KC21003 Material Technology

Chapter 4

Defects in Solids

Sariah Saalah
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 Solidification
◼ Solidification- result of casting of molten material
◼ 2 steps
➢ Nucleation : Formation of stable nuclei.
➢ Growth of nuclei : Formation of grain structure.

◼ Start with a molten material – all liquid

◼ Crystals grow until they meet each other

Grains
Nuclei

Crystals that will Grain Boundaries

Liquid 2
Form grains
 Solidification
Growth of Crystals and Formation of Grain Structure
◼ Nucleus grow into crystals in different orientations.
◼ Crystal boundaries are formed when crystals join together
at complete solidification.
◼ Crystals in solidified metals are called grains.
◼ Grains are separated by grain boundaries.
◼ More the number of
nucleation sites
available, more
the number of
grains formed.

Nuclei growing into grains

Forming grain boundaries 3

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 Metallic Solid Solutions
◼ Alloys are used in most engineering applications.
◼ Alloy is an mixture of two or more metals and nonmetals.
◼ Example:
➢ Cartridge brass is binary alloy of 70% Cu and 30%
Zinc.
➢ Iconel is a nickel based superalloy with about 10
elements.

◼ Solid solution is a simple type of alloy in which elements

are dispersed in a single phase.

◼ Two types of solid solution:

➢ Substitutional
➢ Interstitial
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4-14
 Metallic Solid Solutions
Substitutional Solid Solution
◼ Solute atoms can substitute a parent solvent atom in a crystal
lattice.
◼ The structure remains unchanged.
◼ Lattice might get slightly distorted due to change in diameter
of the atoms.
◼ Solute percentage in solvent
can vary from fraction of a
percentage to 100%

Solvent atoms
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Solute atoms
4-15
 Metallic Solid Solutions
Substitutional Solid Solution
◼ Conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.): W. Hume –
Rothery rule
◼ 1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
◼ 2. Similar electronegativities
◼ 3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
◼ 4. Same valence Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence
Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.8 +2
Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
Atomic radius difference, r
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
= final radius – initial radius x100% Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
initial radius Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2 6

4-16
Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence
Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.8 +2
Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2

Atomic Crystal Electron- Solid

System radius structure egativity Solibility
Difference difference
Cu-Zn 3.9% Fcc-hcp 0.1 38.3%
Cu-Pb 36.7% Fcc-fcc 0.2 0.17%
Cu-Ni 2.3% Fcc-fcc 0 100%
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 Metallic Solid Solutions
Intersitial Solid Solution
◼ Solute atoms (smaller) fit in between the voids (interstices) of
solvent atoms.
◼ Example:- between 912 and 13940C, interstitial solid solution of
carbon in γ iron (FCC) is formed.
◼ A maximum of 2.8%
of carbon can dissolve
interstitially in iron.

Iron atoms r=00.129nm

Carbon atoms r=0.075nm Figure 4.15a 8

4-17
 Crystalline Imperfections
◼ No crystal is perfect.
◼ Imperfections affect mechanical properties, chemical properties
and electrical properties.
◼ Imperfections can be classified as
➢ Point defects.

➢ Line/ Linear deffects (dislocations).

➢ Planar defects

Point Defects
•Imperfections Associated with the Crystalline Point Lattice
•Caused by Impurities or Thermal Agitation
•Two types of points defects:
-Vacancy
-Interstitial
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4-18
 Crystalline Imperfections
Point Defects - Vacancy

◼ Vacancy is formed due to a missing atom.

◼ Vacancy is formed (one in 10000 atoms) during
crystallization or mobility of atoms.
◼ Mobility of vacancy results in cluster of
vacancies.
◼ Also caused due
to plastic defor-
-mation, rapid
cooling

Figure: Vacancies moving to form vacancy cluster

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4-19
 Crystalline Imperfections
Point Defects - Interstitial
◼ Atom in a crystal, sometimes, occupies
interstitial site.
◼ This does not occur naturally.
◼ Can be induced by irradiation.
◼ This defects caused structural distortion.

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4-20
 Crystalline Imperfections
Point Defects in Ionic Crystals
When two oppositwly charged ions are
1. Schottky -- pair of oppositely charged missing from an ionic crystal a
cation-anion divacancy is created
ion vacancies
When a positive cation moves into
2. Frenkel –vacancy-intersitial interstitial site in an ionic crystal,
combination a cation vacancy is created

3. Impurity atoms are also considered as

point defects.

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4-21
 Crystalline Imperfections
Line Defects (Dislocations)
◼ Lattice distortions are centered around a line.
◼ Caused by mechanical deformation
➢ Solidification
➢ Permanent or Plastic Deformation
➢ Vacancy condensation Schematic of Zinc (HCP):
• Different types of line defects are • before • after tensile
➢ Edge dislocation deformation elongation
➢ Screw dislocation
➢ Mixed dislocation slip steps

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4-22
 Crystalline Imperfections
Line Defects – Edge Dislocation
◼ Created by insertion of extra half planes of atoms between two
normal planes of atom
◼ Line defect is represented by the edge of an extra half-plane of atoms

Positive Edge Burgers vector

Dislocation

Negative edge
dislocation

Burgers vector, b is the

displacement vector necessary
to close (mxn) loop around the
defect

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4-23
Determination of the Burgers Vector

Perfect Crystal Crystal with Distortion

Choose a line direction (positive direction into the page) for

the dislocation direction. Perform a circuit in the perfect
reference lattice in a right handed fashion. Repeat the circuit
in the real lattice so as to enclose the dislocation. The Burgers
vector is the vector from the finishing point F to the starting
point S using the FS/RH convention.
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 Crystalline Imperfections
Line Defects – Screw Dislocation

◼ Created due to shear stresses applied to regions of a

perfect crystal separated by cutting plane.
◼ Distortion of lattice in form of a spiral ramp.
◼ Burgers vector is parallel to dislocation line.

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4-24
Screw dislocation (top view)

The dislocation line extends from A to B. Atom positions above

the slip plane are designated by open circles, below the slip
plane with small filled circles. Name is derived from spiral path
along the dislocation line (AB).

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 Crystalline Imperfections
Line Defects – Mixed Dislocation

◼ Most crystal have components

of both edge and screw
dislocation -(mixed dislocations)

◼ Dislocation, since have

irregular atomic arrangement
will appear as dark lines
when observed in electron
microscope.
Dislocation structure of iron deformed
14% at –1950C 18

4-25
 Crystalline Imperfections
Line Defects – Mixed Dislocation

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Line Defects – Mixed Dislocation

Note that in A the dislocation is pure screw and in in B is pure edge

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 Crystalline Imperfections
Planar Defects
◼ twin boundary (plane)
◼ A region in which mirror image of structure exists
across a boundary.
◼ Formed during plastic deformation and
recrystallization.
◼ Strengthens the metal.

◼ Grain boundary
Two crystalline grains meet at a region.

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Planar Defects

Optical micrograph of Define grain boundary by

grain boundaries in Low- tilt boundary and
Carbon Steel misorientation angle

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