 2
A2 
B2 
L1  L2
L 1  {0 n 1 n 2 i|n  1, i  1} L 2  {0 n 1 n 2 n|n  1}
L1  L2
L1  L2
TM

a i b j c k | i  j or j  k 
S  a ABC
 a A |
 bB | b

  q 1 , a , S q 1 , ABC
 q 1 , a , A  q 1 , A 
 q 1 ,  , A   q 1 , 
  q 1 , b, B  q 1 , B
  q 1 , b, B   q 1 , 
  q 1 , c, C q 1 , C
  q 1 , c, C  q 1 , 
 q 1 ,  , Z 0    q 1 ,  
a bbccc
  q 1 , abbccc, S  |   q 1 , bbccc, ABC
|   q 1 , bbccc, B C
|   q 1 , bccc, BC
|   q 1 , c cc, C
|   q 1 , cc, C
|   q 1 , c, C
|   q 1 ,  , Z 0 
|  q 1 , 

L  a i b j c k |i  j or j  k 
TM

 
L  a i b j c k | i  j or j  k
S  S1 | S2
S  a AbZ
 a Ab | 
 cZ | c
S  a PbQc
 aP| 
 bQc | bc
 S1  aABZ
S  a AbZ
B  b
A  a Ab  A  aAB
A    A  


 S2  aPBQT
S  a PbQc
T  c
 aP| 
 bQc  Q  bQT
 bc  Q  bT
S  S1 | S2
S  a ABZ

 a AB
 

TM


 aPBQT

 aP| 


  q ,  , S q , S1
  q ,  , S q , S2
  q , a , S1 q , ABZ
  q , b, B   q , 
 q , a , A  q , AB
 q ,  , A   q , 
  q , c, Z q , Z
  q , c, Z  q , 
  q , a , S2 q , PBQT
  q , c, T  q , 
  q , a , P  q , 
  q ,  , P  q , 
  q , b, Q  q , T
 q ,  , Z 0   q , 
  q ,  , S  q , aabbc, S1
  q , aabbc, S1  |   q , abbc, ABZ
|   q , abbc, aABBZ
|   q , bbc, ABBZ
|   q , bbc, BBZ
|   q , bbc, bBZ
|   q , bc, BZ
TM

|   q , bc, bZ
|   q , c, Z
|   q , c, c
|   q ,  , Z 0 
|  q , 
q 0 , 0, 1,a , b , Z 0 ,  , q 0 , Z 0 ,  


  q 0 , 0, Z 0  q 0 , aZ 0 
  q 0 , 1, Z 0   q 0 , bZ 0 
  q 0 , 0 , a q 0 , aa
  q 0 , 1, b   q 0 , bb 
  q 0 , 0, b  q 0 , 
  q 0 , 1 , a q 0 , 
 q 0 ,  , Z 0  q 0 , 
S, q 0 Z 0 q 0 , q 0 aq 0 , q 0 bq 0 
0, 1

 q 0 Z 0 q 0 
  q 0 , 0, Z 0  q 0 , aZ 0 
q 0 Z 0 q 0   0 q 0 aq 0  q 0 Z 0 q 0 
  q 0 , 1, Z 0  q 0 , bZ 0 
q 0 Z 0 q 0   1 q 0 b q 0  q 0 Z 0 q 0 
  q 0 , 0, a q 0 , aa
q 0 a q 0   0 q 0 a q 0  q 0 a q 0 
TM

  q 0 , 1, b q 0 , bb
q 0 b q 0   1 q 0 b q 0  q 0 b q 0 
  q 0 , 0, b q 0 , 
q 0 b q 0  
  q 0 , 1, a  q 0 , 
q 0 a q 0  
 q 0 ,  , Z 0  q 0 , 
q 0 Z 0 q 0   
S  aSb|A, A  bSa|S| 

 

  

  

  
  
 q 0 , a, S q 0 , SB
 q 0 , b, S q 0 , SA 
 q 0 , a, S q 0 , B
 q 0 , b, S q 0 , A 
 q 0 , a, A   q 0 , 
 q 0 , b, B   q 0 , 
TM



q0 q0 
Z0 


,  ,  ,
, 

,  ,  ,
 

 
TM

,  
  
TM

 

L  {a n b n| n  1}
L  {a m b n|m  1, n  1}
 


  q  , a , S)  q  , BS)
  q  , a , S)  q  , B)
  q  , b , B)  q  , )
 q  ,  , Z 0 )  q  , )
 
TM

w |w| 


 p qi r si t
{ a mb mc m, m  0 }
a m bm c m 

uv i wx i y 

a m bm c m
uv i w xi y
a n bm c m

a m bn c m a m bm c n a n bm c n 
a m b m cm , m  0
a n bn
TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

Q, ,  ,  , q 0 ,  or B, F


  

q 0 , a  q 1 , A, L
a q0
q1 a
q0 q0 
TM

a b c      
Input tape
Input tape
  a b A A B b a   
Tape head
Finite
control

 q 0 , 0, 1  q 1 , 1,  , R
q0
q1

  a , b
TM

q0 (a,A,R)
Start (a,A,R)
q3  q0 q1
(b,B,R) (,,R) (,,R)

(a,A,R)
q0 q1
q2 q3
(,,R)
(b,B,R)
q3 q3
# 1 1 1 1 1 $
B B B B 1 1 B
B 1 1 1 B B B
Finite
control
M  Q , ,  ,  , q 0 , B , F

L  w c w|w  a  b 



TM

a b a c a b a  
a b a c a b a   * * a c * * a  
Read a Mark it
and mark it if it is
same as
* b a c a b a   marked
* * a c * * a 
* b a c a b a  
* * a c * * a  
* b a c a b a  
* * a c * * a  
* b a c a b a  
* * a c * * a  
It is
same as a
* * * c * *  
marked one
* b a c * b a  
* * * c * * a  
* b a c * b a  
* * * c * * *  
* b a c * b a  
* * * c * * *  
* b a c * b a  
* * * c * * *  
* * a c * b a  
* * * c * * *  
Mark it
* * a c * b a   * * * c * * *  
* * a c * b a  
* * a c * b a  
TM

a 1 1 $ 1 1 1

a b
a




 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


TM











1 1 $ 1 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1 
a b Answer
(1,1,R)
(1,X,R) ($,$,R) (1,Y,R) (,,R)

Start q1 q2 q3 q4
(X,X,R) (,1,L)
(1,1,L)
(Y,Y (1,1,L)
,R)
q8 (,,L) q5
(1,1,L)
(X,1,L) ($,$,L)
HALT q7 q6 (Y,1,L)
(X,1,L)
TM

 0 0 0 1 0 0 1  
m n
(0,,R)
(1,,R) (1,,R)
HALT q11 q10
(0,0,R)
,,R)
Start q0 (0,,R) q1 (1,1,R) q2 q6 (0,0,L) q7 (1,1,L) q8
Subroutine 'copy' (0,0,L)
q9
(0,0,L)
(,,R)
(1,1,R)
(0,0,R)
(1,1,L)
(0,X,R) (,0,L)
q2 q3 q4 (0,0,L)
(X,X,R)
(1,1,R)
q5 q6
(X,0,L)
TM

  

       

    

    

    

    

    

  

   

   

   

   

   

   

  

TM

  

  

  

  
 
   

   

    

   



       
TM

  a , b
a a
a b a  
a a
 a a
(a,a,R) (b,b,R) (a,a,R)
Start q1 q2 q3

(,,S)
HALT
a a
q1
a b a  
a a
a a
q1 q2
a b a  
q3  ,  , S  
   
a a a
TM

a 
 q1 , a, R
q1  q 2 , b, R
q2  q 3 , a, R
q3 
  0, 1
0 0
q0 1 q1
(0,0,R) (1,1,R)

Start q1 (0,0,R)
(,,L) (1,1,R)
HALT


q1




TM



q1


q1




(1,1,R) (0,1,R)
Start (1,1,R) (0,1,R) (1,0,R) (1,1,L)

q0 q1 q2 q3 q5
(0,0,R)
(0,0,R)
(0,0,R)
(0,0,L) (,,R) q6
(1,0,L) (,,R)
q4
HALT
 q1

 q0

 q0

 q1

TM

 q2

 q3

 q6

 

  0, 1
1
q0 q1
1
0 0 0 0
1
q3 q2
HALT
(,,R) (1,1,R)
Start q0 q1
(1,1,R)
(0,0,R) (0,0,R) (0,0,R) (0,0,R)
(1,1,R)
q3 q2
(1,1,R)

L  a n bn  n 1
a a
a n bn
TM

aa 

a 

a 

a 

a 

 a







 a







(B,B,R)
a (a,a,R)
(B,B,L)
(a,a,L)
Start (a,A,R) (b,B,L)
q0 q1 q2
(B,B,R)
(A,A,R)
q3 (B,B,R)
(,,L)
HALT
TM

aa  q1

a  a q1

a 

a  q2

a  q0

a  q1



 q2



 q0



 q3

a 

L  a n b n c n|n  0 
a n bn a n
a a b b c c 
TM

(B,B,R) (C,C,R)
(a,a,R) (b,b,R) (b,b,L)
(a,a,L)
Start (a,A,R) (b,B,R) (c,C,L) (B,B,L)
q0 q1 q2 q3 (C,C,L)
(B,B,R)
(A,A,R)
(,,R) (B,B,R)
q4
(C,C,R)
(,,R)
HALT
a a
aa  a q0 q1

a 

a  q1 q2

a 

a  q2 q3

a 

a  a q3

a  a

a 

 q1 q2



TM

 q3

 q0 q4

 q4

 



a n b n cn
a a a a * a

a a a

a a a 

a a a a

a a  a 

a a  *

a a 

TM

a a  *

a a  

a a  

a a *

a a

 a * 

a a 

a a 

 *



 *

 

 

 *

 



TM

(a,a,R)
(b,b,R)
(a,*,R) (,,L) (a,,L)

q1 q2 q3 (b,b,L)
(a,a,L)
(*,*,R)
Start
q0 HALT
(,,L)
(*,*,R)
(b,b,L)
q4 q5 q6 (a,a,L)
(b,*,R) (,,L) (b,,L)
( ,a,R)
(b,b,R)
  0, 1
(*,*,R)
(0,0,R)
(1,1,R)
(0,*,R) (,,L) (0,,L)

q1 q2 q3 (0,0,L)
(1,1,L)
(*,*,S)
Start
q0 HALT
(*,*,S)
q4 q5 q6 (0,0,L)
(,,L) (1,1,L)
(1,*,R) (1,,L)
(0,0,R)
(1,1,R)
(*,*,R)
TM

 *

 

 



 

 

 

 

 *

 



 

 *

  { a , b} .
TM

(,,R)
(a,a,R), (b,b,R)
(a,a,L),
(a,,R) (,,L) (a,,L) (b,b,L)
q1 q2 q3
q0 (,,L)
(,,
L)
HALT
(,,L) (a,a,L),
(,,L) (b,b,L)
q4 q5 q6
(b,,R) (b,,L)
(a,a,R), (b,b,R)
(,,R)
a  
 
  

 b 

b  
 
  

 b 
 
TM

 

 a  
 .
 

 a  

 

  
 q0
1 1 1 1 $ 1 1 1 
HALT
($,,R)
q5
(1,1,R)
(,,R)
Start (1,1,R) ($,$,R) (1,1,L) ($,1,R)

q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
(1,$,R)
TM























 


f  n  n  1
  1







TM



 

(1,1,R)
Start (1,1,R) (,1,R) (,,S)

q0 q1 q2 HALT
q0  q1 , 1, R
q1  q1 , 1, R  q 2 , 1, R
q2 
TM









 

 


(1,1,R) (1,1,R)
Start (1,1,R) (+,1,R) (,,L)

q0 q1 q2 q3
(1,,R)
q4
(,,R)
HALT
a a b
f a  b  c
1 1 1 – 1 1 
TM









 *





 *



 *

 



(,,S)
HALT
(1,1,R) (*,*,R)
Start (1,1,R) (–,–,R) (1,*,L) (–,–,L) (*,*,L)

q1 q2 q3 q4 q5
(*,*,L) (1,*,R)
f ( x, y)  x * y
x y
0 10 1
TM

X Y
0x
0010001BB...

B010001BB...

B010001BB

B010001BB..

B01X001BB...

B01X 001BB...

B01X001BB...

B01X001BB...

B01X0010B...

B01X0010B...

B01X0010B...

B01X0010B...

B01X0010B...

TM

B01XX010B...

B01XX010B...

B01XX010B...

B01XX010BB...

B01XX0100B...

B01XX0100B...

B01XX0100B...

B01XX0100B...

B01XX0100B

B01XXX100B...

B01XXX1000B...

B010001000B...

B010001000B...

BB10001000B...

BB10001000000B...

BBB0001000000B

BBBBBB1000000B

BBBBBBB000000B B0xy
0 x t 10 y 10(t  1)y 0 x t 1 0 y 1 0 ty
TM

(0,0,L)
(B,B,R)
q0 q9
(0,B,R)
(1,1,R)
(0,0,R) (1,1,L)
(0,0,L)
q1 (1,1,R) q2 (0,X,R) q3 (B,0,L) q4 (0,0,L)
(0,0,R) (X,X,R)
(1,1,L)
(1,1,R) (0,0,L) (1,1,L)

q5 q6 q7 q8
(X,0,L)
(B,B,R)
(1,B,R) (1,B,R)
HALT q11 q10
(0,B,R)
x y 0x10y

L  0n1n / n  1 
 0 1 1 0 1 1 
TM

M   Q, ,  ,  , q 0 , B, F
 

q0
M1
M1 Q 1 ,  1 , 1 ,  1 , q 1 , B, F1 
M2
M2 Q 2 ,  2 , 2 ,  2 , S 1 , B, F2 
  a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0  
(a)
# a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0 
(b)
M2
M1
L  q 0 , q 1 , q 2 , q 3 , q 4 , q 5   a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0 
M2
Start (a0,a0,L) (a1,a1,L) (a2,a2,L)
q1 q2 q3 q4
(a3,a3,L)
HALT q7 q6 q5
(,,S) (a5,a5,L) (a4,a4,L)
TM

 q 7 ,    
# a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0 
M1
Start (a0,a0,L) (a1,a1,L) (a2,a2,L)

S0 S1 S2 S3
(a3,a3,L)
HALT S6 S5 S4
(#,#,S) (a5,a5,L) (a4,a4,L)
  a , b
 b a a b 

a
a
a
 a a  a

 aa  a

 a 

 a  

 a 

TM

 a 

 a  a

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

(,,R)
(B,B,R)
(A,A,R)
(A,A,R)
(B,B,R)
(a,a,R)
(b,b,L)
(a,A,R) (b,B,L) (a,a,L)
Start q0 q1 q2 (A,A,L)
(B,B,L)
(,,S)
(b,B,R) (a,A,L)
q3
HALT
(b,b,R)
(A,A,R)
(B,B,R)
TM

a a  a

 a 

 a 

 a 

 a  a

 

 

 

  a

  

 

TM

 

 

 

 

  

(0,0,R)
(1,1,R) (0,0,L)
(0,1,L)
Start (,,L) (1,1,L) (1,0,L)
q0 q1 q2
(,,S)
HALT
   

    *

 *  *

TM

 * *  *

 * * 

 * *  *

 * * *  *

**** 

****

(,*,R
(,(,R *,*,L
*,*,R
Start (,(,R ),*,L

q0 q1 q2
),*,L
(,,S)
HALT
q0  q1 , (, R  q 2 , *, L   q 0 , *, R  
q1  q1 , (, R  q 2 , *, L 
q2  q 2 , *, R   q 2 , *, L 
TM

 

 

  * 

 * *

 * 

 **  *

 **  *

 ***  *

 ***  *

 ****  *

 ****  *

 ***** 

******  *

******  * 

TM

(*,*,L)
(0,0,R)
(*,*,R) (1,1,R)
(1,*,R) (,,R) (,1,L) (0,0,L)

q2 q3 q4 (1,1,L)
(,,L)
(1,1,R)
(0,0,R)
(*,*,S)
Start (,,L) (,,S)

q0 q1 HALT
(*,*,L)
(*,*,S)
(0,*,R) (,,R) (,0,L) (,,L)

q5 q6 q7 (0,0,L)
(1,1,L)
(*,*,R) (0,0,R)
(1,1,R)
(*,*,L)
q0  q 0 , 0, R  q 0 , 1, R q2 ,  , L 
q1  q5 , *, R  q 2 , *, R   q1 , *, L  
q2  q 2 , *, R   q 3 ,  , R
q3  q 3 , 0, R  q 3 , 1, R  q 4 , 1, L 
q4  q 4 , 0, L   q 4 , 1, L   q1 , *, L  q4 ,  , L 
q5  q5 , *, R  q 6 ,  , R
q6  q 6 , 0, R  q 6 , 1, R  q 7 , 0, L 
q7  q 7 , 0, L   q 7 , 0, L   q1 , *, L  q7 ,  , L 
TM

(A,A,R)
(1,1,R) (1,1,R) (1,1,L)
Start (1,A,R) (,,R) (,1,L) (,,L)

q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
(,,L)
(1,1,L)
(A,1,L)
(,,L)
HALT
  q0

  q1

 

 

  q1 to q 2

  

 

TM

 

 

  

  

   

 

   

 

 

  

  

 

 

TM

(0,A,R)
(A,A,L)
(1,1,R) ,,L)
q0 q1 q2
(1,,L)
q3
,,L)
HALT
 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

TM

(0, 0, R) (2, 2, R) (2, 2, R)
Start (1, 1, R) (0, 0, R)

q0 q1 q3
HALT
(, , R) (1, 1, R) (0, 0, R)
(2, 2, R) (1, 1, R)
(2, 2, R) (1, 1, R)
q2
(0, 0, R)
(1, 1, R)
(, , N) Is the number on
q0 track 2 greater than 1
and less than number on track 1
No Yes
HALT and Remainder > 0
fail Divide number on
Remainder = 0 track 1 by number
HALT and on track 2
SUCCESS
TM

  
(1,1,R)

Start (,1,R) (,1,R) (,1,R)
q0 q1 q2 HALT
1 1 1  Go to q0 state and move right
1 1 1  Go to q0 state and move right
1 1 1    Go to q0 state and move right
Replace  by 1,go to state

1 1 1 1   q1 and move right
Replace  by 1,go to state

1 1 1 1 1   q2 and move right
Replace  by 1,go to halt

1 1 1 1 1 1 1  state move right
Thus TM halts
1 1 1 1 1 1 1  successfully
TM

 0 0 1 0 0 0 1   ...  0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Input tape Input tape (output)
(A, 0, R)
(, , L)
HALT
(0, 0, R) (0, 0, R)
(A, 0, R) 1, 1, R (1, 1, R) (, 0, L) (0, 0, L)

q9 q10 q11 q12 q13
(1, 1, L)
(1, 1, L)
(0, 0, R) (0, 0, R)
(0, A, R) (1, 1, R) (0, B, R) (1, 1, R)

q0 q1 q2 q3 q4 (0, 0, R)
(, 0, L)
(A, A, R) q5 (0, 0, L)
(1, 1, L)
(1, 1, L) (1, 1, L) (B, B, R)
q8 q7 q6
(0, 0, L)
(0, 0, L) (B, 0, L)
0 

 0 
 
TM

 0

 B 
 
 0

 0

 1 

 0

 0   

 0

 0

 

 1 1 1  ...
 1 1 1  1 1 1  ...
n n
TM

(A, A, R)
(1, 1, R) (1, 1, R) (1, 1, L) Copying
(1, 1, L) n to
(1, A, R) (, , R) (, 1, L) (, , L) make
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4
nn
(, , L)
q5
(A, 1, R)
q6
(1, 1, R) (B, 1, L) (1, 1, L)
(, , R)
(, , L) (, , L) (A, 1, R)
q11 q12
q7
(, , R)
(1, B, R)
Performing
q8 HALT the
(1, 1, R)
(B, B, R) multiplication
(, , R) nn
q9 (1, 1, R)
(, 1, L)
(, , L)
q10 (1, 1, L)
(B, B, R) (C, C, R)
(0, 0, R) (1, 1, R) (1, 1, L)
(0, 0, L)
(B, B, L)
(0, A, R) (1, B, R) (0, C, L)
q0 q1 q2 q3 (C, C, L)
(B, B, R) (A, A, R)
q4 (B, B, R)
, , R) (C, C, R)
, , R
HALT
TM

 
 a b b 
(a,a,R) (B,B,R) (b,b,R)

(b,b,R) (b,b,L)
q0 ,,L q1 (b,B,R) q2 ,,R q3 ,b,L q4
(b, ,,L
B,R
)
q5 (B,B,L)
(a,A,R)
,a,R q7 ,,R q6 (B,B,R)

HALT
(b,b,R)
 a    b      b  
   
 B       b   
   
 B    b   B  
  
   B  b  a  b 
  
  b  B   a  
  
TM

 A         b 
  
  a      
 
Input Accept/Reject
Finite
control
head 1 head n
head 2
tape
TM

Finite
control
Input tape 1
Input tape 2
TM

When
T halts for t
M1
(t,dT) ACCEPT halt
input REJECT halt
When T does
not halt for t
TM

T halts for
M2 input t = dT
dT Loops
Copy T (dT, dT) Modified M1
(input) Halts
T does not
halt for t = dT
M2 halts for
M2 input dM2
dM2 Loop
(input) Halt
M2 dose not
halt for input dM2
TM

an b n
n
an b cn
utable languages
Comp
t sensitive languag
ntex es
Co
t f r e e l angu
tex ag
on Regular
e
C
language
 
TM


Q, ,  ,  , q 0 ,  or B, F


  

q 0 , a  q 1 , A, L
a q0
q1 a
q0 q0 
TM

Finite
control
Input tape 1
Input tape 2
TM

,  , 




TM

(0, 0, R)
(1, 1, R) (1, 1, R)
Start (0, 0, R) (, 0, R)
q0 q1 HALT
 

 

 

 

  



TM

Finite
control
Input tape 1
Input tape 2
TM

# 1 1 1 $ ... Control unit

B B B 1 B ... of M1
B 1 1 B B ...
Finite control 1 0 1 1 ... B 1 0 ... B 1 1 ...

Tape 1 Tape 2 Tape 3
Multi-track turing machine
( function) (String w) (States of M1)
Multi-tape turing machine
  {a, b}
(a, a, R)
(b, b, R)
(a, a, R) , , R
q0 q1 HALT
L  n mod 2
0, 0, R
q0 q1
0, 0, R
, , R)
HALT
TM

(1, 1, R)
(0, 0, R)
(0, 0, R)
q0 q1
(1, 1, R)
, , R)
HALT
TM

 0 0 0 1 0 0 1  
m n
(0,,R)
(1,,R) (1,,R)
Halt q11 q10
(0,0,R)
,,R)
Start (0,,R) (1,1,R) (0,0,L) (1,1,L)

q0 q1 q2 q6 q7 q8
Subroutine 'copy' (0,0,L)
q9
(0,0,L)
(,,R)
TM

(1,1,R)
(0,0,R)
(1,1,L)
(0,X,R) (,0,L)
q2 q3 q4 (0,0,L)
(X,X,R)
(1,1,R)
q5 q6
(X,0,L)
  

       

    

    

    

    

    

  

   

TM

   

   

   

   

   

  

  

  

  

  
 
   

   

    

   



       
TM

  a b A A B b a   
Tape head
Finite control

  
(a, A, R)
(a, A, R)
q0 q1
(, , R)

(b, B, R) , R) (, , R)
,A
(a
 q2 q3
(, , R)

(b, B, R)
TM

# 1 1 1 1 1 $ 1 1 B 1 1 1 B
Finite control
Finite control
# 1 1 1 1 1 $
B B B B 1 1 B
B 1 1 1 B B B
TM

...  A B C D 0 1 2 3 4  ... 0 D 1 C 2 B 3 A 4  ...
.
    a a a a  
Input tape
     a a a a  
(a, , R) (, a, L)
q4
, , R (a, a, R) (, , L) , , L
q0 q1 q2 q3 HALT
(a, a, R)
TM

   q0,q1, q2


    q2
   q3
    q4
   q2
   q3
    q4
   q2
   q3
    q4
   q2
   q3
TM

    q4
    q2, q3
1n | n  4
Start q0 (1,1,R) q1 (1,1,R) q2 (1,1,R) q3 (1,1,R) q4
(1,1,R)
(,,R)
HALT q5
(1,0,R)
(0,1,R)
q1 (1,0,R) q1 (,,R) HALT
(0,1,R)
TM



   








 


(1, 1, R)
Start (1, 1, R) (, 1, R) (, , S)

q0 q1 q2 HALT
TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

TM

Partial recursive functions
General recursive functions
Primitive recursive
functions
TM

TM

TM

Non-recursively enumerable language
Recursively enumerable and not recursive

language
Recursive
language
Accept Reject
Turing
machine M Reject Accept
Turing machine M'
TM

TM
M1 Accept Accept
input w
[Binary string]
M2 Accept Reject
Complemented TM
TM

Finite control
Input
M w
Tape
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 ........
State
TM

w Yes Accept
Hypothetical TM
M for L'u No Reject
L u
L u TM M' for Ld
TM

M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M M 
 M
M M
M
M
M
 P P
P
L p
TM

TM

Computational complexity problems
P - class NP - class
NP - complete NP - hard
TM

(1) (2)
V1 V1
1 1
V2 V2
2
V5
V1
8 1
V6 V2
2 3
13 V1 V1
(3) (4)
12 2 8 1 8 1
V6 V2 V6 V2
12 2 3 2 3
V5 V3
7
9
10
V4
V5 V3 V5 V3
7 7
V4 V4
Weight = 21
a 1 b 2 c
2 2 1
2 1
3 1 1 2
f d
e
2 3 3 3
3
g 3 h 3 i
TM

a b
1
1
a 1 b c
1
a b c
1
d
e
1
a 1 b c
1 1 2
f e d
i
1
a 1 b c
1 1 2
f e d
g 3 h i
TM

3
a b
6
5
7
1
8 4 9
c d
2
3
TM

NP - Problems
 P-Problems
  
TM

NP-complete
P class problems
problems
NP
 NP-hard
problems
NP
P NP - complete
 
Poly Poly Poly

A   B B   C A   C
TM

Every problem in NP
CIRCUIT - SAT
CNF - SAT
3 - SAT
VERTEX COVER
CLIQUE SET - COVER SUBSET SUM HAMILTONIAN-CYCLE
KNAPSACK TSP
 

TM

a g e b f h
a g e b f h
TM

1 1 0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1 0 1
TM

AND NOT OR
w1 w2 w1 w3 w3 w4
Read from
1 0 1 010 010 11 left to right
x1 x2 x1 x3 x3 x4
Read from
10 10 10 01 01 1 left to right
TM

  0, 1
TM

{(w 1 , x 1 ), (w 2 , x 2 ), ... (w k , x k )
w 1 w i1 w i2 ... w im x 1 x i1 x i2 ... x im
(w 1 , x 1 )
wi xi
w1 w2 w 3 x1 x2 x 3
w1 x1


w 1 , w 2 , ... w k
B = x 1 , x 2 , ... x k  
z 0 , z 1 , ... z k  1
yi  wi  wi zi  xi
 xi
TM

wi xi yi Zi
    

     
    
y0  y1 z0  z1

yi zi yi Zi
     
         

           
         
y k 1 zk  1 y k 1  $ zk  1  $
yi zi
     
    
     
    
i 1 , i 2 , ... i m
w 1 w i1 w i2 ... w im  x 1 x i1 x i2 ... x im
 y 1 y i1 y i2 ... y im  z i z i1 z i2 ... z im 
y1 y2 y 3 z1 z2 z 3 
                 
TM

y0  y1 z0  z1 
y 0 y i1 y i2 ... y im z 0 z i1 z i2 ... z im 
 1 1  1 0 0 1 1 1  1 11  0 01  1 1 
y0 y2 y3 z0 z2 z3
 yk  1  $
zk  1  $
y 0 y i1 y i2 ... y im y k  1 z 0 z i1 z i2 ... z im z k  1
 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 $  1 11  0 01  1 11  $

y0 y2 y3 y4 z0 z2 z3 z4
0, i 1 , i 2 , ... i m , k  1
0, i 1 , i 2 , ... i m i k  1
i 1 , i 2 , ... i m 
yi zi
    
       
    
     
TM

yi zi
     
    
      
    
     
yi zi
     
    
      
    
     
 
 
                 
TM

TM

w M1 Accept Accept
(Input string)
No Accept
M2
Start Reject
M
w Accept
TM
Input string Reject
w Accept
TM
Input string Loops for ever
 

 
 
TM

Accept
W TM Accept
Reject W TM
Loops for ever
TM

TM

( 0  1)  w  L(M)
Accept
w TM
Reject
2n – 1.
TM

 11
f (x 1 , x 2 , ... , x n, y)
h ( x, y , f( x, y ) fadd ( x, y  1)  S ( fadd ( x, y ) )
S (  33 ( x, y , fadd ( x, y )))
 11 ,  33
Lu Lu
Lu
TM

w









TM

Lu
Lu
Lu
Lu
 Lu
Lu
Lu
Finite control
Input
M w
Tape 00010001000
State 0
Lu j
1 2 3 4
1 0 1 1 0

i 2 1 1 0 0
3 0 0 1 0
4 0 0 0 1
Diagonal
TM

 


L1
L2
L1 L2
1  L 1 2  L 2
L1 L2
TM

{x 1 , x 2 , ...}
(n 2 )
TM

L1 L2 M1 M2 M1
M2
L1  L2
M1 M1
M2 Yes
Yes
M2
Start Yes
w M1 M2
w L1 L2 No
No
L1  L2 M
Yes
M1
w Yes
wL1 or L2 Yes
M2
M
L 1 and L 2
TM

M1 or M2
 L 1 or L 2 M1
M2
 M1
M1 M2
Accepts
M1 Yes
M1 M2 w
L or L' Accepts
M2 No
M
w Accept
M1 M2 Accept
L1 L2
Reject
Reject
M
TM

TM

TM

Semester - V (CSE) - Regulation 2013
S  aB bA ,
A  a aS bAA ,
B  b bS aBB.
(0  1) .
S  aAA , A  aS bS a.
Lu ?
TM

(ab  a) .
 NFA  closure
letter
5 6
 
letter   
1 2 3 4 7 10
 digit 
8 9
{ 0i 2 i  1}
.
E  D (E) E  E E  E E  E E E / E
D  0 1 2 ...9
1 + 2  3.
({S, A , B}, {a , b}, {S  ASB , A  aAS a , B  SbS A bb }, S).
TM

{0n 1n n  1}.
{a nb n cn n  1}.
({p ; q}), ({0 ; 1}), {X , Z},  , q , ), 

( p , 1, Z) {(p , XZ)} (p , , Z) {(p , )} ( p , 1, X) {(p , XX)}
( p , 1, X) {(q , )}, ( p , 0, X) {(q , X)} ( q , 0, Z) {(p , Z)}.
{0n1n n   1}.
TM

  { a , b}.
n( n  1)( 2n  1)
nx  1 x 2  6
.
TM

0 1
0 1 0
Start A B C D
0 1
1
0
1
1 1 0
E F G H
1 0
      

 
TM

 


 

  { a , b} { ww R|w   }
{ aib j c k i  j  k}
  { a , b}.
TM

  { a , b},
{b ab n : m, n  0}.
m
({ q 0 , q 1}, { a , b },  , q 0 , { q 1}) 

q0 { q 0, q 1 } { q1}
q1  { q 0, q 1 }
TM

{ a n|n is odd }
TM


Semester - V (CSE) Regulation 2013
 a  b|c
{0n 1 2 n|n 0}
(b c)
(a  b) c
 E  E E  E (E ) id

(a b) ab
n
i 3 {n ( n  1) 2} 2
G
L (G) – {}

TM

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Theory of Computation EduEngg

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Check out : www.eduengineering.

net For all subject Notes

Strictly as per Revised Syllabus of

Mrs. Anuradha A. Puntambekar

First Printed in India : January 2013

ã Copyright with Author

9 789 333 20 207 7

9789333202077 [4] (ii)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

k(k  1)(2k  1)  k(2k  1) 

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

(k  1) (2k(k  2)  3(k  2)) (k  1) ((2k  3)(k  2))

1  4  7 ...... + (3k  2)  (3(k  1)  2)

k(3k  1) k(3k  1)  2 3(k  1)  2

3k 2  2 k + 3 k  2 (2k  2)  (3k 2  3k)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

2(k  1)  3k(k  1) (k  1)(3k  2) (k  1)(3(k + 1)  1)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

 0, 1, 4 , 9, 16, ........ 100 

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

A B  (a,0), (a,1), (a,2), (b,0), (b,1), (b,2)

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

   , a , b , aa , bb , ab , ba , aba , aaa , bbb , baba , abaab , ......

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

CPU Monitor Keyboard Mouse

Keys Left Right

Memory Hard disk

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Deterministic Non Deterministic

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

S1 Represents the state

Represents transition from

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

1 input ends here

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

Start a,b a,b a,b a,b

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS - An up thrust for knowledge

S10 Other return