Chapter 1

Structure and
Properties of Materials
chapter highlights

☞☞ Structure of Materials ☞☞ Cyniding or Liquid Carbon Nitriding

☞☞ Crystallography ☞☞ Nitriding
☞☞ Bravais Lattices ☞☞ Flame Hardening
☞☞ Metallic Structure ☞☞ Spherodizing (Spherodize Annealing)
☞☞ Imperfection in Crystal Structure of Metals ☞☞ Process Annealing or Recrystallisation
(defects) Annealing
☞☞ Line Defects ☞☞ Iso Thermal Annealing
☞☞ Allotropic Forms of Materials ☞☞ Composition and Application of Some
☞☞ Properties of Engineering Materials Non-ferrous Alloys
☞☞ Stress–strain Diagram for Engineering Materials ☞☞ Organic Materials
☞☞ Effect of Carbon Percentage on Stress-strain ☞☞ Brinell Hardness Test
Diagram of Steel ☞☞ Rockwell Test
☞☞ Carburising ☞☞ Vicker’s and Knoop Hardness Test

Structure of materials 3. Hexagonal

4. Orthorhombic
Crystallography 5. Rhombohedral
Arrangement and disposition of atoms with in a crystal is 6. Monoclinic
called structure 7. Triclinic
Atoms of a crystalline material is arranged in a definite
geometrical order. When these materials solidify from other Bravais Lattices
state, the atoms arrange themselves into specific positions
According to Bravais there are 14 possible types of space
in 3 dimensional space to form crystals. If the centres of
lattices in the 7 crystal systems mentioned above. They are
these atoms in a crystal are joined, the lines joining form a
3 dimensional geometrical shape called space lattice. The 1. Simple cubic lattice
smallest volume of this space lattice which properly repre- 2. Body centred cubic lattice
sents the positions of atoms with respect to each other is 3. Face centred cubic lattice
known as a unit cell. Unit cells are the building blocks of a 4. Simple tetragonal lattice
crystal. This is the simplest volume which completely fills 5. Body centred tetragonal lattice
the space and has the characteristics of the whole cell. 6. Simple hexagonal lattice
If the atoms in a crystal is replaced by smaller circles or 7. Simple orthorhombic lattice
points, a group of small circles or points is obtained. Each 8. End centred orthorhombic lattice
point has its surrounding identical to that of every other 9. Body centred orthorhombic lattice
point. These points are called lattice points. Thus lattice 10. Face centred orthorhombic lattice
points are corner points of unit cells. 11. Simple rhombohedral lattice
There are seven types of basic crystal systems. They are 12. Simple mono clinic lattice
1. Cubic 13. End centred monoclinic lattice
2. Tetragonal 14. Simple triclinic lattice
3.764  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
Metallic Structure
We have seen that there are 14 valid lattices and a crystal
belong to any one of these. But it is found that most of the
common metals have cubic or hexagonal structure only
Three most common crystal lattice structures are
1. Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
2. Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
3. Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
In FCC structure, unit cell is a cube with one atom at each
corner of the cube and one each face.
Examples are – Ca, Ni, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au, Pb, Al and alloys
of these. They have good ductility and good electrical
conductivity.
In BCC structure, atoms are present at all eight corners
of the cube and another one at the body centre.
Examples are – Fe, Na, K, V, Mo, Ta, W
They have more tendency to deform plastically.
In HCP structure, atoms are at each corner of a hexago-
nal prism and one atom each at the centre of top and bottom
faces. And three atoms in the mid plane.
Examples are – Be, Mg, Zn, Cd, Co, Ti
They have good ductility and can be easily deformed.
Imperfection in Crystal
Structure of Metals (Defects)
Strength of a metal is always less than the value obtained
by theoretical calculations. This is due to imperfections
and defects in crystalline structure. The following are three
types of important defects.
1. Point defects
2. Line defects
3. Surface defects or planar imperfections
Point Defects
Point defects take place due to imperfect packing of atoms
during crystallization. Vibration of atoms at high tempera-
ture also cause point defects.
1. Vacancy defect For example,
When one or more atoms are missing from a normally
occupied position, the defect is known as vacancy.
2. Interstitial defects Chromium
When an extra atom occupies interstitial positions
(voids) in the parent crystal, the defect is called
interstitial defect.
3. Frenkel defect Below 912°C - BCC
It is a combination of vacancy and interstitial defect.
A missing atom responsible for vacancy occupies an
interstitial position.
4. Substitutional defect BCC structure below 723°C.
When a foreign atom displace a parent atom, the
defect is known as substitutional defect.
5. Schottky defect
When a pair of positive and negative ions is missing
from ionic crystal, the defect is known as Schottky
defect. Due to this defect there is no change in the
neutrality of the crystal.
Line Defects
The type of defects are due to dislocation or distortion of
atoms along a line. Examples are
1. Edge dislocation
When a half plane of atoms is inserted between the
planes of atoms, the defect is called edge dislocation.
2. Screw dislocation
This occurs when a part of the crystal displaces angu-
larly. Magnitude and direction of edge dislocation is
given by a vector called Burger vector.
Surface Defects
Surface defects or plane defects occur on the s­ urface of a
material. If happens due to imperfect ­packing during crys-
tallization or defective orientation of the surface.
Grain Boundary Defect
Grains of different orientations separate the general patterns
of the atoms exhibiting a boundary. This defect is called
grain boundary defect.
Twinning: In twinning or twin boundary defect, atomic
arrangement on one side of the boundary is a mirror image
of arrangement of atoms on the other side.
Volume Imperfection
Volume imperfections are 3-dimensional imperfections
inside the solids. The reasons are foreign particle inclusions
region of non-crystallizing, pores etc.
Allotropic Forms of Materials
Some materials exist in more than one form depending up
on temperature. They are called allotropic forms.
Cobalt
Below 420°C - HCP
470°C to 1495°C = FCC
Below 20°C - HCP
20°C to 1799°C - BCC
Fe
912°C to 139°C – FCC
In carbon steels, temperature ranges vary depending upon
the carbon content. Carbon steel with 0.8% carbon has a
Usually non-crystalline materials do not have lattice
arrangement of their atoms. Such materials are known as
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.765

amorphous substances. Some of the common examples of Similarly shearing stress

amorphous substances are rubber, transparent polymers, ΔQ
metallic glasses thermoset plastics etc. τ = lim
ΔA→ 0 ΔA
dQ
Properties of Engineering =
dA
materials where Q is the shearing resistance.
Engineering materials can be metalic or non-metallic. When the body is subjected to forces, it undergoes
Mettalic materials may be ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous changes in shape and size also.
materials consist mainly of iron with comparatively small It is seen that bars extend under tensile force and shorten
addition of other materials. Cast iron, wrought iron and car- under compressive force. The change in length per unit
bon steels are examples. length is known as linear strain.
Non-ferrous materials contain little or no iron. Examples ∆L
Thus linear strain e =
are Aluminium, copper, zinc, tin, nickel, titanium etc. L
Non-metallic materials include plastics, rubber, leather, Experiments has shown that for a body under the action
wood, glass etc. of forces, the stress and strain has got certain relationship

Types of Materials Hooke’s Law

Robert Hooke, from his experiments concluded that stress
Materials can be classified into three groups.
is proportional to strain up to elastic limit. This is known as
1. Isotropic material Hooke’s law.
2. Anisotropic material Thus s ∝ e
3. Orthotropic material or s = Ee
A material that displays same elastic properties in all where E = constant of proportionality and is known as
­directions of loading is called isotropic material. The equa- Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity.
tion of strength and elasticity are based on this a­ ssumption. Stress–strain Diagram for Mild Steel
In these materials all planes are planes of symmetry. All met-
als are isotropic. Number of elastic constants are two only.
In anisotropic materials different property values are x
D
exhibited in different directions with respect to a set of ref-
B
erence axes. For these materials there are no planes of sym- x E
metry. Total number of elastic constants are 36 in which 21 A’ x x
A x C
numbers are independent.
Orthotropic material is a type of anisotropic material.
It has got 3 orthogonal planes of symmetry. There are 12
­elastic constants in which 9 are independent.
Stress

Stress–strain Diagram for

Engineering Materials
When a body is subjected to forces it develops internal
resisting forces. The resisting forces may be split into nor- O Strain
mal and parallel to a section. Resisting force parallel to the
section is called shearing resistance. Intensity of resisting When a mild steel specimen is subjected to tensile load and
force normal to the section is called intensity of normal the stress-strain relationship is plotted, the following salient
stress or simply the normal stress. points are observed.
Normal stress is mathematically expressed as
Limit of Proportionality (A)
ΔR
σ = lim Upto this point stress is proportional to strain.
ΔA→ 0 ΔA
dR Elastic Limit (A′)
=
dA This is slightly above A and up to this point the elastic-
ity is maintained or the strain disappears completely and
where R is the normal resisting force.
the original length is regained, when it is unloaded below
this point.
3.766  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Upper Yield Point (B) In these materials there is no clear cut yield point. At ulti-
When this point is reached stress starts reducing and mate stress necking takes place and breaking occurs at a
extension increases or yielding of the material takes lower stress as in the case of mild steel.
place. The stress at which 0.2% permanent set is there is treated
as yield stress.
Lower Yield Point (C) (The percentage of permanent strain left in the material
when the material is unloaded after loading above elastic
At this point stress and strain increases again. point is called permanent set.)
Ultimate Stress (D) Effect of Carbon Percentage on Stress-strain
This is the maximum stress the material can resist. After Diagram of Steel
this point cross sectional area reduces at a section (­necking).
Stress again reduces and strain increases.
Increasing %
Breaking Point (E) of carbon × High speed steel
Stress at this point is called fracture stress. This is the point × High carbon steel
at which the specimen breaks. × Medium carbon steel
The region C to D is called work hardening or strain σ × Mild steel
hardening region. × Wrought iron

Stress-strain Relationship in Brittle Materials

(example-cast iron)
Stress-strain relationship for a brittle material like cast iron →ε
is shown in the figure.
Characteristic Changes in Properties of
Materials Showing Different Stress-strain
Relationships
→
Stress

Hard Strong

weak
Stress → Soft
σ
In this case there is no appreciable change in rate of strain.
There is no yield point. There is no necking and ultimate Brittle Ductile
point and breaking point are same. Rigid
Elastic

Stress-strain Relationship in Aluminium and →ε

High Strength Steel
Properties

σv
F 1. Strength
Resistance offered by a material on application of external
force is called strength. Or it is the ability to sustain loads
without distortion. It can be tensile, compressive, shear,
bending or torsional.
→

2. Hardness
Stress

It is the resistance of the material to mechanical indentation.

It is the general indication of the strength as well as resist-
ance to wear and scratching.
F’ Diamond is the hardest known material.
0.2 Stress →
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.767

3. Toughness Anisotropy
It is the ability of a material to with stand suddenly applied load If elastic propertries are different in different directions it is
and thus absorb a certain amount of energy without failure. anisotropic.
It depends both on strength and ductility. Alloy steels
with good toughness are used for manufacturing of cutting
tools like milling cutters gears subjected to impact loads etc.
Equilibrium Diagrams
Pure metals have clearly defined freezing/melting point,
4. Ductility solidification/melting lakes place at constant temperature.
Ductility is the property of a material which permits perma- But in the case of an alloy solidification/melting takes place
nent deformation before fracture by stress in tension. It is the over a range of temperature.
extend to which a material can sustain plastic deformations
under tension, before rupture gold is most ductile of all metals.
Cooling of liquid
5. Brittleness
Brittleness is the inability to undergo plastic deformation. Freezing begins
Materials that under go very little plastic deformation is Freezing ends
called brittle. If the percentage of elongation is less than 5%
the material is treated as brittle. If it is more than 5% it is duc- Cooling of solid
tile. Cold shortness is the brittleness that exist below recrys-
Temp
talisation temperature. Red shortness is the brittleness of steel
at high temperature caused by the formation of iron sulphide. Time
Cooling curve of a pure metal
6. Malleability
Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened in to 1455°C Liquid (L)
thin sheets without cracking in the cold state under com-
pressive loading (pressing, rolling, hammering, etc.)
L +S
7. Resilience
It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically.
Energy stored is released on removal of the load. It is impor- Temp Solid (S) 1083°C
tant property desirable for shock absorbers and springs.
8. Stiffness
It is the resistance of a material to elastic deformation or Ni = 100% Ni = 0
deflection. Cu = 0 composition Cu = 100%
9. Fatigue Cooling curve of an alloy (Ni + Cu)
Under fluctuating or repeated loads, a material tend to
develop a characteristic behavior which is different from Allotropic Forms of Steel
that under steady loads and then the material is said to be For metals with different allotropic forms the curves are
another fatigue. Due to fatigue, material will fail at loads not as simple as shown above. The transformation from one
less than loads at normal conditions. The maximum stress at allotropic form to another takes place at a constant tempera-
which even a billion reversal of stresses cannot cause failure ture just the same way as in the case of liquid – solid trans-
is called endurance limit. formation. Iron exist in different allotropic forms depending
10. Creep up on temperature. Cooling curve for pure iron is shown in
Creep is the slow plastic deformation of a material under this figure.
constant stresses usually at high temperature.
1600 Liquid iron
11. Elasticity 1537
It is the ability of a material to return to original shape from Delta iron (BCC)
1392
the deformed shape caused by an applied load, up on the Ar4
removal of the load.
Temp°C Gamma iron(FCC)
12. Plasticity
Plasticity is the ability of the materialto undergo some 910
Ar3 Beta iron(BCC)
degree of permanent deformation without rupture.
768 Curie temp
Ar2
Isotropy Ferro
magnetic
Alpha iron (BCC)

If a material has same elastic properties in all direction, it is

an isotropic material. Time
Cooling curve for pure iron
3.768  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

The first horizontal step at 1537°C represents liquid to a – Alpha iron (Ferrite)
solid transformation with evolution of heat. The mixture P – Pearlite
consist of liquid plus delta iron solid solution. At tempera- Led – Lederburite
ture 1392°C delta iron transforms to a new allotropic form
Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram is obtained on plotting
gamma iron The next step is at 910°C where Gamma iron
the critical points of different iron-carbon combinations.
transform to Beta iron. At the last (4th) step at 768°C Beta
Carbon in equilibrium does not appear as free carbon
iron is transformed to Alpha iron. Gamma iron is of a FCC
(graphite) but appear in the form of iron carbide (Fe3C) con-
structure and other forms are of BCC structure. Alpha iron
taining 6.67% carbon on the right. Cementite is a chemical
acquires pronounced ferromagnetic properties Beta and
compound of iron and carbon and may form up on rapid
other forms are para magnetic.
cooling of iron-carbon melt from high temperature. It is
Since space lattice does not change in the Alpha to Beta
brittle, weak in tension, strong in compression and is the
transformation beta iron is regarded as paramagnetic state
hardest of any material in the equilibrium diagram. It will
of alpha iron. Thus there are only two main allotropic form
be observed from the figure that carbon is soluble in µ - iron
– Alpha iron and Gamma – iron.
to a maximum of 0.025% at 723°C (point P). At room tem-
Critical Points perature solubility is only 0.008%. Alpha iron is commonly
The points where structural changes occur are known as called ferrite or more accurately Alpha–ferrite. It is the
critical points. On a cooling curve it is represented by Ar4, softest.
Ar3 and Ar2. at temperature 1392°C, 910°C and 768°C The temperature 723°C is called curie temperature.
respectively. On a heating curve these points are represented Below curie temperature steel acquires ferromagnetic
by Ac4, Ac3 and Ac2 properties.
Absolutely pure iron is very difficult to obtain. In this
Critical Temperatures
state it is a soft and very plastic material of not much use
in engineering application. But it can be alloyed with many A1 is the temperature at which Pearlite changes to Austenite.
elements. Alloys of iron and carbon are most widely used This transformation occurs at a fixed temperature of 723°C
in engineering. irrespective of the composition of alloy. A1 represents the
lower critical temperature.
Iron–Carbon Equilibrium Diagram or A3 is the temperature at which last traces of ferrite
Phase Diagram changes to Austenite and the alloy becomes 100% austenite.
A3 vary from 723°C to 912°C. Depending up on the carbon
A δ+L content. This represents the upper critical temperature.
1539 B 1492° Acm is the temperature at which last traces of cementite
δ K Liquidus
Liquid (L) D changes to austenite and the alloy become completely aus-
1400 H tenite. Depending up on Carbon content this temperature
solidus varies from 723°C to 1130­°C. This also is upper critical
r+L
Austenite (r) temperature. During cooling Acm denotes the temperature
1130° L+Ct+
at which iron carbide is first rejected from austenite instead
J C E of ferrite.
912 G ACM r+ct+Led
A3 Referring to the iron-carbon phase diagram, the solidifi-
r+Ct cation, of the liquid iron and carbon melt begins along the
∝+r 723°
723
P
liquidus ABCD. Along AB the crystals of solid solutions of
S A1
Cementite (Ct)

carbon in delta iron are separated from the liquid. Along the
Lederbinte (Led)

Ferrite P+Ct+ line BC crystal of austenite are separated. Complete solidi-

Temp°C

(∝) P+Ct Led fication of these alloys takes place along the solidus line
Pearlite (P)

∝+P HKJCE. All the liquid is completely solidified at 1130°C.

At the same time crystals of austenite containing 2% car-
O 0.025 bon and cementite containing 6.67% carbon get separated
0.80 2 4.3 5 6.67
steel from it. The solidification of alloys containing 4.3% to
Hypo Hyper Cast iron 6.67% carbon begins along the line CD with the separation
eutectoid eutectoid of ­primary cementite from the melt.
Carbon %
Eutectoid Point
Iron-carbon phase diagram
Point S is called eutectoid point. At the temperature of
L – Liquid (Molten alloy) 723°C eutectoid reaction occurs. i.e, formation of two solids
d – Delta iron occur from a single solid. Simultaneous formation of ferrite
g – Austenite (gamma iron) and cementite occurs from austenite at the temperature of
Ct – Cementite (Fe3c)
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.769

723°C and composition of 0.80% carbon. Nearly 12% of TTT Curves

iron carbide and slightly more than 88% ferrite are formed
Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram, provides a complete pic-
at this condition. The intimately mixed, lamellar mixture is
ture of phase changes, corresponding microstructure and
composed of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite. This
temperature under equilibrium conditions. The effects of
microstructure is called Pearlite.
different cooling rates are not revealed in this diagram. In
The eutectoid reaction can be written as
different heat treatment process, transformation of austenite
Colling
⎯⎯⎯⎯
solid A ← ⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ solid B + solid C depends upon the cooling rate. A time based equilibrium
Heating
diagram explains the transformation with respect to cooling
or rates. The basis of heart treatment of steel is time, tempera-
Cooling ture and transformation. Time temperature and transforma-
⎯⎯⎯⎯
Austenite ← ⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ Ferrite + Cementite
Heating tion diagram (TTT diagram) depicts these variables.
(γ 0.8%C) (0.02%C) (6.67%C) To construct these curves a number of small specimens
of steel are heated above critical points and these are then
The alloy containing 0.8% carbon is called eutectoid steel. rapidly cooled to a number of temperatures and held at these
If carbon content is greater than 0.8% austenite transforms temperatures for different periods of time until austenite is
into Pearlite and cementite. completely decomposed. At any given time, the percent-
Maximum solubility of carbon in gamma iron is 2% age of austenite and pearlite are also noted by studying the
(point J). structure. The transformation of austenite at a constant tem-
perature starts only after an ‘incubation period’.
Eutectic Point First, curves for constant temperature are drawn with
Point C is the eutectic point at which the two constituents time as x-axis and percentage composition of pearlite and
solidifies simultaneously. It has the lowest liquidus tempera- austenites on y-axis.
ture (1130°C) and carbon content is 4.3%. In the eutectic
E3 E2 E1 O
reaction the molten alloy solidifies into a mixture of two 100
solids (ausentite and cementite), known as Lederburite. At
eutectic point only lederburite is formed. (Lederburite is g –
Fe3C eutectic matrix) At higher carbon content greater than

Austenite 0%
Pearlite %

4.3% C, Fe3C is embedded in the eutectic matrix. 50

400°C 600°C 700°C 50
The eutectic reaction can be written as
Liquid L → solid A + solid C Time 100
⎯⎯⎯⎯
or Liquid ←
43%C
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯→ Austenite (γ ) + Cementite [ Fe3C ]
1130 C O B3 B2 B1
At eutectic point liquid phase coexist with two solid phases
Iron-carbon alloys containing more than 2% carbon is Time
known as Cast iron.
Less than 4.3% carbon is hypoeutectic and more than From the above curves, the TTT curves are constructed.
4.3% and up to 6.67 they are hyper eutectic cast irons.
800 Austenite (723°C)
B1 Pearlite
Peritectic Point 700 E1 Sorbite
B2 E2
Point K is called the peritectic point. 600
Troosite
Peritectic reaction can be generally written as
500

→ solid A
Solid B + Liquid L ←
 E3
400
B3
Peritectic reactions takes place along the horizontal line at Acicular
300 Austenite
1492°C. Liquid + d iron transforms to g – iron at point K. MS (240°C) Troostite
Maximum solubility of carbon in d – iron is 0.09% but in 200 (bianite)
fcc r-iron the solubility of carbon is much greater.
100
Martensite and austenite
(20°C)
Peritectoid Point 0
MF(50°c)
Martensite
In peritectoid reaction two solid phases change to one solid −100
0.5 1 10 102 103 104 105
phase and the corresponding point is called peritectoid Time (sec)
point. TTT Diagram
3.770  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
Austenite decomposes to pearlite at near about 700°C.
Troosite is formed at 500 to 550°C. Bianite is formed at
550 to 200°C. Martensite transformation starts (point Ms)
at 240°C. and finishes (point MF) at 50°C. These points are
not affected by cooling rate. But their positions depend upon
chemical composition of steel. TTT diagram is also known
as isothermal (IT) diagram or C-curve. or S-curve based on
its shape.
Manufacturing of Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron and Steel
Cast iron, steel and wrought iron are manufactured from
pig iron which contains 4.5 to 6.67% carbon. Pig iron is
obtained from chemical reduction of iron ore in blast fur-
nace. The process is known as smelting.
Cast iron which contains 2 to 6.67% carbon is produced
in cupola by remelting pig iron.
Commercial cast iron contains 2.5 to 4% carbon. Cast
iron is very brittle and has low ductility.
Wrought iron is a mixture of pure iron and 1-3% slag. It
contains traces of carbon (less than 0.05%), silicon, manga-
nese, sulphur and phosphorus. For production of wrought
iron pudding furnace or Aston or Byers process is used.
Wrought iron is ductile and soft and is very suitable for
forging and forge welding. Strength of wrought iron can be
increased by cold working or alloying with constituents like
nickel (1.5 to 3.5%)
Steel contains iron and less than 2% carbon. Steels can
be classified as plain carbon steels, alloy steels, special alloy
steels and cast steels. Plain carbon steels contain iron and
carbon and impurities like silicon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus.
Depending upon the carbon content, plain carbon steels
are classified as
1. Low carbon or mild steel
(0.05 to 0.3% C)
2. Medium carbon steel
(0.3 to 0.6% C)
3. High carbon steel
(0.6 to 1.5% C)
Sulphur and phosphorus are harmful impurities in steel
causing brittleness. Silicon and manganese are deoxidizers
and purify the steel.
Alloy steels contain specially introduced alloying ele-
ments which modifies or enhances the properties of plain
carbon steel.
Most frequently used alloying elements are chro-
mium (Cr), Nickel(Ni), Manganese (Mn), silicon (Si),
Molybdenum (Mo), Vanadium (Va), Tungsten (W),
copper(Cu) and aluminium(Al).
Steel is produced using Bessemer process, open hearth
process or electric furnace.
Types of Cast Iron
Cast iron is the cheapest cast material. In molten state, it
flows readily. Plain cast iron is strong in compression and
weak in tension and shear. It has a very good damping
capacity. Properties of cast iron can be varied by the addi-
tion of alloying elements and heat treatment. Main types of
cast iron are
1. Gray cast iron
2. White cast iron
3. Malleable cast iron
4. Ductile cast iron
5. Chilled cast iron
6. Alloy cast iron
7. Meehanite cast iron
8. Mottled cast iron
1.  Gray cast iron
It is the most widely used cast iron. It contains 2.5 to 3.75%
carbon and up to 2.5% silicon.
In gray cast iron, carbon is in the form of graphite flakes.
Gray cast iron is soft and only moderately brittle. The
free graphite in its structure acts as a good lubricant and
increases the machinability.
2.  White cast iron
In white cast iron, carbon is in the form of cementite (Fe3C)
It contains carbon up to 2.5% and silicon below 1.5%.
It is very hard and brittle and has very limited applications.
3.  Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron is produced by heating white cast iron
for a prolonged period of time to a temperature of 850 to
1000°C and after that by cooling at a slow rate. In this pro-
cess cementite decomposes to ferrite. Silicon content is kept
less than 1% to avoid graphitization. Method of production
used is called Blackheart method and the cast iron obtained
is ferritic malleable cast iron.
In another method called white heart method pearlitic
malleable cast iron is produced.
4.  Ductile cast iron or spheroidal cast iron
In ductile cast iron carbon is precipitated as spherical nod-
ules of graphite. It is also called nodular cast iron. It is of
high grade in comparison to malleable cast iron. To produce
ductile cast iron, small amounts of special alloys containing
magnesium (Mg) or cerium (Ce) is added to desulpherised
molten cast iron.
Ductile iron possesses good fluidity, high strength and
ductility. It is tougher and less porous than gray cast iron.
5.  Chilled cast iron
Chilled cast iron is made by using ‘chills’ in the moulds
which promotes rapid cooling of the cast iron. On rapid cool-
ing of the molten metal in the mould, a hard, wear resistant
surface of 1 mm to 2 mm thickness consisting of white cast
iron is produced. The material inside is only gray cast iron.
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.771
6.  Alloy cast iron
Cast iron added with alloying elements is called alloy cast
iron. Commonly used alloying elements are nickel, copper,
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium and boron. Alloying
­elements are added to control graphitization and to improve
mechanical properties such as improved resistance to
heat, corrosion, wear and brittle fracture. Castability and
machinability are also improved by the addition of alloying
elements.
7.  Meehanite cast iron
It is a patended product produced by the addition of cal-
cium-silicon alloy called calcium silicide. It acts as a gra-
phitizer and produces fine graphite structure with excellent
mechanical properties. Gray cast iron with low silicon and
moderately low carbon content is used for the production of
meehanite cast iron.
8.  Mottled cast iron
Mottled cast iron is produced by heating cast iron to red hot
with powdered red hematite. The product has outer layers of
white cast iron with core of gray cast iron. Toughness of cast
iron is increased by this process.
Heat Treatment of Metals
Heat treatment means heating the metal to various definite
temperatures, holding these for various time durations and
cooling at various rates. In these controlled heating and
cooling, of nature and distribution of the micro constituents,
grain size etc changes. The main purpose of heat treatment
operation is the control of properties through the alteration
of structure of the metal or alloy.
Various heat treatment processes
Annealing
Anealing means heating the metal to a temperature slightly
above the upper critical temperature and then cooling
slowly, usually in the furnace itself. Purpose of annealing is:
1. To refine grain structure
2. To relieve internal stresses and
3. To reduce hardness. After annealing ductility, machina-
bility etc are improved.
Generally annealing is a stress relieving and softening
process.
Full Annealing
It removes all structural imperfections by complete recrys-
talisation, In this process steel is heated 50° to 60°C above
the upper critical temperature for hypo-eutectoid steel and
by the same temperature above the lower critical tempera-
ture for hyper–eutectoid steel. Metal is held at this tempera-
ture for a sufficient time so that proper structure changes
takes place. The rate of cooling varies from 30 to 300°C.
Normalising
In the normalized process, metal is heated to a point 40° to
50° above its upper critical temperature, held at that tem-
perature for a short duration and cooled in still air at room
temperature. The purpose of normalizing is
1. to elimimate coarse grain structure produced during
forging, rolling etc
2. to remove internal stresses
3. to improve certain mechanical and electrical prop-
erties (improves corrosion resistance since it is
cooled in still air sufficient oxidization would have
taken placed. Further it resists corrosion during
application.)
Spherodizing and Hardening
In this process steel is heated to a temperature above, criti-
cal point, held at this temperature for a considerable time,
depending up on its thickness and then quenched (rapidly
cooled) in water, oil or molten salt baths. For hypo euctoid
steels heating is done 30°C to 50°C above lower critical
temperature.
Spherodisation
It happens generally in steels with carbon percentage
between 0.6 and 1.2
The process of obtaining spherical grains of F3C in steel
in the process of annealing is known as Spherodisation.
Spherical grains offer low Coefficient of friction against the
tool bit used to perform machining. Therefore spherodising
improves machinability.
Spherical
Fe3C
Just below Furnace
723°C Cooling
Purpose of hardening is to increase wear resistance and to
make it suitable for cutting tools etc.
Hardening of steel is accompanied by development of
high internal stresses and brittleness. So hardening is fol-
lowed by the process tempering. After hardening and tem-
pering steel acquires higher strength hardness and ductility.
Sorbite, Troostite, Bainite and Martensite
Depending upon the rate of cooling austenite transforms
various structures such as sorbite, Troostite, Bainite and
martensite.
At very slow rate of cooling austenite transform to a
mixture of ferrite and cementite called Pearlite.
On increasing the rate of cooling Sorbite is formed at
about 600°C. Sorbite is fine pearlite which is harder.
3.772  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
If steel is cooled at a faster rate Troostile is formed at
about 500–550°C. Troostite is extremely fine Pearlite which
is still harder.
If temperature is lowered to 220°C acicular (needle like)
troostite is formed. This is known as Bainite.
If steel is cooled at a very high rate so that austenite
does not have time to decompose in to sorbite or troost-
ile it is transformed in to a new acicular form called
Martensite. It is very hard and brittle (BHN 650 to 750) and
ferromagnetic.
Critical rate of cooling is the minimum rate of cool-
ing at which the austenite is transformed In to marten
site alone.
Tempering
Fully hardened steel is unable to with stand impact loads.
Therefore some of the hardness and strength is sacrificed
in a compromise to gain sufficient ductility and toughness.
This is accomplished by tempering.
Tempering consists of
1. Heating the hardened steel to a temperature below the
critical temperature
2. Holding it at the temperation for a specified time and
3. Slow cooling
As tempering is done at a lower temperature all the hardness
is not lost.
Tempering is carried out to make steel tough and to resist
shock and fatigue, to remove internal stresses, to stabilize
the structure and to decrease hardness.
Tempering is carried out in liquid such as oil, salt or lead.
Bath is heated to an adequate predetermined temperature
and metal is immersed in this bath for a predetermined
length of time. After that metal is removed and allowed to
cool to room temperature.
215°C Troosite
Stand (Low temp
free air compiring)
550°C
Sorbite
(High temp
tempering)
(Hardness)M > (Hardness)T > (Hardness)S
(Grain size)M < (Grain size)T < Grain size)S
Hardening Methods
Hardening methods consist of:
1. Conventional or continuous or quench hardening
2. Quenching in two media
3. Stepped quenching
4. Interrupted quenching or martempering
5. Isothermal quenching or austempering and
6. Surface hardening
In conventional hardening, quenching is done in a
­single medium (Rapid cooling by immersing in a l­iquid
medium is called quenching) This is the most com-
monly used method. Other methods are used for m ­ aterials
of intricate shape and when it is necessary to reduce
distortion.
When quenching in two media is used, first liquid is usu-
ally water. Cooling is done in the first quench up to tempera-
ture of 300°C to 400°C and then quickly transferred to the
second liquid(for example oil) and allowed to cool to room
temperature.
Stepped quenching is also done in two stages. The
first medium has a temperature of 150°C to 300°C above
the point of formation of martensite. The part is held in
this medium until the part attain the temperature of the
medium through out its cross section. Usually the first
medium is molten salt. Then it is transferred to the sec-
ond medium usually an oil bath, where it is cooled to room
temperature.
Interrupted Quenching or Martempering
It is a modification of a stepped quenching method. Here
second medium is still air and allowed to cool there to
room temperature. Here the martensite formation takes
place at a lower cooling rate. Therefore internal stresses are
minimized.
Isothermal Quenching or Austempering
This process also is similar to martempering but the holding
time in the salt bath above the martensitic temperature has
a longer duration. The bath temperature is 300°C to 550°C.
Longer holding time leads to isothermal transformation of
austenite to bainite. Then the steel is quenched in water to
room temperature. Here the residual stresses are substan-
tially reduced.
The difference between martempering and austempering
is illustrated in the figures given below.
Austenite
600°C
Salt bath
300°C
Martensite formation
starts
Air cooling
Time →
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.773
700°C Constant temperature
Salt bath
Bainite formation
500°C
Quenching
in water
25°C
Time →
Austempering
Surface hardening: It is a selective heat treatment pro-
cess in which high hardness is imparted to thin surface
layer of the work. This becomes necessary for parts, sub-
jected to heavy impact and fatigue loads such as worms,
gears, spindles, Cam shafts etc. where hard and wear
resistant surface and a soft tough core is necessary. Low
carbon steels having up to 0.2% carbon are subjected to
chemical treatment process (case hardening ) such as car-
burizing, Nitriding, Cyaniding etc. Steels with higher
percentages of carbon are subjected to surface hardening
methods in which only the surface layers of the work are
heated and then quenched in some medium. Two methods
used are
1. Electric induction surface hardening process
2. Flame hardening
Carburising
A low carbon steel cannot be hardened appreciably by the
hardening process.
Surface of such steels are enriched by carbon before
hardening and quenching. This is achieved by carburizing
process.
The specimen along with a carbonaceous material such
as charcoal is packed in a sealed container and kept in a
furnace. The pack is heated to a temperature between 800
to 900°C and held for a period of 4 to 20 hours. Carbon
monoxide is formed with the small amount of oxygen pre-
sent. Carbon of carbon monoxide is diffused in to the metal
surface releasing oxygen. This oxygen again reacts with
carbon and carbon monoxide is formed and the process is
repeated. As time progress metal surface gets enriched with
carbon. This process is known as pack carburizing. The
amount of carbon diffused into steel depends on the carbur-
izing temperature and time. The process of carburizing is by
atomic diffusion.
Another type of carburizing is gas carburizing. Gases
such as natural gas propane, or methane is used instead
of charcoal. Gas carburizing has better control of surface
­carbon and case depth than in pack carburizing.
Cyniding or Liquid Carbon Nitriding
In this process carbon and nitrogen are added to cases of
metals. The piece of low carbon steel immersed in a bath of
cynide salt (sodium cynide, sodium chloride and sodium car-
bonate in equal proportions.) of temperature 850°C to 950°C
for about 15 to 20 minutes. Then it is quenched in water or
oil. Carbon monoxide and nitrogen from the cynide bath
behave as active diffusing agents in hardening the surface.
Nitriding
In this method nitrogen gas is used for obtaining hard sur-
face of steel. This process is commonly used for steels
which are alloyed with chromium, molybdenum, aluminium
manganese etc. Steel articles well machined and finished
are placed in a container through which ammonia in circu-
lated. Nilriding process is generally done in electric furnace
where temperature is maintained in the range 450 to 550°C.
Ammonia gas when passing through the steel articles
gets dissociated and nascent nitrogen is formed. Nascent
­nitrogen reacts with the surface of the articles forming
nitrides which is very hard. Surface hardness up to depth of
0.8 mm is obtained.
Induction Hardening
This method is similar to flame hardening. But heating of
the surface is achieved by electromagnetic induction. The
work piece is enclosed in the magnetic field of an alternat-
ing current of high frequency (10 kHz to 2 MHz) current
conductor (Induction block) Heating effect is due to the
induced eddy currents and hyrterisis loses in the surface of
the material. The induction block has water connections and
numerous small holes on its inside surface. As soon as sur-
face reaches proper temperature, it is automatically spray
- quenched under pressure.
This process is very rapid and takes only few seconds to
heat steel to a depth of 3 mm. The time varies depending
upon frequency, power input, depth of hardening required etc.
Flame Hardening
Some times full case hardening of an article will not be
required. Only the areas subjected to wear, abrasion or
shocks are to be hardened. Such local hardening can be
achieved by flame hardening. These areas are heated by a
oxy - acetylene fame above its critical temperature. Heated
portions is immediately quenched by means of spray of
water. Since heating is localized stresses are not developed.
So disortiuons and cracking are reduced.
Spherodizing (Spherodize Annealing)
High carbon hardened steel contains grains having sharp
corners, which make the steel brittle. Spherodizing is the
heat treatment process that produces a rounded or globular
form of Carbide. Low carbon steels may be speroidized to
3.774  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

improve strength before subsequent heat treatment. High
carbon steels may be spherodized to improve machinabil-
ity and toughness. The process involves heating the steel
slightly below the critical temperature, holding at this tem-
perature for a period of time and then letting them cool in
the furnace. Holding time depends up on the thickness of
metal and carbon content. More the percengage of carbon,
longer will be the time required to complete sperodization.
Homogenizing
Normalising
Annealing
Temperature
Diffusion Annealing or Homogenising
In-homogeneity due to development of dentritic segrega-
tions in castings and ingots can be eliminated by diffusion
annealing.
In this process the article is heated to a very high tem-
perature and held there for a prolonged period, cooled with
the furnace to 800°C–850°C. and finally cooled in still
air. A  coarse grain structure is obtained and composition
becomes more uniformly. After homogenizing a full anneal-
ing treatment is required.
Effect of Alloying Elements in Steel

1. Chromium (Cr)
A3
Improves resistance to corrosion and oxidation
A1
spherodizing 2. Nickel (Ni)
Improves tensile strength and toughness.
3. Manganese (Mn)
Stress releiving
Recrystallisation/ process annealing
Imparts wear resistance
4. Silicon (Si)
Time
Added as a deoxidizing agent.
Full Annealing 5. Molybdenum (Mo)
Imparts hardenability.
The process of annealing in which the metal is heated above
the upper critical temperature, is held there until the tem- 6. Vanadium (V)
perature of work piece is uniform through out, and finally Improves grain distribution.
cooling at a slowly controlled rate so that temperature of the 7. Tungsten (W)
surface and that of the centre of the work piece is approxi- Imparts red hardness
mately same is called full annealing. 8. Cobalt (Co)
The process wiped out all traces of previous struc- Increases hot hardness
ture, refines the crystalline structure, soften the metal and 9. Copper (Cu)
relieves the previously set up internal stresses. Lowers critical temperatures
Process Annealing or Recrystallisation 10. Aluminium (Al)
Annealing Deoxidises efficiently
Involves heating the steel to recrystallisation temperature, 11. Titanium (Ti)
holding at this temperature for a prolonged period and slow Increases abrasion resistance.
cooling. 12. Phosphorous (P)
(Recrystallisation temperature = 0.4 × melting point of Enhances machinability
the metal)
Work hardened steels can be softened by this method. Composition and Applications of
Some Alloy Steels
Iso Thermal Annealing Alloy steel Composition percentage Application
When ordinary annealing process is incapable of reducing High carbon C 0.8 to 1.3 Milling cutters,
hardness of an alloy steel to a sufficient degree, isothermal tool steel Si 0.1 to 0.4 turning tools
annealing is employed. Here heating and cooling is done in Mn 0.15 to 0.4
two steps. First the steel is heated above critical tempera- rest Fe
ture and held for sometime at the temperature. Austenite is Low alloy C 1.2, Mn 0.3 to 0.7 For high
carbon steel W 2.75, Mo 0.4 temperature
formed at this stage. Then steel is rapidly cooled to 50° to
S 0.3, rest Fe operation
100°C below point A1 and held at this temperature until
18-4-1 W 18, Cr 4, High speed
austenite is completely decomposed to form pearlite. Then High speed V1 milling, drilling
steel is cooled in still air. Decomposition of austenite takes steel (HSS) C 0.6 to 0.8 and turning
place at constant temperature. So it is called isothermal Rest Fe tools
annealing.
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.775

Composition and Application of Some Metals are elements atoms of which give up electrons and
Non-ferrous Alloys form metallic bonds. Metals conduct electricity. When two
or more metals are melted together they form an alloy.
The property of an alloy is quite different from that of the
Alloys Composition percentage Application
constituent metals.
Copper Metals may be classified as ferrous metals and non-­
Alloys ferrous metals. Iron and alloys which contain iron are called
Yellow brass Cu 60, Zn 40 For hot work- ferrous metals. Cast iron, wrought iron, carbon steels, alloy
(Muntz metal) ing by rolling, steels are examples of ferrous metals.
extrusion and
stamping
Metals and alloys which does not contain iron(Fe) are
called non ferrous metals. Copper, aluminium, zinc, lead,
Leaded brass Cu 62.5, Zn36 For plates,
Pb 1.5 tubes etc tin and alloys brass, bronze, duralumin, g­ unmetal, solder etc
and bearing metals (zinc base alloys and nickel base alloys)
Phosphor Cu 87 - 90, For bearings,
bronze Sn 9 - 10, worm wheel, are examples of non-ferrous metals.
P 0.1 - 0.3 gears etc
Ceramics
Gun metal Cu 88 For boiler fit-
Sn 10, Zn 2 tings bushes, Ceramic materials are products which are made from inor-
bearings etc ganic materials and have non-metallic properties. Most of
Aluminium them are oxides. Examples are silica, Al2­O3, MgO, silicon
alloys carbide, boron nitride, ferrites etc. Traditional ceramic
Duralumin Cu 3 - 4.5 Automobile materials are stone, brick, concrete, clay, glass, vitreous
Mn 0.4 - 0.7 and air craft enamel and refractories. Ceramics may be classified as
Mg 0.4 - 0.7 components
Rest Al 1. Amorphous ceramics
Y-alloy Cu 3.5 - 4.5 Aircraft engines
2. Crystalline ceramics
(Copper Mn 1.2 - 1.7 for cylinder 3. Bonded ceramics
Aluminium Ni 1.8 - 2.3 heads and 4. Cements
alloy) Si, Mg, Fe 0.6 each piston
rest Al Amorphous ceramics include glasses (soda-glass, Lead
Magnessium Al 7.5, Zn 2, Mn 0.3, For air craft
glass and borosilicate glass). Glasses are non-crystalline
alloy Rest Mg and automobile silicates containing oxides such as CaO, Na2O, K2O and
parts Al2O3.
Common non-ferrous alloys Glasses are used for electrical insulations, optical lenses
Invar Ni 36, Fe 64 Precision and bond metals (hermetic steels).
measuring Crystalline ceramics are used for abrasive and cutting
instruments tool materials as they are very hard compared to other
Nichrom Ni 80, Cr 20 Thermocouple, materials.
strain guage In bonded ceramics individual crystals are bonded
Maganin Cu 87, Mn 13 Resistor strain together by vitreous matrix. Examples are clay products and
guage refractory materials. Their application is in refractory tiles,
Constantan Cu 60, Ni 40 Electrically furnace linings, electrical insulations, sanitary equipment
heated etc.
appliances Cement is an agglomerated material. It is mainly used for
Bearing materials construction works. It is manufactured from clay, limestone,
Tin babbit Sn 80, Sb 12, Cu 8 High speed oxides of silicon, aluminium, iron and often magnesium.
bearing bushes
Lead babbit Pb 85, Sb 10, Sn 5 Railway wagon Organic Materials
bearing
Organic materials are derived directly from carbon. Carbon
is chemically combined with hydrogen, oxygen or any
Classification of Engineering Materials other non-metallic substance. Organic materials may be
Engineering materials can be classified into the following natural or synthetic. Natural organic materials consists of
wood, cotton, natural rubber, coal, petroleum, food prod-
1. Metals ucts etc. Synthetic organic materials consists of synthetic
2. Ceramics rubber, plastics, lubricants, soap oils, synthetic fibres etc.
3. Organic materials It is observed that organic materials are made of very large
molecules.
3.776  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Organic compounds consists of molecules formed by
carbon atoms along with other non-metal atoms such as
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chlorides etc. Some of the
important organic compounds are
1. Saturated organic compounds
2. Unsaturated organic compounds
3. Aromatic organic compounds
The Seleroscope work on the principle that rebound
height a ball made to fall on the specimen depends on the
hardness of the specimen.
Moh’s Scale of Hardness
In Moh’s scale of hardness different hardness numbers
are assigned to ten different minerals of varying hardness.
Starting from Talc–1 to diamond–10

Measurement of Hardness
Hardness is generally measured by the intendation made by Solved Examples
a harder material. The intendation depends upon the applied Example 1:  Compare lattice parameters of FCC and BCC
load, sharpness of the intended and the time for which structure.
applied load is maintained.
Solution:  Lattice parameter is the side length of a unit cell:
This can be expressed in terms of radius of the atom.
Brinell Hardness Test For FCC structure
In brinnel hardness test, a sphere (usually of 10+ 0.01 mm
diameter.) made of steel or tungsten carbide is used as the r
intender. Brinnel Hardness number is given by
2P
BHN = 2r
π D D - D2 - d 2 ⎤
⎡ • a
⎣ ⎦

Where P = Applied load in kg

r
D = diameter of ball in mm
d = diameter of intendation in mm. a
Brinnet Hardness of steel is roughly related to ­tensile
a2 + a2 = (4r)2
strength of the material. The empirical relationship is
given as 2a2 = 16 r2
Tensile strength (MPa) = 3.55 × BHN
4r
When BHN ≤ 175 a=
Tensile strength (MPa) = 3.38 × BHN > 175 2
For BCC structure
Rockwell Test G H
In the Rockwell test, a spheroconical diamond cone of 120°
D C
angle and a spherical apex 0.2 mm radius is used.
Rockwell number (R) =100 – 500 t.
Where t = depth of intendation
a
Depending upon load a number of scales A, B, C etc are
available.
E
Vicker’s and Knoop F
a
A
Hardness Test a B
In this case a square box pyramid diamond intender having ( AH )2 = ( AE )2 + (HE)2
136° between opposite forces is used.
Vickers Hardness number (VHN) (4r)2 = 2a2 +a2
= 3a2
1.854 L
= 3
D2 r= a
4
where L = Applied load in Kg
D = measured average diagonal of the intendation in 4r
or a =
mm. 3
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.777

Example 2:  Calculate atomic packing factor for FCC and 2P

BCC. BHN =
π D( D - D 2 - d 2 )
Solution:  Atomic Packing Factor
Volume of atoms per unit cell 2 × 500
APF =
volume of unit cell ⎡
π × 10 10 - 10 2 - 2.52 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
No of atom/unit cell for FCC
= 100.24.
8 6
= + =4 Example 4:  0.6% Carbon steel was cooled from a temper-
8 2 ature of 1500°C. to room temperature. Discuss the cooling
each corner atoms are shared bu 8 unit cells and each face process.
centered atoms are shared by 2 unit cells.
Solution:  Steel containing 0.6% carbon is in Liquid +Aus-
4
4 × π r3 tenite faustenite. Below 72.3°C, a mixture of ferrite phase
APF for FCC = 3 at 1500°C. Due to cooling it changes to ferrite and pearlite
93 is obtained.
4 Example 5:  You are given two pieces of steel samples.
4 × π r3
= 3 (i)  0.2%Carbon steel.
3 (ii)  0.8% Carbon steel.
⎛ 4r ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟ Both are heated to austenite region and then quenched
2⎠
in water at room temperature. Describe the changes in
42 π each case.
= ×2 2
3 × 43 Solution:
π 2 (i)  0.2%Carbon steel
= = 0.74
6 If 0.2% Carbon steel is quenched in water from austenite
region. We get the martensite consisting of domains of
4 lath of different but limited orientations through a whole
2 × π r3
APF for BCC = 3 domain. This structure is slightly distorted consisting of
3
⎛ 4r ⎞ regions with high densities of dislocation tangles, called
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ lath martensite.
3
(ii)  0.8% Carbon steel
3
= π = 0.68. When 0.8% carbon steel is quenched in water we get
8 mixture of both lath and plate type martensites.
Example 3:  Hardness of a steel sample is measured taking Example 6:  Discuss the cooling process of 0.6% carbon
Brinnel identation. 10 mm Tungsten carbide ball at 500 Kg steel from 1500°C to room temperature.
f load was used. If the average diameter of identation is Solution:  During cooling, Liquid + Austenite at 1500°C
2.5 mm, Brinnel Hardness number is -------- is converted to complete austenite at 1440°C. After 750°C
Solution:  D = 10 mm it changes into ferrite + austenite which after 723°C. after
D = 2.5 mm 723°C temperature becomes mixture of pearlite and ferrite.
P = 500 Kgf.

Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. A body which is permanently deformed is said to have 2. Hardness is the property of material due to which it
under gone (A) Can be drawn into wires
(A) Elastic deformation (B) Will break with little permanent distortion
(B) Plastic deformation (C) Can cut another metal
(C) Limit of elastic deformation. (D) Can be rolled or hammered into thin
(D) Uniform deformation sheets
3.778  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

3. Failure of a material due to fatigue occurs 11. In sperodising process, the steel is
(A) At elastic limit (A)  Heated above upper critical temperature and
(B) Below the elastic limit cooled in still air
(C) At the yield point (B) Heated up to lower critical temperature and cooled
(D) Below the yield point. in still air
4. For the materials of tools and machines, the important (C) Heated slightly above the lower critical tempera-
material property is ture and cooled in the furnace.
(A) Elasticity (D)  Heated below lower critical temperature and
(B) Plasticity quenched in water.
(C) Ductility 12. The process in which steel is heated to a temperature
(D) Malleability above upper critical temperature and then suddenly
5. No of atoms per unit cell of a face centered cubic (FCC) cooled by quenching in a salt bath maintained at 250° –
lattice is 525°C, is called
(A) 14 (A) Normalizing (B) Tempering
(B) 7 (C) Austempering (D) Martempering
(C) 4 13. In the austempering heat treatment process austenite
(D) 10 changes to
(A) Martensite (B) Troosite
6. Carbon steel containing 0.8% carbon is known as
(C) Sorbite (D) Bainite
(A) Eutectic steel
(B) Hypoeutectic steel 14. The heat treatment process for softening hardened steel
(C) Eutectoid steel is
(D) Hypereutotoid steel (A) Carburizing (B) Normalizing
(C) Annealing (D) Tempering
7. According to IS specification a plain carbon streel
designated by 40C8 means that 15. The hardening process in which carbon and nitrogen
(A)  Carbon content 0.4 percent and Manganese are absorbed by the surface of the metal is called
content 0.8 percent. (A) Carburising (B) Nitriding
(B)  Carbon content 0.4 percent and Manganese (C) Cyaniding (D) Flame hardening
content 0.8 percent. 16. Delta iron occurs in this temperature range
(C) Carbon content 0.35 to 0.45 percent and Manga- (A) 1400°C to 1530°C (B) 723 to 910°C
nese content 0.6 to 0.9 percent. (C) 910 to 1400°C (D) 400 to 723°C
(D) Carbon content 0.8 percent and Manganese con- 17. An allotropic material has
tent 0.4 percent. (A) Different crystal structure at different temperature
8. Percentage of carbon content in wrought Iron is (B) Same structure at all temperature
about (C) Atoms distributed in random pattern.
(A) 0.02 (D) More than three types of crystal structures.
(B) 0.01 18. The most ductile maternal of the following is
(C) 0.2 (A) FCC (B) BCC
(D) 0.4 (C) HCP (D) All of the above.
9. Mallealbe Cast Iron is made 19. “Killed steels” are those steels which
(A) By adding magnesium to molten cast iron (A) Destroyed by burning
(B) By quick cooling of molten cast iron (B) Contains burnt carbon
(C) From white cast iron by annealing (C) After their destruction are recycled to produce
process fresh steel
(D) None of the above (D) Are deoxidised in the Laddle with silicon and alu-
10. When austenite steel is air cooled, the structure minium.
produced will be 20. Carbon in Iron is an example of
(A) Martensite (A) Interstitial solution
(B) Fine pearlite (B) Substitutional solution
(C) Coarse pealite (C) Intermetallic compound
(D) Troostite (D) All of the above
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.779
Practice Problems 2
1. Lattice parameter of metal of FCC lattice having atomic
radius. 0.144 nm is
(A) 0.14 nm (B) 0.407 nm
(C) 0.333 nm (D) 0.567 nm
2. Metal with HCP structure is
(A) Silver (B) Iron
(C) Magnesium (D) Aluminium
3. The temperature at which ferromagnetic material
becomes paramagnetic is called
(A) Curie temperature
(B) Critical temperature
(C) Inversion temperature
(D) Magnetic temperature
4. The higher packing of atoms structure is
(A) HCP (B) FCC
(C) BCC (D) Simple cubic
5. Basic atoms for HCP space lattice are
(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 4 (D) 6
6. The percentage of chromium in 18 – 4 – 1 HSS is
(A) 1% (B) 4%
(C) 18% (D) 0.4%
7. Hardest of the following is
(A) Spherodite (B) Martensite
(C) Sorbite (D) Troostite
8. Hardness of steel improves in the process
(A) Annealing (B) Cyniding
(C) Normalising (D) Tempering
9. Choose the most appropriate set of heat treatment pro-
cess and corresponding process characteristics.
P – Tempering
Q – Austempering
R – Martempering
1. Austenite → Bianite
2. Austenite → Martensite
3. Cementite → Globular structure
4. Hardness and brittleness reduced.
(A) P -4, Q-2, R-1
(B) P-4, Q-3, R-1
(C) P-4, Q-1, R-2
(D) P-2, Q-3, R-4
10. For two specimens A & B of identical size, Young’s
modulus of specimen A is greater than that of speci-
men B.
This means
(A) A is stiffer than B
(B) B is stiffer than A
(C) A is harden than B
(D) B is harden than A
11. The material with good ductility is
(A) Mild steel (B) Aluminium
(C) Cast iron (D) Bronze
12. Hardest of the following is
(A) Coarse pearlite (B) Troostite
(C) Bainite (D) Sorbite
13. Carbon percentage in 20 Cr 18 Ni2 steel is
(A) 0.02% (B) 2%
(C) 0.2% (D) Nil
14. Crystal structure of brass is
(A) BCC (B) FCC
(C) HCP (D) Orthorombic
15. Stainless steel contain
(A) Iron, chromium and nickel
(B) Chromium and nickel
(C) Chromium, nickel iron and carbon
(D) Tungsten and Chromium
16. 18-4-1 High speed steel contain
(A) Vanadium 4%, Chromium 18% and tungsten 1%
(B) Vanadium 1% Chromium 4% and tungsten 18%
(C) Vanadium 18%, Chromium 1% and
tungsten 4%
(D) none of the above
17. In full annealing, the hypo-euctoid steel is heated from
30°C to 50°C above upper critical temperature and then
cooled
(A) In still air
(B) Slowly in the furnace
(C) Suddenly in a cooling medium
(D) Any one other above
18. Which of the following is a case hardening process
(A) Carburizing (B) Cyniding
(C) Nitriding (D) All of these
19. In a material if elastic properties are different in differ-
ent direction s. The material is
(A) Anisotropic (B) Heterogeneous
(C) Isentropic (D) Isotropic
20. The property of material in which slow extension takes
place with time at constant load is known as
(A) Elasticity (B) Creep
(C) Ductility (D) Plasticity
21. For parts subjected to shock and impact loads, the most
desirable property is
(A) Elasticity (B) Plasticity
(C) Toughness (D) Malleability
22. The property of a material essential for spring material
is
(A) Stiffness (B) Ductility
(C) Resilience (D) Plasticity
3.780  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

23. The property of a material essential for spring 27. During normalizing process of steel, the specimen is
material is heated
(A) Stiffness (A) Above the upper critical temperature and cooled in
(B) Ductility still air.
(C) Malleability (B) Below the upper critical temperature and cooled in
(C) Plasticity still air
24. Endurance limit is the maximum value of stress a spec- (C) Below the lower critical temperasture and cooled
imen can withstand without failure, for infinite number in still air.
of cycles where subjected to (D) Above the upper critical temperature and cooled in
(A) Dynamic load the furnace.
(B) Completely reversed, repeated loads 28. Percentage of Carbon in grey cast iron is
(C) Static load (A) 0.25 – 0.75
(D) Static as well as dynamic load (B) 1.25 – 1.75
25. Metal with 60% copper and 40% Zinc is called (C) 3 – 4
(A) Gun metal (D) 8 – 10
(B) Muntz metal 29. High carbon steels contains carbon percentage of
(C) Monel (A) 0.1 to 0.3
(D) Admiralty brass (B) 0.3 to 0.6
26. Main purpose of spheroidizing treatment is to (C) 0.6 to 0.8
improve (D) 0.8 to 1.5
(A) Hardenability of low carbon steels 30. Tap, dies and drills contain carbon of the order of
(B) Machinability of low carbon steels (A) Below 0.5%
(C) Hardenality of high carbon steels (B) Below 1%
(D) Machinability of high carbon steels (C) Above 1%
(D) Above 2%

Previous Years Qeustions

1. The percentage of carbon in gray cast iron is in range 3. When the temperature of a solid metal increases.
of [2004]  [2005]
(A) 0.25 to 0.75 percent (A)  Strength of the metal decreases but ductility
(B) 1.25 to 1.75 percent increases
(C) 3 to 4 percent (B) Both strength and ductility of the metal decrease
(D) 8 to 10 percent (C) Both strength and ductility of the metal increase
2. From the lists given below, choose the most appropri- (D)  Strength of the metal increases but ductility
ate set of heat treatment process and the correspond- decreases
ing process characteristics:  [2004] 4. The main purpose of spheroidising treatment is
Process Characteristics improve [2006]
P. Tempering 1. Austenite is
(A) Hardenability of low carbon steels
converted into (B) Machinability of low carbon steels
bainite (C) Hardenability of high carbon steels
Q. Austempering 2. Austenite is (D) Machinability of high carbon steels
converted into
martensite
5. Match the items in Columns I and II. [2006]
R. Martempering 3. Cementite Column I Column II
is converted (P) Charpy test (1) Fluidity
into globular (Q) Knoop test (2) Microhardness
structure
(R) Spiral test (3) Formability
4. Both hardness
and Brittleness (S) Cupping test (4) Toughness
are reduced (5) Permeability
5. Carbon is
absorbed into (A) P–4Q–5R–3S–2
the metal (B) P–3Q–5R–1S–4
(A) P-3 Q-1 R-5 (B) P-4 Q-3 R-2 (C) P–2Q–4R–3S–5
(C) P-4 Q-1 R-2 (D) P-1 Q-5 R-4 (D) P–4Q–2R–1S–3
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.781

6. If a particular Fe-C alloy contains less than 0.83% 14. The relationship between true strain (eT) and engi-
carbon, it is called [2007] neering strain (eE) in a uniaxial tension test is given as
(A) High speed steel  [2014]
(B) Hypoeutectoid steel (A) eE = In (1+ eT)
(C) Hypereutectoid steel (B) eE = In (1 – eT)
(D) Cast iron (C) eT = In (1+ eE)
7. The effective number of lattice points in the unit cell (D) eT = In (1 – eE)
of simple cubic, body centered cubic, and face cen- 15. The stress-strain curve for mild steel is shown in the
tered cubic space lattices, respectively, are [2009] figure given below. Choose the correct option refer-
(A) 1, 2, 2 ring to both figure and table. [2014]
(B) 1, 2, 4
(C) 2, 3, 4 T
(D) 2, 4, 4
U

Stress δ(N/mnz)
8. The material property which depends only on the R
basic crystal structure is [2010] Q
(A) Fatigue strength
P S
(B) Work hardening
(C) Fracture strength
Strain e (%)
(D) Elastic constant
9. The crystal structure of austenite is [2011] Point on the Graph Description of the Point
(A) Body centered cubic P 1. Upper Yield Point
(B) Face centered cubic Q 2. Ultimate Tensile Strength
(C) Hexagonal closely packed
R 3. Proportionality Limit
(D) Body centered tetragonal
S 4. Elastic Limit
10. During normalizing process of steel, the specimen is
T 5. Lower Yield Point
heated [2012]
U 6. Failure
(A) Between the upper and lower critical temperature
and cooled in still air. (A) P-1,Q-2,R-3,S-4,T-5,U-6
(B) Above the upper critical temperature and cooled (B) P-3,Q-1,R-4,S-2,T-6,U-5
in furnace. (C) P-3,Q-4,R-1,S-5,T-2,U-6
(C) Above the upper critical temperature and cooled (D) P-4,Q-1,R-5,S-2,T-3,U-6
in furnace.
(D) Between the upper and lower critical temperature 16. Match the heat treatment processes (Group A) and
and cooled in furnace. their associated effects on properties (Group B) of
medium carbon steel. [2014]
11. For a ductile material, toughness is a measure of
 [2013] Group A Group B
(A) Resistance to scratching P: Tempering I: Strengthening and grain
(B) Ability to absorb energy up to fracture refinement
(C) Ability to absorb energy till elastic limit Q: Quenching II:  Inducing toughness
(D) Resistance to indentation
R: Annealing III: Hardening
12. The process of reheating the martensitic steel to S: Normalizing IV: Softening
reduce its brittleness without any significant loss in
its hardness is [2014] (A) P - III, Q - IV, R - II, S-I
(A) Normalising (B) Annealing (B) P - II, Q - III, R - IV, S-I
(C) Quenching (D) Tempering (C) P - III, Q - II, R - IV, S-I
13. A metal of initial length L0 is subjected to drawing (D) P - II, Q - III, R - I, S-IV
process. The length of the rod at any instant is given 1 7. Which one of the following types of stress-strain rela-
by the expression, L(t) = L0 (1 + t2), where t is the time tionship best described the behavior of brittle materials,
in minutes. The true strain rate (in min –1) at the end such as ceramics and thermosetting plastics, (σ = stress
of one minute is ____ [2014] and ε = strain)? [2015]
3.782  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

The toughness of the material (in MJ/m3) is ______.

 [2016]
(A)  σ (B)  σ 22. In the phase diagram shown in the figure, four sam-
ples of the same composition are heated to tempera-
ε    ε tures marked by a, b, c and d.

700

650 L
(C)  (D)  d

Temperature (Arbitrary)
σ σ
α+L
600 cα
ε    ε

550 b
18. The atomic packing factor for a material with body
α+β
centered cubic structure is ______. [2015]
500 a
19. The flow stress (in MPa) of a material is given by
σ = 500 ∈0.1, 450
where ε is true strain. The Young’s modulus of elastic- 0 5 10 15
ity of the material is 200 GPa. A block of thickness Composition (Arbitrary)
100 mm made of this material is compressed to 95
mm thickness and then the load is removed. The final At which temperature will a sample get solutionized
dimension of the block (in mm) is ______. [2015] the fastest? [2016]
20. The ‘Jominy test’ is used to find [2016] (A) a (B) b
(A) Young’s modulus (C) c (D) d
(B) hardenability 23. The value of true strain produced in compressing a
(C) yield strength cylinder to half its original length is: [2016]
(D) thermal conductivity (A) 0.69 (B) –0.69
21. A hypothetical engineering stress-strain curve shown (C) 0.5 (D) –0.5
in the figure has three straight lines PQ, QR, RS with 24. In a binary system of A and B, a liquid of 20% A (80%
coordinates P(0, 0), Q(0.2, 100), R(0.6, 100), R(0.6, B) is coexisting with a solid of 70% A (30% B). For
140) and S(0.8, 130). ‘Q’ is the yield point, ‘R’ is the an overall composition having 40% A, the fraction of
UTS point and ‘S’ the fracture point. solid is: [2016]
(A) 0.40 (B) 0.50
160
(0.6, 140) (C) 0.60 (D) 0.75
140 (0.8, 130)
R 25. Engineering strain of a mild steel sample is recorded
Engg. Stress (MPa)

120 S as 0.100%. The true strain is: [2016]

(0.2, 100)
100 (A) 0.010% (B) 0.055%
Q
80 (C) 0.099% (D) 0.101%
60
40
P
20
(0, 0)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Engg. Strain (%)
 Chapter 1  •  Structure and Properties of Materials  |  3.783

Answer Keys
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. B 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. C 6. C 7. C 8. A 9. C 10. B
11. C 12. C 13. D 14. D 15. C 16. A 17. A 18. A 19. D 20. A

Practice Problems 1I
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. B 5. D 6. B 7. B 8. B 9. C 10. A
11. A 12. C 13. C 14. B 15. C 16. B 17. B 18. D 19. A 20. B
21. C 22. C 23. A 24. B 25. B 26. D 27. A 28. A 29. D 30. C

Previous Year’s Questions

1. C 2. C 3. A 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. B 8. D 9. B 10. C
11. B 12. A 13.  0.9 to 1.1 14. C 15. C 16. B 17. D 18.  0.66 to 0.69
19.  95.14 to 95.20 20. B 21. 0.85 22. C 23. B 24. A 25. C
 Chapter 2
Metal Casting and Forming
chapter highlights

☞☞ Metal Casting ☞☞ Melting and Pouring

☞☞ Pattern Making ☞☞ Runner Extension
☞☞ Pattern Allowances ☞☞ Riser
☞☞ Shrinkage Allowance ☞☞ Gating System Design
☞☞ Machining or Finishing Allowance ☞☞ Chvorinov’s Rule
☞☞ Draft or Taper Allowance ☞☞ Modulus Method
☞☞ Shaking or Rapping Allowance ☞☞ Cooling and Solidification
☞☞ Classification of Casting Process ☞☞ Moulding Material Defects
☞☞ Coreprints and Coreseats ☞☞ Metallurgical Defects
☞☞ Chaplets ☞☞ Roll Passes
☞☞ Moulding Materials ☞☞ Forging
☞☞ Properties of Moulding Sand ☞☞ Extrusion
☞☞ Moulding Processes

Metal Casting
Metal casting is the process of pouring a molten metal in to a
mould and allowing it to solidify to produce a desired object.
Most commonly used method of metal casting is sand
casting in which a sand mould is used. It is a very old
method. Improved methods such as shell moulding, invest-
ment casting, die casting, centrifugal casting etc. now find
wider application. Various steps in casting are
1. Pattern making
2. Mould and core making
3. Melting and pouring
4. Fettling after solidification
5. Inspection and testing
Pattern Making
Pattern is the replica or full size model of the casting to be
made. It is used to give shape to the mould cavity where the
poured molten metal solidifies to the desired form and size.
Pattern is generally made using the following materials.
1. Wood
2. Metals
3. Plastics
4. Plasters
5. Wax
Each material has its own advantages and limitations. The
required accuracy, strength and life of a pattern depend on
the quantity of casting to be produced.
Generally for short run production wood is used as pat-
tern material. For mass production metal patterns are used.
Plastics may be used for batch production.
Pattern Allowances
A pattern is generally slightly larger in size compared to the
casting due to the various allowances to be provided.
Various allowances are
1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2. Machining or finishing allowance
3. Draft or taper allowance
4. Shaking or rapping allowance
5. Distortion or camber allowance
Shrinkage Allowance
Almost all metals shrink or contract on solidification. So
to compensate the reduction in size of the casting, size of
pattern is to be increased. The allowance provided for this is
called shrinkage allowance. Following is the typical values
of shrinkage allowances for some of the commonly used
metals

Cart iron/
Malleable iron : 10 mm/m
Brass, Cu, Al : 15 mm/m
Steel : 20 mm/m
Zn, Lead : 25 mm/m
A ‘shrink scale’ is a pattern maker’s rule using which pat-
tern dimensions, are laid out. Shrink scale is longer than a
standard scale by the shrinkage value for the appropriate
metal.
Machining or Finishing Allowance
To remove surface roughness and other imperfections and
to achieve exact casting dimensions, a casting has to be
machined. Therefore to account for this the pattern is to be
made sufficiently larger. The allowance provided for this is
called machining or finishing allowance.
Draft or Taper Allowance
Draft is the taper provided on the vertical surfaces of pattern
for the easy removal of the pattern from the mould with out
damaging the edges of the mould around the pattern. Draft
is expressed in mm per meter on a side or in degrees. The
amount of taper depends on method of moulding, shape and
size of pattern and the moulding material.
Shaking or Rapping Allowance
The pattern is to be shaked or rapped for easy withdrawal
from the mould. The cavity of the mould is slightly increased
by the shaking action. To compensate this the pattern is
made slightly smaller than the required size.
Distortion or Camber Allowance
A casting will distort or warp during cooling due to uneven
shrinkages due to irregular shape, uneven metal thickness
or difference in exposures of the metal surfaces. To allow
for this, the shape of the pattern is modified in such a way it
bends in the opposite direction of distortion.
Types of Patterns
The type of a pattern to be used depends up on the follow-
ing points
1. Quantity of casting to be produced
2. Size and complexity of the shape of casting to be
produced
3. Moulding method used
4. Surface finish and accuracy required etc
The most common type of patterns are
1. Solid or single piece pattern
2. Split pattern
3. Loose piece pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern
5. Match plate pattern
Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.785
6. Gated pattern
7. Sweep pattern
8. Segmental pattern
9. Skelton pattern
10. Built up pattern
11. Follow board pattern
Solid or single piece pattern is used either in the drag or in
the cope. It is generally used for large castings of simple
shape.
All castings, for example spherical shaped, cannot be
mould using single piece patterns. So split patterns are
used. Split patterns are made in two parts. So that one part
will come in the dag and the other part will come in the
cope. This facilitates easily removal of the pattern from the
mould without damage to the mould.
In loose piece patterns projections or overhanging parts
are made as loose pieces which are attached to the main part
using wooden dowel pins. After making the mould, the main
part of pattern is withdrawn first and then the loose pieces.
Cope and drag pattern is another type of split pattern.
The split halves of the pattern are mounted on different
plates. The two halves are made separately and then assem-
bled. These are used for very large castings.
Match plate patterns are mostly used in machine mould-
ing and for producing large number of small castings by
hand moulding. The pattern halves with gating and run-
ner systems are mounted on opposite sides of one single
wooden or metal plate called match plate.
Gated pattern is one or more loose patterns having
attached gates and runners. Time required to cut gating sys-
tem by hand is eliminated. These are used for mass produc-
tion of small castings.
Sweep patterns are used for symmetrically shaped large
castings. A section or wooden board of proper contour is
rotated about one edge so that a cavity is made in the mould-
ing material such as loam sand with the desired contour.
Segmental patterns are also known as part patterns.
These are used for producing large circular castings such as
rings, gears etc. The part pattern is moved about the centre.
After ramming one section it is moved to the adjacent sec-
tion and this is continued to complete the mould.
Skeleton patterns are used for very large castings of sim-
ple geometrical shapes. If no. of castings required is small
it is not economical to construct solid patterns. Pattern is
made of wooden frame and ribs. The frame work is filled
with loam sand and rammed. A strike off board known as
strickle board is used to give the pattern the desired shape.
Built up patterns are composed of two or more segments
made by cutting strips of wood. Pattern for special pulleys
are built up type.
Follow board pattern is a wooden board and is used for
supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile. It also
helps to establish a parting plane with ease in a pattern that
has an irregular shape.
3.786  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Stop Off = 20 mm/m

Stop offs are wooden pieces used to reinforce some por- = 0.02 mm/mm
tion of the pattern which are structurally weak. The cavities Pattern dimension/mm of casting  = 1.02 mm
formed after moulding due to the stop offs are refilled with ( for holes = 0.98 mm)
sand before pouring molten metal.
Casting dimension Pattern dimension

Pattern Colour Codes 100 mm 100 × 1.02 = 102 mm

200 mm 200 × 1.02 = 204 mm
Colour codes are used in patterns for indicating different
surfaces. There is no universally accepted standard colour 350 mm 350 × 1.02 = 357 mm
code. The colour code adopted by most of the foundries are 100 mm hole 100 × 0.98 = 98 mm
as follows.
Part of the pattern Colour 98
102 mm
1. Surface to be left unmachined Balck
2. Surface to be machined Red
3. Coreprints and seats for loose core Yellow 204 mm
prints
4.  Seats for loose pieces Red strips on yellow 357 mm
background
5.  Stop offs or supports Black strips on Pattern dimension Table
yellow Metals/Alloys Shrinkage allowance (mm/m)
Gray cast iron 10.4
Pattern Design Considerations
White cast iron 20
A pattern not properly designed will produce only bad cast-
Plain carbon steel 20.8
ings. The following are some of the factors that must be
taken into account while designing a pattern. Chromium steel 20
Manganese steel 25–38
1. The pattern should be dimensionally accurate and
should have very good surface finish Al. alloys 12.5–15
2. Metallic pattern give good surface finish but are cost Brass 15.3
compared to wood castings Bronze 15.5–20.8
3. All the pattern allowances should be taken into account Copper 16
4. In the case of split pattern the parting surface should Zinc 24
be such that the larger part of the pattern should be in
Magnesium 17
the drag
5. All sharp corners and edges should be rounded Example 2:  Provide draft allowance for the wood pattern
6. Change in section thickness should be smooth, gradual in the example 1.
and uniform
98 mm
7. Match plate patterns are preferred for machine moulding
8. Jointed cores should be avoided
102 mm

Solved Examples 357 mm

Example 1: Calculate dimensions of the pattern for the
casting shown in figure. (Material white cast iron) Refer to the tables
Solution:  Assume 1° taper for external and 3° taper for in-
100
100 mm ternal Draft allowance is provided for the vertical surfaces
only
External 102 × tan 1°= 1.78 mm
200 mm ~ 2 mm
Internal = 102 × tan 3°= 5.35 ~ 6 mm
350 mm Outer dimension = 357 + 2 + 2
    = 361 mm
Solution:  Shrinkage allowance for white cast iron Inner dimension  = 98–12 = 86 mm
(from tables)
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.787

361 mm In expendable mould casting a refractory material is used

86 mm as mould material. The mould is to be destroyed for taking
out the solidified casting. Sand mould casting is an exam-
ple. The main draw back of sand mould casting is the poor
surface finish of the casting.

98
Sand Mould Casting
357 mm About 80% of the cast products are made using sand mould
Table casting method. Sand moulds are single casting moulds and
Draft Values for patterns are completely destroyed for taking out the casting. The
moulding material is sand mixed with small quantities of
Pattern Draft (degrees)
binding materials and additives and water to improve the
materials External surface Internal surface cohesive strength and mouldability of sand.
Wood 0.25 to 3.00 0.5 to 3.0 Sand moulds are prepared in wooden or metallic boxes
Metal 0.35 to 1.50 0.5 to 3.0 called flasks. Depending up on the type of casting there can be
Plastic 0.25 to 1.0 0.35 to 2.25
one flask or more than one flasks. Two flask system is the most
Machining allowances for patterns commonly used. In the assembled position, the upper flask is
called ‘cope’ and bottom flask is called ‘Drag’. In three flask
Material/alloy Machining allowances (mm) system, the intermediate or central flask is called the ‘Cheak’
( on surface)
One flask dsign is used in ‘full mould process’ or in pit
Cast Iron moulding where it is used as cope, the pit acting as ‘drag’
Medium castings 3
Large castings 10
Cores
Cast steel
Medium castings 4.5 Cores are the materials used for making cavities and hollow
Large castings 12 projections, which cannot normally be produced by pattern
Non-ferrous alone. Cores are generally made of sand. During casting,
(brass, bronze, Al) cores are surrounded by molten metal and are subjected to
Medium castings 1.5 severe thermal and mechanical conditions. There fore core
Large castings 5 sand should be of higher strength than the moulding sand.
Core is set in the mould cavity of the prepared mould before
Example 3: Steel castings are produced from a brass closing and pouring. Through holes, recesses, projections,
pattern which is to be made from a wooden pattern. If the undercuts and internal cavities can be formed using cores.
dimensions of a component part is 80 mm, the corresponding
dimension of the wooden pattern considering shrinkage Types of Cores
only will be Cores can be classified according to the state of the mate-
15.3 rial as
Solution:  Allowance for brass = 80 ×
1000
1. Green sand core
= 1.224 mm 2. Dry sand core
20.8
Allowance for steel = 80 ×
1000 Green sand core is formed by the patterns it self when it is
= 1.664 mm being rammed while preparing a green sand mould (Green
Total shrinkage allowance sand means sand containing moisture) The core is made of
= 1.224 + 1.664 the same sand as the moulding sand. Green sand core is
= 2.888 mm weak and can be used only for light castings.
= 2.9 mm (approx) Dry sand core is made separately by core making process
Dimension of wooden pattern of moulding a green core, drying, baking, finishing, coat-
= 80 + 2.9 = 82.9 mm ing etc. They are positioned in the mould, after the pattern
is taken out before the mould is closed. These are the most
Classification of Casting Process commonly used cores.
According to the position of the core in the mould, core
The casting process may be classified in to
can be classified as
1. Expendable mould casting
1. Horizontal core
2. Permanent mould casting
2. Vertical core
3. Semi-permanent mould casting
3. Balanced core
3.788  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
4. Hanging core
5. Drop core etc
Coreprints and Coreseats
Coreprints are extra projections provided on the pattern for
making depressions in the mould for the placement of the core.
The depression made by the coreprint in the mould is called
core seat. Cores are placed in the core seats. Coreseats sup-
port the core against buoyancy of molten metal. Core prints,
though a part of the pattern do not appear on the cast part.
Core print Core print
Pattern
Mould cavity
Chaplet
Core seat
Mould Core
Section of the cast part
Chaplets
Chaplets are metallic supports often kept inside the mould
cavity to support the cores. They are made of the same
material of the pouring metal. They melt and fuse with the
pouring metal during solidification. There are various types
of chaptlets such as radiater chaplets, rivaled chaplets, dou-
ble head chaplets, cast chaplets, sheet metal chaplets etc.
Moulding Materials
Moulding materials may be classified in to two groups–
basic and auxiliary
Basic materials include silica sands and binders
Auxiliary materials include various additives which impart
desired properties to the moulding and core sands.
A moulding sand consists silica sand grains, binder,
additives and water. Silica sand grains form the base of the
moulding sand. Binder is the bonding agent in a green sand.
Most commonly used binder is clay. Clay imparts cohe-
siveness and plasticity to the moulding sand in the moist
state and increase its strength after drying. When moulding
sand has proper amount of water added to it to give a high
strength with sufficient plasticity it is said to be ‘tempered’.
According to the amount of clay present, the moulding
sand may be classified as
1. Silica sand: up to 2% clay
2. Lean or weak sand: 2 to 10% clay
3. Moderately strong sand: 10 to 20% clay
4. Strong sand: up to 30% clay
5. Extra strong or loam sand: up to 50% clay
According to the initial conditions and use moulding sand
may be classified as
1. Green sand
2. Dry sand
3. Loam sand
4. Facing sand
5. Parting sand
6. Backing sand
Foundry sand containing moisture is known as green sand.
Green sand may contain 20 to 30% clay and 6 to 8% water.
Another classification of moulding sand is
1. Natural sand
2. Synthetic sand
3. Chemically coated sand
Natural sand is available from natural deposits. It contains
sufficient or slightly more clay content that is required
for moulding. So only additives and water need be
added.
Relatively clay free sand having specified grain size is
mixed with suitable type of clay additives and water to form
synthetic sand.
Clean silica grain are coated with a non thermosetting
hydrocarbon resin, which acts as a binder to form chemi-
cally coated sand.
Binders
Binders used in a foundry may be organic or inorganic. The
most common is inorganic binders. Fire clay, Kaolinite, Illite
and Bentonite are the clays used in moulding. The basic
constituent which gives refractoriness to a clay is aluminia,
Al2O3. Bentonite is the most commonly used clay. As it
needs only smaller quantity of water to get sufficient plas-
ticity. Therefore steam generation during casting is less and
moulding sand of low porosity or permeability can be used.
Other inorganic binders are Portland cement, sodium silicate
etc.
Organic binders are most commonly used in core
­making. Examples are
1. Cereal binders obtained from wheat, corn etc
2. Drying oils such as linseed oil, fish oil, soyabean oils
and some mineral oils
3. Pitch and molasses
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.789

Additives
Additives are small quantities of special materials added to
a moulding sand in order to enhance its existing properties
and to impart some special properties.
Sea coal, cereals, sand dust, wood flour, silica flour, fuel
oil, Iron oxide, dextrin etc are some of the additives used.
7. Fineness
Finer mould sand resists metal penetration and pro-
duces smooth surface for the casting. But permeability
is reduced by fineness
8. Coefficient of expansion of the moulding sands should
be less

Properties of Moulding Sand Forces Acting on the Moulds

The choice of moulding maerials is based on their process- When the mould cavity is filled with molten metal it experi-
ing properties. The properties that are required in moulding ence high metellelo static pressures and buoyant forces As
materials are a result moulds may be distorted or cores may be displaced.
1. Permeability or porosity The effects of these forces can be eliminated by various
The ability of the sand to allow gases from molten methods such as placing weights on cope, clamping cope
metal and steam and water vapours generated in the and drag properly by reinforcing sand mass etc.
mould to pass through it is called permiability. It The metellostatic force is due to the head acting by the
depends on the size and shape of grains, moisture con- molten metal in the mould cavity
tent, degree of ramming etc Metallostatic force is given by

2. Plasticity or flowability Fm = Awh

It is the property of the moulding sand by which it is Where A = projected area.
able to flow around and over a pattern during ram- w = sp. weight of molten metal
ming and to uniformly fill the flask. Plasticity can be h = head of the molten metal
increased by adding clay and water
upward force on core = displaced volume × difference in
3. Adhesiveness sp.wt
The property to adhere with other materials is called Example 4:  Find the weights that is required to be kept to
adhesiveness. Adhesiveness between moulding sand compensate the force during pouring in casting of a cast
and the moulding flasks are required during handling iron pipe of 12.5 cm OD and 10 cm ID with a length of
of the rammed boxes 200 cm. The metal head is about 25 cm. While moulding,
4. Cohesiveness or strength flask size used for the purpose is 220 × 25 × 20 cm in size.
The ability of the sand particles to stick to each other is Weight density of core sand is 0.0165 N/cm3 and that of
called cohesiveness. In the absence of this property the liquid metal is 0.0771 N/cm3
mould will break when molten metal is poured. This Solution:  Displaced volume
depends up on grain size of sand and clay content V = Volume of core in the mould cavity
Green strength is the strength of the sand in green or p
moist state. = (10) 2 × 200 = 15708 cm3
4
Dry strength is the strength of moulding sand in dry
Upward force on the core
condition.
= V(wm–wc )
Hot strength is the strength required to hold the shape
of the mould cavity in hot condition. It is above 100°C = 15708 (0.0771–0.0165)
and the molten metal in the mould is still in liquid state. = 951.9 N
Projected area
5. Refractoriness A = 12.5 × 200 = 2500 cm2
The capability of the moulding sand to with stand high
Metallostatic force
temperatures of the molten metal with out fusing is
Fm = Awmh
known as refractoriness
= 2500 × 0.0771 × 25
6. Collapsibility = 4818.75 N
It is the ability of the moulding sand to decrease in Total upward force = 4818.75 + 951.9 = 5770.65 N
volume under compressive forces developed by the wt of cope
shrinkage of metal during freezing and subsequent
⎡ p (12.5) 2 ⎤
cooling. This is very important for cores. It permits = ⎢ 220 × 25 × 20 - × 200 ⎥ × 0.0165
the moulding sand to break easily during its knock out ⎣ 4 2 ⎦
from casting = 1612.5 N
3.790  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
et upward force = 5770.65–1612.5
N in to the mould at a pressure of about 1.5 Kgf/cm2 for 10 to
= 4158.15 N.
So the weight that is required to compensate upward force
is approximately 4200 N. To account for the dynamic
forces due to change in momentum of the molten liquid an
additional 50% wt may be placed.
Total weight = 4200 × 1.5
= 6300 N.
Moulding processes
According to the method used moulding processes can be
classified as
1. Bench moulding
2. Floor moulding
3. Machine moulding
Bench moulding is used for preparing small moulds. It is
carried out on a bench of convenient height.
In floor moulding, the mould is made in the foundry
floor. It is used for making medium and large size castings.
Machine moulding is used in batch and mass ­production.
The moulding production becomes faster and labour is min-
imised. Moulding machines are classified according to
1. Method of compacting moulding sand and
2. The method of removing the pattern
Squeezer machines, jolt machine and sand slinger comes in
the first group.
Straight draw moulding machine and turn over moulding
machine are example of second group.
According to the mould materials used moulding pro-
cess can be classified as
1. Green sand moulding
2. Dry sand moulding
3. Loam sand moulding
4. Metallic moulding or permanent moulding
5. Carbondioxide moulding
Green sand moulding is used for small and medium cast-
ings. It is simplest and least expensive and requires less time
to prepare.
In dry sand moulding the green sand mould is dried
before pouring molten metal. Drying or baking is carried
out in ovens. Time for baking depends upon the binders
used.
Loam sand moulding is used for large castings.
Approximate contour of the casting is made by bricks and
other materials and a thick coating of loam sand is given
inside. Using a sweep pattern, correct contour of the casting
is produced.
In carbondioxide moulding, sand is thoroughly mixed
with 3 to 5% sodium silicate liquid base binder (water glass
SiO2­ Na2O) in a muller. Mould is prepared using the sand
mixture by machine or hand moulding. Then CO2 is forced
30 seconds.
Sodium silicate reacts with CO2 to form silica jel
SiO2 Na2O + CO2 → Na2CO3+H2O + SiO2
Carbon dioxide is expected to form a weak acid, which
hydrolises the sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica,
which form the bond. The introduction of CO2 gas starts
the reaction by forming hydrated sodium carbonate. This
gelling action increases the viscosity of the binder till
it becomes solid. The compressive strength of the bond
increases due to dehydration.
Melting and Pouring
After the preparation of moulds, molten metal is poured
in to the mould to get the casting. Various type of melting
furnaces are available for melting metals and alloys. Most
commonly used furnaces are,
1. Cupola furnace–for melting cast iron
2. Crucible furnace–for melting non-ferrous metals
3. Electric furnace–for melting steel and special alloy
steels
Molten metal is poured into the mould through the gating
system.
Gating System
All the passages through which molten metal passes before
entering the mould cavity is referred as gating system.
Various elements of a gating system are
1. Pouring basin
2. Sprue
3. Sprue base or well
4. Runner
5. Runner extension
6. Choke
7. Skim bob
8. Gates and/or ingates
9. Riser
Pouring Basin
A pouring basin or cup is a reservoir at the top of the ver-
tical passage (sprue) in the cope, where the molten metal
is poured, It is used for maintaining the required flow rate,
minimize turbulence and to aid in separating dross and slag
from the molten metal before it enter the runner system.
Sprue
It is a vertical passage through the cope and connects the
pouring basin to the runner or gate. A straight sprue with
sharp corners will cause severe aspiration (air sucking)
thereby causing turbulence in the molten metal. If a tapered
sprue with round corners and dam type pouring basin are
used aspiration and turbulence are negligible.
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.791

The molten metal when moving from the top of the cope
to parting plane gains in velocity and as a consequence
requires smaller area of cross section for the same amount
of metal to flow. If straight sprue is used metal flow would
not be full at the bottom leading to aspiration.
Equations of continuity can be used to find the exact
tapering required. Denoting top and choke by ‘t’ and ‘c’.
AtVt = AcVc
Runners
A runner is a horizontal channel which connects the sprue
with the gates. It is generally located in the horizontal, part-
ing plane. Generally these are constructed in a trapezoidal
cross section. For ferrous metals, generally runner is pro-
vided in the cope portion and in gates in the drag portion.
This helps to trap the lighter slag and dross flowing with the
molten metal.

or At = Ac
Vc Runner Extension
Vt The runner is extended a little further after it meets the
2gh ingate. The slag flowing with the molten metal is trapped at
But V =
the runner extension with out going to the ingates.
Or Va h
Skimbob
hc Skimbob is an enlargement provided in the runner. It’s func-
\ At = Ac
ht tion is to trap impurities such as dross or eroded sand from
going in to the mould cavity.
From the above equation it can be seen that the profile of an
ideal sprue is parabolic. But in practice for convenience a Gates
straight tapered sprue is used. Gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould
Riser cavity. Ingate is the end of the gate where it joins the
mould cavity and through which the molten metal is intro-
duced to the mould cavity.

Pouring Choke
cup Choke is that part of the gating system which has the small-
Casting
est cross sectional area. It helps to lower the flow velocity
Sprue
in the runner, to hold back slag and foreign materials in the
runner also minimise the sand erosion.
Gate
Gating Ratio
It describes the relative cross sectional area of sprue: total
Runner
Sprue extension
runner area: total gate area.
Runner Depending up on the position of choke, the gating sys-
base
tem may be described as
Top riser
Strainer Pouring basin 1. Pressurised or choked system
2. Unpressurised or free system
In pressurised system, ingates serve as choke. The total gate
area is smaller than the sprue area. So a back pressure is
Gate
Sprue maintained in the system. A gating ratio 2:2:3 indicates a
unpressurised gating system.
Sprue
base Mould
Splash Skim cavity Types of Gates
core bob Side Gates may be classified as
riser
1. Parting line gate
Sprue Base or Well 2. Bottom gate
Where the sprue joins the runner an enlargement called 3. Top gate
sprue base or sprue well is provided. The mollen metal pool In parting line gate, metal enters the mould cavity at the
formed at the sprue base p­ revents excessive sand erosion parting line. The gate may contain skimbob, skimming
where the molten metal impinges. gate, shrink bob and whirl gate. Skimming gate is a vertical
3.792  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

passage through the cope: Lighter foreign material is
trapped in skimming gate. Shrink bob may be provided if
there is a tendency for shrinkage defect near the ingate.
Whirlgate employs centrifugal force to aid the slag come
to the centre where it rises up in the skimming gate. A bot-
tom gate is provided in the drag portion of the mould. Metal
fills in the bottom first and then rises up steadly in the mould.
In top gate, metal is poured down directly, into the mould
cavity. In this, molten metal at the top of the casting is
always hot.
As the metal enters the pouring basin, it has the highest
potential energy with no kinetic or pressure energies. But as
the flow proceeds there is frictional head loss and heat loss
(heat loss is not represented in the Bernoulli’s equation).
The continuity equation which states that
Q = AV = constant can also be applied
(Q = rate of flow m3/s
A = area of cross section, m2
V = velocity, m/s)

Riser Pouring Time

Due to the shrinkage of metal during solidification voids are The duration of time required for complete filling of a mould
likely to form in the casting unless additional molten metal with molten metal is termed as pouring time. It depends on
is fed in to these places.A reservoir of molten metal is to be the casting material, complexity of casting, section thick-
maintained from which the metal can flow readily in to the ness and casting size.
casting when the need arises. These reservoirs are called ris- High pouring rate means turbulent flow in the mould and
ers. Riser is a hole cut in cope to prevent the molten metal to mould erosion. Low pouring rate requires higher pouring
rise above the highest point in the casting. temperature. Otherwise the mould cavity may not be filled
Other functions of the risers are completely.
Empirical formulae for pouring time for, different cast-
1. The pourer can see the metal in the mould cavity. If the ing materials are given below:
metal is not seen it indicates that metal is not sufficient
1.  Grey cast iron, mass less than 450 kg
or there is some obstruction
Pouring time,
2. It gives passage of steam, gas, air etc
 T 
t = k 1.41 + w seconds
Directional Solidification  14.59 
In a casting all parts do not cool at same rate. Some parts
solidify more quickly than others. Due to this cavities are Fluidity of iron in inches
Where k =
formed at certain regions. This cavities should be filled with 40
the molten metal from the risers. For this to happen, the T = average section thickness, mm
riser should be the last to solidify. So solidification should W = mass of casting, Kg
progress towards the risers from the filled areas. This is 2.  Grey cast iron, mass greater than 450 Kg
known as directional solidification.
Directional solidification can be achieved by the follow-  T 
t = k 1.236 +  2 w secs
ing methods.  16.65 

1. Proper designing and positioning of risers 3.  Steel castings
2. Use of padding to increase thickness of certain sections t = (2.4335–0.3953 Log w) w secs
3. Use of exothermic materials in risers
4. Use of chills in moulds Choke Area
It is the area at sprue exit. Choke area can be calculated
Gating System Design using Bernoullis equation as
Bernoulli’s theorem can be applied to the molten metal that W
folws through the gating system. Ignoring frictional loss, A=
dtc 2 gH
law states that
p v2 Where A = choke area, mm2
h+ + = constant
w 2g W = casting mass, Kg
t = pouring time, s
Where h = potential head, m
d = density of molten metal Kg/mm3
p = pressure, Pa
v = liquid velocity, m/s g = acceleration due to gravity, mm/s2
w = specific weight, N/m3 H = effective metal head (sprue height)
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2 C = efficiency factor–a function of gating system used.
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.793

H depends on the casting dimensions and the type of gat- draw back is the formation vacuum due to the formation of
ing used. The following relations can be used. metal skin on the walls. This hinders the metal feeding. To
Top gate, H = h avoid this a permeable dry sand core is used, connecting it
c to the mould sand layers.
Bottom gate, H = h -
2
Shape and Size of Riser
p2 To help directional solidification the risers should loss heat
Parting gate, H = h -
2c at a slower rate. Amount of heat content is proportional to
Where h = height of sprue the volume and rate of heat dissipation depends up on the
p = height of mould cavity in cope surface area. Therefore a riser should be designed for a high
c = total height of mould cavity V/A (Volume/Surface area) ratio for a given size. From this
point of view a spherical shape is ideal one as it is hav-
Risering Design ing the lowest surface area a for same volume. But risers of
Riser is used to feed the casting during solidification so that spherical shape is difficult to mould. Therefore, a cylindri-
no shrinkage cavities are formed. The requirement of risers cal shape is preferred. Height of a cylindrical riser is gener-
depends to a great extend up on the type of metal poured ally taken as 1.5 × diameter of riser.
and the complexity of casting. Various metals have various
volumetric shrinkages. Riser Size
Grey cast iron some times may have a negative shrink- The solidification time of a casting depends up on the heat
age. This is because with higher carbon and silicon con- in the casting and its dissipation. So it is directly propor-
tents, graphitisation occurs which increases the volume and tional to the volume. And indirectly proportional to the sur-
counter acts the metal shrinkage. Risering is not very criti- face area. Based on these facts many relations are available
cal in these situations. But for metals such as aluminium for determining the riser size.
and steel volumetric contraction is very high and risering is
very important. Chvorinov’s Rule
Riser is also called feed heads. Molten metal rises in the Solidification or Freezing Time
riser after the mould cavity is filled up. They are used in
heavy section casting or for high shrinkage alloys. ⎛ V ⎞2
During casting metal shrinkage occur in three stages, T =C⎜ ⎟
⎝ SA ⎠
i) Liquid contraction or shrinkage
Where V = volume of casting
ii) Solidification shrinkage
SA = surface area of casting
iii) Solid shrinkage
C = constant of proportionality
First two are considered for risering purposes. To achieve directional solidification,
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
Riser Location ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ >⎜ ⎟
SA Riser ⎝ SA ⎠ Casting
A riser should be located close to each heavier section. It
should be located in such a manner that it is the last portion In practice
of the casting to solidify.
⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = 1.10 to 1.15 ⎜ ⎟
Types of Risers SA Riser ⎝ SA ⎠ Casting
Depending upon the location, a riser can be side riser, top ⎛ V ⎞ for the casting is known.
riser and end riser. If it is located between runner and cast- ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
SA
ing it is also called live or hot riser as this contains the hot-
test metal. Top risers and end risers are also called dead So ⎛⎜ V ⎞⎟ for the riser can be calculated. Assuming
risers as these risers fill up with coldest metal and are likely ⎝ SA ⎠
to solidify before casting. A riser can also be an open riser height to diameter ratio for a cylindrical riser, its size can
or blind riser. be determined

Blind Risers Caine’s Formula

A riser which does not break to the top of the cope and Caine’s method of determining the size of a riser in based
is entirely surrounded by moulding sand is known as blind on the experimentally determined hyperbolic relationship
riser. As the rate of cooling is slower it helps directional between relative freezing times and relative volumes of the
solidification. Also only a smaller size is required. It’s main casting and the riser.
3.794  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Relative freezing time or freezing ratio, It is generally preferable to choose a riser with height to
diameter ratio = 1
Cooling characteristics of casting p D3
X = In such cases, Volume =
Colling characteristics of riiser 4
p D2
(SA/V )Casting Surface area = + p D2
4
=
(SA/V )Riser 5
= p D2
Volume ratio, 4
p D 3 5p D 2
Volume of riser Modulus of riser, MR = = 0.2 D
Y = 4 4
Volume of casting Since MR = 1.2Mc
D = 6 Mc
Caine’s formula is given as,
Thus in this method, calculation of riser size is very
a much simplified.
X = +c
Y -b Example 5:  Optimum pouring time for a casting of cast
Where a = freezing characteristic constant iron of mass 60 Kg and a section thickness 50 mm is (take
b = Liquid–solid solidification contraction constant fluidity = 22 inches).
c = Relative freezing rate of riser and casting
Typical values a, b, c for commonly used cast metals are (
Solution:  Pouring time t = k 1.41 + T 14.59 W)
given below.
22 ⎛ 50 ⎞
= ⎜ 1.41 + ⎟ 60
Cast metals a b c 40 ⎝ 14.59 ⎠
Steel 0.12 0.05 1.00
= 20.6 sec.
Aluminium 0.10 0.06 1.08
Graycast Iron 0.33 0.03 1.00
Cast iron, Brass 0.04 0.017 1.00
Example 6:  Determine diameter of the sprue at the exit to
Aluminium, Bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00 fill the mould of a CI casting neglecting flow losses.
Silicon Bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00 Casting weight = 35 Kg
Pouring time = 22 seconds
A typical Caine’s hyperbolic curve is as shown in figure Density of melt = 7 gm/mm3
Y Height of sprue = 60 mm
And top gate.
Sound casting
Solution:  Choke area
W
CA =
cdt 2 gH
Unsound casting
Where W = casting weight = 35 Kg
X
C = efficiency factor = 0.85 for taper sprue
Caine’s curves for different cast metals are available in hand d = density of melt = 7 gm/cm3 = 7 × 10-6 kg/mm3
books. To find the riser size for a given casting, the riser t = pouring time = 22 seconds
diameter and height are assumed. Knowing values of a, b, H = effective metal head
and c, the values of X and Y are calculated. Values of x and = height of sprue for top gate
Y are plotted on the hyperbolic curve. If the values meet   = 160 mm
above the curve the assumed size is satisfactory. 35
\ CA =
-
0.85 × 7 × 10 × 22 2 × 9800 × 160
6
Modulus Method
= 150.99 mm2
Modulus is the inverse of cooling characteristic
Diameter at choke area = d
V pd2
i.e, modulus = = 150.99
SA 4
It has been empirically established that if the modulus of 150.99 × 4
the riser exceeds the modulus of casting by a factor 1.2, the d2 =
π
feeding solidification would be satisfactory.
d = 13.865 mm
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.795

Example 7:  A casting of 200×100×70 mm3 size solidifies 0.12

in 10 minutes. Estimate the solidification time for 200×100 0.1067D = +1
0.0000556 D 3 - 0.05
×10 mm3 casting under similar conditions.
0.12
Solution:  Solidification time 0.1067 D - 1 =
0.0000556 D 3 - 0.05
2
⎛V ⎞ 5.93 × 10-6D4 – 0.0000556 D3
T = k⎜ ⎟
⎝ A⎠ – 5.335 × 10-3 D + 0.05 = 0.12
Where k = mould constant D4–9.376 D3 – 900D = 11804
V = volume of casting D = ~ 16 cm (By trial).
A = surface area of casting
V1 = 200 × 100 × 70 mm3 Cooling and Solidification
V2 = 200 × 100 × 10 mm3 When a molten metal starts to cool and solidify crystals
A1 = [(20 × 100) + (100 × 70) +(70 × 200)]2 will begin to form independent of one another, at differ-
A2 = [(200 × 100) + (100 ×10) + (10 × 200)]2 ent locations in different orientations within molten mass.
The formation of the first tiny particle is called nucleation.
2 2 2 2 With passage of time these tiny particles (crystals) grow in
t1 ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ V2 ⎞ ⎛ V1 ⎞ ⎛ A2 ⎞
= ⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠ = ⎜⎝ V ⎟⎠ × ⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠ size or grain growth takes place. When the cooling is rapid
t 2 ⎜⎝ A1 ⎟⎠ 2 2 1 the pattern of grain/crystal growth is in the shape of radial
2
⎡ ( 200 × 100) + (100 × 10) + (10 × 200 ⎤
2 arms which begin to develop from the various nuclii. As
⎛ 70 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ×⎢ ⎥ time progresses secondary arms develop at right angles to
⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎣ ( 200 × 100) + (100 × 70) + (70 × 200) ⎦ the radial arm and the process continues. This type of tree
⎛ 23000 ⎞
2 like crystals are called ‘dentrites’. When cooling is slow
= 49 × ⎜ = 15.42
⎝ 4100 ⎟⎠
equiaxed crystals grow uniformly in all directions. Crystal
grows until it comes into contact with adjacent crystal of
t1 10 proper geometrical form and different orientations. The
t2 = = = 0.648 minutes
15.42 15.42 boundary formed between two adjacent crystal line growth
Example 8: Calculate the size of a cylindrical riser because of different orientations of the grains is known as
necessary to feed a steel casting block of dimension grain boundary
30 × 30 × 5 cm with a side riser, casting poured horizontally
Solidification in a Casting Mould
into the mould. Assume height = diameter for the riser.
When molten metal is poured in to a mould solidification
Solution:  Volume of casting = 30 × 30 × 5 = 4500 cm3 will be rapid along the mould walls. In this chill zone, a
Surface area = 2 [30 × 30] +4 [30 × 5) layer of fine, polly crystalline, equiaxed grains will be pro-
= 2400 cm2. duced. As the solidification progress the grains growth will
π D3 be inwards, towards the centre, their lateral growth reduced
Volume of riser = due to the early contact made with the adjacent crystals.
4
Here columnar, dentrite crystals are formed leading to the
p D 2 5p D 2 formation of a mushy zone. The width of the mushy zone
Surface area of riser = p D2 + =
4 4 depends upon the mould material, cooling rate and tempera-
ture gradient. As the heat extraction continue through out
2400 4500 the mass, simultaneous freezing of the metal at the centre
Freezing ratio X =
5p D 2 p D 3 of the mould takes place. Here equiaxed coarse grains are
4 4 formed. This central zone of equiaxed coarse grain can be
extended throughout, without formation of dentrites, by
= 0.1067 D
the addition of inoculants (nucleating agents ) to the liquid
0.25p D 3 alloy. Ferro-silicon, Ferro-manganese, Ferro-Chromium,
Volume ratio Y = = 0.0000556 D 3 Ferro-silicon-chromium etc are the inoculants used.
4500
a Types of Solidification
Caine’s formula X = +C
Y -b i) Skin forming
For steel a = 0.12 Skin forming takesplace when molten metal is solidi-
b = 0.05 fied in moulds, in the case of pure metals or alloys hav-
c=1 ing eutectic compositions. Since the mould walls are
Substituting values in the Caine’s formula at room temperature, solidification first starts near the
3.796  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
mould walls. The solidification front will move towards
centre, and layer by layer solidification takes place
ii) Dantritic growth During solidification of the molten metal hydrogen leaves
Dantritic growth will happen if mushy zone appear
during solidifications. Initially solid is nucleated
near the boundary and the solidification front moves
towards the centre. Solid is also nucleated in the liquid
region and the solidification front movement in this
case is towards the centre and to the primary dantrite.
In this case unidirectional solidification does not takes
place. Micro voids are formed at the meeting point of
primary and secondary dantrites. These voids cannot
be compensated by the riser. This results in defective
casting
Segregation
When a liquid alloy metal cools and solidifies the separating
out of the constituent elements of different freezing points is
called segregation. Various types of segregation are, micro
segregation, macro segregation, normal segregation and
gravity segregation.
Casting Defects
In a casting various defects may occure due to various rea-
sons. It may be due to improper pattern design, improper
mould construction, improper melting practice, improper
pouring etc. The defects may be broadly classified as
1. Gas defects
2. Shrinkage cavities
3. Moulding material defects
4. Pouring metal defects
5. Metallurgical defects
6. Moulding and corebox defects
Gas Defects
These are due to lower permeability of the mould. Blow
holes and open blows, air inclusions and pinhole porosity
etc. come under gas defects.
Blow holes and open blows are spherical, flattened or
elongated cavities present inside the casting or on the sur-
face. If they are on the surface they are called open blows.
Moisture in the mould will be converted into steam due to
the heat of the molten metal. A part of the steam may be
entrapped in the casting. This leads to the formation of blow
holes. Lower venting and lower permeability of mould also
causes formation of blow holes and open blows.
Air Inclusion
Atmospheric and other gases are absorbed by the molten
metal at high temperatures in the furnace, during pouring or
in the mould. If they are not allowed to escape, they will be
trapped inside the casting.
Pinhole Porosity
This is due to the presence of hydrogen in molten metal.
the metal causing small diameter and long pinholes.
Shrinkage Cavities
Shrinkage cavities are formed during solidification of the
molten metal, if feeding by risers are not proper or if the
casting design is not proper.
Moulding Material Defects
Lack of the required properties of moulding materials
improper ramming etc will lead to defects such as scabs,
swell, runout and drop.
Scab
Scabs are projection formed on the casting. This occurs
when a portion of the mould face lifts and metal flows
underneath in a thin layer. If it happens due to the expansion
of surface layer of sand it is called expansion scab. Scabs
occur due to uneven ramming, excess moisture in sand etc,
Run Out
Runout is the escape of molten metal from mould cavity.
Faulty moulding flask or faulty mould making may lead to
this.
Drop
Drop occurs when cope surface cracks and breaks.Pieces
of sand fall into mollen metal. Low green strength of sand,
improper ramming of cope etc are the causes.
Cuts or Washes
Cuts or washes appear as low projections and areas of
excess metal casused by erosion of moulding sand by the
flowing molten metal. It usually occurs with bottom gat-
ing castings, when too much metal is made to flow and the
moulding sand has insufficient hot strength.
Pouring Metal Defects
Misrun, cold sheet, poured short etc are pouring metal
defects.
Misrun
This happens when the metal is unable to fill the mould
­cavity completely leaving unfilled cavities. This may h­ appen
due to lack of fluidity or due to obstruction in flow.
Cold Shut
This is caused when two metal streams coming from
­different directions while meeting in the mould cavity do
not fuse together properly. Due to this, discontinuity or
weak spot in the casting is formed.

Too thin sections, improper gating system, slow and
intermittant pouring, poor fluidity of metal etc may cause
misrun or cold shut.
Poured Short
If the mould cavity is not completely filled due to insuffi-
cient metal, this happens.
Metallurgical Defects
Hot Tears
Occur due to hindered contractrion of casting parts imme-
diately after the metal solidification. Main reason is poor
casting design.
Hardspots
This happens in metals such as gray cast iron with in suf-
ficient silicon. Such metals may become hardened by the
chilling effect of moulding sand. Hardspots make machin-
ing of the metal difficult.
Mismatch or Mould Shift
This is due to mismatch of cope and drag flasks at the part-
ing line. The worn out or loose dowels in the pattern halves,
inexpert assembly of mould halves etc are reasons. Core
shift occurs due to the misalignment of core halves during
assembly.
Flashes or Fins
Flashes or fins appear at the mould joints where gaps are
formed This may be due to wear or warping or improper
fastening of the cope and drag.
Buckles and Rat Tails
Buckle is a broad vee shaped depression appearing on the
face of casting. It extends in a fairly straight line across the
entire flat surface. It results from the sand expansion car-
ried by the high temperature molten metal, when sand has
insufficient hot deformation. It also happens in the design
with too large flat surfaces in the mould cavity. Rat tail
is a defect similar to buckle, happening due to same rea-
sons, but the shape of the defect is different. Rat tail is not
shaped as a broad vee. Buckles are the rat tails which are
severe.
Swell
Swell is a slight, smooth bulge appearing on vertical walls
of a casting. This is caused by liquid metal pressure at areas
of low mould strength, due to improper ramming or too
high water content.
Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.797
Design of Castings
The design of a cast part should be such that the design
should ensure high level of its working characteristics such
as strength, rigidity, stiffness, lightness and corrosion resist-
ance. Proper attention to design aspects will minimize cast-
ing problems and lower the costs.
The design of the casting should be such that it allows
directional solidification. Product design should be studied
under the following categories.
1. Design for economical moulding
2. Design for elimination of defects
3. Design for features to help handling of castings
The following factors should be taken into account while
designing a casting.
1. Function of the casting
2. Selection and optimum use of the casting alloy
3. Strength of the casting
4. Simplification of foundry practices
5. Consideration of safety aspects
6. Economy of production
A few of the rules in design are
1. Stress concentration should be avoided. For thin,
sharp corners and frequent use of fillets etc should be
avoided
2. All members should have uniform sections as far
as possible. Abrupt changes in sections should be
avoided
3. Large flat surfaces should be avoided because it is
difficult to get true surfaces on large castings
4. Pattern allowances should be provided
5. By providing curved shapes, contraction stresses
should be minimized (example- arm of pulleys and
wheels)
6. Stiffening members such as webs and ribs should be
minimum as these give rise to defects like hot tears
and shrinkage
7. Deep and narrow pockets in the casting should be
avoided to minimize cleaning costs
8. Vertical walls should be as smooth as possible for easy
withdrawals of patterns (markings such as names or
numbers etc on vertical walls should be avoided)
9. Tolerance should be provided depending up on the
dimensional accuracy desired
Special Casting Processes
Sand casting processes give fairly good results at lowest
cost. Main draw back of sand casting is that the moulds are
single use types. If in its place a permanent mould could
be used there is considerable saving in time and labour
cost. Also surface finish and accuracy is poor in the case of
sand casting. To overcome this a number of special casting
3.798  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
processes are developed. Some of the widely used casting
processes are,
i) Shell moulding
ii) Precision investment casting
iii) Permanent mould casting
iv) Die casting
v) Centrifugal casting
vi) Squeeze casting
Shell Moulding
It is a modification of sand moulding process. In this pro-
cess thin, shell type half moulds are made using a mixture
of dry silica sand and phenolic resin.
The sand is mixed with either urea or phenol formal-
dehyde in a muller and transferred to a dump lox. Pattern
made of metal is heated to 205 to 230°C and placed over
the dump box and clamped. When the dump box is inverted
the sand resin mixture falls over the hot patterns. The resin
melts and acts as bond between sand grains at the surface
of the pattern. After 30 seconds a hard and thin layer sand is
formed over the pattern. Then the dunp box is brought to the
original position. The excess sand falls back. Pattern with
thin shells is cured at 315°C for 2 minutes. The shell is then
ejected by ejector pins and removed. Similarly shell is made
for the other half also. These shells are assembled in a flask
with backing sand to form the mould.
High dimensional accuracy and good surface finish are
the main advantages. The shells can be stored for a long time.
High cost and requirement of specialized equipments are
the main disadvantages.
Precision Investment Casting
(Lost Wax Method)
The term ‘investment’ refers to the layer of refractory mate-
rial with which the pattern in covered to make the mould.
Like sand casting method mould is destroyed every time a
casting is made.
Shell moulding also is a precision investment casting
method, though lost wax method is generally refered as pre-
cision investment casting.
In lost wax method a wax pattern is used. Wax pattern is
melted from the mould, leaving the cavity.
In this method a master pattern is prepared using steel
or brass. Using this pattern split mould is made with bis-
muth alloy or lead alloy. This mould is used for making wax
pattern. Several wax patterns are assembled with necessary
gates and risers. This assembly is dipped in a refractory
slurry and refractory fine sand is sprinkled over it to ensure
smooth surface for the casting. After the primary casting
has dried sufficiently a final investment layer consisting of
coarser and less expensive slurry is applied. The common
refractory used is silica. The binder is of gypsum or water
based sodium silicate. After the investment material is set
the mould is placed upside down and heated to melt out the
wax. The shell produced is used as mould for casting. The
final moulds can be made as solid type or shell type. In solid
type, the shell is placed in a flask and a hard setting mould-
ing material is poured. For shell type moulding dipping in
slurry is continued till sufficient thickness is obtained.
Permanent Mould Casting
In permanent mould casting the mould can be used repeat-
edly. Permanent moulds are also called dies. In this method
gravity feeding of molten metal is used. So this method is
also known as gravity diecasting. This method is generally
used for non-ferrous metals and alloys such as Al, Mg, Zn,
Cu–alloys, Sn, Pb etc. A permanent mould is made up of
two parts–one stationary and the other moving. Two com-
mon designs are
i) Hinged type or book type
ii) Straight line retractable type
For making hollow portions, cores are to be used. Cores can
be made of metal or sand. Metal cores can be used repeat-
edly. But complex shapes cannot be used. When sand cores
are used, the process is called semi–permanent moulding.
Die Casting
Die casting involves the preparation of components by
injecting molten metal at high pressure into metallic die.
Unlike in permanent mould casting or gravity die casting,
metal is fed under pressure. So this process is also called
pressure die casting. Narrow sections complex shapes and
fine surface details can easily be produced as high pres-
sure is used in this method. The stationary part of the die is
called the cover die and moving part is called the ejector die.
Lubricant is sprayed on the diecavity manually or by auto
lubrication system to avoid sticking of the casting in the die.
Die casting machines are of two types.
1. Hot chamber die casting
2. Cold chamber die casting
In hot chamber die casting machine the melting unit of
metal forms an integral part of the machine.
In cold chamber machine metal is melted in a furnace
outside and transferred to the cylinder of the machine from
where it is forced into the mould by means of the plunger.
Advantages of die casting are,
1. Very high production rates are possible
2. Thin an complex section can be cast
3. Close dimensional control can be maintained
Vacuum Die Casting
Air trapped in the dies when they are closed is a major
problem die casting. This also causes a back pressure when
moulten metal is injected in to the mould. This problem is

solved in vacuum die casting. As air is evacuated after clos-
ing the die, metal enters in to the die much faster. As a result
fill time is reduced and blisters are avoided.
Low Pressure Die Casting
In low pressure die casting molten metal in a crucible rises
to the mould through a riser tube dipped in the molten metal
when low pressure in the range of 0.3 to 1.5 bar is applied to
the molten metal. Since metal enters the mould slowly com-
pared to die casting with less turbulence the casting quality
is improved eliminating the defects.
Centrifugal Casting
In centrifugal casting process, the mould is rotated and the
molten metal in the mould is acted up on by the centrigal
force. Due to this molten metal is distributed to the periph-
ery of the mould cavity. Centrifugal casting process is clas-
sified as
1. True centrifugal casting
2. Semi–centrifugal casting
3. Centrifuging process
In true centrifugal casting process, the axis of rotation of
the mould coincides with the axis of casting and due to the
centrifugal force molten metal is thrown out uniformly to
the periphery of the mould cavity. In this case no core is
required for making a concentic hole. Centrifugal casting
can be used for the production of cast iron pipes. The fin-
ished flask rammed with sand inside, with the required con-
tour and end details, is rotated on rollers. The amount of
molten metal poured determines the thickness of the pipe
to be cast.
The mechanical properties of centrifugally cast objects
are better compared to the other processes because impu-
rities such as slag and oxides get segregated towards the
centre. This can be removed easily by machining.
In semi–centrifugal casting the mould is rotated about
the vertical axis and metal is poured in to central sprue
where it first enters the hub and then moves outwards to the
periphery by centrifugal force. If central hole is required,
a core is to be provided. Rotating speed is lesser than that
is true centrifugal casting. For high rates of production,
moulds can be stacked one over the other and molten metal
can be fed through a common central sprue.
Centrifuging process is similar to semi­–centrifugal cast-
ing process. Metal is fed through a central sprue and the
mould is rotated. The main difference is that in the case
of centrifuging the axis of the mould is not same as axis
of rotation. Here identical small moulds are arranged in a
circle which are connected through radial gates from the
central sprue.
Continuous Casting
Continuous casting process consists of pouring into a short
vertical metal die or mould at a controlled rate, cooling the
Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.799
melt rapidly and withdrawing the solidified product in a
continuous length from the bottom at a rate consistent with
the pouring rate. Using continuous casting process, slabs,
billets and blooms can be directly cast with going through
the rolling of ingot in various stages to obtain the products.
The skin formed in the water cooled mould is further solidi-
fied by intensive cooling with water sprays as the casting
moves forward.
Squeeze Casting
In squeeze casting the casting is solidified under high pres-
sure. The product quality is greatly improved. Shrinkage
cavities, dissolved gases etc are eliminated at high pressures.
It is a combination of casting and forging. Molten metal is
poured in to a die. Pressure is applied on this metal with a
punch which is having the inner contour of the product.
Metal Forming Processes
Metal forming processes or mechanical working processes
are based on permanent changes in the shape of body or
plastic deformation under the action of external forces.
Mechanical working processes include rolling, forging,
extrusion, drawing and sheet metal working. Sheet metal
working is also known as press working. The stresses
induced in the part are greater than the yield strength but
less than the fracture strength except in sheet metal opera-
tions. In sheet metal operations such as shearing, piercing,
blanking etc stress induced are greater than or equal to the
fracture strength.
Machining or metal cutting operations are not included
in the forming processes. In machining operations mate-
rial is removed from the part in the form of chips. But in
mechanical forming processes there is no material loss.
Recrystallisation Temperature
During deformation, metal flows plastically and the shapes
of grains are changed. If the deformation is carried out at
high temperature, new grains are formed in the metal. The
process of formation of new grains is known as recrystalli-
sation. The temperature at which formation of new grains is
complete is known as recrystallisation temperature. Plastic
deformations of a metal above the recrystallisation temper-
ature but below the melting temperature is known as hot
working. And plastic deformation below the recrystallisa-
tion temperature is known as cold working.
Under the action of heat and force, atoms reach high
energy level, new crystals starts forming during the recrys-
tallisation. Recrystallisation destroys old grain structure
deformed by mechanical working and entirely new crystals,
which are strain free are formed. Recrystallisation tempera-
ture is defined as the approximate minimum temperature
at which complete recrystallisation of a cold worked metal
occurs with in a specified time.
Recrystallisation temperature generally varies between
one third and half the melting point for most of the metals.
3.800  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
For lead and tin minimum recrystallisation is below the
room temperature. For Cadmium and Zinc it is at the room
temperature For iron it is 450°C.
Cold Working
Advantages
1. Strength and hardness of the metal is increased due to
strain hardening.
2. As no oxides are formed on the surface, good surface
finish is obtained.
3. Dimensional accuracy achieved is better.
4. It is easier to handle cold parts and is economical for
smaller sizes.
Disadvantages
1. The amount of deformation that can be given is
limited due to the higher yield strength and also due
to strain hardening.
2. Brittle materials cannot be cold worked.
3. Possibility of crack formation and propagation is
great.
Hot Working
Advantages
1. Since there is no strain hardening any amount of
working can be imparted.
2. Even brittle materials can be hot worked.
3. Only lesser force is required for hot working.
4. A favourable grain size can be attained, at controlled
working conditions. So better mechanical properties
can be achieved.
5. Blow holes and porosities are eliminated by welding
action at high temperature and pressure.
Disadvantages
1. Some metals cannot be hot worked because of their
brittleness at high temperature.
2. Poor surface finish due to scaling.
3. Because of thermal expansion dimensional accuracy
is hard to achieve.
4. Handling and maintaining of hot metal is difficult and
troublesome.
5. Surface decarbonisation in steels reduces strength
and hardness of the surface.
Rolling
The process of shaping metals and alloys into finished or
semi finished conditions passing between circular or con-
toured rotating cylinders (rolls) is called rolling. The metal
is drawn in to the opening between rolls by frictional forces
between metal and roll surface. The work piece is subjected
to high compressive forces and is plastically deformed.
Rolling is done in both hot and cold. The starting mate-
rial is cast ingots. These are rolled to blooms, billets and
slabs initially and then hot rolled to plates, sheets, rods etc.
In the rolling process the metal is passed through two
rolls rotating in opposite directions at a uniform peripheral
speed. The space between the rolls can be adjusted to obtain
the desired thickness of the rolled product. The work piece
comes out of the rolls with reduced thickness, but its width
and length is increased.
In the rolling process, because of the squeezing, the
grains are elongated in the direction of rolling and the
velocity of metal is higher than that at the entry. After the
stress zone, the elongated grains start refining in the case of
hot rolling. The elongated grains remains as it is the case of
cold rolling.
Roll
A
α B
Refined grains
Original grains Elongated grains
Roll
O
A α
B
P
µP
The metal contacts each of the rolls along the arc AB. The
angle (a) made by the arc at the centre of the roll is called
angle of bite or angle of contact. At the moment of bite two
forces act on the metal, normal force P and tangential force
mP, where m is the coefft of friction. If the horizontal compo-
nent of the resultant normal force P and frictional force mP
is directed in the direction of rotation, the work piece will be
dragged in the same direction. In the limiting case,
Psina = mP cosa
Or m = tan a
Or a = tan-1 m
If a is greater than tan-1m, the work piece will not be
passing through the rolls, without aid of external forces.
In hot rolling the primary purpose is to reduce the sec-
tion. So the value a and hence m will be maximum. The roll
surface can be roughened to increase the value of m. This
process is called ‘ ragging.’ In the case of cold rolling, roll-
ing loads are high and value of m will be smaller.
During the plastic deformation of metal it can be
assumed that the volume passing per unit time constant. So
it can be stated that
V0 h0 b0 = V1 h 1and b1
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.801

where V, h and b are velocity, height and breadth Based on no. of rolls in the roll stand it can be two high,
respectively. three high, four high, multi roll universal rolling mill and
But b0 ~ b1 planetary rolling mills.
Based on products, it can be blooming and slabbing
So V1 = V0 h0 mills, billet mills, rail and structural mills, rod mills, plate
h1 and sheet mills, seamless tube mills etc.
As h0 > h1, V1 > V0 Based on arrangement of rolling stands, it can be looping
mills cross country mills, continuous mills etc.
If Vr is the velocity of the roll V1 > Vr > V0
V1 - Vr Roll Passes
× 100 is called forward ship
Vr Bars, rods and special purpose sections (I beam, channels,
rails etc) are rolled between grooved rolls. The grooves cut
Vr − V0
and × 100 is called backward ship on mating rolls will form passes through which the metal
Vr is passed to get the required cross section. Before getting
In the deforming area between the rolls velocity of metal is the final stage the work passes through many passes. Roll
changing from V0 to V1. At a particular section this equal to passes are classified as
Vr, the velocity of roll. This section is called neutral or no 1. Break down or roll down or roughing passes
slip section. 2. Leader passes
Other parameters are 3. Finishing passes
Absolute draught Dh = h0–h1 mm
Break down passes are intended to reduce the cross sec-
∆h tional area.
Relative draught × 100
h0 Leader passes gradually brings the cross section near to
Absolute elongation Dl = L1–L0 mm the final shape.
Finishing pass is for the final or the required cross
L1 section.
Coefficient of elongation =
L0
Absolute spread = b1 –b0 mm Rolling Defects
A0 − A1 Defects found in rolling process are
% of cold work = × 100 1. Wavy edges
A0
2. Spread
where A = area of cross section. 3. Crocodile neck
h0 − h1 4. Surface defects
5. Edge cracks
It can be shown that cos a = 1 − 2
R Wavy edges result from roll bending. The strip becomes
∆h thinner along edges corresponding to the centre thickness.
or cos a = 1 −
D As free expansion is restrained, buckling occurs. If the
where a = angle of contact width to thickness ratio of plates and sheets are smaller,
D = diameter of the roll width increases considerably in the roll gap. This is called
Maximum possible draught D hmax = m2R spreading.
If the plate is weak at the centre, sheet bifurcates into
D
Where R = two causing neck formation. This is called crocodile neck.
2 Presence of impurities such as scale, rust, dirt in hot bloom,
billets or slabs causes surface defects in the rolled prod-
Rolling Mills ucts. Limited ductility of the metal or uneven deformation
A set of rolls assembled in a housing is called a rolling at edges will cause edge cracks.
stand. A rolling mill may contain one or more rolling stands. Example 9:  A stock of thickness 30 mm is to be rolled to
A rolling mill is a place where metal rolling is done on rolls 10mm in a single stage. Calculate the minimum diameter of
and other auxiliary operations are performed. the rolls, if the maximum angle of bite is 40°C. Find also
the required coefficient of friction.
Classification of Rolling Mills
Solution:  Dh = h1–h2
1. Classification based on number of rolls in the stand
2. Based on products rolled 30–10 = 20 mm
3. Based on arrangement of rolling stands a = 40°
3.802  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Basic Forging Operations

Cos a = 1 − ∆h
D 1. Upsetting: Upsetting is the process of increasing the
20 cross sectional area of the stock at the expense of
Cos 40 = 1 – its length by application force in the direction of its
D
length axis.
20
= 1 − cos 40 2. Drawing down: Drawing down is the operation of
D
reducing thickness of the stock to increase its length.
= 0.234
Force is applied in a direction perpendicular to the
20 length axis. Thickness is reduced at the end of the
D= = 85.49 mm
0.234 stock. Also known as cogging.
Example 10: A sheet of 4 mm thickness is rolled with 3. Fullering is the operation reducing thickness of a
300 mm diameter rolls to reduce the thickness without any stock between ends, at a central place. This is done
change in its width. The friction coefficient at the work roll with the help of tools called fullers.
interface is 0.1. Calculate the minimum possible thickness
4. Edging or rolling operation is to distribute the metal
of the sheet that can be produced in a single pass.
longitudinaly from a thick portion to a portion where
Solution:  Given, material is deficient.
hi = 4 mm 5. Heading is an upsetting operation where thickness is
300 increased only at on end.
R= = 150 m
2 6. Blocking It is a forging operation in which the work
m = 0.1 piece is obtained its general shape, prior to its final
hi–hmin = maximum draft = m2 R shape.
=(0.1)2 × 150 mm = 1.5 7. Piercing is the operation done with the help of punch
hmin = hi–1.5 to obtain blind or through holes in the metal.
= 4–1.5 = 2.5 mm. 8. Punching is the operation of shearing out a slug in a
forging to produce a hole.
Forging
9. Swaging is the operation of reducing the cross
Forging is the process of shaping a material under compres-
sectional area of a circular piece. by rotating it and
sive forces in dies by plastic deformation normally after
giving fast impact blows. Bending, flattening, cutoff
heating. The material is heated to a temperature at which
coining etc are other forging operations.
its elastic properties entirely d­ isappear and obeys the laws
of plastic flow, following the directions of least resistance Forging Processes
when deformed under pressure.
Forging processes can be classified in to two groups.
Forging enhances mechanical properties of metals and
improves the grain flow due to which strength and tough- 1. Open die forging
ness of the forged component is increased. 2. Closed die forging
Forging temperature of some common metals are given
below. Open Die Forging
In open die forging the work piece is struck or pressed
Material Forging starting Temperature finishing
between two flat surfaces. This process is used when the
Mild steel 1300 800 components to be forged are only a few. Flat–die forging is
Wrought iron 1275 900 another name of open die forging. Open die forging can be
Medium carbon 1250 750 further classified as
steel
1. Hand forging
High carbon 1150 825 2. Power forging
steel
3. Hammer forging
Copper, brass, 950 600 4. Press forging
bronze
Hand forging or Smith forging is usually done in a black-
Al and Mn 500 350
Alloys
smith’s hearth with the help of small hammers and anvil, to
produce small number of light forgings.
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.803

Power forging is used for producing large components (250)­2 × 60 = (450)2 × L2

which cannot be forged by hand. Machines which work on \ L2 = 18.5 mm
forging by blow are called hammers; while those working Change in length
by pressure are called presses. Hammers can be mechanical, = L1–L2
pneumatic, steam or air hammers. = 60–18.5 = 41.5 mm
L1 − L2 41.5
Closed Die Forging Strain = = = 2.24
L2 18.5
In closed die forging cavities or impressions are cut in the
die block, where metal is forced to take the final shape. True strain = Ln (1 + e)
The dies can be single impression type or multi impression = Ln (1 + 2.24) = 1.176.
type.
Impression-die forging is used to make complex shapes Extrusion
of products with greater accuracy. After forging the product Extrusion is the process by which a block of metal is reduced
should be trimmed to remove flashes. in cross section by forcing it to flow through a die orifice
under high pressure. High pressure is applied by hydraulic
Types of Forging press or mechanical press.
The four types of forging methods generally used are Extrusion process can be hot extrusion or cold extrusion
depending up on the temperature at which the extrusion is
1. Smith forging done.
2. Drop forging Based on the direction of flow of metal and application
3. Press forging of force extrusion can be classified as
4. Machine forging
1. Direct or forward extrusion
In drop forging closed type dies and drop hammers are 2. Indirect or backward extrusion
used. Using drop hammers repeated blows are given to the 3. Impact extrusion
material in the die cavity. 4. Side extrusion
In press forging the dies are similar to that of drop forg- 5. Tube extrusion
ing. But instead of repeated blows by hammer a single con-
tinuous squeezing action is given to the material by means Direct or Forward Extrusion
of hydraulic presses. Because of the continuous action the In this case the billet is placed inside the container and
material gets uniformly distributed through the cavity. force through the die with the help of pressure applied by a
Machine forging is also known as upset forging as the hydraulic driven ram.
operation involved is upsetting. Upsetting machines are
also called upsetters. Upsetters were originally developed
for making bolt heads in a continuous fashion. Now gear
blanks, shafts, axles and similar parts are also produced Plunger(Ram)
using machine forging. Upsetting machines are generally
horizontal acting.

Defects in Forged Parts

Defects may occur in forged parts due to various fac- Billet
tors such as forging process, improper heating, incor-
rect die design, uneven cooling after forging etc. Defects Direct extrusion
are similar to those in casting. These are mismatch, scale Die
pits, cold shuts or Laps, unfilled section, cracks, fins and
rags etc.

Example 11:  In an open die forging a disc of 250 mm

diameter and 60 mm height is compressed without any Indirect or Backward Extrusion
barelling effect. The final diameter of the disc is 450 mm. It is similar to the direct extrusion except that the extruded
The true strain is part is forced through the ram stress. The deformed metal
flows through the die opening in the direction opposite to
p 2 p that of ram motion.
Solution:  D1 L1 = D22 L2
4 4
3.804  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
Ram
Die
Billet
Billet
Ram
In indirect extrusion, the billet inside the cylinder has no
relative motion with the cylinder. So there is no friction
between cylinder and billet. Therefore power required for
indirect extrusion is less compared to direct extrusion. But
the long hollow ram is required and this limits the loads that
can be applied.
Impact Extrusion
It is a cold extrusion process used for soft metals (like alu-
minium). It can be backward or forward. In backward impact
extrusion, metal flows in reverse direction of the plunger.
The flowing metal is guided only initially. Afterwards it
moves by its on inertia. Impact extrusion is carried out at
higher speeds. The punch strikes a single blow with con-
siderable force causing the metal to squirt up against the
punch.
Application of impact extrusion process are in the manu-
facture of collapsible tubes for tooth paste, ointments, shell
cases, causes etc.
Combined forward and backward extrusion can be
used to produce complex shapes. In the same stroke of the
plunger backward and forward extrusion happens.
Backward impact extrusion
Side Extrusion
In side extrusion the movement of the material is in a direc-
tion perpendicular to that of the ram motion. In this case the
force required is very high and therefore mostly used for
non-ferrous metals or highly plastic materials.
Tube Extrusion
Extrusion is one of the methods for producing seamless
tubes. It is a form of direct extrusion but a mandrel is used
to form the inside of the tube. After placing the billet inside
the cylinder, die containing the mandrel is pushed through
it. When force is applied on the press stem it advances
extruding the metal through the die and around the mandrel
forming the seam less tube.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
Hydrostatic extrusion is a cold extrusion process, in which
billet is surrounded by a working fluid, which is pressurised
by ram. To provide the extrusion force. Friction between bil-
let and container is elimimated in this case and this makes it
possible to extrude very long billets.
Extrusion ratio is defined as the ratio of cross sectional
area of the bullet to the cross sectional area of the product.
Extrusion Pressure
Estimation of extrusion pressure in many cases is done with
the help of empirical relation ships. One such relation for
calculating maximum pressure of backward extrusion of
carbon steel is
 A 
P = T 3.45ln 0 + 1.15 kw /mm 2
 Ab 
Where T = upper yield point, kN/mm2
A0 = cross sectional area of extruded component
Ab = cross sectional area of billet
The above expression is valid for extrusion ratios vary-
ing from 1.65 to 4.25 using billets with 0.6 length to diam-
eter ratio.
Another expression for extrusion force is
 A1 
Extrusion force = kA1 ln  
 Af 
Where k = extrusion constant
A1 = initial area of cross section
Af = final area of cross section
Drawing of  Wire, Rod and Tube
Drawing is a cold working process, used to reduce the diam-
eter of wires, rods and tubes by drawing through a tapered
hole in a die.
Wire is made by cold drawing of hot rolled wire rod
through one or more dies. Metals blow 16 mm diameter are
handled in coil form. The end of the rod or wire to be drawn
is made pointed by swaging or hammering so that it freely
enters the die orifice and sticks out behind the die. This end
is gripped by jaws of a gripper and pulled. Under the ten-
sile force material inside die undergoes deformation and its
cross sectional area is reduced.

In rod drawing the product is to be straight. Maximum
length of the rod that can be drawn depends upon the maxi-
mum travel of the carriage which the pulls the rod through
the die. Before drawing the rod is to be cleaned to remove
scales etc. This is done by acid pickling. After pickling the
metal is washed well and conditioned by sulling, coppering,
phosphating, liming etc to have to have proper lubrication.
In sulling or yellowing the blank is given a thin coating
of iron hydroxide Fe(OH)3, which combines with lime to
serve as a filler for the lubricant. Phosphating consists of
applying coating of phosphates of Mn, Fe or Zn. Lubricant
sticks to the phosphates coatings. In coppering the metal is
dipped in a weakly acidified solution of copper sulphate. In
liming the metal is dipped in a boiling lime solution. Acid
remains are neutralized by liming and forms as a carrier for
lubricant. Before drawing the metal is dried above 100°C.
A suitable lubricant is applied on the dry surface. Drawing
lubricants used are mineral and vegetable oils, animal fats,
graphite, certain emulsions etc. Considerable heat is gener-
ated during drawing. Water is circulated around the die to
remove heat.
Tube drawing also is similar to the other drawing pro-
cesses. The main difference is that a mandrel is used to form
the internal hole.
Degree of Drawing
Degree of drawing is measured as the reduction of area
(RA), which is the ratio of the difference in cross sectional
area before and after drawing to the initial cross sectional
area.
2 a = semi die angle
Di2 − D02 D 
i.e. RA = = 1– 0
Di2  D 
i
Defects in Wire Drawing
In wire drawing operations the following defects are
observed
1. Bulge formation
2. Internal cracks
3. Surface defects
4. Seams
Exercise
Practice Problems 1
1. A rectangular block of dimensions 100 × 50 × 20 mm is
to be made from cast iron by casting process. For this a
wooden pattern is to be made treating 20 mm as verti-
cal. Assuming a machining allowance of 2 mm, shrink-
age allowance of 2% and a draft allowance of 1°, find
the bottom dimensions and height of the pattern in mm.
(A) 55.9 × 106.9, 25.3
(B) 55.9 × 106.9, 24.5
(C) 55.1 × 106.1, 25.3
(D) 55.1 × 106.1, 24.5
Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.805
Bulge formation occurs infront of the die due to high die
angle and low reduction.
Internal cracks or central burst occur due to increase
in die angle or increase in the amount of impurities. It
decreases with increasing drawing ratio and friction.
Surface defects occur due to inadequate lubrication and
improper selection of drawing methods.
Longitudinal scratch or fold in materials is called seams.
Drawing Force
Force required for drawing under frictionless conditions is
given by the following expression.
 Ao 
F = Yav Af ln
A 
 f
where A0 = original area of cross section of the wire or
rod
Af = final area of cross section
Yav = average true stress of the material in die gap
Maximum reduction in diameter
2 1/ B
 Df   1 
R=1-  = 1 −  
 Do  1+ B
Where Df = final diameter
D0 = original diameter
µ
B=
tan α
where m = coefficient of friction
Hot Drawing and Cupping
This is another method of producing seamless tubes and
cylinders. A thick metal blank of circular shape is hot
pierced by a hydraulically operated plunger to form a cup
shaped product first. This is drawn through a series of dies
by pushing with plungers to reduce diameter and increase
the length. This method is generally used for producing
thick walled cylindrical products.
2. The top diameter of a down sprue is 20 mm. Its length is
180 mm. Liquid metal in the pouring up is maintained
up to 60 mm height. For ensuring flow with out aspira-
tion, the diameter of down sprue at lower end will be
(A) 16.26 mm (B) 14.15 mm
(C) 12.38 mm (D) 15.92 mm
3. A 350 mm thick slab is to be cold rolled using rolls of
650 mm diameter. If coefficient of friction is 0.08, the
maximum possible reduction in mm thickness will be
(A) 1.18 (B) 2.28
(C) 1.32 (D) 2.08
3.806  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
4. Large size bolt heads are produced by
(A) Swaging (B) Roll forging
(C) Upset forging (D) Tumbling
5. Seamless tubes in mass production are manufactured
by
(A) Rolling (B) Spinning
(C) Welding (D) Extrusion
6. Needle is produced by
(A) Forging (B) Machining
(C) Extrusion (D) Swaging
7. Frictional force between billet and die is more in the
case of
(A) Direct extrusion
(B) Indirect extrusion
(C) Impact extrusion
(D) Hydrostatic extrusion (C) 26 mm/m (D) 20 mm/m
8. Out of the following the metal that cannot be forged
is (A) Reduce the freezing time
(A) Wrought iron
(B) Mild steel
(C) Cast iron
(D) High carbon steel
9. Wire cannot be hot rolled commercially/economically
smaller than about a diameter of
(A) 10 mm (B) 5 mm
(C) 15 mm (D) 2 mm
10. Out of the following which one is not connected with
tube making
(A) Hot cupping
(B) Pilgering
(C) Three-roll piercing
(D) Rotary swaging
11. By a 10 ton press, it is meant that
(A) The weight of press is 10 ton
(B) It can handle work weighing up to 10 ton
(C) It can exert force up to 10 ton (C) Two rollers of equal diameter rotating in opposite
(D) Turn over per day is 10 mton
12. Skelton patterns are generally used for
(A) Small castings
(B) Non-ferrous castings
(C) Large castings
(D) Hollow castings
Direction for question 13 and 14:  A metal strip is to
be rolled from initial thickness of 4 mm to a final rolled
Practice Problems 2
1. A pattern maker’s shrinkage rule considers
(A) All pattern allowances
(B) Only shrinkage allowance
(C) All materials to be cast
(D) All materials of the pattern
thickness of 3 mm in a single pass rolling mill having rolls
of 300 mm diameter. The strip is 450 mm wide. The average
coefficient of friction in the roll gap is 0.08. Assume plane
strain flow stress of 140 MPa for the metal and negligible
spreading.
13. The average roll gap pressure will be
(A) 161. 56 M Pa (B) 157. 23 M Pa
(C) 169. 33 M Pa (D) 152. 88 M Pa
14. The roll separating force will be
(A) 836.7 kN (B) 832.5 kN
(C) 810.8 kN (D) 890.6 kN
15. A grey cast iron casting is to be made using a wooden
pattern. The shrinkage allowance allowed on the
wooden pattern should be
(A) 10 mm/m (B) 16 mm/m
16. Chills are used in casting moulds to
(B) Achieve directional solidification
(C) Reduce hot tear
(D) Improve surface finish
17. Upsetting is a process of
(A) Increasing cross section of a bar
(B) Reducing cross section of a bar
(C) Bending of a bar
(D) Joining two pieces of bars
18. Collapsible tubes are made by
(A) Cold extrusion forging
(B) Impact extrusion
(C) Forward hot extrusion
(D) Backward hot extrusion
19. A two–high rolling mills consists of
(A) Two rolling stands at different heights
(B) Two rollers of equal diameter rotating in same di-
rection
directions
(D) One set of rolls with two back up rolls
20. Mandrel is used in tube drawing
(A) To form the internal hole
(B) To give good surface finish
(C) To aid in pulling of the tube.
(D) To provide lubrication
2. Property of sand due to which a great amount of steam
and other gases are released is called
(A) Collapsibity
(B) Permeability
(C) Cohesiveness
(D) Flowabilitry

3. When a hole or cavity to be cored is not in line with the
parting suface, the core to be used is
(A) Horizontal core (B) Vertical core
(C) Drop core (D) Balanced core
4. Maximum possible draft in cold rolling of a sheet
increases with
(A) Increase in coefficient of friction
(B) Decrease in coefficient of friction
(C) Decrease in radius of roll
(D) Not related to radius of role
5. In a 4 high rolling mill there are four rolls out of which
(A) One is working roll and 3 are backing up rolls
(B) Two are working rolls and two are backing up rolls
(C) Three are working rolls and one is backing up roll
(D) All four rolls are working rolls
6. Metal extrusion process is generally used for producing
(A) Uniform solid sections only.
(B) Uniform hollow section only
(C) Uniform solid and hollow sections
(D) Varying solid and hollow sections
7. A solid cylinder of diameter 100 mm and height 50 mm
is forged between two frictionless flat dies to a height
of 25 mm. The percentage change in diameter is
(A) 35.6 (B) 41.4
(C) 43.7 (D) 38.8
8. Cold working of metals is carried out
(A) Below lower critical temperature
(B) Below upper critical temperature
(C) Below recrystallization temperature
(D) Below 15°C
9. Fullers are used
(A) For finishing flat surfaces
(B) For necking down a piece of work
(C) For punching a hole
(D) Bending of a bar
10. Thick walled cylinder can be produced by
(A) Hot drawing (A) 2.51 m (B) 2.82 m
(B) Hot extrusion
(C) Cold drawing
(D) Continuous drawing
11. In a foundry, two castings of same weight and material
due to be produced. One is cube shaped and the other
is cylindrical shaped with a length to diameter ratio of
0.5. Cooling time ratio of cylindrical and cubical cast-
ing is
(A) 0.95 (B) 1.05
(C) 1.15 (D) 1.22
12. A 200 mm long down sprue has an area of cross section
600 mm2 where pouring basin meets the sprue. A con-
stant head of molten metal is maintained by the pour-
ing basin. The molten metal flow rate is 6 × 105 mm3/s.
Considering the end of the down sprue to be open
Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.807
to atmosphere and an acceleration due to gravity of
104 mm/s2, the area of down sprue in mm2 at its end
(avoiding aspiration effect) should be
(A) 310.3 mm2 (B) 281.2 mm2
(C) 290.7 mm 2 (D) 268.3 mm2
13. A cubical casting of side 45 mm undergoes 3.5%, 4.5%
and 5% volume shrinkage, during liquid state, phase
transformation and solid state respectively, while cool-
ing. The volume of metal compensated from the riser is
(A) 9.5% (B) 8.5%
(C) 8% (D) 13%
14. In a rolling process a sheet of 30 mm thickness is rolled
to 25 mm thickness. Roll is of diameter 700 mm. and it
rotates at 100 rpm. The roll strip contact length will be
(A) 48.5 mm (B) 38.7 mm
(C) 41.9 mm (D) 36.3 mm
15. A brass billet is to be extruded from its initial diam-
eter of 100 mm to final diameter 60 mm. The work-
ing temperature is 700°C and the extrusion constant is
250 MPa. The force required for extrusion is
(A) 12.97 kN (B) 11.46kN
(C) 16.92 kN (D) 10.13 kN
16 In a wire drawing operation, diameter of a steel wire is
reduced from 12 mm to 10 mm. The mean flow stress
of the material is 400 Mpa. The ideal force, ignoring
friction and redundant work is
(A) 12.97 kN (B) 11.46 kN
(C) 16.92 kN (D) 10.13 kN
Direction for questions 17, 18  A cylindrical billet of 100
mm diameter is forged from 60 mm height at 1000°C. The
material has a constant flow stress of 80 MPa
17. Find the work of deformation in Nm.
(A) 31400 (B) 30210
(B) 25120 (D) 28105
18. If a 10 kN drop hammer is used to complete the reduc-
tion in one blow, what will be the height of the fall?
(C) 3.14 m (D) 2.73 m
19. A mould has down sprue whose length is 25 cm and
cross sectional area at the base 1.5 cm2. The down
sprue feeds a horizontal runner leading to mould cav-
ity of volume 1500 cm3. The time required to fill the
mould cavity will be
(A) 3.61 sec (B) 5.05 sec
(C) 4.51 sec (D) 5.81 sec
20. In a rolling operation a 25 mm thick plate of width
100 mm is reduced to 20 mm thickness. Roller radius
is 300 mm and rotational speed is 10 rpm. The aver-
age flow stress for the material is 300 MPa. The power
required for rolling operation in kw is approximately
(A) 365 (B) 472
(C) 343 (D) 387
3.808  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

21. A cubic casting of 60 mm side undergoes volumetric (C) Extrusion

solidification shrinkage and volumetric solid contrac-
tion 3% and 5% respectively no riser is used. The side
of the cube after the solidification and contraction will
be (assume uniform cooling in all direction
(A) 58.98 mm (B) 59.65 mm
(C) 59.32 mm (D) 58.39 mm
22. During hot working of metals
(A) Porosity of metal is largely eliminated
(B) Grain structure of the metal is refined
(C)  Mechanical properties are improved due to
refinement of grains
(D) All of the above
23. Structurals of sections such as rails, angles, I–beam etc
are made by
(A) Hot rolling (B) Hot drawing
(C) Hot piercing (D) Hot extrusion
24. Forging temperature of medium carbon steel is
approximately
(A) 950°C to 1300°C
(B) 750°C to 1250°C
(C) 800°C to 1100°C
3 0. The term ‘shape factor’ is used in
(D) 900°C to 1250°C
25. Pressing a hot metal inside a chamber and forcing it out
by high pressure through an orifice to form a product is
called
(A) Hot drawing
(B) Pressing
(D) Hot piercing
26. Metal patterns are generally used for
(A) Small castings
(B) Medium castings
(C) Complicated castings
(D) Mass productions of castings
27. As per the general colour code, surface to be left un
machined is marked on a pattern by
(A) Red colour (B) Black colour
(C) Yellow colour (D) Blue colour
28. Mass of a grey cast iron casting is 20 Kg and its aver-
age section thickness is 15 mm. Fluidity of iron is 28
inches. Optimum pouring time for the casting is
(A) 7.63 sec (B) 8.58 sec
(C) 9.32 sec (D) 6.75 sec
29. In the case of a pressurized gating system
(A) A sprue base area is the smallest
(B) Runner cross section area is the smallest.
(C) Ingate area is the smallest.
(D) Ingate area is the largest.
(A) Riser design
(B) Pouring time calculation
(C) Pattern design
(D) Core design

Previous Years’ Questions

1. Misrun is a casting defect which occurs due to 4. Match the following: [2004]
 [2004]
Product Process
(A) Very high pouring temperature of the metal
(B) Insufficient fluidity of the molten metal P.  Molded luggage 1.  Injection molding
(C) Absorption of gases by the liquid metal Q.  Packaging 2. Hot rolling containers
(D) Improper alignment of the mould flasks for liquid
R. Long structural 3.  Impact extrusion
2. Gray cast iron blocks 200 × 100 ×10 mm are to be cast
shapes
in sand moulds. Shrinkage allowance for pattern mak-
S.  Collapsible tubes 4.  Transfer molding
ing is 1%. The ratio of the volume of pattern to that of
the casting will be [2004] 5.  Blow molding
(A) 0.97 (B) 0.99 6.  Coining
(C) 1.01 (D) 1.03 (A) P-1 Q-4 R-6 S-3
3. In a rolling process, sheet of 25 mm thick- (B) P-4 Q-5 R-2 S-3
ness is rolled to 20 mm thickness. (C) P-1 Q-5 R-3 S-2
Roll is of diameter 600 mm and it rotates at 100 rpm. (D) P-5 Q-1 R-2 S-2
The roll strip contact length will be [2004] 5. Match the items of List I (Equipment) with the items
(A) 5 mm (B) 39 mm of List II (Process) and select the correct answer using
(C) 78 mm (D) 120 mm the given codes. [2005]
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.809

List (Equipment) List (Process) 11. In a wire drawing operation, diameter of a steel wire
P – Hot chamber machine 1.  Cleaning
is reduced from 10 mm to 8 mm. The mean flow stress
of the material is 400 MPa. The ideal force required
Q – Muller 2.  Core making
for drawing (ignoring friction and redundant work) is:
R – Dielectric baker 3.  Die casting  [2006]
S – Sand blaster 4.  Annealing (A) 4.48 kN (B) 8.97 kN
5.  Sand mixing (C) 20.11 kN (D) 31.41 kN
(A) P – 2 Q – 1 R – 4 S – 5 12. Which of the following engineering materials is the
(B) P – 4 Q – 2 R – 3 S – 5 most suitable candidate for hot chamber die casting?
(C) P – 4 Q – 5 R – 1 S – 2  [2007]
(D) P – 3 Q – 5 R – 2 S – 1 (A) Low carbon steel (B) Titanium
(C) Copper (D) Tin
6. A mould has a downsprue whose length is 20 cm and
the cross sectional area at the base of the downsprue is 13. Volume of a cube of side ‘I’ and volume of a sphere of
1 cm2. The down sprue feeds horizontal runner lead- radius ‘r’ are equal. Both the cube and the sphere are
ing into the mould cavity of volume 1000 cm3. The solid and of same material. They are being cast. The
time required to fill the mould cavity will be [2005] ratio of the solidification time of the cube to the same
(A) 4.05 s (B) 5.05 s of the sphere is  [2007]
3 2
(C) 6.05 s (D) 7.25 s
(A) ⎛ 4p ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞ (B) 4p
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ r
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
7. A 2 mm thick metal sheet is to be bent at an angle 6 l 6 l
of one radian with a bend radius of 100 mm. If the 2
⎛ 4p ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞ (D)
3
⎛ 4p ⎞ ⎛ r ⎞
2 4
stretch factor is 0.5, the bend allowance is [2005] (C)
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
6 l 6 l

2 mm
14. In open-die forging, a disc of diameter 200 mm and
1 Radian
(A) 99 mm (B) 100 mm
(C) 101 mm (D) 102 mm
8. An expendable pattern is used in [2006]
(A) Slush casting
(B) Squeeze casting
(C) Centrifugal casting
(D) Investment casting
9. In a sand casting operation, the total liquid head is
maintained constant such that it is equal to the mould
height. The time taken to fill the mould with a top gate
is tA. If the same mould is filled with a bottom gate,
then the time taken is tB. Ignore the time required to
fill the runner and frictional effects. Assume atmos-
pheric pressure at the top molten metal surfaces. The
relation between tA and tB is: [2006]
(A) tB = 2 tA (B) tB = 2tA
t
(C) t B = A (D) tB = 2 2 tA
2 Basin
10. A 4 mm thick sheet is rolled with 300 mm diameter rolls
to reduce thickness without any change in its width. The
friction coefficient at the work–roll interface is 0.1. The
minimum possible thickness of the sheet that can be pro-
duced in a single pass is: [2006]
(A) 1.0 mm (B) 1.5 mm
(C) 2.5 mm (D) 3.7 mm
height 60 mm is compressed without any barreling
effect. The final diameter of the disc is 400 mm. The
true strain is [2007]
(A) 1.986 (B) 1.686
(C) 1.386 (D) 0.602
15. The thickness of a metallic sheet is reduced from an
initial value of 16 mm to a final value of 10 mm in one
single pass rolling with a pair of cylindrical rollers
each of diameter of 400 mm. The bite angle in degree
will be [2007]
(A) 5.936 (B) 7.936
(C) 8.936 (D) 9.936
16. A 200 mm long down sprue has an area of cross-­
section of 650 mm2 where the pouring basin meets the
down sprue (i.e., at the beginning of the down sprue).
A constant head of molten metal is maintained by the
pouring basin. The molten metal flow rate is 6.5 × 105
mm3/s. Considering the end of down sprue to be open
to atmosphere and an acceleration due to gravity of
104 mm/s2, the area of the down sprue in mm2 at its
end (avoiding aspiration effect) should be [2007]
Pouring
650 mm2
Area of down
200mm
sprue at its end
3.810  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
(A) 650.0 (B) 350.0
(C) 290.7 (D) 190.0
17. While cooling, a cubical casting of side 40 mm under-
goes 3%, 4% and 5% volume shrinkage during the liq-
uid state, phase transition and solid state, respectively.
The volume of metal compensated from the riser is
 [2008]
(A) 2% (B) 7%
(C) 8% (D) 9%
18. In a single pass rolling operation, a 20 mm thick plate
with plate width of 100 mm, is reduced to 18 mm.
The roller radius is 250 mm and rotational speed is
10 rpm. The average flow stress for the plate material
is 300 MPa. The power required for the rolling opera-
tion in kW is closest to  [2008]
(A) 15.2 (B) 18.2 ter steel rollers, a strip of width 140 mm and thickness
(C) 30.4 (D) 45.6
19. Two streams of liquid metal, which are not hot enough
to fuse properly, result into a casting defect known as
 [2008]
(A) Cold shut (B) Swell
(C) Sand wash (D) Scab
20. Match the items in Column I and Column II. [2009]
Column I Column II
(P)  Metallic chills (1)  Support for the core
(Q)  Metallic chaplets (2) Reservoir of the molten
metal
(R)  Riser (3) Control cooling of critical
sections
(S) Exothermic (4) Progressive
padding solidification
29. An aluminium alloy (density 2600 kg/m ) casting is
(A) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4
(B) P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3
(C) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1
(D) P-4, Q-1, R-2, S-3
21. In a gating system, the ratio 1: 2: 4 represents [2010]
(A) Sprue base area: runner area: ingate area
(B) Pouring basin area: ingate area: runner area
(C) Sprue base area: ingate area: casting area
(D) Runner area: ingate area: casting area
22. The maximum possible draft in cold rolling of sheet
increases with the [2011]
(A) Increase in coefficient of friction
(B) Decrease in coefficient of friction
(C) Decrease in roll radius
(D) Increase in roll velocity
23. Green sand mould indicates that [2011]
(A) Polymeric mould has been cured
(B) Mould has been totally dried
(C) Mould is green in colour
(D) Mould contains moisture
24. A cubic casting of 50 mm side undergoes volumet-
ric solidification shrinkage and volumetric solid con-
traction of 4% and 6% respectively. No riser is used.
Assume uniform cooling in all directions. The side
of the cube after solidification and contraction is.
 [2011]
(A) 48.32 mm (B) 49.90 mm
(C) 49.94 mm (D) 49.96 mm
25. A solid cylinder of diameter 100 mm and height 50
mm is forged between two frictionless flat dies to a
height of 25 mm. The percentage change in diameter
is [2012]
(A) 0 (B) 2.07
(C) 20.7 (D) 41.4
26. In a single pass rolling process using 410 mm diame-
8 mm undergoes 10% reduction of thickness. The
angle of bite in radians is [2012]
(A) 0.006 (B) 0.031
(C) 0.062 (D) 0.600
27. A cube shaped casting solidifies in 5 min. The solidi-
fication time in min for a cube of the same material,
which is 8 times heavier than the original casting, will
be [2013]
(A) 10 (B) 20
(C) 24 (D) 40
28. In a rolling process, the state of stress of the material
undergoing deformation is [2013]
(A) Pure compression
(B) Pure shear
(C) Compression and shear
(D) Tension and shear
3
to be produced. A cylindrical hole of 100 mm diam-
eter and 100 mm length is made in the casting using
sand core (density 1600 Kg/m3). The net buoyancy
force (in newton) acting on the core is _____ [2014]
30. With respect to metal working, match Group A with
Group B: [2014]
Group A Group B
(P)  Defect in extrusion (I)  Alligatoring
(Q)  Defect in rolling (II)  Scab
(R)  Product of skew rolling (III)  Fish tail
(S) Product of rolling (IV)  Seamless tube
through cluster mill
(V)  Thin sheet with tight tolerance
(VI) Semi-finished balls of ball
bearing
(A) P - II, Q - III, R - VI, S – V
(B) P - III, Q - I, R - VI, S - V
(C) P - III, Q - I, R - IV, S - VI
(D) P - I, Q - II, R - V, S - VI
 Chapter 2  •  Metal Casting and Forming  |  3.811

31. A mild steel plate has to be rolled in one pass such that 37. The solidification time of a casting is proportional to
2
the final plate thickness is 2/3rd of the initial thickness, ⎛V ⎞
with the entrance speed of 10 m/min and roll diameter ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ , where V is the volume of the casting and A is
A
of 500 mm. If the plate widens by 2% during rolling, the the total casting surface area losing heat. Two cubes
exit velocity (in m/min) is ____ [2014] of same material and size are cast using sand cast-
32. Match the casting defects (Group A) with the prob- ing process. The top face of one of the cubes is com-
able causes (Group B): [2014] pletely insulated. The ratio of the solidification time
for the cube with top face insulated to that of the other
Group A Group B
cube is: [2015]
P:  Hot tears 1. Improper fusion of two streams of liquid metal 25 36
Q:  Shinkage 2. Low permeability of the sand mould
(A) (B)
36 25
3. Volumetric contraction both in liquid and
R:  Blow holes
solid stage
6
(C) 1 (D)
S:  Could Shut 4.  Differential cooling rate 5
38. In a slab rolling operation, the maximum thickness
(A) P-1, Q-3, R-2, S-4 (B) P-4, Q-3, R-2, S-1 reduction (∆hmax) is given by ∆hmax = µ2R, where R is
(C) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1 (D) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3 the radius of the roll and µ is the coefficient of friction
3 3. The hot tearing in a metal casting is due to [2014] between the roll and the sheet. If µ = 0.1, the maxi-
(A) High fluidity mum angle subtended by the deformation zone at the
(B) High melt temperature centre of the roll (bite angle in degrees) is ______.
(C) Wide range of solidification temperature  [2015]
(D) Low coefficient of thermal expansion 39. A cube and a sphere made of cast iron (each of vol-
34. In a rolling process, the maximum possible draft, ume 1000 cm3) were cast under identical conditions.
defined as the difference between the initial and the The time taken for solidifying the cube was 4s. The
final thickness of the metal sheet, mainly depends on solidification time (in s) for the sphere is ______.
which pair of the following parameters? [2014]  [2015]
(P) Strain 40. In a two-stage wire drawing operation, the fractional
(Q) Strength of the work material reduction (ratio of change in cross-sectional area to
initial cross-sectional area) in the first stage is 0.4.
(R) Roll diameter
The fractional reduction in the second stage is 0.3.
(S) Roll velocity The overall fractional reduction is: [2015]
(T) Coefficient of friction between roll and work (A) 0.24 (B) 0.58 (C) 0.60 (D) 1.00
(A) Q, S (B) R, T 41. The strain hardening exponent n of stainless steel SS
(C) S, T (D) P, R 304 with distinct yield and UTS values undergoing
35. A cylindrical riser of 6 cm diameter and 6 cm height plastic deformation is [2015]
has to be designed for a sand casting mould for pro- (A) n < 0 (B) n = 0
ducing a steel rectangular plate casting of 7 cm × (C) 0 < n < 1 (D) n=1
10 cm × 2 cm dimensions having the total solidifica- 42. In full mould (cavity–less) casting process, the pat-
tion time of 1.36 minute. The total solidification time tern is made of: [2015]
(in minute) of the riser is _____ [2014] (A) Expanded polystyrene (B) Wax
36. Match the following products with preferred manu- (C) Epoxy (D) Plaster of Paris
facturing processes: [2015] 43. In a rolling operation using rolls of diameter 500 mm,
Product Process if a 25 mm thick plate cannot be reduced to less than
P Rails 1 Blow molding
20 mm in one pass, the coefficient of friction between
the roll and the plate is _____. [2015]
Q Engine crankshaft 2 Extrusion
44. Ratio of solidification time of a cylindrical casting
R Aluminium channels 3 Forging
(height = radius) to that of a cubic casting of side two
S PET water bottles 4 Rolling
times the height of cylindrical casting is ____.
(A) P–4, Q–3, R–1, S–2 45. The dimensions of a cylindrical side riser (height =
(B) P–4, Q–3, R–2, S–1 diameter) for a 25 cm × 15 cm × 5 cm steel casting are
(C) P–2, Q–4, R–3, S–1 to be determined. For the tabulated shape factor val-
(D) P–3, Q–4, R–2, S–1 ues given below as follows, the diameter of the riser
(in cm) is ______. [2015]
3.812  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Shape factor 2 4 6 8 10 12 (A) 150 (B) 200

(C) 100 (D) 125
Riser Volume/
1.0 0.70 0.55 0.50 0.40 0.35 49. A 300 mm thick slab is being cold rolled using roll of
Casting volume
600 mm diameter. If the coefficient of friction is 0.08,
46. The part of a gating system which regulates the rate of the maximum possible reduction (in mm) is _______.
pouring of molten metal is: [2016]
(A) pouring basin (B) runner [2016]
(C) choke (D) in gate 50. Gray cast iron blocks of size 100 mm × 50 mm ×
47. Heat is removed from a molten metal of mass 2 kg at 10 mm with a central spherical cavity of diameter 4
a constant rate of 10 kW till it is completely solidified. mm are sand cast. The shrinkage allowance for the
The cooling curve is shown in the figure. pattern is 3%. The ratio of the volume of the patter to
volume of the casting is ______. [2016]
1100
(0s, 1023K) 51. Equal amounts of a liquid metal at the same tem-
1000
perature are poured into three moulds made of steel,
Temperature (K)

900 (20s, 873K) copper and aluminum. The shape of the cavity is a cyl-
800 (10s, 873K)
inder with 15 mm diameter. The sizes of the moulds
700 are such that the outside temperature of the moulds do
600 not increase appreciably beyond the atmospheric tem-
(30s, 600K) perature during solidification. The sequence of solidi-
500
0 10 20 30 40 fication in the mould from the fastest to slowest is
Time (s)
(Thermal conductivities of steel, copper and alu-
Assuming uniform temperature throughout the vol- minum are 60.5, 401 and 237 W/m-K, respectively
ume of the metal during solidification, the latent Specific heats of steel, copper and aluminum are 434,
heat of fusion of the metal (in kJ/kg) is _______. 385 and 903 J/kg-K, respectively. Densities of steel,
 [2016] copper and aluminum are 7854, 8933 and 2700 kg/
48. A cylindrical job with diameter of 200 mm and height m3, respectively.) [2016]
of 100 mm is to be cast using modulus method of riser (A) Copper–Steel–Aluminum
design. Assume that the bottom surface of cylindri- (B) Aluminum–Steel–Copper
cal riser does not contribute as cooling surface. If the (C) Copper–Aluminum–Steel
diameter of the riser is equal to its height, then the (D) Steel–Copper–Aluminum
height of the riser (in mm) is [2016]

Answer Keys
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. D 2. B 3. D 4. C 5. D 6. D 7. A 8. C 9. B 10. D
11. C 12. C 13. A 14. D 15. C 16. B 17. A 18. B 19. C 20. A

Practice Problems 2
1. B 2. B 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. C 7. B 8. C 9. B 10. A
11. B 12. D 13. C 14. C 15. B 16. B 17. A 18. C 19. C 20. A
21. D 22. D 23. A 24. B 25. C 26. D 27. B 28. A 29. C 30.  A

Previous Year’s Questions

1. B 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. D 6. B 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. C
11. B 12. D 13. D 14. C 15. D 16. C 17. B 18. None 19. A 20. D
21. A 22. A 23. D 24. A 25. D 26. C 27. B 28. C 29.  7 to 8 30. B
31.  14.6 to 14.8 32. B 33. C 34. B 35.  2.5 to 4.5 36. B 37. B
38.  5.6 to 5.8 39.  6.0 to 6.3 40. B 41. C 42. A 43.  0.10 to 0.15
44.  0.5 to 0.6 45.  10.5 to 10.7 46. C 47. 50 48. A 49.  1.9 – 1.94 mm
50.  1.08 to 1.10 51. C
 Chapter 3
Sheet Metal Working
Joining Processes
chapter highlights

☞☞ Sheet Metal Working ☞☞ Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

☞☞ Drawing ☞☞ Electric Resistance Welding
☞☞ Shearing Action ☞☞ Welding Equations
☞☞ Provision of Shear ☞☞ Heat Input and Heat Flow in Welding
☞☞ Energy in Presswork ☞☞ Gas Welding
☞☞ Powder Metallurgy ☞☞ Oxygen and Acetylene Cylinders
☞☞ Solid State Welding ☞☞ Oxy–fuel Gas Cutting (OFC)
☞☞ Electric Arc Welding ☞☞ Brazing, Braze Welding and Soldering
☞☞ AC Welding Equipment

Sheet Metal Working

Punch
Sheet metal working or press working of sheet metals is a
chipless manufacturing method producing various compo- Blank
nents using sheet metal. The operations are generally car- holder
ried out by punches and dies. These can be grouped into
Blank
two categories. before
drawing
1. Cutting or shearing operations
2. Forming operations
Die
Cutting/shearing operations involve shearing action and Drawn cup
include blanking, piercing, punching, notching, perforating,
trimming, shaving, slitting, lancing, slotting, parting etc.
Forming operations include bending, drawing, squeez- In a single drawing operation the diameter of the blank can
ing, spinning etc. be reduced 1.8 to 2 times less than that of the initial blank.
If a further reduction is required the blank is to be redrawn.
Drawing
D
Drawing is the process of shaping a flat or hollow blank into ∴ = 1.8 to 2
a three dimensional hollow component without any appreci- d
able change in sheet thickness. Considerable compressive
D-d
stresses appear in the flange portion of the blank drawn % Reduction = ×100
and this causes wrinkling if the blank thickness is small. D
To prevent wrinkling, a blank holder is used. The portion of Where D = blank diameter
blank between the die wall and the punch surfaces is under d = cup diameter
tension.
3.814  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Blank Size Re-drawing

Blank diameter, D can be estimated using the formulae When the blank diameter and the final cut diameter is
given below. very large, the drawing operation requires more than one
Let h = height of cup stage. The drawings after the first stage is called re-drawings.
r = corner radius of cup
d = outside diameter of cup Reverse Drawing
When a cup is drawn reverse to the original direction of
d drawing it is called reverse drawing. Reverse drawing helps
If ≥ 20,
r strain softening.
D = d 2 + 4 dh Defects in Deep Drawing
d Bulging, buckling, earing and surface scratch are some
If 15 ≤ ≤ 20 defects noticed in deep drawing.
r
Bulging happens when the outer diameter of a cylindri-
D = d 2 + 4 dh − 0.5r cal shell or outer walls of a box shaped shell expands from
the straight shape.
If 10 ≤ ≤ 15, D = d 2 + 4 dh − r Excessive compressive stress causes uncontrolled defor-
mation pattern perpendicular to the surface of the sheet. As
d a result, a bend, kink or wavy condition is formed on the
If ≤ 10 surface This is called buckling.
r
Edges formed around the top of a drawn sheet is called
D= (d − 2r )2 + 4d ( h − r ) + 2π r (d − 0.7r ) earing.
Bending: It is the operation in which a flat sheet or strip
If the depth to diameter ratio (i.e, h/d ) is greater than 0.4 is uniformly strained in a linear axis, which lies in the neu-
drawing is called deep drawing otherwise it is shallow tral plane and perpendicular to the length wise direction.
drawing. In bending a straight length is transformed into a curved
length. The strain in the bent material increases when
the radius of curvature decreases. The neutral axis of the
Solved Examples
­section moves towards the inner surface. Distance of neu-
Example 1:  A cup of 10 cm height and 5 cm diameter with tral axis from inside surface is 0.3 t to 0.5 t depending
2.5 mm corner radius is to be made from a metal sheet of 3 upon the radius of curvature, where t is the thickness of
mm thickness by drawing. Determine the number of draws the part.
required.
Set back
Solution: h = 10 cm = 100 mm Set back Neutral plane
d = 5 cm = 50 mm
t = 3 mm t
r = 2.5 mm t1
d 50 R
= = 20
r 2.5 θ
d
If ≥ 20
r θ Bevel angle
Blank radius D = d 2 + 4 dh

= 50 2 + 4 × 50 × 100
= 150 mm t1
Stretch factor or k factor k =
D 150 t
= =3
d 50  = 0.33 when R < 2t
For a single draw blank diameter should not be greater than  = 0.5 when R > 2t
twice the drawn diameter. Where R = inside bend radius
∴ Number of draws required is 2. t = material thickness
t1 = distance of neutral plane from inside surface
Ironing
θπ
Ironing is the deep drawing operation in which the shell Bend allowance BA = ( R + kt )
wall thickness is reduced and surface is made smooth. 180°
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.815
Where q = bend angle in degrees
(Bend allowance is the distance along the neutral plane
corresponding to bend angle).
Example 2:  A 3 mm thick metal sheet is to be bent at an
angle of 1.5 radian with a radius of 150 mm. If the k-factor
is 0.5, the bend allowance is
Solution: t = 3 mm Piercing/punching: It is the production of a hole in a
q = 1.5 radian sheet metal by the punch and die. The operation is same as
R = 150 mm blanking. But here, the material punched out constitute the
k = 0.5
Bend allowance
= (R + kt)q
= (150 + 0.5 × 3) x 1.5
= 227.25 mm
Notching: It is the operation in which metal pieces are
cut from the edge of a sheet, strip or blank.
Perforating: It means cutting very small holes which are
very close, in a sheet metal.
Trimming: It is the cutting and removal of unwanted
excess material from the periphery of a previously by
formed component.
Shaving: It is Removal of thin strip of metal from a
blanked part to make it dimensionally accurate and smooth
is called shaving.
Slitting: It is the operation of cutting a sheet metal along
the length.
Slotting
Cutting of elongated holes or slots is called slotting.
Parting
Shearing of a sheet metal into two or more pieces is called
parting.
Lancing: It is a cutting operation in which a hole is par-
tially cut and the cut portions is bent.
Nibbling: It is removing metal in small increments.
When a specified contour is to be cut in a sheet metal a
small punch is used to punch repeatedly by along the
contour.
Squeezing: In this operation, metal is caused to flow to
all portions of die cavity under the action of compressive
forces.
Spinning: It is the operation of shaping of thin metal by
pressing it against a form, while it is rotating. Spinning is
done on lathe like machines.
Stretch forming: is the process of producing contoured
parts by stretching metal sheets over a shaped form block.
Embossing: It is the operation of producing raised or
depressed impression of figures, letter or design on sheet
metal parts.
Coining: It refers to the cold squeezing of metal under
compressive forces, while all the surfaces are confined
within a set of dies. Used for production of coins, medals
etc. The pressure required is 5 to 6 times the strength of the
material, in order to produce fine details.
Blanking: It is the operation of cutting a flat piece of
required shape from a sheet using a punch and a die. The
metal punched out is the required product and it is called
a blank.
waste and the sheet with hole is the required product. In
punching the hole produced is circular. In piercing it can be
of any shape.
Shearing Action
When the sheet metal is placed between two shearing blades
and pressed the metal is brought to plastic stage and frac-
ture is initiated at the cutting edges. The fracture on either
side of the sheet further progress with the movement of the
upper shear and finally separates the slug from the parent
sheet.
Metal under the upper shear is subjected to both tensile
and compressive stresses. The upper shear pushes the metal
about one third of the thickness in an ideal shearing opera-
tion. The area of cross section between the cutting edges
gets reduced and facture is initiated. If the clearance is suf-
ficient, further movement of the upper shear will cause the
fractures to meet and complete the shearing action.
Clearance
Clearance between the shears is an important factor which
controls the shearing process. The clearance can be approxi-
mated as.
C = 0.0032 × t × τ mm
Where t = sheet thickness in mm
t = material shear stress in MPa
Punching Force
The force required on a punch in order to shear out the blank
from the stock is given by the formula.
F = Ltt
Where L = length (perimeter)
t = thickness
t = shear strength
Punching force for holes with diameter less than the thick-
ness may be estimated as,
dts
F=
3
d
t
Where d = diameter of punch, mm
s = tensile strength of stock, MPa
3.816  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Provision of Shear Energy in Presswork

Shear is provided on a punch or die to reduce the required Energy or work done to make a cut is given as
shearing force. For example, this may be required to accom- E = Fmax × punch travel
modate a component on a smaller capacity punch press.
Shear is ground on the face of die or punch. This distributes = Fmax × k × t
cutting force over a period of time depending on the amount Where k = percentage of penetration required to cause
of shear provided. This reduces the maximum force to be rupture.
applied, but does not alter the total work done. t = thickness of sheet
Provision of shear on the punch will change the slug and Fmax =Ltt
shear provided on the die will change the stock. So shear is
provided on the die for blanking and on the punch for pierc- To account for energy lost in machine friction the energy
ing. Therefore for blanking operations, equation may be modified as
blank size = die size T = Fmax × k × t × C
And for piercing/punching operation, where C = factor to account for machine friction.
blank size = punch size When shear is provided, let F be the punching force
Force required
Stock Punch with Then E = F(kt + S)
concave shear Where S = shear
F(kt + S) = Fmax kt
Fmax kt
Die or F =
kt + S
Slug
Example 4:  12 mm diameter holes are to be punched in a
steel plate of 3 mm thickness and shear strength 400 MPa.
Piercing operation Shear provided on the punch is 2 mm and penetration is 40%.
Determine the blanking force required for the operation.
Punch
Punch Solution:  d = 12 mm
t = 3 mm
S S
tu = 400 MPa = 400 N/mm2
Unbalanced Balanced Penetration = 40% = 0.4
shear shear
Shear S = 2 mm
Example 3:  Calculate the die and punch sizes for blanking Fmax = pdt tu
a circular disc of 22 mm diameter from a C 20 steel sheet  = p × 12 × 3 × 400
with thickness 1.5 mm. Determine also the punching force
 = 45,239 N
(Shear strength for C 20 steel = 294 MPa).
Fmax kt = F(kt + S )
Solution:  Clearance
C = 0.0032 × t × τ Fmax kt
or F =
= 0.0032 × 1.5 × 294 kt + S
= 0.0823 mm ~ 0.10 mm 45239(0.4 × 3)
For blanking operation, =
(0.4 × 3) + 2
Die size = blank size
= 22 mm = 16965 N.
Punch size = blank size – 2C
= 22 – 0.2 = 21.8 mm Powder Metallurgy
For piercing operations, Powder metallurgy is a process of making reliable ferrous
Punch size = hole size = 22 mm and non-ferrous components from ferrous and non-ferrous
Die size = hole size + 2C powders. Originally it was used to replace castings of met-
= 22 + 0.2 = 22.2 mm als of very high melting point. The development of the tech-
Punching force =  Ltt nique made it possible to produce the product economically
= p × 22 × 1.5 × 294 × 10-3 and now a days it occupies and important place in the metal
= 30.4 kN. processing field.
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.817
Basic Steps of the Process
Basic steps of the manufacturing of parts by powder
metallurgy are
1. Production of metal powders
2. Blending and mixing of powders
3. Compaction
4. Sintering
5. Finishing operations
Production of Metal Powders
Depending on the type and nature of the metal, various
methods are available for production of metal powders.
Some of the methods are
1. Atomization
2. Machining
3. Crushing and milling
4. Reduction
5. Electrolytic deposition
6. Shotting
7. Condensation
In atomization, molten metal is forced through a small
orifice and is broken into the form of small particles by a
powerful jet of compressed air, inert gas or water. These
particles are allowed to solidify to get the powder. This
method is used for low melting point alloys.
In machining, metal chips produced by filing, turning
etc are pulverized by crushing and milling. The powders
obtained are coarse and irregular in shape. This method is
mainly used for production of magnesium powder.
Crushing and milling methods are used for brittle mate-
rials. Ceramic powder is produced by this method. It is also
used for powders of some metals and alloys.
In the method of reduction pure metal is produced by the
reduction of metallic oxides using suitable reducing gas at
high temperature before melting point. Later this reduced
product is crushed and milled to powder.
Electrolytic deposition method is mainly used for pro-
duction of iron and copper powders. Metallic powder
deposited on cathode plates are scrapped off, washed,
dried and pulverized to produce powder of the required
grain size.
Shotting is used for metals of low melting points. Molten
metal is poured through a sieve or orifice and cooled by
dropping into water. This produces larger size spherical par-
ticles. This is used for low melting point metals.
In the method of condensation metals are boiled to pro-
duce vapour and condensed to obtain powder. Powders of
volatile metals like zinc, magnesium and cadmium are pro-
duced by this method.
Blending and Mixing
In the blending and mixing process metallic powders in
the required proportion are mixed uniformly. Binders are
added to develop the required green strength. Lubricants are
added to reduce inter particle friction and to reduce die wall
friction.
Compaction
Compaction is the process of pressing the blended powder
to shape in dies. A green compact of accurate size and shape
is obtained in this process. Pressing, centrifugal compact-
ing, slip casting, extrusion, gravity sintering, rolling, explo-
sive moulding etc are some of the compacting methods.
Sintering
Sintering is the process of heating the green compact at high
temperatures below melting point in a controlled atmos-
phere. Sintering increases the bond between particles and
increases strength of the powder metal compact. Sintering
temperature is usually 0.6 to 0.8 times the melting point of
the powder. If powders of different melting points are used,
the sintering temperature is above the melting point of one
of the low melting point consistent.
Finishing Operations
Finishing operations are secondary operations intended for
providing dimensional tolerances, better surface finish etc.
Finishing operations are
1. Coining: It is the repressing of the sintered compo-
nent in the die to increase density and to provide the
required surface details.
2. Forging or hot densification: It is the method in which
desired shape is given to the sintered part at elevated
temperature and pressure in dies.
3. Machining: Machining is the operation carried out on
the sintered part for making threads, holes slots etc,
which cannot be provided during the powder metal-
lurgy process.
4. Sizing: It is the process in which the sintered compo-
nent is repressed to achieve the required accuracy.
5. Heat treatment: It is the heating and cooling treat-
ment done on the part to achieve wear resistance, grain
structure and strength.
6. Plating: Plating is done on the parts to attain surface
finish and colour, protection from corrosion and to
improve electrical conductivity etc.
7. Infiltration: In this process pores of the part are filled
with molten metal to improve physical properties.
8. Stream treating: In this process sintered part is given
oxide coating.
9. Joining: Two sintered parts are joined by welding,
brazing etc.
10. Impregnation: It is the process in which the sintered
part is filled with lubricants such as oil, greeze etc for
using as bearings.
11. Repressing: By repressing, density of the sintered part
is increased. It also improves the mechanical properties.
3.818  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Joining Processes Fusion or Non-pressure welding

Joining two or more elements to make a single part is
termed as a joining or fabrication process. Joining process Heat generated by
include mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws or riv-
ets; adhesive bonding by employing synthetic glues such as
epoxy resins, welding, brazing and soldering .
Choice of a particular process depends on type of assem- Radiant Electric
Chemical
bly (permanent, semi-permanent or temporary); materials, reaction
energy arc
economy, type of service (heavy loading, light loading, high
temperature etc.) Electron
Atomic Gas Thermit
beam
Joining by adhesive bonding is done using adhesives hydrogen welding welding
welding
welding
such as thermosetting resins, thermoplastic resins, silicone
resins and elastomers. Elastomers such as natural rubbers Laser
when mixed with thermosetting resins reduce brittleness Beam W
and provide toughness for shock resistance.
Carbon Shielded Inert gas Submerged Stud arc
Welding laser metal welding arc welding
Welding is the most extensively used joining method. In welding arc welding
welding
welding, the joining takes place through atomic bonding.
Atomic bonding may be solid state, liquid state or solid liq-
uid state.
For the bonding to take place heat or pressure or both TIG MIG
welding welding
heat and pressure are to be applied at the joints.
In fusion welding heat is applied at the joints and in pres-
sure type welding pressure also applied apart from heat. Solid State Welding
In all welding process, except cold welding process, heat Cold welding, friction welding, diffusion welding, forge
is applied for the bonding to take place. Therefore there welding etc are examples of solid state welding. Cold weld-
should be one heat source. ing includes pressure welding, ultrasonic welding, and
Fusion welding is a non pressure liquid state welding explosive welding.
Bonding takes place in a metallurgical fusion process where In fusion welding process melting of metal takes place.
interface of two parts are brought above melting point and Therefore there should be a source of heat. In electric arc
then allowed to solidify. welding, electric resistance welding and induction welding
Electric arc welding, Induction welding, gas welding, heat is generated by thermo chemical actions.
thermit welding etc are examples of fusion welding. In gas welding and thermit welding heat is generated by
Forge welding, resistance welding, friction welding thermo chemical actions.
and cold pressure welding are examples of pressure type In new generation welding processes such as electron
welding. beam welding, laser beam welding etc radiant energy is the
Classifications of welding processes are shown in the source of heat for welding.
figures.
Electric Arc Welding
Pressure welding
Electric arc welding is a fusion welding process. Welding
heat is obtained from an electric arc between the work (or
Heat generated by base metal) and electrode.
Cold pressure
Electric arc is produced when two conductors in an elec-
welding tric circuit, which are touched together are separated by a
small distance, such that there is sufficient voltage in the
Fire Electric current Friction
circuit to maintain the flow of current through the gaseous
medium. Temperature produced is 6000°C to 7000°C.
Blacksmiths Resistance Friction The depression created on the base metal due to the arc
forge welding welding
is called crater.
welding
DC or AC current can be used for arc welding. DC volt-
age required is 60 to 80 V for striking the arc and 15 to 25 V
Spot Seam Projection Upset Flash butt Percussion
for maintaining the arc. For AC current they are 80 to 100 V
welding welding welding welding welding welding and 30 to 40 V respectively.
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.819
An arc is a sustained electric discharge through the ion-
ized gas column, called plasma between the electrodes.
When electrons hit the anode at high velocity, kinetic energy
is converted producing a large amount of heat. Similarly
positively charged ions hitting the cathode also produces
heat. 65 to 75% of the total heat generated is at the anode.
So work is connected as anode if it is required to gener-
ate more heat at anode. This is called straight polarity or
DCEN (direct current electrode negative) DCEN is required
for thicker plate and materials of higher thermal conduc-
tivity. For thinner plates reverse polarity or DCEP (Direct
current electrode positive) is used. Weld penetration is more
in DCEN. Weld penetration for AC is between DCEP and
DCEN.
Ac Welding Equipment
1. AC Machines 7. Atomic hydrogen welding
(i) Transformer 8. Plasma arc welding
(ii) Alternater engine driven by motor or engines
2. DC Machines
(i)  Transformer with rectifier Carbon Arc Welding
(ii)  DC generator driven by motor or engine
Transformer sets are more commonly used in AC weld-
ing. As there is no moving parts power consumed and
noise are less. Also maintenance cost is low and efficiency
is more.
Specification of Arc Welding Machines
1. Maximum rated open circuit voltage
2. Rated current in amperes
3. Duty cycle
American welding society (AWS) defines duty cycle as
the percentage time in a ten minute period that a welding
machine can be used at its rated output without overload-
ing. Normally 40% duty cycle is suggested (Indian standard
specifies 5 minutes as the cycle time.)
Types of Welding Electrodes
1. Non consumable
2. Consumable
Non consumable type of electrodes are made of
­carbon, graphite or tungsten. Carbon and graphite elec-
trodes are used in DC welding only tungsten can be
used for both AC and DC welding. As this electrode
is not consumed arc length is constant and it is sta-
ble and easy to maintain. Separate filler rods are used in
this case.
There are three types of consumable electrodes
1. Bare electrodes
2. Fluxed or lightly coated electrodes
3. Coated or extruded/shielded electrodes
Bare electrodes may be used for welding mild steel and
wrought iron.
Primary function of a light coating is to increase the arc
stability. These are also called ionizing coatings.
Coated electrodes contain arc stabilizing ingredients,
slag forming ingredients, binding materials, alloying con-
stituents etc. Some times iron powder is added to improve
deposition rate.
Types of Electric Arc Welding Process
1. Carbon arc welding
2. Shielded metal arc welding
3. Flux cored arc welding
4. Gas metal arc welding
5. Gas tungsten arc welding
6. Submerged arc welding
9. Stud welding
10. Electro slag welding
In carbon arc welding carbon or graphite electrodes are
used. If required filler material also is used. Shielding is not
generally used. So carbon arc welding is used in metals that
are not sufficiently contaminated by oxygen and nitrogen
in the atmosphere (copper alloys, brass, bronze, Aluminium
alloys etc.).
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
This method is also known as manual metal arc weld-
ing. This is the most generally used welding type. Coated
electrodes are used in this type of welding. Shielding is
obtained from the decomposition of the coating. The ingre-
dients in the vaporized coating creates a protective gas
atmosphere over the weld puddle. As the coating melts at
a slower rate than the metal this welding rod will be having
a concave end. This helps to concentrates the heat from the
arc. The flux coating helps removal of impurities through
formation of slag. The electrode diameter depend upon
the thickness of the metal being welded and the type of
the joint.
Welding current is determined on the basis of the elec-
trode diameter.
Welding current = k.d amperes
Where d is diameter in mm.
K = constant
= 45 to 60 for ordinary steel electrodes
= 18 to 22 for graphite
= 5 to 8 for carbon
Voltage depends only on the arc length. It is given by,
V = k1 + k2 volts
Where k1 = 10 to 12 and k2 = 2 to 3
L = arc length in mm.
3.820  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
Minimum arc voltage, Vmin = (20 + 0.04I) volts.
Arc length depends upon the kind of electrodes used, its
coating, its diameter, current used and position of ­welding.
Shorter arc lengths are used for overhead and vertical
positions.
An arc length of 0.6 to 0.8 times the electrode diameter
can produce stable arcs and high quality welding.
Flux Cored Arc Welding
In this method a hollow tubular electrode inside which the
flux is provided, is used. Continuous welding is possible as
the electrode can be supplied in coils.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
This is also known as metal inert gas (MIG) welding. In
this method an inert gas such as Argon is used for shield-
ing the welding area. Consumable electrode is fed through
a welding gun through which the inert gas also is supplied
for shielding weld area. Electrode is supplied in coils and
continuous welding is possible. Other inert gases are helium
and carbon dioxide.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
This process is also known as tungsten inert gas weld-
ing (TIG welding). This is similar to mig welding. But a
non-consumable electrode of tungsten is used. For shield-
ing, inert gas such as argon is used. A filler metal may or
may not be used. In the tungsten electrode 1 to 2% tho-
rium and zirconium are added improve electron emission,
arc stability, arc striking and current carrying capacity etc.
TIG welding was originally developed for welding magne-
sium which is highly oxidizing. Now it is used for weld-
ing, aluminium and its alloys, stainless steel, cast iron,
silicon bronze, titanium, nickel, copper and carbon steels.
This method is suitable for welding thinner metals, below
6 mm thick. Both AC and DC can be used. DCEP is not
used as this tend to melt electrode due to overheating. For
more penetration DCEN is preferable. For metals like mag-
nesium and aluminium high frequency AC supply is used
which break up the surface oxides.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Submerged arc welding is generally used for welding thick
plates which require straight welds in flat position. In this
method arc electrode is continuously fed from reals. The
arc and the welding occurs inside a blanket of granu-
lar flux which is continuously fed ahead of the electrode.
The granular flux shields the weld area from atmosphere.
Molten flux acts as a cleanser, absorbing impurities from
the molten metal and producing the slag which floats on
top of molten metal. The flux may also contain powder
metal alloying elements, In order to prevent molten metal
running out of the joints, water cooler backup plates
are used.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding
In atomic hydrogen welding arc is produced between two
tungsten electrodes. A stream of hydrogen passes to the
weld area through nozzles through which the electrodes are
held. High temperature of the arc breaks up the hydrogen
molecules into hydrogen atoms absorbing heat from the
arc (421.2 KJ/mol). The hydrogen atoms are highly reac-
tive. They combine with atmospheric oxygen to form water
vapor and form hydrogen molecule at the surface to be
welded releasing intense heat necessary for melting of the
metal. Because of its reactivity hydrogen atoms also breaks
the oxides on the base metals allowing formation of a clean
weld. Hydrogen also acts as a shielding gas. As the molten
metals becomes highly fluid atomic hydrogen welding is
used only for flat positions. The main advantage of this pro-
cess is its ability to provide high heat concentration. Thin
metal sheets or smaller diameter wires can be welded using
this method because of its lower thermal efficiency com-
pared to direct arc processes. Aluminium, stainless steel
sheets etc are welded using this method.
Plasma Arc Welding
In plasma arc welding, welding is done using a plasma
jet. Plasma is a gas sufficiently ionized, containing posi-
tive and negative ions and with very high temperature and
conducts current freely. In plasma welding argon gas and
tungsten electrode is used. Argon gas is used for producing
the plasma jet as well as acting as a shielding gas. Plasma
jet is created when the arc is passed through a constrictive
nozzle. As a result of this, the plasma jet will take a nar-
row columnar shape with unique properties ideal for weld-
ing. The plasma welding torch has passages for orifice gas,
shield gas and water for cooling.
There are two methods of plasma welding
1. Transferred plasma arc
2. Non-transferred plasma arc
In both cases electrode is negative. In transferred arc work
is positive and in non-transferred arc the nozzle is con-
nected as positive.
Stud Arc Welding
Stud arc welding is an arc welding process used for welding
studs to flat metal surfaces. A stud welding gun is used for
this, purpose. An arc is produced between the work and end
of the stud held in the gun. When the stud end and work spot
melts the stud is pressed and allowed to cool. The whole
cycle of operations are automatically controlled.
Electro Slag Welding
Electro slag welding is used for welding thick plates, struc-
tures for turbine shafts, boiler parts etc. In this process the
plates to be welded are held in a vertical position with a gap
of 15 to 30 mm. Filler wires and flux are fed automatically
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.821
into the gap. Filler wires are used as electrodes. Initially an
arc is produced melting the flux into slag. The arc is stopped,
and the slag is maintained in the molten state by the heat
produced by the resistance. The molten metal in the gap is
held by water cooled copper shoes (dams). As the cooling
rate of molten metal is low course grains are formed and
a further heat treatment is required to restore the strength.
Electro Gas Welding
This process is a development of electro-slag welding. The
main difference with the electro-slag welding is that no flux
is fed into the joint and the heat is produced by electric arc
through out. An inert gas is fed into the joint for shielding
the arc. This process is used for welding 20 to 80 mm thick-
ness plates.
Non-conventional Welding
Cold welding, diffusion welding explosion welding, resist-
ance welding etc can be grouped under non-conventional
welding.
Cold Welding
Cold welding is a solid state welding done at room tempera-
ture under pressure. Coalescence of the metal parts occur
due to the deformation under the great pressure applied by
roller or die.
Diffusion Welding
In diffusion welding process, strength of the joint is obtained
primarily from diffusion of the atoms across the interface.
It is a solid state welding process where coalescence of the
parts occur by the application of pressure under elevated
temperatures. Generally the temperature is above 0.5 times
the melting point.
Explosion Welding
Explosion welding or explosive welding is a solid state
welding where the parts are joined by high velocity move-
ments produced by a controlled detonation.
Explosive
Detonater Buffer plate
Flyer plate
Target plate
Anvil
When the explosive is detonated, the flyer plate moves to
the target plate under great velocity and bonding occurs
with the target plate or base plate. This method is used for
metal cladding of heat exchanger tube plates etc. Dissimilar
metals can be welded using this method. For example alu-
minium or copper to stainless steel.
Electric Resistance Welding
In resistance welding heat required for welding is produced
by means of electrical resistance at the joint of two parts
to be joined. Low voltage (4 to 12 V) and high current is
applied. Heat generated during time, t is given by
H = I 2 R t k
When I = current in amperes
R = resistance in ohms
t = time in secs
k = constant to account for loss by conduction and
radiation
Types of resistance welding
1. Spot welding
2. Seam welding
3. Projection welding
4. Butt welding
5. Percussion welding
In spot welding the tips of two solid cylindrical electrodes
are placed on either side of the lap joint of two sheet metals
and high current is passed across the point of contact. Heat
generated melts the metals locally at the point of contact
when pressure is applied. Low voltage and high current is
applied during a very short time.
Seam welding is a specialized case of spot welding. In
this case rotating disc type electrodes are used. Therefore a
continuous weld is obtained. The seam is made of continu-
ous overlapping spot welds. If the spot welds are spaced it is
known as roll spot welding.
Projection welding is another variation of spot welding.
One sheet is provided with a number of projections to help
to locate the current at predetermined spots. These projec-
tions are obtained by embossing.
Upset butt welding is a butt joint welding. Heat is gen-
erated at the contact area between the two plates. The joint
get slightly upset due to the pressure applied. It is used for
joining ends of rods or similar pieces.
Flash butt welding is another butt welding process. But
here heat is generated by an arc. Two pieces to be welded
arc brought together and power supply is switched on.
Momentarily the pieces are separated a little to produce
an arc due to which the ends get melted. They are pressed
together and power is switched off.
Percussion welding is a recent development. The weld-
ing heat is obtained from the arc produced by a rapid dis-
charge of stored electric energy. One piece is held in a fixed
clamp and other in a spring loaded movable clamp. When
movable clamp is released discharge occurs when the gap
is about 1.5 mm. The arc is extinguished by the percussion
blow of the moving part coming with sufficient force and
the weld is effected.
3.822  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Welding Defects Lamellar Tears

For a strong welding joint the welding should have mini- Lamellar tears are caused by non-metallic inclusion such
mum defects. as sulphides and oxides. These inclusions are elongated by
The following defects are noticed in welding rolling process. This generally happens in plates of low duc-
tility in the thickness direction.
1. Porosity
Lamellar tears are more dominant in T and corner joints
2. Slag inclusions
where fusion boundary is parallel to the rolling plane.
3. Incomplete penetration
4. Underfilling Welding Equations
5. Undercutting
6. Inclusions 1. Voltage–arc length characteristic of DC V = A + BL
7. Cracks Where V = voltage drop across the arc
8. Lamellar tears A = electrode drop
BL = column drop
Porosity is caused by the gases such as oxygen, nitrogen
2. Power source characteristic equation
and hydrogen absorbed during melting.
As the molten metal is cooled solubility of the gases is OCV . I
V = OCV −
decreased and they try to escape. If escaping is not possible ISC
they remain with in the weld causing porosity. Where OCV = open circuit voltage
In inclusions slag, scale or dirt may get entrapped in the ISC = short circuit current
weld deposit during welding. Contaminated base plate, non- I = arc current
uniform melting of electrode coating, high melting point V = arc voltage
or high viscosity of slag or insufficient deoxidizing of the
3. Power, P = V.I
metal in the weld etc can cause inclusions. Slag inclusion
δP
can occur in a multipass welding if the slag solidified in the For maximum power, =0
previous pass is not cleaned before the next pass. δΙ
Incomplete fusion or lack of fusion may occur if the tem- Heat Flow Characteristics
perature of the base metal is not raised to its melting point In welding processes heat source may be moving or sta-
and due to faulty welding conditions. When the gap is not tionary. For example in fusion welding processes like arc
totally filled by molten metal, it leads to incomplete fusion. welding heat source is moving and in spot welding the heat
Underfilling occurs when proper amount of molten source is stationary. For analysing purpose moving heat
metal is fed to the gap. source is treated as stationary and work piece is treated as
In Undercutting An undercut is a groove formed adja- moving with the same velocity in opposite direction. This
cent to the toe of the weld. Under cutting may be caused by speed is called welding speed. Heat source can be a point
excessive heating, improper positions of electrode or torch source of three dimensional heat flow or a line source as
tip or non-uniform feed of filler rod. Undercutting reduces in the case of butt welding of thin plates. For three dimen-
fatigue strength of the joint sional heat source,
Undercut Rate of heat input
5  2 vw 
Q= π wkθ m  + 
4  5 4α 
Where w = width of the weld
k = thermal conductivity of the work piece
qm = 
difference between melting point and ­ initial
Cracks temperature of the work material
Cracks may occur in or near the weld. Cracks can be v = welding speed
micro cracks, macro cracks or wide cracks (fissures) k
a = thermal diffusivity =
depending upon the size. Micro cracks will be visible r = density ρ c
only through a microscope. Macro cracks can be seen by c = specific heat
unaided eye or through a low power magnifier. Cracks that For two dimensional heat source the equation is
occur at low temperature (around 200 °C) is known as
cold cracks.  1 vw 
Q = 8kθ m h  +
Cracks that occur when the metal is very hot is known as  5 4α 
hot cracks. Depending upon location and direction, cracks Where h = thickness of plate
can be toe crack, under bead crack, longitudinal crack, In arc welding heat input rate is given by Q = C VI
transverse crack etc.
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.823

where V = arc voltage SAW 0. 90 to 0.99

I = arc current For resistance welding, H = I 2 Rt.
C = fraction of total time during which the arc acts
Heat Flow
Example 5:  The voltage – arc length characteristic of DC
arc is given by V = 20 + 40L where L = arc length in cm. The For relatively thick plates, cooling rate is given by,
power source characteristic can be approximately a straight 2ρk (Tc − To ) 2
line. Open circuit voltage is 80. and short circuit current is R=
H net
1000 A k. Determine optimum arc length.
Solution:  For welding arc, Where T0 = initial plate temperature °C
V = 20 + 40L(1) k = thermal conductivity of base metal J/mm s °C
For power source Tc = 
temperature at which cooling rate is calculated
80 (2) ~ 550°C for most steels.
V = 80 − I
1000 R = cooling rate at the weld centre line.
For stable arc, If the plates are relatively thin requiring less than
(1) = (2) 3 passes, the following equation can be used.
80  
20 + 40 L = 80 − I R = π k ρc  (Tc − To )
1000  
net 
80
I = 60 − 40 L
1000 Where h = thickness of base metal, mm
I = 750 – 500 L ρ = density of base metal gm/mm3
Power, VI = (20 + 40L) (750–500L) C = sp. heat J/g °C
1000 (15 + 20L – 20L2) Example 6:  Calculate the melting efficiency, in the case of
arc welding of steel with a potential of 20 V. and a current
For optimum arc length,
δp
=0 of 220 A. Travel speed is 5 mm/s and cross sectional area of
δI the joint is 24 mm2. Heat required to melt steel may be taken
i.e. 20 – 40L = 0 as 12 J/mm3 and the heat transfer efficiency 0.85.
i.e. L = 0.5 cm Solution:  Net heat supplied = 0.85 × 20 × 220 = 3740 W
Volume of base metal melted = 24 × 5 = 120 mm3/s
Heat Input and Heat Flow in Welding Heat required for melting = 120 × 12
Heat Input  = 1440 J/s
For arc welding, P = VI  Watts or J/s. Melting efficiency
Let v = the travel speed of electrode in mm/s 1440
Heat input is given by =
3740
P
H= J/mm = 0.385
v = 38.5%.
VI
= J/mm Example 7:  Two steel sheets of 1.2 mm thickness are
v resistance welded in a Lap joint with a current of 10000
VI A for 0.1 second. The effective resistance of the joint can
H net = f1 J/mm be taken as 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered
v
as a cylinder of 6 mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. The
Where f1 = a factor for heat transfer efficiency. density of steel is 0.00786 g/mm3. Calculate heat lost to
All the Hnet is not available for melting as part of it is surroundings.
conducted away by the base metal. Considering this another
efficiency factor f2 is used. Solution:  Heat supplied
= (10000)2 × 100 × 10-6 × 0.1
Heat required to melt the joint = 1000 J.
f2 =
Net heat supplied π × 6 2 × 1.5
Volume of the joint =
Values of f1 for various processes are, 4
GTAW 0.21 to 0.48 = 42.412 mm3
SMAW and GMAW 0.66 to 0.85 Heat required for melting = 412 × 10
= 424 J
3.824  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Heat lost to surroundings = 1000 – 424 Three types of flames can be set is oxy-acetylene welding
= 576J = 57.6%. 1. Neutral
Example 8:  If the two sheets in the above problem is 2. Carburizing
resistance welded in a projection welding with a current 3. Oxidizing
of 30,000 A for 0.005 seconds. The effective resistance of
Neutral flame is obtained when equal amounts of oxygen
the joint can be taken as 100 micro ohms. The joint can
and acetylene are mixed. The flame is recognized by the
be considered as a cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 1.5 mm
inner white luminous cone and outer blue flame envelope.
height. Calculate heat lost to surroundings.
Carburizing flame or reducing flame is obtained
Solution:  Heat supplied when an excess of acetylene is supplied than theoretically
= 30,0002 required. Oxygen to acetylene ratio may be 0.85 to 0.95.
× 100 × 10-6 × 0.006 There are three zones in carburizing flame. In between the
= 540 J inner cone (not sharply defined) and outer bluish envelope
a white zone appears. This is called intermediate flame
π × 62
Volume of the joint = × 1.5 = 42.412 mm3 feather or acetylene feather. Its length is an indication of the
4 amount of excess acetylene.
Heat required for melting = 42.412 × 10 = 424 J For obtaining a neutral flame, first carburizing flame is
Heat lost to surroundings = 540 – 424 = 116 J obtained. Then supply of oxygen is increased till the inter-
mediate feather disappears.
= 21.48%.
Intermediate feather can be adjusted by the amount of
acetylene imbalance induced at the torch. If inner cone
Gas Welding
length is x and intermediate feather length is 3x, it is called
It is a fusion welding process in which heat is generated by a 3x flame.
combustion of a fuel gas. Oxy-acetylene gas welding is the Oxidizing flame has excess oxygen than required for a
most commonly used. Oxygen and acetylene are the gases neutral flame. Oxygen acetylene ratio may be 1.15 to 1.50.
used in this case. To get an oxidizing flame acetylene supply is reduced in
Various gas welding methods with their flame tempera- a neutral flame. Inner cone is slightly shorter and more
ture are as follows. pointed in this case. An oxidizing flame has a harsh sound
1. Oxy-acetylene, 3200°C and outer envelop is short and narrow.
2. Oxy-hydrogen, 2400°C
Flame Temperatures
3. Oxy-propane, 2200°C
4. Oxy-town gas, 2100°C In a neutral flame, inner cone temperature is around 3100°C
5. Air-acetylene, 2400°C and outer blue envelope is around 1275°C. In a reducing
6. Air-town gas, 1800°C flame the inner cone temperature is about 2900°C and in an
7. Air-propane, 1750°C oxidizing flame it is about 3300°C.

Oxygen and Acetylene Cylinders

Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding
Oxygen for gas welding is stored in steel cylinder, 7 M3
Equipment for oxy-acetylene welding consists oxygen and
capacity and painted black for easy identification. Right
acetylene cylinders, welding torch, pressure regulator hose
Hand threads are used in cylinder valves and regulators etc.
and hose fittings etc.
for oxygen. It is stored under a pressure of 13.8 to 18.2 MPa
Combustion of acetylene with pure oxygen at the tip of
(about 150 kg/cm2).
the welding torch takes place in two steps. Acetylene reacts
Acetylene cylinder is made of steel and painted in
with oxygen from the oxygen cylinder to form carbon mon-
maroon colour. They and their valves, regulators etc are left
oxide and hydrogen. i.e, C2H2 + O2 = 2 CO + H2
hand threaded to avoid wrong usage of oxygen valves, regu-
This reaction takes place with in the white inner cone of
lators etc. Acetylene is stored around 1.5 MPa.
the flame.
Free acetylene is highly explosive if stored at a pres-
In the second stage, carbon monoxide and hydro-
sure more than 200 kPa. So it is used dissolved in acetone.
gen produced in the first reaction reacts with oxygen
Acetone can absorb 420 times its volume of acetylene at a
from the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide and water
pressure of 1.75 MPa. Acetylene molecules fit in between
vapor. i.e.,
acetone molecules, thus storing at a higher pressure is made
4 CO + 2H2 + 3O2 = 4 CO2 + 2H2O possible.
These reactions take place in the larger blue flame which Acetylene cylinder is filled with 80 to 85% porous mate-
surrounds the white inner cone. This larger blue flame con- rial (calcium silicate) and then filled with acetone.
tributes to a preheating effect in welding. It also protects the Acetylene is released from acetone at a slow rate.
molten metal from oxidation.
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.825
Application of Different
Flames in Gas Welding
If possible, the welding should be done with a neutral flame
as it has minimum chemical effect on most heated metals.
Neutral flame is used for welding of steel, cast iron, cop-
per and aluminium.
Materials that tend to absorb Carbon should not be
welded using reducing flame. Reducing flame can be used
for materials that oxidizes rapidly like steel and aluminium.
Reducing flame can also be used for non-ferrous materi-
als that do not absorb carbon.
Oxidizing flame has limited use. The presence of excess
oxygen with oxidizing flame causes an oxide film to form
quickly which provides a protective cover over the base
metal pool. Due to this it is used in materials like brass
and Zinc which have a tendency to separate and fume
away.
Oxy-fuel Gas Cutting (OFC)
In cutting of metals using gas, the torch tip differs from that
of welding, For gas cutting, the torch tip has two sets of ori-
fices–an inner orifice for oxygen jet and surrounding it, the
outer orifices for oxygen-acetylene mixture.
It is possible to rapidly oxidize (burn) iron and steel
when heated to a temperature of 800°C to 1000°C. Metal
burnt is blown off by the high pressure oxygen jet causing
the cut. The cut formed is known as Kerf.
Chemical reactions
3Fe + 202 = Fe3O4 + Heat
2Fe + O2 = 2 FeO + Heat
4 Fe + 3O2 = 2Fe2O3 + Heat
The heat from the above exothermic reactions is not suf-
ficient to maintain the kindling temperature. So the pre
heating flames through the outer orifices are continued at
a lower rate. In the gas cutting process, about 30 to 40% of
iron is simply blown off without forming oxides.
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. A 4 mm thick circular blank is used to make a cylindri-
cal cup of outside diameter 105 mm and height 25 mm.
The corner radius is 6 mm. The trimming allowance
provided is 3 mm. The blank diameter is
(A) 140 mm (B) 147 mm
(C) 150 mm (D) 145 mm
2. 10 mm diameter holes are to be punched in a steel sheet
of 4 mm thickness. Shear strength of the materials is
450 N/mm2 and penetration is 40%. Shear provided
Brazing, Braze Welding and Soldering
Brazing, braze welding and soldering are metal joining
processes by atomic bonding in which a filler material of
lower melting point than the parent metal is used to make
the bond. In these processes the parent metal is not melt-
ing as in the case of welding. Joint is obtained by means of
diffusion of filler metal into the base metal and by surface
alloy formation.
Brazing is the coalescence of a joint with the help of a
filler metal whose liquids temperature is above 427°C and
below the solids temperature of the base metal. Filler metal
is drawn into the joint by capillary action. Flux usually used
is borax. Due to the many advantages over welding, brazing
is very widely used in industries. Brazing can join almost all
metals. Dissimilar metals can be brazed. For example cast
iron to stainless steel.
As temperature is less, there is less distortion in brazed
joints.
Braze welding is similar to brazing in the matter of tem-
perature. The main difference is that the filler metal reaches
the joint by gravity instead of capillary action as the joint
gap is bigger. Thick layers of filler metal are deposited in
the joint.
Braze welding is also known as bronze welding. The
filler rod usually consists of 60% copper and 40% Zinc,
with small amounts deoxidizers such as silicon and tin.
Metals with high melting point such as steel, cast iron, cop-
per etc are braze welded.
Soldering is the process of joining two metal pieces
by means of heat and a filler metal whose melting point is
below 427°C and below the solids temperature of the metals
to be joined. The filler metal known as solder is an alloy of
lead and tin. Higher Tin solders have greater strength and
silvery appearance. The joint is filled by capillary action as
in the case of brazing. Fluxes used are rosin and rosin plus
alcohol based fluxes for electrical soldering. Other fluxes
used are zinc chloride and ammonium chloride.
on the punch is 2 mm. The blanking force during the
operation is
(A) 26.8 kN (B) 45.2 kN
(C) 33.9 kN (D) 35.7 kN
3. In arc welding of steel, voltage and current are 20 V
and 200 A respectively. Travel speed is 5 mm/s and
cross sectional area of joint is 20 mm2. Heat required
to melt steel is 10 J/mm3 and heat transfer efficiency is
0.85. The melting efficiency in the welding is
(A) 29.4% (B) 35.2%
(C) 27.5% (D) 22.7%
3.826  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

4. The spot welding of sheets of 1 mm thickness, a current (A) 24.3 mm (B) 25.2 mm
of 10000 A was required for 8 seconds. Heat generated (C) 24.8 mm (D) 24.4 mm
in joules, assuming effective resistance as 10 mW, is 1 2. A 100 mm diameter hole is to be punched in a steel
(A) 1000 J (B) 800 J plate of 6 mm thickness. Shear strength of the plate is
(C) 900 J (D) 700 J 550 N/mm2. Cutting is complete at 40% penetration of
5. In the above problem, if 5 mm diameter electrodes are the punch with normal clearance.If a 250 kN press is
used the temperature rise will be (assume heat gen- to be used for this work, what is the shear angle to be
erated is confined to the volume of material directly provided on this punch, assuming a balanced shear.
between the two electrodes and temperature is distrib- (A) 8.59°C (B) 9.23°C
uted uniformly and sp. Heat of steel is 0.46) (C) 11.35°C (D) 7.62°C
(A) 5397°C (B) 6492°C 13. In blanking operations ‘shear’ is provided on
(C) 6860°C (D) 5574°C (A) Punch
6. In a DC arc welding operation, the voltage – Arc length (B) Both punch and die
characteristic was obtained as Varc = 20 + 5 L where the (C) Not provided
arc length L was varied between 5 mm and 7 mm. Here (D) Die
Varc denotes the arc voltage in volts. The arc current was 14. In piercing operation, the clearances is provided on
varied from 400 A to 500 A. Assuming linear power (A) Punch
source characteristic, the open circuit voltage and short (B) Die
circuit current for the welding operation are (C) Half on punch and half on die
(A) 45 V, 450 A (B) 75 V, 750 A (D) Either on punch or die (designer’s divia)
(C) 95 V, 950 A (D) 150 V, 1500 A
15. In gas welding, neutral flame inner cone has a
7. Two sheets of low carbon steel 1.5 mm thick each are temperature about
spot welded by passing a current of 10,000 amp for (A) 3200°C
5 Hz to 50 Hz supply. The maximum intendation is (B) 2100°C
10% of sheet thickness and density of spot weld nugget (C) 1000°C
is 8 gm/mm3. If 1380 J are required to melt one gram (D) 1250°C
of steel. Find the percentage of heat actually utilized
16. Carburising flame is used to weld
in making the spot weld. assume effective resistance
(A) Steel, cast iron etc.
as 200 mW and d = 6 t to determine nugget diam-
(B) Brass and bronze
eter. Also assume the nugget size to be equal to metal
(C) Hard surfacing materials such as stellite
between the two electrodes
(D) All of the above
(A) 72.13% (B) 63.24%
(C) 58.73% (D) 66.91% 17. In arc welding temperature of heat produced by the
electric arc is of the order of
8. A metal disc of 20 mm dia is to be punched from a
(A) 3000°C – 4000°C
sheet of 3 mm thickness. The punch and die clearance
(B) 4000°C – 5000°C
is 3%. The required punch diameter will be
(C) 5000°C – 6000°C
(A) 19.88 mm (B) 20.06 mm
(D) 6000°C – 7000°C
(C) 19.82 mm (D) 20.12 mm
18. In DC arc welding when work is connected to the posi-
9. A 25 mm square hole is to be cut in sheet metal 1 mm
tive terminal it is called a
thick. Shear strength of the material is 2900 kg/cm2
(A) Straight polarity
The cutting force in kN is
(B) Reversed polarity
(A) 21.45 (B) 28.42
(C) Cross polarity
(C) 32.12 (D) 25.31
(D) None of the above
10. A cup of 75 mm diameter and 40 mm deep in to be
19. In resistance welding, the voltage required for heating is
drawn in 2 mm thick material. The maximum drawing
(A) 1 to 5 V (B) 11 to 20 V
force, if the ultimate tensile stress of the material is
(C) 6 to 10 V (D) 50 to 100 V
3000 kg/cm2, will be
(A) 138.7 kN (B) 142.8 kN 20. The welding process used in joining mild steel shanks
(C) 141.4 kN (D) 135.3 kN to high speed drills is
(A) Spot welding
11. A blank of 2.5 mm diameter is to be made from a sheet
(B) Flash butt welding
of 2 mm thickness. Shear strength of sheet material is
(C) Seam welding
295 MPa. The size of the punch will be
(D) Projection welding
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.827
Practice Problems 2
1. Blanking and piercing operation can be performed
simultaneously in a
(A) Simple die
(B) Progressive die
(C) Combination die
(D) Compound die
2. The operation of cutting a triangular hole in a sheet
metal using a punch and die is under the process
(A) Shearing (B) Piercing
(C) Punching (D) Blanking
3. Cutting a sheet metal through part of its length and then
bending the cut portion is called
(A) Stitting (B) Lancing
(C) Nibbling (D) Notching
4. Two one mm thick sheets are to be spot welded at a
current of 4500 A. Assuming effective resistance as 250
micro ohms and current flow time as 0.2 second, heat
generated during the process will be
(A) 1013 J (B) 1020 J
(C) 1000 J (D) 955 J
5. Which one of the following is a solid state welding
process
(A) Electrons beam welding
(B) Friction welding
(C) Thermit welding
(D) Percussion welding
6. Which of the following use non-consumable electrode
(A) GMAW (B) SAW
(C) GTAW (D) SMAW
7. Match the correct combination:
P  Blanking 1.  Tension
Q  Stretch forming 2.  Compression
R  Coining 3.  Shear
S  Deep drawing 4.  Tension and compression
5.  Tension and shear
(A) P-2, Q-1, R-3, S-4
(B) P-3, Q-4, R-1, S-5
(C) P-3, Q-1, R-2, S-4
(D) P-5, Q-3, R-3, S-1
8. A shell of 100 mm diameter and 90 mm height with
corner radius of 4 mm is to be produced by cup draw-
ing. The required blank diameter in mm is
(A) 228 (B) 224
(C) 232 (D) 215
9. In an arc welding process, voltage and current are 25 V
and 300 A respectively. The arc heat transfer efficiency
is 0.90 and welding speed is 8 mm/s. The net heat input
in J/mm is
(A) 797.2 (B) 822.3
(C) 843.8 (D) 861.1
10. A DC welding machine with a linear power source
characteristic provides open circuit voltage of 80 V and
short circuit current of 800 A. During welding with the
machine the measured arc current is 500 A. correspond-
ing to an arc length of 5 mm. and the measured arc cur-
rent is 460 A corresponding to an arc length of 7 mm.
The voltage–arc length characteristic can be given as
(A) 20 + 8 L (B) 80 + 2 L
(C) 20 + 2 L (D) 80 + 8 L
11. The force requirement in a blanking operation of low
carbon steel sheet is 6 kN. If the diameter of the blanked
part is increased to 1.5 times and thickness of the sheet
is reduced to 0.4 times. The blanking force in kN will
be
(A) 3.6 (B) 3.3
(C) 3.0 (D) 2.8
12. A contour having a perimeter of 250 mm is pierced out
from a 3 mm sheet having an ultimate shear strength of
250 N/mm2. What will be the amount of shear, if the
punch force is to be reduced to 60%. Assume a penetra-
tion of 30%.
(A) 0.3 mm (B) 0.6 mm
(C) 3 mm (D) 6 mm
13. Estimate reduction in piercing load for producing cir-
cular hole of 50 mm diameter in a 3 mm thick steel strip
when the punch was provided with a shear of 1 mm.
Assume 30% penetration and shear strength of steel as
400 N/mm2
(A) 48.34% (B) 52.63%
(C) 45.83% (D) 47.91%
14. The voltage arc length characteristic of a power source
is V = 20 + 40 L. Where V = operating voltage and
L = arc length. Determine the open circuit voltage and
short circuit current for arc length varying from 3 to 5
mm and current from 400 to 500 amp during welding
operation
(A) 540 V, 675 A (B) 560 V, 695 A
(C) 520 V, 720 A (D) 580 V, 710 A
15. A circular piece of 25 mm diameter is to be blanked
from a sheet of thickness 2 mm. Radial clearance in the
punch and die is 0.06 mm. Die allowance is 0.05 mm.
The punch size in mm will be
(A) 25.01 mm (B) 24.89 mm
(C) 25.17 mm (D) 24.83 mm
16. A hole of 25 mm diameter is to be punched in a sheet
of 2 mm thickness, the shear strength of which is
290 MPa. Estimate the size of the die required
(A) 25.22 mm (B) 25.42 mm
(C) 24.88 mm (D) 24.78 mm
3.828  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

17. In arc welding of steel with a potential of 20 V and a 22. A blank holder is used in deep drawing to
current 230 A; travel speed of the rod is 4 mm/s. Cross (A) Guide the punch through the die
sectional area of the joint is 20 mm2. Heat requirement (B) Exactly locate the blank on the die
for melting is 12 J/mm3 and melting efficiency is 40%. (C) Avid wrinkles
The heat transfer efficiency in the welding is (D) None of the above
(A) 48% (B) 52% 23. Spinning operation is carried out on
(C) 46% (D) 56% (A) Hydraulic press
18. In a spot welding, two 1 mm thick plates in a lap joint (B) Mechanical press
are welded using a current of 10000 A for 0.1 sec. The (C) Lathe
effective resistance of the joint is 100 mW. The joint (D) Milling machine
can be considered as a cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 24. Cutting and forming operations are performed in single
1.5 mm height. Assuming density of steel as 0.0079 operation in
gm/mm3 and heat required for melting steel as 1380 J/ (A) Simple die (B) Combination die
gm efficiency of the welding is (C) Progressive die (D) Compound die
(A) 36.2% (B) 52.3%
25. In progressive dies
(C) 32.1% (D) 41.8%
(A) Two or more cutting operation can be performed
19. Two 1 mm thick sheets are spot welded by passing cur- simultaneously
rent for 0.1 sec through the electrodes. The resultant (B) Cutting and forming operations can be combined
weld nugget formed is 5 mm in diameter and 1.5 mm and carried in simple operations
thick. If the latent heat of fusion of steel is 1400 kJ/kg (C) Work piece moves from one station to other with
and the effective resistance is 200 micro ohms, the current separates operations performed at each station
passed through was (assume steel density – 8000 kg/m3) (D) All of the above
(A) 1480 A (B) 3300 A
26. Gases used in TIG welding are
(C) 4060 A (D) 9400 A
(A) Hydrogen and oxygen
20. In arc welding process of a butt joint area of cross sec- (B) CO2 and H2
tion of weld is 5 mm2 and unit energy required to melt (C) Argon and neon
the metal is 10 J/mm3. If welding input power is 2 kW, (D) Argon and helium
and melting and heat transfer efficiency are 0.5 and 0.7 27. Temperature of plasma torch is the order of
respectively the welding speed will be (A) 1000°C (B) 5000°C
(A) 14 mm/s (B) 34 mm/s (C) 10000°C (D) 10 – 100 A
(C) 24 mm/s (D) 4 mm/s
28. Current range in SMAW is
21. Two metallic sheets of 2 mm thickness each are spot (A) 10 – 500 A (B) 10 – 50 A
welded in a lap joint with a welding current of 10000 A (C) 100­  –  200 A
  (D) 10 – 100 A
and welding time of 10 milli second. A spherical fusion 29. The flux commonly used in brazing is
zone of radius 2 mm is formed. If melting temperature (A) Rosin plus alcohol
is 1793 K, density is 7000 kg/m3, latent heat of fusion =
(B) Zinc chloride
300 kJ/kg, specific heat = 800 J/kg K and ambient tem- (C) Copper
perature = 293 K, the melting efficiency of the process (D) Tin and lead alloys
is (assume contact resistance = 500 mW)
30. In hard soldering filler material used is
(A) 50.38%
(A) Aluminium alloys
(B) 70.38%
(B) Silver alloys
(C) 60.38%
(C) Copper
(D) 80.38%
(D) Tin and lead alloys

Previous Year’s Questions

1. Two 1 mm thick steel sheets are to be spot welded at a
current of 5000 A. assuming effective resistance to be
200 micro-ohms and current flow time of 0.2 second,
heat generated during the process will be [2004]
(A) 0.2 J (B) 1 J
(C) 5 J (D) 1000 J
2. 10 mm diameter holes are to be punched in a steel
sheet of 3 mm thickness. Shear strength of the mate-
rial is 400 N/mm2 and penetration is 40%. Shear
provided on the punch is 2 mm. The blanking force
during the operation will be [2004]
(A) 22.6 kN (B) 37.7 kN
(C) 61.6 kN (D) 94.3 kN
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.829

3. Spot welding of two 1 mm thick sheets of steel (den- 8. Two metallic sheets, each of 2.0 mm thickness, are
sity = 8000 kg/m3) is carried out successfully by pass- welded in a lap joint configuration by resistance spot
ing a certain amount of current of 0.1 second through welding at a welding current of 10 kA and welding
the electrodes. The resultant weld nugget formed is 5 time of 10 ms. A spherical fusion zone extending
mm in diameter and 1.5 mm thick. If the latent heat of up to the full thickness of each sheet is formed. The
fusion of steel is 1400 kJ/kg and the effective resist- properties of the metallic sheets are given as:
ance in the welding operation is 200 mW, the cur- Ambient temperature = 293 K
rent passing through the electrodes is approximately
Melting temperature = 1793 K
 [2005]
(A) 1480 A (B) 3300 A Latent heat of fusion = 300 kJ/kg
(C) 4060 A (D) 9400 A Density = 7000 kg/m3
4. Match the items in columns I and II. [2006] Specific heat = 800 J/kgK
Assume: (i) contact resistance along sheet-sheet
Column I Column II
interface is 500 micro-ohm and along electrode-sheet
P  Wrinkling 1.  Yield point elongation interface is zero; (ii) no conductive heat loss through
Q  Orange peel 2.  Anisotropy the bulk sheet materials; and (iii) the complete weld
R  Stretcher strains 3.  Large grain size fusion zone is at the melting temperature.
S  Earing 4.  Insufficient blank holding force The melting efficiency (in%) of the process is [2007]
5.  Fine grain size
(A) 50.37
(B) 60.37
6.  Excessive blank holding force
(C) 70.37
(A) P-6 Q-3 R-1 S-2 (D) 80.37
(B) P-4 Q-5 R-6 S-1 9. Match the correct combination for following metal
(C) P-2 Q-5 R-3 S-4 working processes. [2007]
(D) P-4 Q-3 R-1 S-2
Processes Associated state of stress
5. In an arc welding process, the voltage and current are
P  Blanking 1.  Tension
25 V and 300 A respectively. The arc heat transfer
efficiency is 0.85 and welding speed is 8 mm/sec. The Q  Stretch forming 2.  Compression
net heat input (in J/mm) is [2006] R  Coining 3.  Shear
(A) 64 S  Deep drawing 4.  Tension and compression
(B) 797
5.  Tension and Shear
(C) 1103
(D) 79700 (A) P-2, Q-1, R-3, S-4
6. Which one of the following is a solid state joining (B) P-3, Q-4, R-1, S-5
process? [2007] (C) P-5, Q-4, R-3, S-1
(A) Gas tungsten arc welding (D) P-3, Q-1, R-2, S-4
(B) Resistance spot welding 1 0. The force requirement in a blanking operation of low
(C) Friction welding carbon steel sheet is 5.0 kN. The thickness of the
(D) Submerged arc welding sheet is ‘t’ and diameter of the blanked part is ‘d’. For
7. A direct current welding machine with a linear power the same work material, if the diameter of the blanked
source characteristic provides open circuit voltage of part is increased to 1.5 d and thickness is reduced to
80 V and short circuit current of  800 A. During weld- 0.4 t, the new blanking force in kN is [2007]
ing with the machine, the measured arc current is 500 A (A) 3.0 (B) 4.5
corresponding to an arc length of 5.0 mm and the (C) 5.0 (D) 8.0
measured arc current is 460 A corresponding to an arc 11. In arc welding of a butt joint, the welding speed is to
length of 7.0 mm. The linear voltage (E)–arc length be selected such that highest cooling rate is achieved.
(L) characteristic of the welding arc can be given as Melting efficiency and heat transfer efficiency are 0.5
(where E is in Volt and L is in mm) [2007] and 0.7, respectively. The area of the weld cross sec-
(A) E = 20 + 2 L tion is 5 mm2 and the unit energy required to melt the
(B) E = 20 + 8 L metal is 10 J/mm3. If the welding power is 2 kW, the
(C) E = 80 + 2 L welding speed in mm/s is closest to [2008]
(D) E = 80 + 8 L (A) 4 (B) 14
(C) 24 (D) 34
3.830  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

12. In the deep drawing of cups, blanks show a tendency 18. In a DC arc welding operation, the voltage-arc length
to wrinkle up around the periphery (flange). The most characteristic was obtained as Varc = 20 + 5l where
likely cause and remedy of the phenomenon are, the arc length l was varied between 5 mm and 7 mm.
respectively [2008] Here Varc denotes the arc voltage in Volts. The arc cur-
(A)  Buckling due to circumferential compression; rent was varied from 400 A to 500 A. Assuming linear
increase blank holder pressure power source characteristic, the open circuit voltage
(B) High blank holder pressure and high friction; re- and the short circuit current for the welding operation
duce blank holder pressure and apply lubricant are [2012]
(C) High temperature causing increase in circumfer- (A) 45 V, 450 A (B) 75 V, 750 A
ential length; apply coolant to blank (C) 95 V, 950 A (D) 150 V, 1500 A
(D)  Buckling due to circumferential compression;
19. Match the pairs: [2013]
decrease blank holder pressure
Processes Characteristics/Applications
13. The operation in which oil is permeated into the pores
of a powder metallurgy product is known as [2011] P  Friction welding 1  Non-consumable electrode
(A) Mixing Q  Gas metal arc welding 2  Joining of thick plates
(B) Sintering R  Tungsten inert gas 3  Consumable electrode wire
(C) Impregnation welding
(D) Infiltration S  Electroslag welding 4  Joining of cylindrical dissimilar
14. Which one among the following welding processes materials
uses non-consumable electrode? [2011]
(A) P-4, Q-3, R-1, S-2
(A) Gas metal arc welding
(B) P-4, Q-2, R-3, S-1
(B) Submerged arc welding
(C) P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1
(C) Gas tungsten arc welding
(D) P-2, Q-4, R-1, S-3
(D) Flux coated arc welding
15. The shear strength of a sheet metal is 300 MPa. The 2 0. The major difficulty during welding of aluminium is
blanking force required to produce a blank of 100 mm due to its [2014]
diameter from a 1.5 mm thick sheet is close to[2011] (A) High tendency of oxidation
(A) 45 kN (B) 70 kN (B) High thermal conductivity
(C) 141 kN (D) 3500 kN (C) Low melting point
(D) Low density
16. Match the following metal forming processes with
their associated stresses in the work piece. [2012] 21. In solid-state welding, the contamination layers
between the surfaces to be welded are removed by
Metal forming process Type of stress
 [2014]
1.  Coining P  Tensile
(A) Alcohol
2.  Wire drawing Q  Shear (B) Plastic deformation
3.  Blanking R  Tensile and compressive (C) Water jet
4.  Deep drawing S  Compressive (D) Sand blasting
(A) 1-S, 2-P, 3-Q, 4-R 22. A rectangular hole of size 100 mm × 50 mm is to be
(B) 1-S, 2-P, 3-R, 4-Q made on a 5 mm thick sheet of steel having ultimate
(C) 1-P, 2-Q, 3-S, 4-R tensile strength and shear strength of 500 MPa and
(D) 1-P, 2-R, 3-Q, 4-S 300 MPa, respectively. The hole is made by punching
process. Neglecting the effect of clearance, the punch-
17. Calculate the punch size in mm, for a circular blank- ing force (in kN) is [2014]
ing operation for which details are given below: (A) 300 (B) 450
 [2012] (C) 600 (D) 750
Size of the blank 25 mm
Thickness of the sheet 2 mm 23. For spot welding of two steel sheets (base metal) each
Radial clearance between of 3 mm thickness, welding current of 10000 A is
punch and die 0.06 mm applied for 0.2 s. The heat dissipated to the base metal
Die allowance 0.05 mm is 1000 J. Assuming that the heat required for melting
1 mm3 volume of steel is 20 J and interfacial contact
(A) 24.83 (B) 24.89 resistance between sheets is 0.0002 W, the volume
(C) 25.01 (D) 25.17 (in mm3) of weld nugget is ____ [2014]
 Chapter 3  •  Sheet Metal Working Joining Processes  |  3.831
24. Within the heat affected zone (HAZ) in a fusion weld-
ing process, the work material undergoes [2014]
(A) Microstructural changes but does not melt
(B) Neither melting nor microstructural changes
(C) Both melting and microstructural changes after
solidification
(D) Melting and retains the original microstructure
after solidification
25. A butt weld joint is developed on steel plates having
yield and ultimate tensile strength of 500 MPa and
700 MPa, respectively. The thickness of the plates is
8 mm and width is 20 mm. Improper selection of
welding parameters caused an undercut of 3 mm
depth along the weld. The maximum transverse ten-
sile load (in kN) carrying of the developed weld joint
is ____  [2014]
26. A DC welding power source has a linear voltage-cur-
rent (V-I) characteristic with open circuit voltage of
80 V and a short circuit current of 300 A. For maxi-
mum arc power, the current (in Amperes) should be
set as ______. [2015]
27. During a TIG welding process, the arc current and arc
voltage were 50 A and 60 V, respectively, when the
welding speed was 150 mm/min. In another process,
the TIG welding is carried out at a welding speed of
120 mm/min at the same arc voltage and heat input
to the material so that weld quality remains the same.
The welding current (in A) for this process is: [2015]
(A) 40.00 (B) 44.72
(C) 55.90 (D) 62.25
28. Which two of the following joining processes are
autogeneous? [2015]
(i) Diffusion welding
(ii) Electroslag welding
(iii) Tungsten inert gas welding
(iv) Friction welding
(A) (i) and (iv) (B) (ii) and (iii)
(C) (ii) and (iv) (D) (i) and (iii)
29. Under optimal conditions of the process the tempera-
tures experienced by a copper work piece in fusion
welding, brazing and soldering are such that [2016]
(A) Twelding > Tsoldering > Tbrazing
(B) Tsoldering > Twelding > Tbrazing
(C) Tbrazing > Twelding > Tsoldering
(D) Twelding > Tbrazing > Tsoldering
30. The welding process which uses a blanket of fusible
granular flux is: [2016]
(A) Tungsten inert gas welding
(B) Submerged arc welding
(C) Electroslag welding
(D) Thermit welding
31. The voltage-length characteristic of a direct current
arc in an arc welding process is V = (100 + 40l),
where l is the length of the arc in mm and V is arc
voltage in volts. During a welding operation, the arc
length varies between 1 and 2 mm and the welding
current is in the range 200–250 A. Assuming a linear
power source, the short circuit current is ________ A.
 [2016]
32. Spot welding of two steel sheets each 2 mm thick is
carried out successfully by passing 4 kA of current
for 0.2 seconds through the electrodes. The resulting
weld nugget formed between the sheets is 5 mm in
diameter. Assuming cylindrical shape for the nugget,
the thickness of the nugget is _______ mm. [2016]
Latent heat of fusion for steel 1400 kJ/kg
Effective resistance of the weld joint 200µΩ
Density of steel 8000 kg/m3
33. In a sheet metal of 2 mm thickness a hole of 10 mm
diameter needs to be punched. The yield strength in
tension of the sheet material is 100 MPa and its ulti-
mate shear strength is 80 MPa. The force required to
punch the hole (in kN) is _________. [2016]
3.832  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Answer Keys
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1.  C 2.  B 3.  A 4.  B 5.  D 6.  C 7.  D 8.  C 9.  C 10.  A 
11.  C 12.  A 13.  D 14.  B 15.  A 16.  C 17.  D 18.  A 19.  C 20.  B 

Practice Problems 2
1.  D 2.  B 3.  B 4.  A 5.  B 6.  C 7.  C 8.  D 9.  C 10.  C 
11.  A 12.  B 13.  B 14.  A 15.  D 16.  A 17.  B 18.  C 19.  C 20.  A 
21.  C 22.  C 23.  C 24.  B 25.  C 26.  D 27.  D 28.  A 29.  C 30.   B

Previous Years’ Questions

1.  D 2.  None 3.  C 4.  D 5.  B 6.  C 7.  A 8.  C 9.  D 10.  A
11.  B 12.  A 13.  C 14.  C 15.  C 16.  A 17.  A 18.  C 19.  A 20.  A
21.  B 22.  B 23.  140 to 160 24.  A 25.  68 to 72 26.  149 to 151
27.  A 28.  A 29.  D 30.  B 31.  423 to 428 32.  2.85 to 2.95 33.  4.9–5.1
 Chapter 4
Machining and Machine Tool
Operations
chapter highlights

☞☞ Mechanics of Machining ☞☞ Tool Wear

☞☞ Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool ☞☞ Tool Life
☞☞ Tool Signature or Tool Designation ☞☞ Principal Elements in Metal Machining
☞☞ Chip Thickness Ratio ☞☞ Material Removal Rate (MRR) in Turning
☞☞ Forces on the Chips ☞☞ Grinding
☞☞ Merchant Theory ☞☞ Non-traditional Machining Processes
☞☞ Lee and Shaffer Theory ☞☞ Electrochemical Machining Process
☞☞ Heat Generation During Metal Cutting ☞☞ Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

Mechanics of Machining 2. According to the method of cutting

Metal cutting or machining is the process of removing
unwanted material from a block metal in the production of
a dimensional work piece.
In metal cutting, a wedge shaped tool is made to move
relative to the work piece. The tool exerts pressure on the
metal resulting in a compression near the tool tip. Material
ahead of the tool is sheared continuously along a plane
called ‘shear plane’. Cutting edge of the tool is formed
by two intersecting surfaces called rake surface and flank.
Rake surface is the top surface along which the metal chips
formed by cutting moves upwards. The other surface, flank
is relieved from rubbing with the machined surface.
Tool Geometry
Cutting tools are classified into two groups
1. Single point tools
2. Multipoint tools
Single point tools have one cutting edge. The cutting edge is
also called point. These may be further classified as follows.
1. According to the method of manufacturing
(i) Solid tool
(ii) Forged tool
(iii) Tipped type tool
(iv) Bit type tool
(i) Right hand tools
(ii) Left hand tools
3. According to the use of the tool
(i) Turning tool
(ii) Facing tool
(iii) Parting tool
(iv) Thread cutting tool
(v) Boring tool etc.
Solid tool is formed by grinding a tool steel stock.
Forged tool is made by forging of high carbon steel or
high speed steel and then hardened and ground.
In tipped type tool a tip of high grade material is fixed to
the shank of a low grade material by brazing.
In bit type tool the high grade tool tip of square or rec-
tangular shape is held mechanically in a tool holder by
clamping.
A right hand cutting tool or right cut tool will cut the
material when the tool is fed from right to left. The cutting
edge will be on the thump side of right hand with palm kept
down ward and the fingers pointed towards the tool nose.
For left hand or left cut tool the cutting edge is the other side
which can be identified by using left hand.
Multipoint Cutting Tools
Multipoint cutting tools have more than one effective cut-
ting edge to remove the excess material. These can have
3.834  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

rotary travel as in the case of drilling or milling cutters or a Side rake angle: It is the angle between the tool face and
linear travel as in the case of broaching tools. a line parallel to the base of the tool and measured in a plane
perpendicular to the base at the side cutting edge. Side rake
Elements of Single Point Tool is negative, if the slope is towards the cutting edge. It also
The elements of the single point tool is given in the follow- guides the direction chip away from the job. Amount of
ing figure. bending of a chip depends upon the angle.
End relief angle: It is the angle between a plane per-
pendicular to the base and end flank. This angle prevents
Shank cutting tool from rubbing against the job.
Side relief angle: It is the angle, made the side flank of
Face the tool and a plane perpendicular to the base just under the
Nose
cutting edge. This angle permits the tool to be fed sideways
Base
End cutting into the job, so that it can cut without rubbing.
edge End cutting edge angle: It is the angle between the end
Side (main) cutting
End flank edge cutting edge and a line normal to the tool shank side. It acts
as a relief angle that allows only a small section of the end
Side flank
cutting edge to contact the machine surface.
Face: It is the surface over which the chips flow. Side cutting edge angle: It is also known as the lead
Shank: It is the surface below the cutting edge. angle. It is the angle between side cutting edge and side of
Nose: It is the junction of side and end cutting edges. the tool shank. It avoids the formation of built up edges,
Side cutting edge: It is the intersection of face and side controls the direction of chip flow and distributes the cut-
flank. Main cutting work is done by this cutting edge. ting force and heat produced over large cutting edge.
End or auxiliary cutting edge: It is the intersection of face Nose angle: It is angle between the two cutting edges.
and end flank Nose radius is provided to increase the finish and strength of
the cutting tip of the tool. It increases tool life and provides
Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool good surface finish. As nose radius is increased from zero
In a single point tool there are various angles. Each angle values there is improvement in surface finish and permissi-
has definite purpose. ble cutting speed. But too large a nose radius leads to chatter
of the tool.
Ce Tool angle specification system or tool nomenclature
Face Shank
system.
1. ASA system
Nose angle 2. Orthogonal rake system (ORS)
Cs
3. British system or Maximum normal rake system (MRS)
4. German (DIN) system
αb
αs In ASA system the geometry of the rake face is expressed in
terms of the side rake angle and back rake angle. The back
θs Lip Shank rake angle is the angle between the rake face and the base
angle
of the tool measured in a plane perpendicular to the base of
θe Base
and parallel to the longitudinal axis of the tool. Side rake
angle is measured in a plane normal to the plane in which
ab – Back rake angle side rake angle is measured.
as – Side rake angle
qe – End relief angle Tool Signature or Tool Designation
qs – Side relief angle A single point cutting tool may be specified by a sequence
Ce– End cutting edge angle of numbers which represents various tool angles and nose
Cs – Side cutting edge angle radius. Tool angles have been standardized by American
Back rake angle or top rake angle is the angle between Standards Associations (ASA). Under ASA system, tool
the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of the tool signature comprises seven elements. These are in the order
and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side given below.
cutting edge. Its purpose is to guide the direction of chip Back rake angle (ab)
flow. The size of the angle depends upon the material to Side rake angle (as)
be machined. Negative rake angle is used for high tensile End relief angle (qe)
strength materials. Side relief angle (qs)
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.835

End cutting edge angle (Ce) α1 r

r1 α
Side cutting edge angle (Cs)
A
And nose radius (R) β
If a tool signature is
10, 10, 6, 6, 8, 8, 2 N M Section N-N
it means that λ
Section
ab - 10° M -M
as - 10°
qe - 6° M
qs - 6° N
Ce - 8°
Cs - 8° i
And nose radius = 2 mm View from A
In ASA system angles are specified with out considering the ORS system
position of cutting edge. So it does not give the true behav-
iour of cutting tool.
According to British system rake angle is specified as the
In orthogonal rake system (ORS) this problem is
steepest slope of the rake face.
rectified.
Orthogonal rake system is also known as International Types of Metal Cutting Processes
system (ISO). The end rake angle is the angle between the
base plane and the rake face, measured in a plane normal Depending up on the movement of cutting edge with respect
to the end cutting edge. The side rake angle is the angle to the direction of relative work tool motion, metal cutting
between the base plane and the rake face, measured in a process is classified into two
plane normal to the side cutting edge. This plane is known 1. Orthogonal cutting process or two dimensional cutting
as orthogonal plane, or the chief plane. The angles in this 2. Oblique cutting process or three dimensional cutting
plane are side relief angle (r).
Side rake angle (a) In orthogonal cutting edge of tool is arranged perpendicular
Wedge (lip angle) (b) to the velocity vector V, where as in oblique cutting it is set
And the cutting angle (d) at some angle.
In ORS, back rake angle is measured through the side
(principal) cutting edge. It is the inclination angle (i)
between the principal cutting edge. And a line passing
Types of Chips
through the point of tool parallel to the principal plane, The type of chip formed is a function of the work material
measured in a plane perpendicular to basic plane passing and cutting conditions. Chips can be classified into 3 types
through the cutting edge. 1. Continuous chips
Tool designation for ORS is 2. Discontinuous chips
i - a - r - r1 - C -l - R 3. Continuous chip with cutting edge
e
where l is the plan approach angle.
b + r = d = cutting angle. Continuous chips are obtained from ductile materials such
as mildsteel. As very lengthy chip in coil form is unsafe and
αs hazardous it become necessary to break the chip for which
Section B-B chip breakers are used.
θs
A
Dicontinuous chips are obtained while machining brittle
B
materials like cast iron. Chips are small individual segments
B
Ce
which may adhere to each other, loosely. Low cutting speed,
θe small rake angle etc. contributes to the formation of discon-
αb tinuous chips.
Cs
High pressure and temperature during the cutting causes
alloying and welding actions of chip material to tool face
Feed near the nose. This is called built up edge. The accumulated
built up of chip material break away. But some part adhere
A Section A-A to the chip and some to the work piece. Low cutting speeds
and larger depth of cut promote the formation of built up
ASA system edges.
3.836  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Chip Thickness Ratio cos α

r = (1 − r sin α )
tan α
r cos α
t2 tan φ =
1 − r sin α

B α Forces on the Chips

t1 D
φ Fs F
Chip
C A
Tool
R1
R
t1 = thickness of chip before cutting s.p N
FN
t2 = thickness of chip after cutting
t
r = chip thickness ratio = 1 F
t2 Fs F R’
As there is no change in the volume of metal cut t

φ
t1 b1 L1 = t2 b2 L2 R
N
Fc
Where b1 and b2 are width of cut before and after the cut and FN
L1 and L2 are length of chip before and after cutting.
When there is no side flow of metal, b1 = b2 Force components on the chip
\ t1L1 = t2 L2 Merchant Theory
t1 L2 Merchant has worked out the relation ships amongst various
= = r <1
t 2 L1 forces. The following are the assumptions made
1. The tool is very sharp and there is no contact between
If side flow is to be considered, thickness ratio is to be mul-
b clearance face and work piece
tiplied by λ = 1 2. The chip does not flow to either side, i.e. there is no
b2
From the right angle triangle ABC, side spread
BC 3. A continuous chip with out built up edge is produced.
sin f = 4. The cutting velocity remains constant
AB 5. The chip behaves as a free body in stable equilibrium
BC t under the action of two equal, opposite and almost col-
∴ AB = = 1  (1)
sin ϕ sin ϕ linear resultant forces
From right angle triangle ABD Forces Fs and Fn acts on the chip, F along the shear plane and
Fn normal to the shear plane. Fn is the backing up force pro-
BD
sin (90 − f + α ) = vided by the work piece on the chip. R is the resultant of Fs
AB and Fn.
t2 Force F is the frictional resistance of the tool against the
AB =
sin (90 − ϕ + α ) motion of the chip and N is the force normal to the tool face.
R′ is the resultant of these forces.
t2   
= (2) i.e. R1 = F + N
cos (ϕ − α )    
From (1) and (2) R = Fs + Fn = F c + Ft

t1 t2 Merchant represented various forces inside a circle, with
=
sin φ cos( φ − α ) diameter R or R′ passing through the tool point.

t1 sin φ R α
Fs Tool
= Fc FN
t 2 cos( φ − α ) F φ
A
sin φ
i.e. r = Ft R’
α
cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α
R α
r cos α β
+ sin α = 1 D
F
tan φ N
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.837

Q Fc cos( β − α )
=
R Fs cos(ϕ + β − α )

Fn F cos( β − α )
Fs
Fc = s
F Fc φ A cos(ϕ + β − α )
F β−α F Fc sin α + Ft cos α
=
P 4. N Fc cos α − Ft sin α
Ft
φ Ft + Fc tan α
R
=
Fc − Ft tan α
D
F
also = tan β = µ
N
Ft
and = tan(β − α )
Fc

A Velocity ratio
F
α β−α Tool
E
Vf
α
Vs
B φ
α Vc

β
D F C
N
Vf
C 90-(φ-α) Vs

In this diagram the horizontal component is the cutting tone α

Fc and the vertical component is the thrust force Ft. These 90-α φ
two are measured by using a dynamometer. t1, t2 and f are
found by calculations. Other components are expressed in B Vc A
terms of known parameters. Let Vc be the cutting velocity,
As chip slides over the tool face under pressure the i.e., velocity of the tool relative to the work piece
kinetic coefficient of friction (m) may be expressed as. Vf = flow velocity
F i.e, velocity of chip relative to tool
µ = = tan β
N Vs = velocity of shear
Other force relationships are i.e. velocity of displacement or formation of the newly
1. F = Ftcos a + Fc sina cut chip elements relative to the work piece.
N = Fccos a - Ft sina From the triangle ABC,
As F = AB + BC Vc Vf Vs
= =
= AB + DE sin 90 − (ϕ − α ) sin ϕ sin(90 − α )
= Fc sina + Ft cos a Vc Vf V
N = FB – FE = = s
= Fc cos a – Ftsina cos(ϕ − α ) sin ϕ cos α
2. Fs = Fccos f - Ftsinf Vc cos α
FN = Ft cos f + Fc sinf ∴Vs =
cos(ϕ − α )
as Fs = AQ ­– QR
AQ - FP = Fccos f - Ft sin f Vc sin ϕ
Vf =
FN = DR = DP + PR = DP + FQ cos(ϕ − α )
= Ft cosf + Fc sinf
3. Fc = AD cos (b - a) Condition for Minimum Cutting Force
= R cos (b - a) To find the value of shear angle f which makes cutting force
Fs = R cos (f + b - a) Fc a minimum, the following expression is used.
3.838  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

π Tool Life
2f + β − α =
2 Tool life is defined as the time clasped between two succes-
In the above expression (2f + b - a) is known as machin- sive grinding of the tool. It is expressed in minutes. It is the
ing constant total cutting time accumulated before total failure occurs.
Two most commonly used criteria for measuring tool life are
Lee and Shaffer Theory 1. Total destruction of the tool when it ceases to cut
Lee and Shaffer theory is based on theory of plasticity. In 2. A fixed size of wear land on tool flank
this theory, the following assumptions are made.
Tool Life Equation
1. Material ahead of tool in work piece behaves as an
FW Taylor gave the following relationship between cutting
ideal plastic
speed and tool life.
2. Chip hardening does not take place
VTn = C
3. Between chip and work piece, there is a slip plane
Where V = cutting speed in m/minute
Based on the above, Lee and Shaffer’s shear angle relation- T = tool life in minutes
ship is. n = tool life index
π = 0.1 to 0.15 for HSS tools
f + β −α = = 0.2 to 0.4 for tungsten carbide tools
4
= 0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tools
For built up nose formation the above relationship was fur-
C = constant
ther modified by introducing a factor q, as
π Tool life also depends to a great extend on the depth of cut d
f + β − α −θ =
4 and feed rate per revolution, f. Assuming a logarithmic vari-
ation of C with d the equation can be written as VTn.dm = C
Heat Generation During Metal Cutting Considering feed rate also the general equation can be
VT n.dm.f  x = C
During metal cutting, heat is generated due to the rubbing
of tool with work piece and chip moving with high velocity Constants n and c for different work material and tool
Factors that cause excessive heat generation are material.

1. Very high cutting speed Work Tool material n C

material
2. Cutting tool of poor surface finish
3. Incorrectly ground or worn cutting tool Steel HSS 0.1–0.16 160–190
4. Built up edge formation on cutting tool Carbide 0.18–0.2 220–290
5. High friction between tool and work piece CI HSS 0.08–0.1 100–180
Carbide 0.2–0.28 250–325
Tool Wear
During a machining process, the tool is subjected to
forces, temperature and sliding action due to relative Solved Example
motion between tool and work piece. Cutting edge of Example 1:  While machining cast iron using a HSS tool,
the tool gradually wears out and needs regrinding as the tool life of 50 min was observed with a cutting speed of 100
wear increases. This leads to down time loss of produc- m/min. Tool life for a cutting speed of 80 m/min will be
tion etc. Tool wear can occur due to diffusion, adhesion, (Assume n = 0.09 in Taylor’s equation).
fatigue, oxidation, abrasion, chemical decomposition
etc. Solution:  V = 100 m/min
T = 50 min
Flank Wear and Crater Wear n = 0.09
Tool life equation
Flank wear produces wear areas on side and end flanks of VTn = C
the tool. log V + n log T = log C
Flank wear occur more at the corner and nose due to the log 100 + 0.09 log 50 = log C
sudden entry and sudden exit of the corner and nose por- C = 142.20
tions. It is also due to the work hardening of the material in \VT 0.09 = 142.2
the width direction.
142.2
Crater wear is due to diffusion and abrasion between chip T 0.09 =
and face of the tool, near the cutting edge. 80
T = 596.57 min
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.839

Example 2: In an machining operation cutting speed is Material Tool life Cutting speed
reduced by 25% (min) (m/min)
Assuming n = 0.5 and C = 300 in Taylor’s equation, cal- A 25 100
culate the increase in tool life. 10 150
Solution:  N = 0.5,
B 40 200
V1T10.5 = 300 (1)
20 250
V2 = 0.75 V1
V 2T20.5 = 300
elative machinability, taking cutting speed for a tool life of
R
0.75 V, T20.5 = 300 (2)
50 min as criteria and material A as standard material is
From (1) and (2)
⎛ T2 ⎞
0.5 Solution:  Material A (standard material)
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ × 0.75 = 1 V1 = 100 m/min
1
T1 = 25 min
2
T2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ V2 = 150 m/min
=⎜ ⎟ = 1.78
T2 ⎝ 0.75 ⎠ T2 = 10 min

log V + n log T = log C
T2 − T1 T2
= −1 log 100 + n log 25 = log C
T1 T1
log 150 + n log 10 = log C
= 1.78 - 1 n (log 25 – log 10) = log 150 – log 100
= 0.78 n × 0.398 = 0.176
i.e. increase in tool life = 78% n = 0.44
Example 3:  A carbide cutting tool was used for machining
C = 415.5
a m.s. work piece at a cutting speed of 50 m/min. A tool
Taylor’s equation is
life of 100 min was obtained. Life of the tool when cutting
speed is increased by 25% is VT0.44 = 415.5
Speed at T = 50 m/m
Solution:  V1 = 50 m/min
415.5
T1 = 100 min V50 =
N = 0.26 500.44
V2 = 1.25 V1 = 74 m/min
V1 T1 = V2 T2
n n
Material B (test material)
0.26 log 200 + n log 40 = log C
⎛ T1 ⎞
⎜⎝ T ⎟ = 1.25 log 250 + n log 20 = log C
2⎠
N (log 40 - log 20) = log 250 - log 200
⎛ T1 ⎞ N = 0.32
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠ = 2.36 C = 651
2
V50 = 186 m/min
T1 100 Relative machinability or machinability index
T2 = = = 42.37 min
2.36 2.36
V50 for B
= × 100
Machinability
V50 for A
Machinability may be defined as the earness or difficulty 186
with which a material can be machined under a given set of = × 100
74
conditions.
It is common to express machinability in terms of cutting = 251.4%
speed for a given tool in minutes. Cutting speed for produc- Machinability rating or index of different material is taken
ing a predetermined value of tool life, termed as the specific relative to the index which is standardized sometimes index
cutting speed, could be made as the basis of comparison of of free cutting steel is arbitrarily taken as 100%. Then,
machinability of materials. Machinability or machinability
index of test material can be expressed as [Cutting speed of test material
V for 20 minn tool life]
Machinability = t × 100% Machinability index % =
Vs [Cutting speed of free cutting
steel for romin.tool lifee]
Example 4: In assessing machinability for different
materials the following data was obtained.
3.840  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Principal Elements in Metal Machining 35 × 1000

Rpm = N =
Principal elements in metal machining are π × 50
1. Cutting speed 700 × π × 50
2. Feed Time required (L/fN) = = 3.14 min
35 × 1000
3. Depth of cut
Example 6:  In orthogonal cutting of a work piece
Cutting speed is the distance travelled by the work surface in Feed force = 350 kgf
a unit time with reference to the cutting edge of the tool. It Cuting force = 150 kgf
is a relative term, since either the tool or the job or both may Chip thickness ratio = 0.44
π DN Rake angle = 10°
be moving during cutting. Cutting speed V = m/s
where N = rpm and D = diameter in mm. 1000 Calculate the shear angle, force Fs and Ft
Feed is the distance advanced by the tool relative to the Solution:  Let shear angle = f
job for each revolution of the work. It is generally expressed
r cos α
in mm/rev. Some times it is expressed in mm/min or mm/s tan ϕ =
1 − r sin α
and is called as feed rate. In machine tools such as shaper or
planer it is expressed as mm/stroke. 0.44 cos 10
=
Depth of cut is the measured perpendicular distance 1 − 0.44 sin10
between the machined surface and the un machined sur- = 0.4691
face of the job. Or it is the thickness of the layer of metal = 25.13°
removed in one cut, measured in a direction perpendicular   Fs = Fc cosf - Ft sinf
to the machined surface. It is expressed in mm. = 150 × 0.906 - 50 × 0.4225
= 114.8 kgf
Machining Time   Fn = Ft cos f + Fc sin f
L = 50 × 0.906 + 150 × 0.4225
T= = 108.7 kgf
fN
Example 7:  A 40 mm diameter and 150 mm long shaft is
Where L = length of cut
to be converted to a stepped shaft of dimensions as shown
f = feed, N = rpm
in the figure by turning.
Material Removal Rate (MRR) in Turning
Material removal rate is the volume of metal removed in 40 mm
30 mm
unit time. It is expressed in mm3/min 35 mm
t
50 mm 50 mm 50 mm

D d The depth of cut should not exceed 2.5 mm. Cutting speed
is to be 20 m/min and feed to be 0.3 mm/rev for each cut.
f = feed/revolution Estimate the machining time.
N = number of revolutions per minute (rpm) Solution:  Reduce 40 mm to 35 mm dia for a length of 100
Material removal rate mm. This can be done in a single cut.
π
MRR =
4
( D 2 − d 2 ) fN Machining time
L
T1 =
=π
( D + d ) ( D − d ) fN fN
2 2 100
= pDavtfN mm /min
3 = min
0.3N 1
Where t = chip thickness in mm
Dav = average diameter of work piece in mm. 20 × 1000
but N1 = = 159.15 rpm
π × 40
Example 5:  Find the time required, for one complete cut on
100
a work piece 350 mm long and 50 mm in diameter. Cutting ∴ T1 = = 2.09 min
speed is 35 m/min and feed is 0.5 mm/rev. 0.3 × 159.15
20 × 1000
350 N2 =
Solution:  No. of revolution = = 700 π × 35
0.5
V = p DN = p × 50 × N = 35 m/min = 181.89
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.841

50 From the above,

T2 =
0.3 × 181.89 w L (1 + m )
Tm =
= 0.92 min f 1000VC
Total machining time = T1 + T2
= 2.09 + 0.92 Drilling
= 3.01 min
Cutting speed (V) is the peripheral speed of the cutter
Operating Conditions in a Shaping Machine (drill bit)
Length of stroke π DN
Cutting speed VC = V= m/min
Time required for cutting stroke 1000
Length of stroke where D = drill diameter in mm
Return speed VR = N = rotational speed in rpm
Time required for return stroke
Feed is the distance that the drill enters the work piece
L L L (VC + VR ) for each revolution of the drill bit. It is expressed in mm/
∴ Time per cycle = + =
VC VR VC .VR revolution.

Machining Time
Feed
Feed is the relative distance moved by the work piece in a L + x+ y
Tm = =
direction perpendicular to the line of tool travel, per cycle. fN fN

w (VC + VR ) Where  = hole length or depth

Machining time Tm = L
f VC .VR x = tool approach
= 0.3 D
where w = width of the job y = tool over travel (1 to 2 mm)
L = length of stroke f = feed
f = feed per cycle Material removal rate
⎛ w⎞
⎜⎝ Total number of cycles or double strokes required = f ⎟⎠ . π D2
MRR = fN mm3/min
4
1
But time/cycle = min Grinding
N
Grinding is the process of material removal in the form of
Where N = number of cycles per minute
small chips from the surface of a work piece, by the abrasive
\ Machining time can also be obtained from the relation
action of a revolving wheel called grinding wheel. It is a
w finishing process for the production of high quality surface
Tm =
fN with close tolerance. It is also used for removal of excess
Volume of metal removed material from a work piece and machining of hard materials.
Material removal rate (MRR) = Grinding wheel is made of two main elements-abrasives
Machining time
and bonding agents. Abrasives are hard substances suitable
wdL for cutting action. Bonding agents hold the abrasive grains
=
w during grinding operation. So they should have good bind-
fN ing properties.
= fdLN mm3/min There are two types of abrasives – natural and synthetic
where d = depth of cut or manufactured. Sand abrasives, emery, corundum and dia-
Cutting speed mond are examples of natural abrasives. Silicon carbide and
aluminium oxide are examples of manufactured abrasives.
LN (1 + m )
VC = m/min Properties of Abrasive Grains
1000
Where m = ratio of return time to cutting time. A good abrasive should have uniform physical properties of
hardness, toughness and friability.
VC
= Hardness of abrasive grain is required to scratch or pen-
VR etrate the work piece during operation.
N = number of double strokes Toughness is required to absorb shock loads.
3.842  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
The ability to fracture under pressure is called friability.
When cutting edges of grains become smooth, they break
off under pressure exposing new cutting edges.
Characteristics of a Grinding Wheel
Knowledge of characteristics of grinding wheels and abra-
sive particles are essential to understand accuracy, surface
finish and material removal rate etc. that can be obtained
using different grinding wheels. The characteristics are grit,
grade and structure.
Grit or Grain Size
It is the number of the finest sieve through which the grain
pass. Smaller the grain size, larger is the number. For exam-
ple grain size 10 is very coarse and grain size 100 is fine.
Grade
The term grade refers to the hardness with which the bond
holds the abrasive grains. It is indicated by English alpha-
bets A to Z, A denoting weakest and Z the strongest.
Structure
The relative spacing of the abrasive grains in the bond is
called structure. Dense structure is denoted by numbers 1 to
8 and open structure is denoted by 9 to 15 or higher. Open
structure is used for soft and ductile materials and dense
structure is used for brittle materials and finishing cuts.
Grinding Wheel Wear
During use, a grinding wheel slowly wears out. The wear
can be due to grain fracture, bond fracture or attrious wear.
Due to attrious wear the cutting edges become dull.
Loading and Glazing
Chips formed during operation get entrapped in the inner
granular space of abrasive particles. This is called loading.
When the bond of the abrasive wheel is very hard, abra-
sive particles are not dislodged and become blunt leading to
a shining appearance. This is called glazing.
By loading and glazing the grinding wheel operation
become ineffective.
Dressing and Truing
Dressing and truing are operations done on grinding wheel
to remove the ineffectiveness due to loading, glazing and
wear.
Dressing is the process of sharpening abrasive elements
using various dressing tools like star dressing tool, diamond
dressing tool and round abrasive dressing sticks.
Truing is the process of changing the shape of the
periphery of the grinding wheel when it becomes worn due
to breaking away of abrasive grains and bond. The wheel
periphery is made concentric with its axis of rotation. In
conventional grinding wheels truing and dressing are done
simultaneously.
Non–Traditional Machining
Processes
Conventional manufacturing process include casting, form-
ing, joining etc. Non conventional resources such as laser,
plasma, chemicals etc. can be made use of in shaping mate-
rials. When these are applied for manufacturing processes
they are called unconventional manufacturing process, which
include machining process also. These processes are also
called non-traditional machining processes or non-­traditional
manufacturing methods (NTMM) or new technology.
NTMM generally are non-mechanical. They do not pro-
duce chips or a lay pattern on the work. There is no direct phys-
ical contact between tool and work piece. So tool need not be
harder than the job as in the case of conventional machining.
Classification
NTMM can be classified in to various groups according to
the type of energy used. They are
1. Mechanical
2. Chemical
3. Electro chemical
4. Thermoelectric
In mechanical energy methods, material is removed by
mechanical erosion of the work piece material. Energy
source is pneumatic or hydraulic pressure cutting tool. The
processes include
1. Waterjet machining (WTM)
2. Ultra sonic machining (USM)
3. Abrasive jet machining
Chemical energy methods involve controlled etching of the
work piece material in contact with a chemical solution.
Energy source is a chemical corrosive agent. An example is
chemical machining method (CHM).
Electro chemical energy methods involve electrolytic
(anodic) dissolution of the work piece material in contact
with a chemical solution. Energy source is high current and
electrolyte solution. Energy source is high current and elec-
trolyte solution. These methods include
1. Electro chemical machining (ECM)
2. Electro chemical grinding (ECG)
3. Electro chemical debarring (ECD)
In thermoelectric machining, thermal energy is employed to
melt and vapourise tiny particles of work material by con-
centrating the heat energy as a small area of the work piece.
The processes are
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.843
1. Ion beam machining (IBM)
2. Plasma arc machining (PAM)
3. Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
4. Electron beam machining (EBM)
5. Laser beam machining (LBM)
Water Jet Machining Process
In this process a very high velocity water jet of small cross
-sectional area is directed to the area to be cut. The very high
kinetic energy of the jet is converted to pressure energy,
which erodes the material at the small area of impingement.
On movement of the jet crack is developed thus forming the
cut. Water in the pressure range of 1500 to 4000 MPa is used.
Chemical Machining Process
In this method acids react with the metal to be cut are used.
Acids form compounds which are soluble in water. The
chemical reagent used is known as ‘etchant’ and the process
is also called etching. The areas from where the material is
not to be removed are protected by a chemically resistant
material known as ‘maskant’.
Electrochemical Machining Process
In the electro chemical machining (ECM) a direct current
with high amperage and low voltage is passed between the
work piece (anode) and a pre-shaped tool (cathode) through
electrolyte. At the work piece metal is dissolved in electro-
lyte as metallic ions. Areas where metal is not to be removed
as masked by suitable maskants. The process is similar to
electroplating. In ECM, the electrotype is so chosen such
that no electroplating takes place and the tool shape is
maintained. If a close gap of 0.1 to 0.2 mm is maintained
between the tool and work, the machined surface takes the
replica of the tool shape. The electrolyte is forced to flow
through the gap. The positive metallic ions from the work
reacts with the negative ions in solution, forming metallic
hydroxides and other compounds known as ‘sludge’ and
precipitate.
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
It is observed that a powerful spark, such as the terminals
of an automobile battery causes pitting or erosion of metal
at both anode and cathode. This principle is used in EDM
which is also called spark erosion. If anode and cathode
are of same material, it is observed that more erosion takes
place at anode. So in EDM work is connected as anode.
In EDM the work piece and electrode (cathode) are gen-
erally immersed in a moving insulating fluid called ‘dielec-
tric fluid’. A suitable gap known as spark gap is maintained
between the electrode and work piece. The control of ero-
sion a metal is achieved by controlling the rapidly recurring
spark impinging against the work piece surface.
As soon as the spark occurs high pressure is developed in
the gap and temperature of the order of 10000°C is reached at
the spot hit by the spark. Here metal gets melted and eroded.
Reservoir Electrode
Spark
Pump
Dielectric
Work piece fluid
Variable
register
DC Power
Tool
Work piece
Capacitor
EDM process can be used for machining hard and tough
materials for manufacturing of dies for forging and extru-
sion, intricate mould cavities, carbide tools etc.
The disadvantage of EDM process are that the metal-
lurgical properties of the material will change at very high
temperatures, machining of complicated profiles, are not
possible, and specific power consumption is very high.
Economics of Machining
The main aim of a machining operation is to produce qual-
ity parts at minimum cost and maximum production rate.
Production costs and production rates depend upon the
cutting parameters namely
1. Cutting speed
2. Feed
3. Depth of cut
Experience gained over years has led to certain empirical
rules or guiding principles for choosing the optimum cut-
ting condition.
Production time is defined as the average time taken to
produce one component and production cost is defined as
the average cost of performing the machining operation.
When cutting speed and feed are increased while other
conditions held constant the machining time will be reduced,
the tool wear rate increases. It can be seen that at very slow
speeds and feeds the production time is increased due to the
long machining time.
Very high speeds and feeds also will result in a high pro-
duction time due to the frequent need to change the cutting
tools. Therefore there will be an optimum condition at which
production time will be minimum. Similarly there will be
an optimum condition for minimum production cost also. A
manufacturing engineer should aim at reducing both produc-
tion time and production cost. In general, these objectives
cannot be reached simultaneously so a compromise is sought.
3.844  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Choice of feed depends upon type of operations whether Jigs and Fixtures
a roughing operation or finishing operation.
In mass production when articles are to be produced with
It is seen that equal changes in speed or feed affect the
high degree of accuracy some specially designed tooling
tool temperature by the same amount an increase in feed
is required. Jigs and fixtures come under such category of
will not affect the relative speed of sliding at the wearing
tools. Jigs and fixtures are work holding devices designed
surface of the tool, whereas the speed of sliding increases
and built to hold, support and locate every component to
with increase in cutting speed. Tool wear is a function of
ensure that each is drilled or machined within the specified
both temperature and relative speed of sliding. There fore an
limits. They are accurately made and the material used must
increase in cutting speed will result in a greater reduction of
be able to with stand wear and operational forces experi-
tool life than similar increases in feed. Therefore in a rough
enced during metal cutting.
machining for increased production rate feed is increased
Jig is a frame or body which holds and positions the work
rather than the cutting speed. But there is a limitation in
and guides the cutting tool during, the machining operation
increasing the feed. Because tool forces increase with the
such as drilling reaming, lapping etc.
increase in feed. The guiding principle in choosing opti-
Fixture is a production tool that locates, holds and sup-
mum conditions in a roughing operations is that the feed
port the work securely in a fixed orientation with respect to
should always be set maximum possible.
the tool such that the required machining operation can be
performed.
Economic Cutting Speed Jigs are connected with operation while fixtures are most
An increase in cutting speed has two main effects upon the commonly related to specific machine tools. Most common
economics of cutting jigs are drilling jigs, reaming jigs assembly jigs etc. They
1. The metal removal rate is increased are not fastened to a machine tool or tables, but are free to
2. Tool life is decreased be moved so as to permit proper resisting of work and the
tool. But fixtures are attached to some machine tool or table.
Due to the first the direct cost of metal removal is decreased. Examples are milling fixtures broaching fixtures, grinding
Reduction in tool life increases the cost of servicing and fixtures, assembly fixtures etc. Fixtures are heavier in con-
replacement of worn out tools. struction and are bolted rigidly on machine table.
As cutting speed ‘v’ increases cost of cutting falls.
1 Principles of Design of Jigs and Fixtures
Therefore cost of cutting α
υ
As v increases the tool life T falls. Cost of tooling Jigs and fixtures have the following components.
1
increases. Therefore cost of tooling α Location  This ensure that the work piece is given the
T desired constraint and determine the position of the work
From Taylor’s equation,
piece with respect to the cutting tool.
1
1 V  n Clamping  The clamps should be positioned to give best
= 
T C resistance to the cutting force. The clamp should be such
1 that they should not cause reformation of work piece.
Therefore cost of tooling αν n
Clearance  Enough clearance should be allowed for varia-
The above costs and total costs can be plotted against tion of work piece size, for operator’s hand etc.
cutting speed as shown. The ideal cutting speed is where the
total cost is minimum. Stability and Rigidity
Uneven seating should be avoided (provide four feets). The
1
Cost of cutting α equipment should be made sufficiently rigid to make it suit-
V able for the operation.
1 1
Cost of cutting+ Cost of tooling α +V
V n Handling
The equipment should be as light as possible and easy to
Cost of tooling α V 1 handle. Sharp corners should be avoided and lifting points
Costs n should be provided for heavy equipment.

General
Optimum cutting speed
The design should be simple to minimize the cost. Standard
Cutting speed V parts should be utilized as much as possible.
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.845
Types of Jigs and Fixtures
1. Used with machine tools, drilling fixtures, milling fix-
tures, broaching fixtures etc.
2. Devices for locating and clamping, arbors, holders etc.
3. Assembly fixtures
4. Inspection fixtures
5. Special jigs and fixtures
Degrees of Freedom
An unrestricted object in space is free to move in any of the
twelve possible directions and is said to have twelve degrees
of freedom. An object is free to revolve around or move
parallel to any axis in either direction.
Degree of freedom can be taken as six if we consider
three freedom of translation and three freedoms of rotation
about the three axes irrespective of the directions.
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. While machining steel using HSS steel a tool life of 40
min was observed with cutting speed of 100 m/min. Tool
life for a cutting speed of 75 m/min, assuming value
n = 0.12 in Taylor’s equation will be
(A) 420 min (B) 440 min
(C) 430 min (D) 450 min
2. In a cutting operation the cutting speed was reduced by
20%. Assuming n = 0.5 and C = 350, increase in tool
life is
(A) 56% (B) 48%
(C) 59% (D) 46%
Direction for questions 3 and 4:
A cutting tool when used for machining a work piece
material at a cutting speed of 45 m/min, lasted for 120
min. Value of n = 0.26 in Taylor’s equation.
3. Life of the tool when cutting speed is increased by 25%
will be
(A) 60.5 min (B) 50.9 min
(C) 46.2 min (D) 48.7 min
4. Cutting speed of the tool to get a tool life of 180 min
will be
(A) 45.2 m/min (B) 38.6 m/min
(C) 40.5 m/min (D) 43.7 m/min
5. In an orthogonal cutting, the following observations
were made.
Cutting force = 150 kgf
Feed force = 50 kgf
Chip thickness ratio, r = 0.44
Z’ Y’
X’
X
Z
y
In order to locate the block correctly, with in a jig all
these six movements must be restrained by arranging suit-
able locating points and then clamping the block in position.
Rake angle, a = 10°
Cutting speed = 100 m/min
Coefficient of friction in the cutting is
(A) 0.54 (B) 0.67
(C) 0.48 (D) 0.59
6. A work piece 400 mm long and 50 mm diameter was
reduced in diameter by turning. Cutting speed was
30 m/min and feed was 0.5 mm/revolution. The time
required for a cut of length 300 mm is
(A) 6.28 min (B) 3.54 min
(C) 3.14 min (D) 3.98 min
7.
50 40
30
60 50
40 mm
A stepped shaft of the dimensions as per the sketch shown
is to be made from a shaft of 50 mm diameter and 150
mm long by turning. The depth of cut should not exceed
2.5 mm. The cutting speed is to be 25 m/ min and feed to
be 0.3 mm per revolution. The required machining time is
(A) 4.97 min (B) 4.83 min
(C) 3.86 min (D) 3.54 min
Direction for questions 8 and 9:
A 150 mm long 12 mm dia SS rod is to be reduced
to 10 mm dia in a single cut by turning. The spindle
rotates at 500 rpm and tool speed is 200 mm/ min
8. Cutting speed of the lathe in the operation is
(A) 19.54 m/min (B) 16.76 m/min
(C) 17.92 m/min (D) 18.85 m/min
3.846  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
9. The material removal rate in mm3/min is
(A) 7540 (B) 8630 (B) 9960 (D) 8190
10. A 170 mm long 60 mm diameter shaft is to be connected
to 166 mm long and 50 mm dia shaft by turning and fac-
ing operations. The work piece rotates at 450 rpm, feed
is 0.3 mm per revolution and maximum depth of cut is
2 mm. Turning operation is performed first. Assuming
total approach and over travel distance of 5 mm for turn-
ing operation, the total machining time will be
(A) 3.92 min (B) 4.26 min
(C) 3.76 min (D) 4.33 min
11. 1000 Nos 8 mm diameter and 100 mm length pieces
are to be produced from 10 mm diameter and 100 mm
length pieces.
Cutting speed is 31.42 m/min and feed rate is 0.7 mm/
rev. Assuming n = 1.2 and C = 180 in Taylors’s expres-
sion, the number of times sharpening required for the
cutting tool is
(A) 44 (B) 22 (C) 33 (D) 55
12. A batch of ten cutting tools could produce 500 com-
ponents while working at 50 rpm with a tool feed of
0.25 mm/rev and depth of cut of 1 mm. A similar batch
of 10 tools of the same specifications could produce
122 components while working at 80 rpm with a feed
of 0.25 mm/rev and 1 mm depth of cut. How many
components can be produced with one cutting tool at
60 rpm?
(A) 29 (B) 31 (C) 37 (D) 42
13. During life testing of tool on a lathe under dry cutting
condition gave n and C of Taylor’s equations as 0.12 and
130 m/min respectively. When a coolant was used C
increased by 8%. Find the percentage increase in tool life
with the use of coolant at a cutting speed of 90 m/min
(A) 85% (B) 90%
(C) 88% (D) 97%
14. Match correct pairs
Machining process Metal removal method
(P)  ECM (1)  Plastic shear
(Q)  EDM (2)  Erosion/britt fracture
(R)  USM (3)  corrosive reactions
Practice Problem 2
1. In a machining operation when cutting speed was
reduced to half tool life reached 8 times of the original
value. The exponent in Taylor’s tool life equation is
1 1
(A) (B) Cutting speed Tool life
2 4
1 60 80
(C) (D) 1
3 5
Machining process Metal removal method
(S)  LBM (4)  |melting and vaporization
(5)  Ion displacement
(6)  Plastic shear and ion
displacement
(A) A-3, B-5, C-1, D-6
(B) A-1, B-3, C-4, D-2
(C) A-5, B-1, C-2, D-4
(D) A-2, B-4, C-6, D-5
15. In electro discharge machining, the tool is made of
(A) Plain carbon steel (B) Copper
(C) Cast iron (D) High speed steel
16. In ECM, the material removal is due to
(A) Erosion (B) Corrosion
(C) Ion displacement (D) Fusion
17. In EDM process, the work piece is connected to
(A) Anode (B) Cathode
(C) Earth (D) Any of these
18. A 500 mm × 42 mm flat surface of a plate is to be
machined on a shaper, fixing the longer side in the
direction of tool travel. If the tool over travel is 20 mm
at each end, average cutting sped is 8m/min, feed rate is
0.3 mm/stroke and ratio of return to cutting time is 1:2,
the time required for machining will be
(A) 12.3 min (B) 15.8 min
(C) 14.2 min (D) 13.6 min
19. 10 mm diameter through holes are to be drilled in a
MS plate of 25 mm thickness. Drill point angle is 120°,
feed is 0.2 mm/revolution, and spindle speed is 300
rpm. Assuming a drill over travel of 2 mm, the time for
producing one hole will be
(A) 25 sec (B) 28 sec
(C) 32 sec (D) 30 sec
20. The tool signature of a cutting tool in ASA system is
5 – 5 – 7 – 7 – 8 – 15 – 0
In a cutting operation if the feed rate is f, the peak value
height of surface produced is
(A) 0.135 f mm (B) 0.95 f mm
(C) 0.236 f mm (D) 0.156 f mm
Direction for questions 2 and 3:
In a machining experiment tool life varied with cutting
speed as follows.
(m/min) (minutes)
90 35
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.847
2. Exponent n and constant C of the Taylor’s equation are
(A) 0.35, 540.2 (B) 0.38, 520.8
(C) 0.42, 515.9 (D) 0.49, 513.6
3. Percentage increase in tool life when cutting speed is
halved.
(A) 306.4 (B) 311.5
(C) 313.7 (D) 315.6
4. In an orthogonal cutting test on steel the following con-
ditions were obtained.
Cutting speed = 45 m/min
Depth of cut = 0.3 mm
Tool rake angle = +6°
Chip thickness = 1.5 mm
Cutting force= 900 N
Thrust force = 450 N
Using Merchant’s analysis, the friction angle during
the machining will be
(A) 32.6° (B) 35.4° (A) 598 N, 475 N (B) 595 N, 471 N
(C) 30.8° (D) 28.9°
5. In orthogonal turning of a mild steel bar of diameter
150 mm with a carbide tool the cutting velocity was 80
m/min. Feed was 0.25 mm/rev. Chip thickness obtained
was 0.5 mm. If the orthogonal rake angle is zero and
principal cutting edge angle is 90°, the shear angle in
degrees is
(A) 28.32 (B) 26.56
(C) 24.81 (D) 22.78
6. In a single point turning tool, side rake angle and orthogo-
nal rake angle are equal. The principal cutting edge angle
is between zero and 90°. The chip flows in the orthogonal
plane. The value of f is approximately equal to
(A) 0° (B) 45° (A) 15.6 m/min (B) 17.8 m/min
(C) 60° (D) 90°
Direction for questions 7, 8 and 9:
In an orthogonal machining operation, the following
data were obtained.
Uncut thickness = 0.5 mm
Cutting speed = 18 m/min
Rake angle = 15°
Width of cut = 5 mm
Chip thickness = 0.7 mm
Thrust force = 200 N
Cutting force = 1200 N
Assume Merchant’s theory
7. Values of shear angle and shear strain respectively are
(A) 38.4°, 1.187 (B) 42.3°, 1.198
(C) 40.2°, 1.1645 (D) 45.7°, 1.147
8. Coefficient of friction at the tool chip interface
(A) 0.455 (B) 0.536
(C) 0.392 (D) 0.477
9. The percentage of total energy dissipated due to fric-
tion at the tool chip interface is
(A) 32% (B) 25% (C) 34% (D) 30%
Direction for questions 10 and 12:
Orthogonal turning is performed on a cylindrical work
piece with shear strength of 260 N/mm2. The following
data were observed.
Cutting velocity: 170 m/min
Feed: 0.2 mm/rev
Depth of cut: 3 mm
Chip thickness of ratio: 0.5
Orthogonal rake angle: 6°
Use Mechant’s theory:
10. Shear plane angle and shear force are
(A) 28°, 336 N (B) 26°, 332 N
(C) 30°, 340 N (D) 24°, 328 N
11. Cutting and frictional forces respectively are
(C) 578 N, 465 N (D) 582 N, 467 N
12. In an orthogonal turning of carbon steel specific
machining energy is 2.5 J/mm3. Cutting velocity, fed
and depth of cut are 125 m/min; 0.2 mm per revolu-
tion and 2 mm respectively. The main cutting force in
Newton is
(A) 1000 N (B) 800 N
(C) 900 N (D) 1100 N
13. Taylor’s tool life exponent for tool A is 0.4 and for tool
B is 0.3. Constants of Taylor’s equation for A and B
are 90 and 60 respectively. Cutting speed in m/min
above which tool A will have a higher tool life than tool
B is
(C) 18.2 m/min (D) 14.4 m/ min
14. Match the lists and select correct answer.
Machining process Associated medium
P  USM 1.  Kerosene
Q  EDM 2.  Abrasive slurry
R  ECM 3.  Vacuum
S  EBM 4.  Salt solution
(A) P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1
(B) P-4, Q-1, R-2, S-3
(C) P-2, Q-1, R-4, S-1
(D) P-4, Q-3, R-2, S-1
15. Holes in nylon button are made by
(A) EDM (B) CHM
(C) USM (D) LBM
16. In ECM, the material removal is due to
(A) Corosion (B) Erosion
(C) Fusion (D) Ion displacement
3.848  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
17. Two tools P and Q have tool signature
5- 5- 6- 6- 7- 20- 0 and
5- 5-7- 7- 8- 30- 0 respectively as per ASA system.
They are used under same machining conditions. Ratio
of peak to valley heights of the tools will be
(A) 0.7 (B) 0.8
(C) 0.9 (D) 1.1
18. In a single pass drilling operation a through hole of 16
mm diameter is to be drilled in a 45 mm thick steel
plate. Details of the drill used are
Spindle speed = 500 rpm
Feed = 0.2 mm/rev
Drill point angle = 118°
Clearance at approach and exit = 3 mm
Time required to drill a hole will be
(A) 33.5 sec (B) 35.1 sec
(C) 30.2 sec (D) 31.3 sec
19. 3 numbers 600 mm × 30 mm flat pieces have to be fin-
ish machined as a shaper, fixing 600 mm side along
tool travel direction. Tool travel at each end of the plate
is 20 mm. Average cutting speed is 8 m/min.
Feed ratio is 0.3 mm/stroke. Cutting to return time ratio
is 2:1. Set up time required per piece is 3 min. Total
time required for the 3 pieces will be
(A) 50 min (B) 45 min
(C) 48 min (D) 40 min
20. 50 45 30 mm
40
50
60
A stepped shaft as per dimensions given is to be made by
turning. A 150 mm long 50 mm diameter shaft is avail-
able. Estimate the time required to make the shaft. The
depth of cut should not exceed 2.5 mm. Cutting speed is
to be 25 m/min and feed to be 0.3 mm per revolution.
(A) 3.89 min (B) 4.26 min
(C) 3.38 min (D) 4.73 min
21. A 200 mm long, 20 mm diameter ms. rod is to be
reduced to 18 mm diameter, in a single cut by turning.
Cutting speed is 20 m/min feed rate is 200 mm/min
rpm and material removal rate in mm3/min are
(A) 302 rpm, 12322 mm3/min, (approach and overshoot can be neglected)
(B) 328 rpm, 12722 mm3/min
(C) 326 rpm, 12820 mm3/min
(D) 318 rpm, 12566 mm3/min
22. A work piece 170 mm long and 60 mm diameter is to
be machined to 166 mm lonf and 50 mm diameter by
facing and turning. The work piece rotates at 450 rpm,
feed is 0.3 mm/rev and maximum depth of cut is 2 mm.
Facing operation is performed first. Assuming total
approach and over travel distance of 5 mm for turning,
the total machining time will be
(A) 4.26 min (B) 4.24 min
(C) 3.88 min (D) 3.92 min
23. A hole is to be drilled in a metal block with a 10 mm
drill at a feed of 0.2 mm/rev. Spindle speed is 800 rpm.
The material removal rate in mm3/min will be
(A) 12932 (B) 12356
(C) 12566 (D) 12289
24. 20 mm diameter through holes are to be drilled in
work pieces of 100 mm length and 50 mm diameter.
Approach and over travel instance is 20 mm. Feed is 0.5
mm/rev and rpm is 200. Assuming a set up time of 25%
of the processing time the number of pieces that can be
drilled in a shift of 8 hrs is
(A) 320 (B) 240
(C) 360 (D) 280
25. A 600 × 800 mm steel pieces is to surface machined on
a shaping machine. Cutting speed is 8m/min. Return to
cutting time ratio is 1:4, feed is 2 mm/double strokes.
Clearance at each end is 75 mm, 600 mm is in tool
travel direction. The machining time will be
(A) 36.2 min (B) 38.5 min
(C) 42.7 min (D) 46.9 min
26. A slot of 300 × 25 mm is to be milled in a work piece
of 300 mm length with a side and face milling cutter
of 100 mm diameter, 25 mm wide and having 18 teeth.
The depth of cut is 5 mm. feed per tooth is 0.1 mm and
cutting speed is 30 m/min. Assuming an approach and
over travel distance of 50 mm the required time to mill
the slot will be
(A) 1.8 min (B) 2.2 min
(C) 2.4 min (D) 1.9 min
27. If under a given condition of plain turning, the life of
cutting tool decreases by 50%, due to an increase of
velocity by 25%. The index of Taylor equation will be
(A) 0.252 (B) 0.244
(C) 0.264 (D) 0.268
28. The tool life of a single point cutting tool has been
found to be 1500 sec at a cutting speed of 0.5 m/s. How
many pieces can be produced with in one tool life, if
each piece is 50 mm in diameter and 80 mm long, using
a feed of 0.1 mm/rev and a cutting speed od 0.5 m/s
(A) 5 (B) 7
(C) 4 (D) 3
29. Choose the best set of operation–process combinations
Operation Process
P  Deburring (internal surface) 1.  Plasma arc machining
Q  Die sinking 2.  Abrasive flow machining
R  Fine hole drilling in thin 3.  Electric discharge
sheets machining
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.849

Operation Process 30. In abrasive jet machining, as the distance between

S  Tool sharpening 4.  Ultra sonic machining
the nozzle tip and work surface increases the material
removal rate
5.  Laser beam machining
(A) Increases continuously
6.  Electrochemical grinding (B) Decrease continuously
(A) P-1, Q-5, R-3, S-4 (C) Decreases, becomes stable and then increases
(B) P-1, Q-4, R-1, S-2 (D) Increases, becomes stable and then decreases
(C) R-5, Q-1, R-2, S-6sf
(D) P-2, Q-3, R-5, S-6

Previous Years’ Questions

1. The mechanism of material removal in EDM process 5. In a machining operation, doubling the cutting speed
th
is [2004]
reduces the tool life to 1 of the original value. The
(A) Melting and evaporation 8
(B) Melting and corrosion exponent n in Taylor’s tool life equation VT n = C is
(C) Erosion and cavitation  [2004]
(D) Cavitation and evaporation 1 1
(A) (B)
2. A standard machine tool and an automatic machine 8 4
tool are being compared for the production of a com- 1 1
(C) (D)
ponent. Following data refers to the two machines. 3 2
 [2004] 6. Typical machining operations are to be performed
Standard Automatic on hand-to-machine materials by using the processes
machine tools machine tool listed below. Choose the best set of operation–process
Setup time 30 min 2 hours combinations [2004]
Machining Operation Process
time per 22 min 5 min
piece P.  Deburring 1.  Plasma arc machining
(internal surface)
Machine rate 200 per hour 800 per hour
Q.  Die sinking 2.  Abrasive flow machining

The breakeven production batch size above which the R.  Fine hole drilling in thin 3.  Electric discharge
automatic machine tool will be economical to use will be sheets machining
(A) 4 (B) 5 S.  Tool sharpening 4.  Ultrasonic machining
(C) 24 (D) 225
3. Through holes of 10 mm diameter are to be drilled in 5.  Laser beam machining
a steel plate of 20 mm thickness. Drill spindle speed
6.  Electrochemical grinding
is 300 rpm, feed 0.2 mm/rev and drill point angle is
120°. Assuming drill over travel of 2 mm, the time for (A) P-1, Q-5, R-3, S-4
producing a hole will be [2004] (B) P-1, Q-4, R-1, S-2
(A) 4 sec (B) 25 sec (C) P-5, Q-1, R-2, S-6
(C) 100 sec (D) 110 sec (D) P-2, Q-3, R-5, S-6
4. In an orthogonal cutting test on mild steel, the follow- 7. A zigzag cavity in a block of high strength alloy is to
ing data were obtained:  [2004] be finish machined. This can be carried out by using
Cutting speed:  40 m/min  [2005]
Depth of cut:  0.3 mm
Tool rake angle:  + 5°
Chip thickness:  1.5 mm
Cutting force:  900 N
Thrust force :  450 N
Using Merchant’s analysis, the friction angle during
the machining will be
(A) 26.6° (B) 31.5°
(C) 45° (D) 63.4°
3.850  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
(A) Electric discharge machining
(B) Electro-chemical machining
(C) Laser beam machining
(D) Abrasive flow machining
8. When 3-2-1 principle in used to support and locate a
three dimensional work-piece during machining, the
number of degrees of freedom that are restricted is
[2005]
(A) 7 (B) 8
(C) 9 (D) 10
9. The figure below show a graph which qualitatively
relates cutting speed and cost per piece produced.
 [2005]
Total cost
Cost of per piece
3
2
1 (B) EBM, LBM, USM, ECM, EDM
Cutting speed
The three curves 1, 2 and 3 respectively represent
(A) Machining cost, non-productive cost, tool chang-
ing cost
(B)  Non-productive cost, machining cost, tool
changing cost
(C) Tool changing cost, machining cost, non-produc-
tive cost
(D)  Tool changing cost, non-productive cost, ma-
chining cost
10. A 600 mm × 30 mm flat surface of a plate is to be
finish machined on a shaper. The plate has been fixed
with the 600 mm side along the tool travel direc-
tion. If the tool over-travel each end of the plate is
20 mm, average cutting speed is 8 m/min, feed rate is
0.3 mm/stroke and the ratio of return time to cutting
time of the tool is 1:2, the time required for machin-
ing will be [2005]
(A) 8 min (B) 12 min
(C) 16 min (D) 20 min
11. Two tools P and Q have signatures 5°-5°–6°-6°-
8°-30°-0 and 5°-5°-7°-7°-8°-15°-0 (both ASA)
respectively. They are used to turn components under
the same machining conditions. If hP and hQ denote
the peak-to-valley heights of surfaces produced by the
h cutting velocity is 90 m/min. The feed is 0.24 mm/
tools P and Q, the ratio P will be [2005]
hQ
tan 8° + cot 15° tan 15° + cot 8°
(A) (B) zero and the principal cutting edge angle is 90o, the
tan 8° + cot 30° tan 30° + cot 8°
tan 15° + cot 7° tan 7° + cot 15°
(C) (D) (A) 20.56 (B) 26.56
tan 30° + cot 7° tan 7° + cot 30°
12. If each abrasive grain is viewed as a cutting tool, then
which of the following represents the cutting param-
eters in common grinding operations? [2006]
(A) Large negative rake angle, low shear angle and
high cutting speed
(B) Large positive rake angle, low shear angle and
high cutting speed
(C) Large negative rake angle, high shear angle and
low cutting speed
(D) Zero rake angle, high shear angle and high cut-
ting speed
13. Arrange the processes in the increasing order of their
maximum material removal rate.
Electrochemical machining (ECM)
Ultrasonic machining (USM)
Electron beam machining (EBM)
Laser beam machining (LBM) and
Electric discharge machining (EDM) [2006]
(A) USM, LBM, EBM, EDM, ECM
(C) LBM, EBM, USM, ECM, EDM
(D) LBM, EBM, USM, EDM, ECM
Direction for questions 14 to 16:
In an orthogonal machining operation:
Uncut thickness = 0.5 mm
Width of cut = 5 mm
Thrust force = 200 N
Rake angle = 15°
Cutting speed = 20 m/min
Chip thickness = 0.7 m
Cutting force = 1200 N
Assume Merchant’s theory
14. The values of shear angle and shear strain, respec-
tively, are [2006]
(A) 30.3° and 1.98 (B) 30.3° and 4.23
(C) 40.2° and 2.97 (D) 40.2° and 1.65
15. The coefficient of friction at the tool-chip interface is
 [2006]
(A) 0.23 (B) 0.46
(C) 0.85 (D) 0.95
16. The percentage of total energy dissipated due to fric-
tion at the tool-chip interface is: [2006]
(A) 30% (B) 42%
(C) 58% (D) 70%
17. In orthogonal turning of a low carbon steel bar of
diameter 150 mm with uncoated carbide tool, the
rev and the depth of cut is 2 mm. The chip thickness
obtained is 0.48 mm. If the orthogonal rake angle is
shear angle in degree is  [2007]
(C) 30.56 (D) 36.56
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.851
18. In electrodischarge machining (EDM), if the thermal
conductivity of tool is high and the specific heat of
work piece is low, then the tool wear rate and material
removal rate are expected to be respectively. [2007]
(A) High and high (B) Low and low
(C) High and low (D) Low and high
19. In orthogonal turning of medium carbon steel, the spe-
cific machining energy is 2.0 J/mm3. The cutting veloc-
ity, feed and depth of cut are 120 m/min, 0.2 mm/rev
and 2 mm respectively. The main cutting force in N is
 [2007]
(A) 40 (B) 80 flows in the orthogonal plane. The value of φ is closest
(C) 400 (D) 800
20. In orthogonal turning of low carbon steel pipe with
principal cutting edge angle of 90o, the main cut-
ting force is 1000 N and the feed force is 800 N.
The shear angle is 25o and orthogonal rake angle is
zero. Employing Merchant’s theory, the ratio of fric-
tion force to normal force acting on the cutting tool is
 [2007]
(A) 1.56 (B) 1.25
(C) 0.80 (D) 0.64
21. Match the most suitable manufacturing processes for
the following parts. [2007]
Manufacturing
Parts
processes
(P) Computer chip (1) Electrochemical machining
(Q) Metal forming dies (2) Ultrasonic machining
and molds
(R) Turbine blade (3) Electrodischarge machining
(S) Glass (4) Photochemical machining
(A) P-4, Q-3, R-1, S-2
(B) P-4, Q-3, R-2, S-1
(C) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2
(D) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3
Direction for questions 22 and 23:
A low carbon steel bar of 147 mm diameter with a length
of 630 mm is being turned with uncoated carbide insert.
The observed tool lives are 24 min and 12 min for cutting
velocities of 90 m/min and 120 m/min respectively. The
feed and depth of cut are 0.2 mm/rev and 2 mm respec-
tively. Use the unmachined diameter to calculate the cut-
ting velocity.
22. When tool life is 20 min, the cutting velocity in m/
min is [2007]
(A) 87 (B) 97 28. A displacement sensor (a dial indicator) measures
(C) 107 (D) 114
23. Neglect over-travel or approach of the tool. When tool
life is 20 min, the machining time in min for a single
pass is [2007]
(A) 5 (B) 10
(C) 15 (D) 20
24. Internal gear cutting operation can be performed by
 [2008]
(A) Milling
(B) Shaping with rack cutter
(C) Shaping with pinion cutter
(D) Hobbing
25. In a single point turning tool, the side rake angle and
orthogonal rake angle are equal. φ is the principal cut-
ting edge angle and its range is 0° ≤ φ ≤ 90°. The chip
to  [2008]
(A) 0o (B) 45o
(C) 60o (D) 90o
26. A researcher conducts electrochemical machining
(ECM) on a binary alloy (density 6000 kg/m3) of iron
(atomic weight 56, valency 2) and metal P (atomic
weight 24, valency 4). Faraday’s constant = 96500
coulomb/mole. Volumetric material removal rate of
the alloy is 50 mm3/s at a current of 2000 A. The per-
centage of the metal P in the alloy is closest to[2008]
(A) 40 (B) 25
(C) 15 (D) 79
Spindle
Work piece
Motor UV
P Q R S
Cutting cool
Half-
E
Nut
Lead screw
27. The figure shows an incomplete schematic of a con-
ventional lathe to be used for cutting threads with, dif-
ferent pitches. The speed gear box Uv is shown and the
feed gear box Us is to be placed P, Q, R and S denote
locations and have no other significance. Changes in
UV should NOT affect the pitch of the thread being
cut and changes in Uv should NOT affect the cutting
speed.
The correct connections and the correct placement of
Us are given by  [2008]
(A)  Q and E are connected. Us is placed between P
and Q
(B)  S and E are connected. Us is placed between R
and S
(C)  Q and E are connected. Us is placed between Q
and E
(D)  S and E are connected. Us is placed between S
and E
the lateral displacement of a mandrel mounted on
the taper hole inside a drill spindle. The mandrel axis
is an extension of the drill spindle taper hole axis
and the protruding portion of the mandrel surface
3.852  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

is perfectly cylindrical. Measurements are taken (A) 0.0 (B) 0.5

with the sensor placed at two positions P and Q as (C) 1.0 (D) 2.0
shown in the figure. The readings are recorded as 33. Electrochemical machining is performed to remove
RX = maximum deflection minus minimum deflec- material from an iron surface of 20 mm × 20 mm
tion, corresponding to senor position at X, over one under the following conditions:  [2009]
rotation. [2008]
Inter electrode gap = 0.2 mm
Supply voltage (DC) = 12 V
Specific resistance of
Drill electrolyte = 2 W cm
spindle
P Atomic weight of iron = 55.85
Mandrel Sensor Valency of iron = 2
Q
Faraday’s constant = 96540 Coulombs
The material removal rate (in g/s) is
Drill table (A) 0.3471 (B) 3.471
(C) 34.71 (D) 347.1

Direction for ­questions 34 and 35:

If RP = RQ > 0, which one of the following would be In a machining experiment, tool life was found to vary
consistent with the observation? with the cutting speed in the following manner:
(A) The drill spindle rotational axis is coincident Cutting speed (m/min) Tool life (min)
with the drill spindle taper hole axis 60 81
(B) The drill spindle rotational axis intersects the
90 36
drill spindle taper hole axis at point P
(C) The drill spindle rotational axis is parallel to the
drill spindle taper hole axis 34. The exponent (n) and constant (k) of the Taylor’s tool
(D) The drill spindle rotational axis intersects the life equation are [2009]
drill spindle taper hole axis at point Q (A) n = 0.5 and k = 540
(B) n = 1 and k = 4860
Direction for questions 29 and 30: (C) n = -1 and k = 0.74
Orthogonal turning is performed on a cylindrical work (D) n = -0.5 and k = 1.155
piece with shear strength of 250 MPa. The following con-
ditions are used: cutting velocity is 180 m/min, feed is 35. What is the percentage increase in tool life when the
0.20 mm/rev, depth of cut is 3 mm, chip thickness ratio cutting speed is halved? [2009]
= 0.5. The orthogonal rake angle is 7°. Apply Merchant’s (A) 50%
theory for analysis. (B) 200%
(C) 300%
29. The shear plane angle (in degrees) and the shear force (D) 400%
respectively are [2008]
(A) 52; 320 N (B) 52; 400 N 36. For tool A, Taylor’s tool life exponent (n) is 0.45 and
(C) 28; 400 N (D) 28; 320 N constant (K) is 90. Similarly for tool B, n = 0.3 and
K = 60. The cutting speed (in m/min) above which tool
30. The cutting and frictional forces, respectively, are A will have a higher tool life than tool B is [2010]
 [2008] (A) 26.7
(A) 568 N; 387 N (B) 565 N; 381 N (B) 42.5
(C) 440 N; 342 N (D) 480 N; 356 N (C) 80.7
31. Friction at the tool-chip interface can be reduced by (D) 142.9
 [2009]
(A) Decreasing the rake angle Direction for ­questions 37 and 38:
(B) Increasing the depth of cut In a shear cutting operation, a sheet of 5 mm thickness is
(C) Decreasing the cutting speed cut along a length of 200 mm. The cutting blade is 400 mm
(D) Increasing the cutting speed long and zero-shear (S = 0) is provided on the edge. The
ultimate shear strength of the sheet is 100 MPa and pen-
32. Minimum shear strain in orthogonal turning with a etration to thickness ratio is 0.2.
cutting tool of zero rake angle is [2009]
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.853

Neglect friction 42. A CNC vertical milling machine has to cut a straight
400 slot of 10 mm width and 2 mm depth by a cutter of 10
mm diameter between points (0, 0) and (100, 100) on
the XY plane (dimension in mm). The feed rate used
for milling is 50 mm/min. Milling time for the slot (in
seconds) is [2012]
(A) 120 (B) 170
(C) 180 (D) 240
43. Details pertaining to an orthogonal metal cutting pro-
S
cess are given below. [2012]
Chip thickness ratio = 0.4
37. Assuming force vs displacement curve to be rectan- Undeformed thickness = 0.6 mm
gular, the work done (in J) is [2010] Rake angle = +10o
(A) 100 (B) 200 Cutting speed = 2.5 m/s
(C) 250 (D) 300 Mean thickness of primary
38. A shear of 20 mm (S = 20 mm) is now provided on shear zone = 25 mm
the blade. Assuming force vs displacement curve to The shear strain rate in s-1 during the process is
be trapezoidal, the maximum force (in kN) exerted is (A) 0.1781 × 105 (B) 0.7754 × 105
 [2010] (C) 1.0104 × 10 5 (D) 4.397 × 105
(A) 5 (B) 10 44. In a single pass drilling operation, a through hole of
(C) 20 (D) 40 15 mm diameter is to be drilled in a steel plate of 50
39. A single-point cutting tool with 12° rake angle is used mm thickness. Drill spindle speed is 500 rpm, feed is
to machine a steel work-piece. The depth of cut, i.e., 0.2 mm/rev and drill point angle is 118°. Assuming 2
uncut thickness is 0.81 mm. The chip thickness under mm clearance at approach and exit, the total drill time
orthogonal machining condition is 1.8 mm. The shear (in seconds) is [2012]
angle is approximately. (A) 35.1 (B) 32.4
 [2011] (C) 31.2 (D) 30.1
(A) 22° (B) 26° 45. A steel bar 200 mm in diameter is turned at a feed
(C) 56° (D) 76° of 0.25 mm/rev with a depth of cut of 4 mm. The
40. Match the following non-traditional machining pro- ­rotational speed of the work piece is 160 rpm. The
cesses with the corresponding material removal material removal rate in mm3/s is [2013]
mechanisms: [2011] (A) 160 (B) 167.6
Mechanism (C) 1600 (D) 1675.5
Machining
of material 46. During the electrochemical machining (ECM) of iron
process
removal
(atomic weight = 56, valency = 2) at current of 1000
(P) Chemical machining (1) Erosion A with 90% current efficiency, the material removal
(Q) Electro-chemical rate was observed to be 0.26 gm/s. If titanium (atomic
machining (2) Corrosive reaction weight = 48, valency = 3) is machined by the ECM
(R) Electro-discharge process at the current of 2000 A with 90% current
machining (3) Ion displacement efficiency the expected material removal rate in gm/s
(S) (4) Fusion and will be [2013]
Ultrasonic machining
vaporization (A) 0.11 (B) 0.23
(C) 0.30 (D) 0.52
(A) P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1
47. Two cutting tools are being compared for a machining
(B) P-2, Q-4, R-3, S-1
operation. The tool life equations are
(C) P-3, Q-2, R-4, S-1
Carbide tool: VT1.6 = 3000
(D) P-2, Q-3, R-1, S-4
HSS tool: VT0.6 = 200
41. In abrasive jet machining, as the distance between the where V is the cutting speed in m/min and T is the
nozzle tip and the work surface increases, the material tool life in min. The carbide tool will provide higher
removal rate [2012] tool life if the cutting speed in m/min exceeds
(A) Increases continuously  [2013]
(B) Decreases continuously (A) 15.0 (B) 39.4
(C) Decreases, becomes stable and then increases (C) 49.3 (D) 60.0
(D) Increases, becomes stable and then decreases
3.854  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Direction for questions 48 and 49: (B) Plasma arc machining

In orthogonal turning of a bar 100 mm diameter with a (C) Laser beam machining
feed of 0.25 mm/rev, depth of cut of 4 mm and cutting (D) Electro discharge machining
velocity of 90 m/min, it is observed that the main (tangen- 55. A hole of 20 mm diameter is to be drilled in a steel
tial) cutting force is perpendicular to the friction force act- block of 40 mm thickness. The drilling is performed
ing at the chip-tool interface. The main (tangential) cutting at rotational speed of 400 rpm and feed rate of 0.1
force is 1500 N. mm/rev. The required approach and over run of the
48. The orthogonal rake angle of the cutting tool in degree drill together is equal to the radius of drill. The drill-
is [2013] ing time (in minute) is  [2014]
(A) zero (B) 3.58 (A) 1.00 (B) 1.25
(C) 5 (D) 7.16 (C) 1.50 (D) 1.75
49. The normal force acting at the chip-tool interface in N 56. The process utilizing mainly thermal energy for
is  [2013] removing material is  [2014]
(A) 1000 (B) 1500 (A) Ultrasonic machining
(C) 2000 (D) 2500 (B) Electrochemical machining
(C) Abrasive jet machining
50. The main cutting force acting on a tool during the
(D) Laser beam machining
turning (orthogonal cutting) operation of a metal is
400 N. The turning was performed using 2 mm depth 57. A straight turning operation is carried out using a
of cut and 0.1 mm/rev feed rate. The specific cutting single point cutting tool on an AISI 1020 steel rod.
pressure (in N/mm2) is [2014] The feed is 0.2 mm/rev and the depth of cut is 0.5
(A) 1000 (B) 2000 mm. The tool has a side cutting edge angle of 60°. The
(C) 3000 (D) 4000 uncut chip thickness (in mm) is _______ [2014]
51. During pure orthogonal turning operation of a hollow 58. Cutting tool is much harder than the workpiece. Yet
cylindrical pipe, it is found that the thickness of the the tool wears out during the tool-work interaction,
chip produced is 0.5 mm. The feed given to the zero because [2014]
degree rake angle tool is 0.2 mm/rev. The shear strain (A) Extra hardness is imparted to the workpiece due
produced during the operation is ____ [2014] to coolant used
(B) Oxide layers on the workpiece surface impart ex-
52. If the Taylor’s tool life exponent n is 0.2, and the tool tra hardness to it
changing time is 1.5 min, then the tool life (in min) (C) Extra hardness is imparted to the workpiece due
for maximum production rate is ____ to severe rate of strain
 [2014] (D) Vibration is induced in the machine tool
53. Match the machine tools (Group A) with the probable 59. Which pair of following statements is correct for
operations (Group B): [2014] orthogonal cutting using a single-point cutting tool?
 [2014]
Group A Group B
P.  Reduction in friction angle increases cutting
(P) Centre Lathe (1) Slotting
force
(Q) Milling (2) Counter-boring Q.  Reduction in friction angle decreases cutting
(R) Grinding (3) Knurling force
(S) Drilling (4) Dressing
R.  Reduction in friction angle increases chip
thickness
(A) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3 S.  Reduction in friction angle decreases chip
(B) P-2, Q-1, R-4, S-3 thickness
(C) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2 (A) P and R (B) P and S
(D) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1 (C) Q and R (D) Q and S
60. Two separate slab milling operations, 1 and 2, are
54. The following four unconventional machining pro-
performed with identical milling cutters. The depth
cesses are available in a shop floor. The most appro-
of cut in operation 2 is twice that in operation 1. The
priate one to drill a hole of square cross section of
other cutting parameters are identical. The ratio of
6 mm × 6 mm and 25 mm deep is  [2014]
maximum uncut chip thickness in operations 1 and 2
(A) Abrasive jet machining
is ____ [2014]
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.855
61. The principle of material removal in electrochemical
machining is[2014]
(A) Fick’s law (B) Faraday’s laws
(C) Kirchoff’s laws (D) Ohm’s law
62. Better surface finish is obtained with a large rake
angle because [2014]
(A) The area of shear plane decreases resulting in the
decrease in shear force and cutting force
(B) The tool becomes thinner and the cutting force is
reduced
(C) Less heat is accumulated in the cutting zone
(D) The friction between the chip and the tool is less
63. A cast iron block of 200 mm length is being shaped
in a shaping machine with a depth of cut of 4 mm,
feed of 0.25 mm/stroke and the tool principle cut-
ting edge angle of 30°. Number of cutting strokes
per minute is 60. Using specific energy for cutting as
1.49 J/mm3, the average power consumption (in watt)
is ____ [2014]
64. Under certain cutting conditions, doubling the cutting
th
⎛ 1⎞
speed reduces the tool life to ⎜ ⎟ of the original.
⎝ 16 ⎠
Taylor’s tool life index (n) for this tool-work piece
combination will be ______.[2015]
65. In a linear arc welding process, the heat input per unit
length is inversely proportional to:[2015]
(A) Welding current
(B) Welding voltage
(C) Welding speed
(D) Duty cycle of the power source
66. An orthogonal turning operation is carried out under
the following conditions: rake angle = 5º, spindle
rotational speed = 400 rpm; axial feed = 0.4 m/min
and radial depth of cut = 5 mm. The chip thickness,
tc, is found to be 3 mm. The shear angle (in degrees)
in this turning process is ____.[2015]
67. The primary mechanism of material removal in elec-
tro chemical machining (ECM) is:[2015]
(A) Chemical corrosion
(B) Etching
(C) Ionic dissolution
(D) Spark erosion
68. A single point cutting tool with 0° rake angle is used
in an orthogonal machining process. At a cutting
speed of 180 m/min, the thrust force is 490 N. If the
coefficient of friction between the tool and the chip
is 0.74, then the power consumption (in kW) for the
machining operation is _______.[2015]
69. A resistance–capacitance relaxation circuit is used in
an electrical discharge machining process. The dis-
charge voltage is 100 V. At spark cycle time of 25 µs,
the average power input required is 1 kW. The capaci-
tance (in mF) in the circuit is:[2015]
(A) 2.5 (B) 5.0
(C) 7.5 (D) 10.0
70. In a machining operation, if the generatrix and direc-
trix both are straight lines, the surface obtained is:
[2015]
(A) cylindrical
(B) helical
(C) plane
(D) surface of revolution
71. Orthogonal turning of a mild steel tube with a tool of
rake angle 10° is carried out at a feed of 0.1 mm/rev.
If the thickness of the chip produced is 0.28 mm, the
values of shear angle and shear strain will be respec-
tively.[2015]
(A) 28° 20′ and 2.19 (B) 22° 20′ and 3.53
(C) 24° 30′ and 4.19 (D) 37° 20′ and 5.19
72. A shaft of length 90 mm has a tapered portion of length
55 mm. The diameter of the taper is 80 mm at one
end and 65 mm at the other. If the taper is made by
tailstock set over method, the taper angle and the set
over respectively are:[2015]
(A) 15° 32′ and 12.16 mm
(B) 18° 32′ and 15.66 mm
(C) 11° 22′ and 10.26 mm
(D) 10° 32′ and 14.46 mm
73. The non-traditional machining process that essen-
tially required vacuum is:[2016]
(A) electron beam machining
(B) electro chemical machining
(C) electro chemical discharge machining
(D) electro discharge machining
74. In an orthogonal cutting process the tool used has
rake angle of zero degree. The measured cutting force
and thrust force are 500 N and 250 N, respectively.
The coefficient of friction between the tool and the
chip is _______.[2016]
75. The tool life equation for HSS tool is VT 0.14 f 0.7 d 0.4 =
constant. The tool life (T) of 30 min is obtained using
the following cutting conditions:
V = 45 m/min, f = 0.35 mm, d = 2.0 mm
If speed (V), feed (  f  ) and depth of cut (d) are
increased individually by 25%, the tool life (in min)
is:[2016]
(A) 0.15 (B) 1.06
(C) 22.50 (D) 30.0
76. The following data is applicable for a turning operation.
The length of job is 900 mm, diameter of job is 200 mm,
feed rate is 0.25 mm/rev and optimum cutting speed is
300 m/min. The machining time (in min) is ______.
[2016]
3.856  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
77. In an ultrasonic machining (USM) process, the mate-
rial removal rate (MRR) is plotted as a function of
the feed force of the USM tool. With increasing feed
force, the MRR exhibits the following behavior:
[2016]
(A) Increases linearly
(B) Decreases linearly
(C) Does not change
(D) First increases and then decreases
78. For a certain job, the cost of metal cutting in `18C/V
and the cost of tooling is `2701C/(TV), where C is a
constant, V is the cutting speed in m/min and T is the
tool life in minutes. The Taylor’s tool life equation is
VT 0.25 = 150. The cutting speed (in m/min) for the
minimum total cost is ________.[2016]
79. The surface irregularities of electrodes used in an
electrochemical machining (ECM) process are 3 µm
and 6 µm as shown in the figure. If the work-piece
is of pure iron and 12 V DC is applied between the
electrodes, the largest feed rate is ________ mm/min.
Conductivity of the electrolyte 0.02 ohm–1 mm–1
Over-potential voltage 1.5 V
Density of iron 7860 kg/m3
Atomic weight of iron 55.85 gm
Assume the iron to be dissolved as Fe+2 and the
Faraday constant to be 96500 Coulomb.[2016]
Tool
6 µm
Nominal gap
3 µm
Work-piece (Iron)
80. In a wire–cut EDM process the necessary conditions
that have to be met for making a successful cut are
that:[2016]
(A) wire and sample are electrically non-conducting
(B) wire and sample are electrically conducting
(C)  wire is electrically conducting and sample is
electrically non-conducting
(D)  sample is electrically conducting and wire is
electrically non-conducting
81. Internal gears are manufactured by[2016]
(A) hobbing
(B) shaping with pinion cutter
(C) shaping with rack cutter
(D) milling
82. For an orthogonal cutting operation, tool material
is HSS, rake angle is 22o, chip thickness is 0.8 mm,
speed is 48 m/min and feed is 0.4 mm/rev. The shear
plane angle (in degrees) is[2016]
(A) 19.24
(B) 29.70
(C) 56.00
(D) 68.75
83. In a single turning operation with cemented carbide
tool and steel work piece, it is found that the Taylor’s
exponent is 0.25. If the cutting speed is reduced by
50% then the tool life changes by _______ times.
[2016]
 Chapter 4  •  Machining and Machine Tool Operations  |  3.857

Answer Keys
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1.  B 2.  A 3.  B 4.  C 5.  A 6.  C 7.  B 8.  D 9.  A 10.  B 
11.  C 12.  A 13.  B 14.  C 15.  B 16.  C 17.  A 18.  C 19.  D 20.  A 

Practice Problems 2
1.  C 2.  D 3.  B 4.  A 5.  B 6.  B 7.  C 8.  A 9.  D 10.  A 
11.  B 12.  A 13.  B 14.  C 15.  D 16.  D 17.  C 18.  A 19.  B 20.  A 
21.  D 22.  B 23.  C 24.  A 25.  D 26.  B 27.  C 28.  A 29.  D 30.  D

Previous Year’s Questions

1.  A 2.  D 3.  B 4.  B 5.  C 6.  D 7.  A 8.  C 9.  A 10.  B
11.  B 12.  A 13.  D 14.  D 15.  B 16.  A 17.  B 18.  D 19.  D 20.  C
21.  A 22.  B 23.  C 24.  C 25.  A 26.  B 27.  C 28.  C 29.  D 30.  B
31.  D 32.  D 33.  A 34.  A 35.  C 36.  A 37.  A 38.  B 39.  B 40.  A
41.  D 42.  B 43.  C 44.  A 45.  D 46.  C 47.  B 48.  A 49.  B 50.  B
51.  2.8 to 3.0 52.  5.9 to 6.1 53.  C 54.  D 55.  B 56.  D 57.  0.08 to 0.12
58.  C 59.  D 60.  0.70 to 0.72 61.  B 62.  A 63.  295 to 305
64.  0.25 65.  C 66.  18.5 to 19 67.  C 68.  2.0 to 2.2 69.  B 70.  C 71.  A
72.  A 73.  A 74.  0.5 75.  B 76.  7.5 to 7.6 77.  D 78.  57.8 to 58
79.  51 to 52 80.  B 81.  B 82.  B 83.  16
 Chapter 5
Metrology and Inspection
Computer Integrated
Manufacturing
chapter highlights

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Limits, Fits and Tolerances without causing any functionable trouble, when assembled
with its mating part and put into actual service.
An article manufactured consists of assembly of a number
of components. Thus a component manufactured should
Tolerance
be matching with some other mating component. This is
Upper limit
important for the proper functioning and prolonged life of
the product. Lower limit
In the production of a component, it is not possible to
make any part precisely to a given dimension, due to vari-
ability of elements of production processes. If attempts
are made to achieve the perfect size, the cost of produc-
tion will increase tremendously. But for practical purposes,
perfect fitting of the mating components are not necessary.
Slight dimensional variations are acceptable for the proper Systems of  Writing Tolerances
functioning.
The allowable variation in the basic size required in pro- 1. Unilateral system
duction is called tolerance. 2. Bilateral system
Larger and smaller dimensions allowable are called lim-
its– the high limit and low limit. In unilateral system dimension of a part is allowed to vary
Thus difference between high and low limits is the toler- only on one side of the basic size i.e., tolerance zone is
ance. It is the margin allowed for variation in workmanship. either above or below the basic size line.
Tolerance can also be defined as the amount by which
the job is allowed to go away from accuracy and perfectness
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.859

Tolerance of metal 24.98 mm will be minimum or least metal limit

(LML) as shaft at this limit will have the least possible
amount of metal

Hole LML
LML
Basic size Tolerance MML
MML
Shaft

Unilateral tolerance

Terminology for Limits and Fits

With a 25 mm of basic size examples of unilateral toler- Shaft: It is the external dimension of a component (need
ance are not be a circular shaft)
+ 0.02 + 0.01 Hole: It is the internal dimension of a component (need not
25+ 0.01 , 25− 0.00 , be a circular hole)
etc
+ 0.00 − 0.02
25− 0.02 , 25− 0.03 Basic or Nominal Size
It is the standard size of a part with reference to which limits
The first case means upper limit is 25.02 mm and lower of dimensions are determined. Basic size is same for hole
limit is 25.01 mm and shaft. In design calculations basic size is used.
\ Tolerance = 25.02 – 25.01 Actual sizes is the measured size of a manufactured part.
= 0.01 mm Zero line: It is the horizontal line representing the basic
In the fourth case, size.
Upper limit = 24.98 Deviation is the algebraic difference between the size
Lower limit = 24.97 (maximum, minimum, actual etc) with the basic size.
Tolerance  = 24.98 – 24.97 Deviations are shown with respect to the zero line or datum
= 0.01 mm line.
In bilateral system, the dimension of the part is allowed to Upper deviation is a positive quantity when maximum
vary on both sides of the basic size. limit of size is greater than the basic size. It is negative when
maximum limit of size is less than the basic size. For hole it
Tolerance
denoted by ES and for shaft it is es
25 ±0.02
Lower deviation is a positive quantity when the lower
+0.01
−0.02 limit of size is greater than the basic size and negative when
25
it is less than the basic size. It is denoted by EI and ei for
hole and shaft respectively.
Basic size Tolerance is represented by IT which stands for interna-
tional tolerance grade.

Relationship of  Tolerance and Deviations

+ 0.01 For shaft, IT = es – ei
25± 0.02 25− 0.02 etc are examples of bilateral tolerance. (upper deviation – lower deviation)
In the first case, For hole, IT = ES – EI
Upper limit = 25.02 mm
Fundamental Deviation
Lower limit = 24.98 mm
Tolerance  = 25.02 – 24.98 It is the deviation (either upper or lower) nearest to the basic
= 0.04 mm line. It fixes the position of the tolerance zone in relation to
the zero line.
Maximum or Minimum Metal Limits Basic shaft is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero.
Basic size and maximum size is same in this case. It is
If the tolerance for the shaft is given as 25± 0.02 the shaft is
denoted by ‘h’.
said to have maximum metal limit (MML) of 25.02 mm.
Basic hole is the hole whose lower deviation is zero. Its
Since at this limit, the shaft has maximum possible amount
low limit is same as the basic size. It is denoted by letter ‘h’.
3.860  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
Tolerance
zones
Zero line Zero line
Basic hole Basic shaft
Tolerance grade is an indication of degree of accuracy and
is represented by letters IT followed by a number. For exam-
ple, IT0, IT01, IT1 etc
Standard Tolerance Unit
It serves as a basis for determining standard tolerance (IT).
It is denoted by ‘i’ and expressed in microns.
Fits
When two parts are to be assembled, the relation resulting
from the difference between their sizes before assembly is
called a fit. It is the degree of tightness or looseness between
two mating parts.
Types of Fits
Depending on the basis of positive, zero or negative clear-
ance values between mating parts fits are classified as under
Fits
Clearance Transition Interference
fit fit fit
(a)  Slide fit (a)  Push fit (a)  Force fit
(b)  easy slide fit (b)  Wringing fit (b)  Tight fit
(c)  Running fit (c)  Shrink fit
Clearance Fit
Clearance is the difference between sizes of hole and shaft.
Minimum clearance is the difference between minimum
size of hole and maximum size of shaft.
Maximum clearance is the difference between maximum
size of hole and minimum size of the shaft.
In clearance fits, the largest permissible shaft diameter
is smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole. So the
shaft can rotate or slide in the hole with different degrees
of freedom.
Interference Fit
Interference is the arithmetical difference between sizes of
hole and shaft, when shaft is of bigger size.
In Interference fit, the minimum permissible diameter
of the shaft is larger than the maximum allowable diam-
eter of the hole. After fitting the members are permanently
attached.
Transition Fit
Transition fit is in between clearance fit and interference fit.
Depending upon the actual sizes of the parts clearance or
interference may occur.
Zero line Hole tolerance
Shaft
tolerance
(a) (b) (c)
Clearance fit Transition fit Interference fit
Hole Basis System for Three Types of Fits
Figure above gives hole basis system where the fundamen-
tal deviation of hole is zero (For shaft basis system funda-
mental deviation of shaft is zero)
Hole basis system is generally used because it is easier to
vary the size of the shaft and to measure it than to vary the
hole size, provided the work is not very large.
Shaft basis system is useful when a number of acces-
sories such as bearings, collars etc are to be fitted on same
shaft.
Allowance
Allowance is the intentional difference between the lower
limit of hole and higher limit of the shaft.
It is the variation given for the purpose of providing dif-
ferent classes of fit. It is the difference between maximum
material size limits of mating parts.
The allowance may be positive or negative. Positive
allowance is the minimum clearance and negative allow-
ance is the maximum interference intended between the
mating parts.
Allowance vs Tolerance
Allowance is the prescribed difference between the dimen-
sions of two mating parts (hole and shaft). Tolerance is the
permissible variation in dimension of a part (either hole or
a shaft)
Standard Limit Systems
The aim of a standard limit system is
1. To select basic functional clearances and interferences
for a given application or type of fit
2. to establish tolerances which will provide a reasonable
and economical balance fits, consistency and cost
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.861

British standard, international standard (ISO) and Indian
standards are some of the standard limit systems
Indian Standard System of Limits and Fits
(IS-919 and 2709)
Indian standards are in line with ISO recommendations. The
standards cover holes and shafts from the smallest size to
3150 mm. For any size over this range there is a wide choice
of fits available and for each of the fits there is a series of
tolerance grades from very fine to wide tolerances.
Standard tolerance and fundamental deviations are used
in the limit system.
18 grades of fundamental tolerances are used. These are
designated as IT01, IT0, IT1 to IT16
Fundamental deviations are indicated by 25 letters A to
ZC for holes and letters a to zC for shafts. (For holes: A, B, C,
D, E, F, G, H, JS, J, K, M, N, P, R, S, T, U, V, X, Y, Z, ZA, ZB,
ZC. For shafts corresponding small letters are used)
For A to H holes lower deviation is above zero line and
for J to ZC it is below the zero line.
For shafts a to h upper deviation is below the zero line
and for j to zc it is above the zero line.
Standard tolerances are expressed in terms of standard
tolerance unit, i. It is given by
i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D microns
Where D is the geometric mean upper and lower values of
a diameter step in which the diameter lies. IS–919 specifies
the following diameter steps.
1–3, 3–6, 6–10, 10–14, 14–18, 18–24, 24–30, 30–40, 40–50,
etc upto 180–200 mm.
Values of tolerances for tolerance grades IT5 to IT16 are
obtained from the following table.
Grade IT5 IT6 IT7 IT8 IT9
Value 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i
Designation of Holes, Shafts and Fits
A shaft or a hole is completely described if the basic size
followed by the appropriate letter and the tolerance grade
is given.
For example,
50 H6 means 50 mm H hole with tolerance grade IT6
50 f7 means 50 mm f shaft with tolerance grade IT7
Tolerance and Fundamental Deviation
for Larger Sizes
The finer tolerance grades IT01 to IT5 are not provided for
sizes above 500 mm.
For size above 500 mm and up to 3150 mm
IS : 2101 specify various grades
I (in m) = 0.004D + 2.1
Tolerance Analysis in Manufacturing
and Assembly
Tolerance can be defined as the amount of variation permis-
sible from accuracy and perfectness of the dimension of a
component without causing any functional trouble. Human
failure and machine limitations prevent the achievement of
ideal dimensions of the part during fabrication.
By providing tolerance the cost of production can be
reduced; without sacrificing the functional requirement.
The difference between upper limit and lower limit of a
dimension is called the tolerance zone. It is the margin for
variation in workmanship. Selection of tolerance is based
on the following.
1. Functional requirement : With the permitted tolerance,
assembly should be possible and the equipment
should be able to perform the required function.
2. Standardisation: Standardisation of the parts are
required for interchangeability which is essential for
mass production.
3. Manufacturing needs
When the functional requirement is not so rigid tolerance
choice may be influenced and determined by factors like
methods of tooling, equipment available etc.

Need for Tolerance

IT 10

IT 11

IT 12

IT 13

IT 14

IT 15

IT 16

1. Different materials have different properties. Variation

in properties cause errors during machining.
1000i

2. Production machines may have inherent inaccuracies

100i

160i

250i

400i

640i
64i

and have limitation to produce parts with perfect

dimensions.
3. Machine operators have limitation to make perfect
Other tolerances– settings. There are chances of errors in setting up
For IT01 : 0.3 + 0.08 D machines, adjusting tools and work piece on the
For IT0 : 0.5 + 0.12 D machine etc.
For IT1 : 0.8 + 0.02 D
Aiming at ideal conditions of dimensions will result in
For IT2 to IT4 values are approximated between IT1 and
exhorbitant costs. If the components are made with large
IT5
3.862  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
tolerances without affecting the functional requirement,
cost of production can be reduced. So the tolerance selected
should be just enough to the required job and not better.
So it can be said that tolerance is a compromise between
accuracy required for proper functioning and ability for
economic production of this accuracy.
Solved Examples
Example 1:  What is meant by 20 H 7 f8 in Indian standard
limit system?
Solution:  It means a 20 mm basic size H-hole with toler-
ance grade IT7 is fitted with a f-shaft of tolerance grade IT8.
0.050
Example 2:  A hole is specified as 400.000 mm. The mating
shaft has a clearance fit with minimum clearance 0.02 mm.
The tolerance on the shaft is 0.04 mm. Maximum clearance
between hole and shaft is
Solution:  Low limit of hole: 40.000 mm
   High limit of hole: 40.050 mm
40.050
40.000 Hole
39.980
Shaft
39.940
 High limit of shaft  = 40.000 – 0.02
      = 39.980 mm
 Low limit of shaft    = 39.980 – 0.04
      = 39.940 mm
 Maximum clearance = 40.050 – 39.940
      = 0.110 mm
Types of Assemblies
In assembly of components the mating parts can be made to
fit in three ways. These are
1. By trial and error
2. Interchangeable assembly
3. Selective assembly
Assembly by Trial and Error
When the assemblies required are only small in number and
they are similar, these can be produced by trial and error
by same craftsman. In this method one part is made to its
nominal size as accurately as possible and the mating part is
made to suit it by trial and error.
Interchangeable Assembly
In mass production the quantities required are very large and
it is not economical to produce it by trial and error by same
person. In mass production the components are produced by
different craftsmen or operators in different batches in dif-
ferent machines. In this case the parts are produced within
specified tolerance limits so that a component selected at
random will assemble correctly with any other mating com-
ponent, selected at random. By this method manufacturing
cost is considerably reduced.
Selective Assembly
When high degree of accuracy is required in mass produc-
tion, interchangeable assembly also become not economi-
cal. In this case selective assembly method can be used. In
selective assembly parts are produced with wider tolerances
so that the cost is reduced. The components produced are
classified into groups according to their sizes by automatic
gauging. Assemblies can be made only with matched sets of
parts such that the clearances are within limits
An example for selective assembly is the assembly of
pistons with cylinder bores.
If the basic size is 50 mm for bore and 49.88 mm for
piston and required clearance is 0.12 mm, these can be pro-
duced with a wide tolerance of 0.04 mm.
Then dimension of bore = 50±0.02
Dimension of piston = 49.88±0.02
In interchangeable assembly the clearance can go upto
50.02 – 49.86 = 1.16 mm which is not acceptable.
But the components are grouped in match sets as follows
the required clearance of 0.12 mm can be achieved.
Cylinder bore 49.98 50.00 50.02
Piston 49.86 49.88 49.90
Gauges
In mass production where a large number of similar compo-
nents are produced, inspection by measuring each compo-
nent will be time consuming and not economical. Therefore
the conformance of each part is checked with the tolerance
specification using tools called gauges.
Gauges are inspection tools of rigid design without a
scale, which serve to check the dimensions of manufactured
parts. They check only whether the inspected parts are made
within the specified limits. Plain gauges are used for check-
ing plain (unthreaded) holes and shafts.
Classification––
1. According to type
 (a)  standard gauges
 (b)  limit gauges
2. According to purpose
 (a)  Workshop
 (b) Inspection
 (c)  reference or master gauges
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.863
3. According to form of tested surface
 (a)  plug gauge
 (b)  snap and ring gauges
4. According to their design
 (a)  Single limit and double limit
 (b)  Single ended and double ended
 (c)  Fixed and adjustable gauges
Standard gauge is an exact of copy of their mating part.
For example a shaft and a bush. The shaft can be inspected
with a gauge which is an exact copy of the bush.
Limit gauges are used to check whether the parts are within
the specified limits.
Limit plug gauges are used for checking holes. The GO plug
gauge has the size of low limit of the hole while NO GO plug
gauge has the size of high limit of the hole. If the inspected
hole is within their tolerance limits the GO gauge will enter the
hole while the NO GO gauge cannot enter the hole.
Plug gauges can be plain or screwed.
Plain plug gauges are generally double ended type for
sizes up to 63 mm and single ended for sizes above 63 mm
size.
Ring gauges are used to check shafts.
Plain ring gauges are made of suitable wear resisting
steel and gauging surfaces are hardened. GO and NO GO
type ring gauges are available.
Snap and gap gauges are also used to check shafts. The
jaws of the gauge is made use of for checking. Double ended
type plate snap gauges are used for sizes in the range of 2 to
100 mm and single ended progressive type in the range of
100 to 250 mm. In adjustable type gap gauges, the gauging
anvils are adjustable end wise in the horse shoe frame.
These gauges are set by means of slip gauges to any par-
ticular limit required.
Combined limit gauges are used for gauging of cylindrical
holes. In these a single gauge is used to check both upper
and lower limits.
Contour gauges are employed for checking the dimen-
sional accuracy and shapes of irregular work. Radius gauge
is an example.
Taper plug gauge is used for checking tapered holes and
taper ring gauge is used for checking shafts. These check
the diameter at the bigger end and the change in diameter
per unit length.
Slip gauges or gauge blocks are used as standards of
measurement. It is the universally accepted end standard
of length. These are rectangular blocks of high grade steel
with exceptionally close tolerances. Faces are round and
lapped. These are available in standard sets. The blocks are
placed one over other by the phenomenon of wringing to get
a specified length. Slip gauges are also made from Tungsten
carbide which is extremely hard and wear resistant. They
are carefully finished by high grade lapping to a high degree
of finish flatness and accuracy.
Gauge Maker’s Tolerance or Gauge
Tolerance
Gauges cannot be manufactured to the exact sizes. If closer
limits are held, the gauge become expensive. Therefore
some allowance is given in the manufacturing of gauges
This is known as gauge tolerance.
Limit gauges are usually provided with a tolerance of
10% of the work tolerance. For inspection gauges it is 5%
of work tolerance.
Gauge tolerance
HL NO HL GO
GO
Work
tolerance
NO
GO LL
GO
LL
Plug gauge Snap gauge
Wear Allowance
The measuring surfaces of GO gauges which constantly
rub against the surface of parts in inspection are conse-
quently subjected to wear and lose their initial size, while
the size of snap GO gauges are increased. Therefore a wear
allowance is added in a direction opposite to the wear. Wear
allowance is taken as 10% of the gauge tolerance. Wear
allowance is applied to a normal GO gauge diameter before
gauge tolerance is applied. As per British standards when
the work tolerance is more than 0.09 mm, wear allowance
is provided.
Inspection gauges are used by inspectors for final
inspection of the manufactured parts. These have slightly
larger tolerance than work shop gauges. This is to ensure
that work which passes the work shop gauges will be
accepted by inspection gauges. The tolerance on inspection
gauges fall outside the work tolerance.
Taylor’s Principle for The Design
of Limit Gauge
1. GO gauges should inspect all the features of a
component at a time and should be able to control
the maximum metal limit, or in other words
the maximum metal limit of as many related
dimensions as possible should be incorporated in
the GO gauge.
2. NOT GO gauge should check only one element at a
time for the minimum metal limit.
Example 3: What are the upper and lower limits of the
shaft represented by 60f 8. Diameter 60 mm lies in diameter
step of 50 –80 mm. Fundamental deviation of f shaft is –5.5
D0.41 mm.
3.864  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Example 6:  For the following hole and shaft assembly find
Solution:  Geometric mean diameter = 50 × 80
shaft tolerance, hole tolerance and state the type of fit.
 = 63.246 mm
+0.05 +0.05
Fundamental tolerance unit
Hole: 60 +0.002 shaft: 60 +0.005
i = 0.45 3 D + 0.001D Solution:  HL of hole: 60.025 mm
3
= 0.45 63.246 + 0.001 × 63.246 LL of hole: 60.00
 
Hole tolerance : 60.025 – 60.000 = 0.025 mm
= 1.859 mm
HL of shaft : 60.05
= 0.00186 mm
LL of shaft : 60.005
IT8 = 25i
Shaft tolerance = 60.05 – 60.005 = 0.045 mm
   = 25 × 0.00185
Allowance = LL of hole – HL of shaft
   = 0.04646 mm
= 60.00 – 60.05
Fundamental deviation of f shaft
= –0.05 mm (interference)
 = –5.5 D0.41
HL of hole – LL of shaft = 60.025 – 60.005
 = –5. 5 [63.246]0.41 mm
= 0.025 mm (clearance)
 = –0.03012 mm
\ The type of fit is transition fit
Upper limit of shaft = 60 – 0.03012
 = 59.97 mm Example 7:  In a limit system, the following limits are
Lower limit of shaft = 59.97 – 0.0465 specified to give a clearance fit between shaft and hole
= 59.924 mm. −0.006

Example 4:  Find the values of allowance and tolerances Shaft: 40 −0.020 mm
for hole and shaft assembly for the following mating parts +0.30
−0.03 +0.25 Hole: 40 −0.000 mm
Hole: 25−0.05 shaft: 60 +0.00
Determine–
Solution:
(A) basic size
(a) Hole
(B) shaft and hole tolerances
Tolerance = 25.04 – 25.00
(C) Minimum clearance
= 0.04 mm
(D) Maximum clearance
(b) Shaft
Tolerance = HL – LL Solution:
HL = 25.00 – 0.03 (a) Basic size : 40 mm
= 24.97 (b) Shaft tolerance:
LL = 25.00 – 0.05 (40 – 0.006) – (40 – 0.02)
= 24.95 = (–0.006) – (–0.020) = 0.014 mm
Tolerance = 24.97 – 24.95 Hole tolerance: (+0.030) – (0.00)
= 0.02 mm = 0.030 mm
(c) Allowance = LL of hole – HL of shaft (c) Minimum clearance = LL of hole – HL of shaft
= 25.00 – 24.97 = 50 – (50 – 0.006)
= 0.03 mm. = 0.006 mm
(d) Maximum clearance
Example 5:  A 60 mm diameter shaft is made to rotate in
HL of hole – LL of shaft
the bush. Tolerance for both bush and shaft are 0.050 mm.
= (50 + 0.030) – (50 – 0.020)
Determine dimension shaft and bush to give a minimum
= 0.050 mm
clearance 0.075 mm with hole basis system
In an assembly of two parts with 50 mm nominal diameter,
Solution: the lower deviation of the hole is zero and the higher is 5
microns. For the shaft lower and higher deviations are –8
0.05 Zero line and –4 microns respectively. Determine the allowance and
0.75
type of fit of the assembly.
0.05 Hole

0.005
Zero line
0.004
0.008
HL of hole = LL + tolerance = 60 + 0.050 = 60.050 mm
50.000
HL of shaft = LL of hole – Allowance
= 60.00 – 0.075 = 59.925 Shaft
LL of shaft = 59.925 – 0.050 = 59.875
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.865

HL of hole = 50 + 0.005 IT7 = 16 × i = 20.918 microns

= 50.005 = 0.021 mm
LL of hole = 50.000 IT8 = 25 × i = 32.69 microns
HL of shaft = 50.000 – 0.004 = 49.996 mm = 0.033 mm
LL of shaft: 50.000 – 0.008 = 49.992 mm Upper deviation of shaft
Allowance = LL of hole – HL of shaft = –5.5 × (23.24)0.41
= 50.000 – 49.996 = –20 microns
= 0.004 mm = –0.020 mm
(Clearance fit) Fundamental or lower deviation of hole = 0
+0.021
Example 8:  Between two mating parts of 90 mm basic size
\ Limits for 20 H7 = 20 +0.000
the actual interference fit is to be from 0.05 mm to 0.12 mm.
Limits for shaft f8
For shaft and hole tolerance is same. Determine the shaft
HL for shaft = 20 – 0.020
size and hole size in hole basis unilateral system.
LL for shaft = 20 – 0.02 – 0.033 = 20 – 0.053
Shaft HL of hole = 20.021 NO GO

0.12 mm 0.05 mm

Zero line
Hole
90 mm Gauge tolerance
Wear allowance
GO
Solution:
LL of hole = 90.00 mm LL of hole = 20.00
HL of shaft = 90.000 + 0.12
= 90.12 mm −0.020

Tolerance of shaft = Tolerance of hole \ Shaft limits are 20 −0.053

=
(0.12 − 0.05) Tolerance for plug gauge for gauging the hole = 10% of
work tolerance = 0.021 × 0.1 = 0.0021 mm
2
Wear allowance = 10% of gauge tolerance
= 0.035 mm = 0.1 × 0.0021
\ HL of hole = 90 + 0.035 = 90.035 mm = 0.0002 mm
LL of shaft = 90.035 + 0.05 = 90.085 mm Upper limit of GO plug gauge = 20 + 0.0002 + 0.0021
+0.12 = 20.0023 mm
\ Size of shaft = 90 +0.085
Low limit of GO gauge = 20 + 0.0002 = 20.0002
+0.035 +0.0023
Size of hole = = 90 +0.000 Limits of GO gauge = 20 +0.0002
Example 9:  Design the general GO and NO GO gauge for
hole of the assembly 20 H7 f 8 fit. The following data can Linear and Angular Measurements
be used
For linear measurements various standards followed are
(a) i = 0.001 D + 0.45 3 D microns 1. Line standard
(b) Upper deviation of f shaft 2. End standard
= −5.5 D
0.41
3. Wavelength standard
(c) Diameter step for 20 mm When length is measured between two engraved lines it is
= 18 –30 called line standard.
(d) IT7 = 16i When length is expressed as the distance between two
(e) IT8 = 25i flat parallel faces, it is called end standard. In wavelength
(f) Wear allowance = 10% of gauge tolerance standard, wavelength of mono chromatic light is used as
Solution: unit of length.
Imperial standard yard (England) and international
D = 18 × 30 = 23.24 mm standard meter (France) are line standards.
i = 0.001 × 23.24 + 0.45 3 23.24 Metre in wavelength standard is defined as 1650763.73
= 1.3074 microns wavelengths of orange radiation in vacuum of krypton 86
isotope.
3.866  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
Any system of measurement must be related to a known
standard for maintaining uniformity of measurement
throughout the world.
Standards can be classified as international standard,
national standard, national reference standard working
standard, Laboratory reference standard, Laboratory work-
ing standard and shop floor standard.
Linear Measurements
Linear measurement means measurement of lengths diam-
eters, heights, thicknesses etc. It can be external or internal.
For linear measurements the instruments used are, non-
precision instruments, precision instruments, comparators,
measuring machines etc.
Non-precision instruments are steel rule, calipers, divid-
ers, telescopic gauges, depth gauges etc
Precision instruments are micrometers, vernier calipers,
height gauges, slip gauges etc.
Linear measuring instruments can also be classified as
1. Direct measuring instruments
2. Indirect measuring instruments
Direct measuring instruments can be graduated or non
graduated.
Rules, vernier calipers, micrometers, dial indications etc
are examples of graduated instruments.
Callipers, trammels, straight edges, wire gauges, screw
pitch gauges, radius gauges, thickness gauges, slip gauges
etc are examples of non-graduated instruments.
Callipers
Callipers are used when direct linear measurement is not
possible. Callipers consist of two legs, hinged at top. The
leg ends are used for measurement. For example measure-
ment of diameter of a rod. Value of the measurement is
obtained with the help of a rule. The hinge joint can be firm
joint or spring loaded.
Outside Calliper, inside calliper, Transfer calliper and
hermophrodite calliper are examples of callipers.
Hermophrodite calliper is also called odd leg calliper. This
is a scribing tool having one leg bent and the other leg equipped
with a scriber. This is used for scribing distances from the edge
of a work piece. The curved leg has a notch at its end.
Surface Plate
Surface plate is a flat plate on which measurement of parts
are carried out. They are used in workshops and metrologi-
cal laboratories. Surface plate form a datum surface for test-
ing flatness of surfaces.
V-block
V-blocks are used in workshops as a support for round
shaped work pieces. The work pieces are placed on this
V-shaped groove on top of the block. The angle of the
groove is generally 90°. V-block is used for checking round-
ness of rods, marking centres accurately etc.
Straight Edge
Straight edges are used for checking straightness and flat-
ness of work pieces with the help of spirit levels. Types of
straight edges are
1. Tool maker’s straight edge
2. Wide edged straight
3. Angle straight edge
4. Box straight edge
Spirit Level
Spirit levels are used for measuring small angles or inclina-
tions, to determine position of a surface relative to horizon-
tal position and for establishing horizontal datum.
In spirit level a sealed glass tube is mounted on a base. A
scale is engraved on top of the glass tube. The tube contains
ether or alcohol with a bubble. For measuring flatness or
angle the position of the bubble is made use of
Frame Level
Frame level is used for checking vertical surfaces. In frame
levels base and side edge is exactly at 90°. A glass tube with
ether and bubble is fixed on the base. Side edge of the level
is kept in contact with the vertical edge. Position of the bub-
ble in the glass tube is noted for checking the verticality.
Vernier Instruments
Vernier instruments consists of a main scale and vernier
scale. The vernier scale can be moved on the main scale.
The difference between value of vernier scale division and
a main scale division forms the basis for precision meas-
urements. Vernier callipers and vernier height gauges are
examples of vernier instruments. Least count of a vernier
instrument is the difference in value of a vernier scale divi-
sion and a main scale division. For example if the value of
one main scale division is 0.5 mm and 24 main scale divi-
sions coincide with 25 vernier scale divisions,
⎡ 24 ⎤
Least count = ⎢1 − ⎥ × 0.5
⎣ 25 ⎦
1
= × 0.5
25
1
= mm
50
= 0.02 mm.
Main scale reading + coinciding division on the vernier
scale × least count gives the measurement value.
Micrometers (Screw Gauges)
Micrometers are used when more accuracy in measure-
ment is required. Least count of micrometers is in the order
of 0.01 mm where as that of a vernier caliper is 0.02 mm.
Micrometer works on the principle of a screw and nut. For
one revolution of the screw in the nut the axial distance
moved by it is equal to the pitch of the screw.
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.867
Micrometer consists of a U-shaped frame, spindle, bar-
rel and thimble. By rotating the thimble on the barrel the
spindle advances. The object to be measured is placed in
between spindle end and an anvil at the end of the frame.
Main scale is marked on the barrel. The thimble has equal
divisions around its periphery, usually 50 nos. Therefore for
rotation through one division of the thimble, axial distance
1 ried in a housing. One face of the housing forms the base
moved is × pitch of the screw.
50
If pitch of the screw corresponds to one division on the
1 between two adjacent slanted sides of a work piece.
main scale and if it is 0.5 mm, the least count is 0.5 ×
= 0.01 mm. 50
Measurement value using a micrometer is obtained simi-
lar to that of a vernier calliper i.e Main scale reading + read-
ing on the thimble × least count.
A comparator is a precision instrument used for compar-
ing the dimension of a given component with a standard
such as slip gauges. It does not measure the exact dimen-
sion, but indicates the difference from the basic dimension.
Dial gauge is the simplest form of mechanical comparator.
Apart from mechanical comparators, mechanical optical
comparators, electrical and electronic comparators, pneu-
matic comparators etc are available.
Measuring machines are generally used for measurement
of length over the outer faces of a length–bar or any other
long member. These are generally used for measurement of
considerably greater dimension.
Angular Measurements
Various instruments used for angular measurements are,
bevel protractors, angle gauges, sinebars, clinometers, auto
collimators etc.
Angle Gauges
Angle gauges are taper pieces of hardened and stabilized
steel. The measuring pieces are lapped and polished to a
high degree of accuracy and flatness. These pieces can be
wrung together just like slip gauges. The pieces are 75 mm
long and 16 mm wide. Angle gauges are generally available
in 2 sets of 12 and 13 numbers and a square block. In the 13
piece set the following angles are available –
1°, 3°, 9°, 27°, 41°
1′, 3′, 9′, 27′
3″, 6″, 18″ , and 30″
In a 12 piece set all the above except 3″ is available.
Selecting and placing the gauge pieces one over the other
different angles can be set for the measurement
Sine Bars
Sine bar is a precision instrument used along with slip
gauges for the measurement of angles. Their general uses are
1. To measure angles very accurately
2. To locate a work to a given angle within very close
limits
Sine bars are graded as A grade and B grade. A grade sine-
bars are made with an accuracy of 0.01 mm/m of length
and B grade sine bars with an accuracy of 0.02 mm/m of
length
Clinometers
Clinometer is a spirit level mounted as a rotary member car-
of the instrument. There is a circular scale on the housing.
Clinometers can be used to measure the included angle
Different types are vernier clinometers, micrometer cli-
nometers and dial clinometers.
Comparators
A comparator is a precision instrument employed to com-
pare the dimension of a given component with a standard,
such as slip gauges. It does not measure the actual dimen-
sion but indicates how much it differs from the basic speci-
men. The indicated difference is usually small and suitable
magnification device is provided.
Optimeters or Optical Comparators
In these comparators the fundamental optical law is made
use of If a ray of light falls on a mirror and is reflected and
the mirror is titled by an angle a, the reflected light moves
through an angle 2a. In optimeters the mirror is titled by
a measuring plunger movement and the movement of the
reflected light is recorded as an image on a screen. The
shadow of the object is projected on to a curved graduated
scale to indicate in comparison measurement. Optical com-
parators which make use of the enlarged image principle
are commonly known as optical projectors or optical pro-
jection comparators. Optical projector is used for checking
the shape or profile of relatively small engineering com-
ponents with an accurate standard or drawing. It enables a
magnified image of part of a component to be projected on
to a screen where it is compared with an enlarged profile
drawing. The degree of magnification may range from five
to hundred.
Tool Maker’s Microscope
This is used for measurement of small and delicate parts.
It is used for complex measurement of profile of exter-
nal threads as well as tools, templates and gauges, centre
to center distance of holes in a plane etc. and for accurate
angular measurements.
Interferometry
The advantage and peculiar property of monochromatic
light is that its wave length has precise value until the pri-
mary colours which have ill defined wavelengths and the
monochromatic light such as from mercury 198 or krypton
86 are exactly reproducible.
3.868  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

For interference to occur, two conditions are necessary

Optical flat
1. Light rays are obtained by division from a single
source
2. Rays before being combined at the eye must travel h
paths whose lengths differ by an odd number of half
wavelengths. C G
L
For interference of light waves, the light should be from
coherent sources. i.e., the two sources should continuously x mm
have light rays of same wavelength and equal intensity
and maintain same phase differences. Further two sources The component C and the standard gauge block G are
should be very narrow and close to each other. placed on a reference surface at a known distance x. The
optical surface is placed over them as shown. The optical
Optical Flat flat will be inclined at a small angle producing an air wedge.
Optical flat is a circular piece of optical glass or fused quartz If N number of dark fringes are observed over the width L
having its two plain faces flat and parallel and the surfaces mm of the block G,
are finished to an optical degree of flatness. The difference in height
Optical flats are used to test flatness of lapped surfaces
such gauge blocks, gauges, micrometer anvils etc. When an λ xN
optical piece placed on a work piece surface, it will not be per- h= ⋅
2 L
fectly parallel to the surface, but will be at slight inclination
to the surface, forming an air wedge between the surfaces. Where l = wavelength
When the optical flat is illuminated by monochromatic If x = 50 mm
source of light interference fringes will be obtained. These L = 25 mm
are produced by the interference of light rays reflected from N=5
bottom face of optical flat and the top piece of the work λ
piece. If they are in phase, it will result brightness. If the rays = 0.000333909 mm
2
are out of phase, it will cause dark fringes. Each adjacent
fringe represent a change in elevation by half wavelength. h = 0.00333909 mm
There are four possible cases, when the contact between Interferometers are optical instruments used for measuring
optical flat and work surface is at one point only flatness and determining the length of slip gauges. These are
1. If the surfaces are perfectly wrung together no air gap based on interference principle and employs wavelengths of
exist and no fringe pattern will be observed. light as measuring units. Disadvantages of a optical flat are
2. If angle is increased, fringes are brought closer overcome in this by providing refined arrangement
together
3. If angle is decreased, fringes spacing increases. Screw Thread Measurement
4. When angle is made too large, then fringes will be Measurement of effective diameter.
closely spaced, as to be undistinguishable and no Effective diameter is the most important of all thread ele-
observable pattern will be visible. ments. It plays a big role in perfect fitting of the mating
threads.
• Eye
Effective diameter or pitch diameter is the diameter of an
imaginary co-axial cylinder which intersects the flanks of
the threads, such that the width of the threads (metal) and
Optical
flat widths of the spaces between the threads are equal, each
being-half the pitch.
Air wedge Effective diameter can be measured by the following
Surface to be methods.
tested 1. Thread micrometer method
2. One wire, two wire or three wire methods
Method of Checking Height of
a Component with the Help of Three Wire Method
Optical Flat In this method, three wires of equal and precise diameter
are placed in the groves of the threads, two on one side and
By using an optical flat the height of a given component can
one on the other side and the outer distance M is measured.
be checked against a known standard.
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.869

Surface Finish Measurement

The irregularity on the surface which is in the form of
hills and valleys varying in height and spacing are usually
termed as surface roughness, surface finish, surface texture
M or surface quality. If the respective or random deviations
from the nominal surface which forms pattern on the sur-
face. Surface texture, includes roughness, waviness, lays
and flaws.
Surface irregularities of small wavelength are called
primary texture or roughness. These are caused by direct
Effective diameter = E action of the cutting elements.
E=M–Q The surface irregularities of considerable wavelength of a
Where M = Micrometer reading across the top of wires. periodic character are called secondary texture or waviness.
Q = a constant depending up on wire diameter and flank Lay is the predominant direction or pattern of the surface
angle. texture.
P
= W (1 + cosecq) − cot q Flaws are surface irregularities or imperfections which
2
occur at infrequent and at random intervals. Cracks,
Where W = wire diameter
scratches, inclusions and similar defects are included in
P = pitch
this.
Best Wire Size
Evaluation of Surface Finish
Best size of wire is the size of wire of such diameter that
Surface finish is evaluated by the following methods.
it makes contact with the flanks of the thread on the pitch
line. Depending up on the pitch the best wire size varies. 1. Peak to valley height method
Measured with any other wire size will include error in the 2. The average roughness
measurement. 3. Form factor or bearing curves

B
Peak to Valley Height Method
(Rt Measurement)
r O
Pitch line It is the maximum peak to valley height within the assess-
Q A P ment length. The draw back of the method is that it may give
p same Rt value for two largely different texture.
4

Effective x Average Roughness

diameter
1. CLA method
p
2. RMS method
2
3. Ten point height method
Line OP is perpendicular to the flank position of the thread.
Let x = half the included angle. CLA (Centre Line Average) Method
In triangle OAP In this average values of ordinates from the mean line,
AP regardless of the arithmetic signs of the ordinates (average
Sin POA =
OP deviations from the nominal surface) are measured
AP CLA value (Ra)
i.e., sin(90 – x) =
OP h1 + h2 + h3 +  hn
=
AP AP n
\  OP = = = APsecx
sin (90 − x ) cos x A1 + A2 + A3 +  An
=
But OP = r, the radius of wire L
\ Best wire diameter =
∑ A
p L
db = 2APsecx = 2 sec x
4 1 L
 = ∫ h dx over 2 to 20 consecutive sampling
p L 0
i.e., db = 2 sec x lengths
3.870  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
RMS (Root Mean Square) Method
In this method also, the roughness is measured as the aver-
age deviations from the nominal surface.
h12 + h22 +  hn2
RMS value =
n
L
1 2
L ∫0
= h dx
Ten Point Height Method (Rz)
Ten point height of irregularities is defined as the average
difference between the five highest peaks and five deepest
valleys within the sampling length measured from a line,
parallel to the mean line and not crossing the profile.
2 1
3
4 a built in computer controlling, the system is known com-
5
10
8 6 7 1. A program. i.e., a set of instructions
R2 R1
R6
L The MCU is further divided into two elements: The data
Rz = [(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5) – (R6 + R7 + R8 + R9 + R10)] ×
This method is relatively simple, but does not account for
the frequency of the irregularities and profile shape. It is
used when cost is to be controlled and for checking rough
machining.
Computer Integrated
Manufacturing System (CIMS)
CIMS is a production system consisting of a group of
Numerical controlled (NC) machines connected together by
an automated material handling system and operating under
computer control. Many of the individual CAD/CAM tech-
nologies are incorporated in CIM. Other concepts incor-
porated in CIM are Computer Numerical control (CNC),
Direct Numerical Control (DNC), Computer Aided Process
planning (CAPP), Computer integrated production man-
agement and Industrial robots.
CIMS depend upon the production requirements. Each
system vary according to the requirements.
Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) is a recent
technology. It comprises of a combination of software and
hardware for product design, production planning, produc-
tion control, production equipment and production process.
In a CIM system a group of NC machines are connected
together by an automated material handling system and
operating under computer control.
A computer integrated manufacturing system incorpo-
rate many of the individual CAD/CAM technologies and
concepts such as
Computer numerical control or CNC
Direct Numerical control or DNC
Computer aided process planning CAPP
Computer integrated production management industrial
roots.
Numerical Control
Numerical control (NC) refers to the operations of machine
tools from numerical data. Data for operations may be
stored on paper tape, magnetic tape, magnetic discs etc. As
numerical information is used, it is called numerical con-
trol. Machine tools and other machines are operated by a
series of loaded instructions. If the machine tool works with
puter numerical control (CNC)
The basic components of a NC system are
9
2. A machine control unit (MCU)
3. The machine tool
processing unit (DPU) and control loops unit (CLU). Data
1 process unit processes the coded data read from storage
5 devices and passes information such as position of each
axis, required direction of motion, speed, feed etc and aux-
iliary function control signals to CLU.
A typical program may contain an instruction like x +
100, y + 50, s + 90
This instruction is interpreted as to move a distance
100  mm in the x positive direction, 50 mm in the y +
­direction and rotate the spindle at 90 rpm clockwise.
The information pieces are decoded by the DPU and sent
to CLU. The CLU operates the drive mechanisms as per
the instructions, then receive feed back signals regarding
the actual positions velocity etc. When one instruction is
executed another is read.
Advantages of NC Systems
1. High machine utilization
2. Need for special tooling is mostly eliminated
3. High quality products can be manufactured
4. Consistency in quality
5. Quality is not dependent on operator skill
6. Cost of production is less
7. Minimum scrap
8. In process inventory is less
9. Higher productivity
10. Reduced set up time
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.871
Disadvantages of NC System Advantages of CNC System over
1. Initial investment is very high for the specialized Conventional NC System
equipment
2. Redundancy of labour
3. Down time is highly expensive
4. Special skill is required for programming and
operating the equipment
CNC Retrofitting
Retrofitting means adding accessories to a given object to
improve its performance. High initial investment of the
CNC machines make it not affordable to small scale indus-
tries which are back bone of our economy. It is possible
to modernize the existing conventional machines to CNC
machines by adding accessories and making slight design
modification. This is known as CNC retrofitting. Even
though the retrofitted machines are not as good as CNC
machines, their performance is far better than the original
machines. So when there is a budgetary constraint retrofit-
ting can be resorted to.
Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
DNC is a manufacturing system in which a number of
machines are inter connected using a computer through
direct connection in real time. In the case of NC or CNC
systems one computer is used to control one machine tool.
But in the case of DNC system one computer can be used to
control more than 100 machines. One computer is designed
to provide instructions to each machine tool on demand.
The components of a DNC system are
1. Central computer
2. Bulk memory which stores the CNC programs
3. Tele communication lines
4. Machine tolls
In DNC, the computer calls the program instruction from
bulk storage and sends to machines as the need arises. It
also receives feed back from the machines.
DNC system has the main draw back that if the central
computer goes down, all the machines become in operative.
This draw back is overcome by using Distributed Numerical
control system in place of direct numerical control. In this
type even if there is a central computer, the individual NC
machines are not directly controlled by this central com-
puter. Each NC machine has its own dedicated on – board
microcomputer just like a CNC system.
With the development of dedicated min- computers the
benefits of DNC system can be realized in CNC system also.
More over with the availability of small computers
with large memory, microprocessors and program edit-
ing capabilities CNC machines are widely used at pre-
sent. Also the availability of low cost programmable logic
controlled has helped in the successful implementation of
CNC system.
1. As the computer can be easily and readily
reprogrammed the system is very flexible. The
machine can manufacture a part followed by other
parts of different designs.
2. Editing and debugging programs, reprogramming
and plotting and printing part shapes etc are simpler.
3. Manufacturing programme for a component can be
easily called by computer.
This saves time and eliminates errors due to tape reading
4. Greater accuracy
5. Ease of operation
6. Trouble shooting is easier as the microprocessors
have self diagnostic features.
Adaptive Control Systems (ACS)
ACS is a logical extension of CNC system in the sense that
in CNC system operating conditions are specified by the
user in the form of a program. But in ACS calculation and
setting up of operating conditions like speed, feed, depth
of cut etc are done during machining by the control system
itself.
For example in drilling the torque on the drill is measured
and feed and speed or both are adjusted within programmed
limits . Adaptive control is still in its infancy, since the effect
of various process variables on the finished part is still rela-
tively unknown.
Basic Concepts of CAD and CAM
CAD/CAM means computer aided design and computer
aided manufacturing. It is the technology concerned with
the use of digital computers in design and production
Therefore CAD is the use of computer systems to assist
in the creation, modification, analysis or optimization of a
design.
CAM is the use of computer systems to plan, manage
and control the operations of a manufacturing unit through
direct or indirect computer interface with the plants pro-
duction resources.
A digital computer is the essential ingredient of a CAD/
CAM.
A digital computer can be used for image processing,
real time process control and for solving complex problem
in a few seconds.
A digital computer consists of the following three
components
1. Central processing unit (CPU)
2. Memory
3. Input/output section
A modern CAD system can perform graphics and non-
graphics is function. It is based on interactive computer
graphics (ICG)
3.872  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) 1. Process rationalization

Process planning means the determination of the sequence
of individual manufacturing operations required to produce
a given part or product. In CAPP production planning is
done with the use of computers. The operation sequence is
documented on a route sheet. The advantages of CAPP are
2. Increased productivity of process planners
3. Reduced turn around time
4. Improved legibility
5. Incorporation of other application programs.

Exercises
Practice Problems 1
+0.003 +0.000
1. A 60 mm diameter shaft is made to rotate in a bush. 25.000 −0.000 mm (B)
(A) 25.000 +0.003 mm
Tolerances for both bush and shaft are 0.050 mm. The +0.003 +0.000
dimensions of the bush to give a minimum clearance of 25.030 −0.000 mm (D)
(C) 25.030 −0.003 mm
0.075 in the shaft basis system is
−0.075 +0.125 +0.05
60 −0.125 (B)
(A) 60 +0.075 7. A hole of size 30 −0.03 mm is to be checked by workshop
+0.125 −0.125
GO and NO GO plug gauges. Assuming wear allow-
(C) 59+0.025 (D) 60 −0.075 ance and gauge allowance as 10% of work tolerance,
size of the NO GO gauge will be
2. The following is the hole and shaft dimensions of an
+0.014 +0.014
assembly 30 −0.022 mm (B)
(A) 30 +.0.014 mm
+0.04
Hole: 30 +0.00 mm −0.014 −0.014

+0.06
30 +.0.022 mm (D)
(C) 30 −.0.022 mm
Shaft: 30 +0.04 mm 8. Determine the size of the general type NO GO plug
The type of fit is gauge for checking hole of a 30 H7/f8.
(A) Transition (B) Clearance
Given: i = 0.453 D + 0.001D microns (D in mm)
(C) Interference (D) Running
3. In a hole and shaft assembly of 30 mm nominal size Upper deviation of shaft = –5.5 D0.41
with following dimensions. Maximum and minimum Diameter step for 30 mm = 18 – 30 mm
(Least) metal limits of the shaft are −0.0231 +0.0210
+0.02 30 −0.0231 (B)
(A) 30 +0.0189
Hole: 30 −0.00 mm +0.0231 +0.0210
−0.040 30 +0.0210 (D)
(C) 30 −0.0189
Shaft: 30 −0.070 mm 9. Cold drawn shafts upto accuracy ±0.01 mm are avail-
(A) 29.960, 29.930 mm (B) 30.02, 30 mm able. An interference fit is to be designed for a 50 mm
(C) 30.07, 30.04 mm (D) 29.950, 29.930 mm basic size hole. Maximum and minimum interferences
4. A hole and mating shaft have nominal size of 50 mm. are 0.02 mm and 0.01 mm respectively. Tolerance for
Maximum clearance is 0.15 mm and minimum clear- hole will be
ance is 0.05 mm. Hole tolerance is 1.5 times the shaft (A) 0.04 mm (B) 0.06 mm
tolerance. Limits for hole in a shaft basis system is (C) 0.05 mm (D) 0.03 mm
(A) 49.02, 49.08 mm (B) 51.04, 51.10 mm 10.
For a 90 H8 e9 hole shaft assembly the GO gauge for
(C) 49.05, 49.11 mm (D) 50.05, 50.11 mm shaft will be
5. The interference between two mating parts of basic size (given:
100 mm is to be from 0.05 mm to 0.12 mm. Tolerance IT8: 25i
of shaft and hole are same. The hole size in a shaft basis T9: 40i
system is
Fundamental deviation
(A) 100.035, 100.000 mm
(B) 100.020, 100.085 mm For ‘e’ type shaft
(C) 100.00, 99.965 mm = –11D0.41
(D) 99.915, 99.88 mm (Assume hole basis system)
6. A 25 mm H8 hole is to be checked using a plug gauge. 0.0693 +0.0693
The hole high limit is 25.030 mm. Taking gauge mak- 90 −0.677
(A) (B) 90 −0.0777
er’s tolerance as 10% of work tolerance dimensions of +0.0693 −0.0693
the GO plug gauge will be 90 +0.677 (D)
(C) 90 −0.777
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.873

11. For the above problem the size of NO gauge for shaft +0.040
15. In an interchangeable assembly shafts of size 30 −0.010
will be +0.030
+0.1524 −0.1524 mm mates with holes of size 30 +0.020 The maximum
90 −0.1608 (B)
(A) 90 −0.1608
interference in microns in the assembly is
+0.0693 +0.1524
90 −0.677 (D) (A) 16 microns
(C) 90 −0.1608
(B) 18 microns
Direction for questions 12 and 13: (C) 22 microns
0.000 (D) 20 microns
40 −0.009 16. Two slip gauges of 10 mm width measuring 1.000
Q Datum
mm and 1.015 mm are kept side by side in contact
with each other lengthwise. An optical flat is kept
40 f7 resting on them and inspected using monochromatic
+1.00 light of wavelength 0.0058928 mm. The total number
75 0.000 of straight fringes that can be observed on both slip
gauges will be
(A) 4 (B) 6
(C) 3 (D) 8
17. In surface roughness measurement for a sampling
0.010 0.005 length of 0.8 mm, the graph is drawn to a vertical mag-
0.000 0.000 nification of 15000 and horizontal magnification of
φ32 φ27
100 and areas above and below datum line are 160, 90,
Refer the figure given above 170, 150 mm2 respectively. CLA value for this surface
Given IT7 = 16i diameter steps for 40 mm = 30 and 50 mm. is
Fundamental deviation (A) 0.6 mm (B) 0.9 mm
for f shaft = –5.5 D0.41 micron (C) 0.8 mm (D) 0.5 mm
12. Size 40 f 7 will be 18.
+0.0245 +0.0140
40 +0.0494
(A) 40 +0.0480
(B) Milled
−0.0245 −0.0140 2.0
40 −0.0494
(C) 40 −0.0480
(D)
13. Dimension of length Q will be
+0.009 +0.009 5.0
35−0.100
34 −0.100 (B)
(A)
+0.100 0.100 0.5
(C) 34 −0.009 (D)
35+0.009 mm
14. In a drawing the machined surface was represented as
shown above. The machining allowance of the surface is
(A) 0.5 mm (B) 5.0 mm
(C) 2.0 mm (D) Not shown
19. Match the following:

P.  Limits 1. Algebraic difference between the

P Q R actual size and the corresponding
basic size
S Q.  Fits 2.  Permissible variation in size

The part shown in figure is machined to the sizes given below: R.  Tolerance 3. Prescribed difference between
S = 35.00 ± 0.08 mm the dimensions of mating parts to
perform specific function
P = 12.00 ± 0.02 mm
Q = 9.99 ± 0.03 mm S.  Allowance 4. The ranges of permissible variation
in dimensions of a part.
Dimension R will have specifications
+0.04 +0.04 5. Degree of lightness and looseness
(A) 12 −0.02
13−0.02 (B) between the mating parts
+0.04 +0.02
13−0.01 (D)
(C) 12 −0.04
3.874  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

( A) P–4, Q–5, R–2, S–3 (B) P–2, Q–3, R–4, S–1 4 slip gauges totalling a height of 54.464 mm was
(C) P–3, Q–4, R–2, S–5 (D) P–1, Q–2, R–3, S–4 inserted below the top roller. The angle set up was
20. A sine bar was used to set up an angle with the help of (A) 30° (B) 25°
slip gauges. Distance between roller centres is 100 mm. (C) 33° (D) 15°

Practice Problems 2 (A) Transition fit (B) Interference fit

(C) Clearance fit (D) Shrink fit
1. Allowance and maximum clearance of a 30 H7/h8 fit
will be 8.
(A) 0.0054, 0.001 mm (B) 0,0.0054 mm 118.3 +0.08
−0.09
(C) 0.0054, 0.005 mm (D) 0,0.054 mm
2. It is possible to drill a 25 mm nominal size hole to an
+0.02 T
accuracy of 25− 0.02 mmusing a standard drill. A shaft
is to be machined to obtain a clearance fit in the above
hole such that allowance should be 0.01 mm and maxi-
mum clearance should not be more than 0.08 mm. The
tolerance on the shaft will be
(A) 0.04 mm (B) 0.05 mm 32.7 ± 0.02
(C) 0.03 mm (D) 0.06 mm
3. A hole and shaft assembly has the following dimensions 10.0+0.02 25.2+0.01
50H8/C8. Multiplier for grade IT8 is 25. Fundamental −0.01 −0.02
deviation for shaft C for D > 40 mm is (–95 + 0.8D) 30.4±0.01
and diameter step for 50 mm is 50 to 80 mm. Maximum
In the above sketch the dimension T will be
size of the shaft will be
+0.02 +0.03
(A) 49.8544 mm (B) 51.9072 mm 19 −0.01 mm (B)
(A) 20 −0.02 mm
(C) 50.9623 mm (D) 48.8233 mm +0.02
+0.02

4. For the shaft assembly 90 H8 e9 the minimum size of 19 −0.03 mm (D)

(C) 20 −0.03 mm
the shaft is 9. In an interchangeable assembly shaft of size
(Given: value of tolerance for IT8 = 25i 20 −−00..040 +0.020
0100 mm mate with holes of size 20 −0.000 . The
IT9 = 40i minimum clearance in the assembly will be
Value of fundamental deviation for ‘e’ type shaft = (A) 10 microns (B) 15 microns
–11D0.41 (C) 8 microns (D) 12 microns
(A) 84.7476 mm (B) 86.7475 mm 10. GO and NO GO plug gauges are to be designed for a
(C) 92.3456 mm (D) 89.8476 mm hole of 20 ++00..050
010 mm . Gauge tolerance can be taken as
5. For the above problem GO plug gauge size will be 10% of the hole tolerance. Following ISO system of
+0.0005 +0.0057 gauge design, sizes of GO and NO GO gauge will be
90 − 0.0057 (B)
(A) 90 +0.0005 respectively
+0.0057 +0.0005
(A) 20.134 mm, 20.164 mm
(C) 89 + 0.0005 (D) 89 − 0.0025
(B) 20.014 mm, 20.054 mm
6. For the above problem NO GO plug gauge size will be (C) 21.123 mm, 21.136 mm
+0.0576 +0.0082 (D) 21.227 mm, 21.732 mm
90 − 0.0524 (B)
(A) 90 + 0.0076
+0.0576 +0.0576 11. An unknown specimen and a set of slip gauges are
90 +0.0524 (D)
(C) 90 − 0.0524 placed over flat surface at a distance x. Using cadmium
light source of wave lengths 0.509 mm, and an opti-
H −7
7. For a hole shaft assembly 60, the type of fit will be cal flat about 4.75 fringes were observed over distance
m−6 between the slip gauges and the specimen. Difference
(Diameter step for 60 mm = 50 to 80 mm. in height between them will be
Fundamental deviation for an shaft (A) 1.3 mm (B) 1.1 mm
= + (IT7 – IT6) (C) 1.2 mm (D) 1.4 mm
IT7 = 16i 12. A threaded nut having 2 mm pitch with a pitch diam-
eter of 14.7 mm is to be checked for its pitch diameter
IT6 = 10i
using wires. Angle of threads is 60°. The diameter of
For i use the standard formula) wire used should be
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.875

(A) 1.155 mm (B) 2.255 mm Direction for questions 19 and 20:  In the measurement
(C) 1.055 mm (D) 2.055 mm of surface roughness, heights of 20 successive peaks and
1 3. Match the following: troughs were measured from a datum and these were
35, 25, 40, 20, 35
Features to be inspected Instrument 18, 42, 25, 35, 22
P. Pitches and angle 1.  Auto collimator 36, 18, 42, 22, 32
errors of screw thread 21, 37, 18, 35, 20 microns
Q.  latness error of surface 2.  Optical interferometer These measurements were obtained over a length of 18 mm
R. Alignment error of 3. Deviding head and dial 19. Approximate CLA or Ra value will be
machine slide way gauge (A) 27 micron (B) 29 micron
(C) 31 micron (D) 26 micron
S.  Profile of a cam 4.  Spint level
20. Approximate RMS value will be
5.  Sine bar
(A) 29.32 micron (B) 32.73 micron
6.  Toolmaker’s microscope (C) 31.18 micron (D) 28.87 micron
21. In the measurement of surface roughness the height of
(A) P–2, Q–3, R–4, S–1 (B) P–3, Q–4, R–5, S–2 10 successive peaks and valleys over datum line over a
(C) P–4, Q–5, R–2, S–3 (D) P–5, Q–2, R–1, S–6 specified sampling length were found to be
−0.008
14. A shaft has a dimension, f 40 −0.025 . The respective val-
Peaks 45 42 40 35 35 mm
ues of fundamental deviation and tolerance are.
(A) –0.008, –0.025 Valleys 30 25 25 24 18 mm
(B) –0.008, –0.017
(C) –0.017, 0.008 The Rz value of the surface will be
(D) –0.017, +0.025 (A) 15 mm (B) 20 mm
+0.018
15. A hole is of dimension f 90 +0.000 mm and the corre- (C) 12 mm (D) 18 mm
+0.012 22. Figure given below shows the dimension obtained on a
sponding shaft is of dimension 9+0.001 mm . When they component by a certain instrument
are assembled they will form a The instrument is
(A) Interference fit (B) Clearance fit (A) Precise but not accurate
(C) Transition fit (D) Running fit (B) Accurate but not precise
16. A 30 h7 shaft has the dimensional limits (C) Neither precise nor accurate
(A) 30.000, 29.979 (D) Sensitive
(B) 30.000, 30.021
(C) 30.000, 30.007
(D) 30.000, 29.993 Average
× × × × ×
17. Essential condition for an interference fit is that the × × × value
lower limit of the shaft should be
(A) Lesser than upper limit of the hole
(B) Greater than the lower limit of the hole True value
(C) Lesser than the lower limit of the hole
(D) Greater than the upper limit of the hole
18. In measuring the surface roughness of an object, a
graph was drawn to a vertical magnification of 10000 23. The reflector combined with auto collimater can be
and a horizontal magnification of 100 and the areas used for checking
above and below the datum lines were (A) parallelism (B) Circularity
(C) Surface finish (D) Alignment
Above 150 80 170 40 mm2 24. According to Taylor’s principle, NO GO gauge checks
Below 80 60 150 120 mm2 (A) Only important dimensions at a time
(B) All the dimensions at a time
The sampling length was 0.8 mm. (C) Only one feature at a time
Ra value (CLA) of the surface is (D) Only related dimensions at a time
(A) 0.08 mm (B) 1.53 mm 25. Expressing a dimension as 42.5/42.3 mm is the case of
(C) 0.85 mm (D) 1.06 mm (A) Unilateral tolerance (B) Bilateral tolerance
(C) Limiting dimensions (D) None of the above
3.876  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

2 6. Most accurate instrument is 3 blocks B1, B2 and B3 are to be inserted in a channel

(A) Vernier caliper of width S maintaining a minimum gap of width T =
(B) Screw gauge 0.125 mm, as shown in figure. For P = 18.75 ± 0.08, Q
(C) Slip gauge = 15.00 ± 0.12, R = 18.125 + 0.1 and S = 52.35 + x the
(D) Optical projector tolerance x is
27. Figure shows 3 wire method of inspecting screw threads. (A) –0.05 mm
The screw thread is ISO metric M 16 with pitch 2 mm (B) +0.05 mm
and effective diameter = 14.701 mm. Diameter of roller (C) –0.35 mm
used for measurement is 1.155 mm and corresponds to (D) +0.35 mm
best wire diameter (i.e., touches at points of effective 29. For measuring taper of a ring gauge, two balls of diam-
diameter) eter 30 mm and 15 mm were used. During inspection
the ball of 30 mm diameter was protruding by 2.5 mm
above top surface of the ring. This surface was located
at a height of 50 mm from the top of the 15 mm diam-
eter ball. The taper of the angle is
S (A) 25° (B) 20°
(C) 15° (D) 18°
30. A fits is specified as 25 H8/e8. The tolerance value
Over write measurement S will be for a basic diameter 25 mm in IT8 is 33 microns and
(a) 17.6 mm (B) 18.8 mm fundamental deviation for the shaft is –40 microns. The
(C) 18.2 mm (D) 19.4 mm maximum clearance of the fit in microns is
(A) 66 microns
28.
S (B) 73 microns
(C) 33 microns
R Q P
T (D) 106 microns
B3 B2 B1

Previous Years’ Questions

1. In an interchangeable assembly, shafts of size (A) 20.010 mm and 20.050 mm
+0.040
(B) 20.014 mm and 20.046 mm
25.000 −0.0100 mm mate with holes of size
+0.020 (C) 20.006 mm and 20.054 mm
25.000 −0.000 mm . the maximum possible clearance in (D) 20.014 mm and 20.054 mm
the assembly will be [2004] 4. In a 2-D CAD package, clockwise circular arc of
(A) 10 microns (B) 20 microns radius 5, specified from P1(15,10) to P2(10, 15) will
(C) 30 microns (D) 60 microns have its center at [2004]
2. During the execution of a CNC part program block (A) (10, 10) (B) (15, 10)
NO20 GO2 X45.0 Y25.0 R5.0 the type of tool motion (C) (15, 15) (D) (10, 15)
will be [2004] 5. Match the following: [2004]
(A) circular interpolation – clockwise
Feature to be Inspected Instrument
(B) circular interpolation – counter clockwise
(C) linear interpolation P. Pitch and Angle errors of 1.  Auto Collimator
screw thread
(D) rapid feed
Q. Flatness error of a 2.  Optical Interferometer
3. GO and No-Go plug gages are to be designed for Surface plate
+0.050

a hole 20.000 +0.010 mm. Gauge tolerances can be R. Alignment error of a 3. Dividing Head and
machine slideway Dial gauge
taken as 10% of the hole tolerance. Following ISO S.  Profile of cam 4.  Spirit Level
5.  Sine bar
system of gauge design, sizes of GO and NO-GO
6. Tool makes’s
gauge will be respectively [2004] microscope
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.877

(A) P-6 Q-2 R-4 S- 6 (B) P-6 Q-4 R-1 S-3
(C) P-5 Q-2 R-1 S-6 (D) P-1 Q-4 R-4 S-2
6. In order to have interference fit, it is essential that the
lower limit of the shaft should be [2005]
(A) greater than the upper limit of the hole
(B) lesser than the upper limit of the hole
(C) greater than the lower limit of the hole
(D) lesser than the lower limit of the hole
7. The tool of an NC machining has tomove along a cir-
cular arc from (5, 5) to(10, 10) while performing an
operation. The center of the arc is at (10, 5). Which
one of the following NC tool path commands per-
forms the above mentioned operation? [2005]
(A) N010 G02 X10 Y10 X5 Y5 R5
(B) N010 G03 X10 Y10 X5 Y5 R5
(C) N010 G01 X5 Y5 X10 Y10 R5
(D) N010 G02 X5 Y5 X10 Y10 R5
8. Which among the NC operations given below are
continuous path operations?[2005]
Arc welding (AW) Milling (M)
Drilling (D) Punching in sheet
metal (P)
Laser cutting of Spot welding (SW)
Sheet Metal(LC)
(A) AW, LC and M
(B) AW, D, LC and M
(C) D, LC, P and SW
(D) D, LC and SW
9. NC contouring is an example of  [2006]
(A) continuous path positioning
(B) point-to-point positioning
(C) absolute positioning
(D) incremental positioning
10. A ring gauge is used to measure [2006]
(A) outside diameter but not roundness
(B) roundness but not outside diameter
(C) both outside diameter and roundness
(D) only external threads
11. Which type of motor is NOT used in axis or spindle
drives of CNC machine tools?[2007]
(A) induction motor (B) dc servo motor
(C) stepper motor (D) linear servo motor
0.050
12. A hole is specified as 400.00 mm. The mating shaft
has a clearance fit with minimum clearance of 0.01
mm. The tolerance on the shaft is 0.04 mm. The maxi-
mum clearance in mm between the hole and the shaft
is  [2007]
(A) 0.04 (B) 0.05
(C) 0.10 (D) 0.11

Direction for questions 13 and 14:

f Table
Pulse Stepper Gear box
generator motor
U Nut

Lead screw

In the feed drive of a Point–to–Point open CNC drive, 14. A customer insists on a modification to change the
a stepper motor rotating at 200 steps/rev drives a table BLU of the CNC drive to 10 microns without chang-
through a gear box and lead screw-nut mechanism ing the table speed. The modification can be accom-
(pitch = 4 mm, number of starts = 1). The gear ratio = plished by [2008]
⎛ Output rotational speed ⎞ 1 1 f
=⎜ ⎟ is given by U = . The (A) Changing U to and reducing f to
⎝ Input rotational speed ⎠ 4 2 2
stepper motor (driven by voltage pulses from a pulse gen- 1
(B) Changing U to and increasing f to 2f
erator) executes 1 step/pulse of the pulse generator. The 8
frequency of the pulse train from the pulse generator is f = 1
10,000 pulses per minute. (C) Changing U to and keeping f unchanged
2
13. The Basic Length Unit (BLU), i.e., the table move- (D) Keeping U unchanged and increasing f to 2f
ment corresponding to 1 pulse of the pulse generator, 15. Which of the following is the correct data structure
is [2008] for solid models? [2009]
(A) 0.5 microns (A) solid part → faces → edges → vertices
(B) 5 microns (B) solid part → edges → faces → vertices
(C) 50 microns (C) vertices → edges → faces → solid parts
(D) 500 microns (D) vertices → faces → edges → solid parts
3.878  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

16. Match the following: [2009]

NC Code Definition
Z = 40
P  M05 1.  Absolute coordinate system
Q G01 2.  Dwell
Z = 20
R G04 3.  Spindle stop
S  G90 4.  Linear interpolation
Z=0

(A) P-2, Q-3, R-4, S-1

(B) P-3, Q-4, R-1, S-2
(C) P-3, Q-4, R-2, S-1 (A) 13.334 (B) 15.334
(D) P-4, Q-3, R-2, S-1 (C) 15.442 (D) 15.542
+0.015
1 7. What are the upper and lower limits of the shaft rep- 21. A hole is of dimension ϕ 9+0 mm. . The correspond-
resented by 60 f8? +0.010
Use the following data: ing shaft is of dimension ϕ 9+0.001 mm.
The resulting
Diameter 60 lies in the diameter step of 50–80 mm assembly has [2011]
Fundamental tolerance unit, i, in mm = 0.45D1/3 + (A) loose running fit (B) close running fit
0.001D, where D is the representative size in mm; (C) transition fit (D) interference fit
Tolerance value for IT8 = 25i. Fundamental deviation 22.
In an interchangeable assembly, shafts of
for ‘f’ shaft = –5.5D0.41 [2009] +0.040
(A) Lower limit = 59.924 mm, Upper Limit = 59.970 size 25.000 −0.020 mm mate with holes of size
+0.030
mm
25.000 −0.020 mm. The maximum interference (in
(B) Lower limit = 59.954 mm, Upper Limit = 60.000
microns) in the assembly is [2012]
mm
(A) 40 (B) 30 (C) 20 (D) 10
(C) Lower limit = 59.970 mm, Upper Limit = 60.016
mm 23. A metric thread of pitch 2 mm and thread angle 60° is
(D) Lower limit = 60.000 mm, Upper Limit = 60.046 inspected for its pitch diameter using 3-wire method.
mm The diameter of the best size wire in mm is[2013]
−0.009 (A) 0.866 (B) 1.000
18. A shaft has a dimension, ϕ 35−0.025 . The respective (C) 1.154 (D) 2.000
values of fundamental deviation and tolerance are +0.020

[2010] 24. Cylindrical pins of 25+0.010 mm diameter are elec-

(A) −0.025, ±0.008
(B) −0.025, 0.016
(C) −0.009, ±0.008
(D) −0.009, 0.016
19. In a CNC program block, N002 G02 G91 X40 Z40…,
G02 AND G91 refer to[2010]
(A) circular interpolation in counterclockwise direc-
tion and incremental dimension
(B) circular interpolation in counterclockwise direc-
tion and absolute dimension
(C) circular interpolation in clockwise direction and
incremental dimension
(D) circular interpolation in clockwise direction and
absolute dimension
20. A taper hole is inspected using a CMM, with a probe
of 2 mm diameter. At a height, Z = 10 mm from the
bottom, 5 points are touched and a diameter of cir-
cle (not compensated for probe size) is obtained as
20 mm. Similarly, a 40 mm diameter is obtained at a
height Z = 40 mm. The smaller diameter (in mm) of
hole at Z = 0 is [2010]
troplated in a shop. Thickness of the plating is 30 ±2.0
micron. Neglecting gauge tolerances, the size of the
GO gauge in mm to inspect the plated components is
 [2013]
(A) 25.042 (B) 25.052
(C) 25.074 (D) 25.084
25. In a CAD package, mirror image of a 2D point P(5,10)
is to be obtained about a line which passes through
the origin and make an angle of 45° counterclockwise
with the x-axis. The coordinates of the transformed
point will be [2013]
(A) (7.5, 5) (B) (10, 5)
(C) (7.5, –5) (D) (10, –5)
26. For machining a rectangular island represented by
coordinates P(0, 0), Q(100, 0), R(100, 50) and S(0, 50)
on a casting using CNC milling machine, an end mill
with a diameter of 16 mm is used. The trajectory of the
cutter centre to machine the island PQRS is[2014]
(A) (–8, –8), (108, –8), (108, 58), (–8, 58), (–8, –8)
(B) (8, 8), (94, 8), (94, 44), (8, 44), (8, 8)
(C) (–8, 8), (94, 0), (94, 44), (8, 44), (–8, 8)
(D) (0, 0), (100, 0), (100, 50), (50, 0), (0, 0)
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.879

27. Which one of the following instruments is widely H1

used to check and calibrate geometric features of H2 d1 Diameter
machine tools during their assembly? [2014] C
(A) Ultrasonic probe
H
(B) Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) B
(C) Laser interferometer A
R
(D) Vernier callipers
Recessed Ring
28. For the given assembly : 25 H7/g8, match Group A
with Group B [2014]
d2 Diameter D
Group A Group B
(P) H (I) Shaft Type The distance H2 = 35.55 mm and H1 = 20.55 mm. The
diameter (D, in mm) of the ring gauge is ____
(Q) IT8 (II) Hole Type
33. A GO–No GO plug gauge is to be designed for meas-
(R) IT7 (III) Hole Tolerance Grade
uring a hole of nominal diameter 25 mm with a hole
(S) g (IV) Shaft Tolerance Grade tolerance of ±0.015 mm. Considering 10% of work
tolerance to be the gauge tolerance and no wear con-
(A) P-I, Q-III, R-IV, S-II dition, the dimension (in mm) of the GO plug gauge
(B) P-I, Q-IV, R-III, S-II as per the unilateral tolerance system is [2014]
(C) P-II, Q-III, R-IV, S-I +0.003 +0.000
(D) P-II, Q-IV, R-III, S-I 24.985−0.003 (B)
(A) 25.015−0.006
+0.03 +0.003
2 9. The flatness of a machine bed can be measured using 24.985−0.000
24.985−0.03 (D)
(C)
 [2014]
(A) Vernier callipers 34. Holes of diameter 25.0 ++00..040
020 mm are assembled inter-
(B) Auto collimator changeably with the pins of diameter 25.0 +−00..005
008 mm.
(C) Height gauge The minimum clearance in the assembly will be:
(D) Tool maker’s microscope  [2015]
30. A robot arm PQ with end coordinates P(0, 0) and (A) 0.048 mm (B) 0.015 mm
Q(2, 5) rotates counter clockwise about P in the XY (C) 0.005 mm (D) 0.008 mm
plane by 90°. The new coordinate pair of the end point 35. The function of interpolator in a CNC machine con-
Q is  [2014] troller is to [2015]
(A) (–2, 5) (B) (–5, 2) (A) control spindle speed
(C) (–5, –2) (D) (2, –5) (B) coordinate feed rates of axes
31. For the CNC part programming, match Group A with (C) control tool rapid approach speed
Group B : [2014] (D)  perform Miscellaneous (M) functions (tool
change, coolant control etc.)
Group A Group B 36. In the assembly shown below, the part dimensions
circular interpolation, counter
(P) (I) G02 are: [2015]
clockwise
(Q) dwell (II) G03 L1 = 22.0±0.01 mm,
circular interpolation, L2 = L3 = 10.0±0.005 mm.
(R) (III) G04
clockwise
(S) point to point countering (IV) G00 Assuming the normal distribution of part dimensions, the
dimension L4 in mm for assembly condition would be:
(A) P-II, Q-III, R-I, S-IV
(B) P-I, Q-III, R-II, S-IV
(C) P-I, Q-IV, R-II, S-III
(D) P-II, Q-I, R-III, S-IV
32. The diameter of a recessed ring was measured by
using two spherical balls of diameter d2 = 60 mm and L4
L2 L3
d1= 40 mm as shown in the figure. [2014] L1

(A) 2.0±0.008 (B) 2.0±0.012

(C) 2.0±0.016 (D) 2.0±0.020
3.880  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology

37. A triangular facet in a CAD model has vertices: 42. Match the following: [2016]
P1(0,0,0); P2(1,1,0) and P3(1,1,1). The area of the
facet is: [2015]   P.  Feeler gauge    I.  Radius of an object
(A) 0.500 (B) 0.707 Q.  Fillet gauge II.  Diameter within limits by
(C) 1.414 (D) 1.732 comparison
  R.  Snap gauge III. Clearance or gap
38. Which one of the following statements is TRUE?
between components
 [2015]
 S.  Cylindrical plug gauge   IV. Inside diameter of
(A) The ‘GO’ gage controls the upper limit of a hole.
straight hole
(B) The ‘NO GO’ gage controls the lower limit of a
shaft. (A) P-III, Q-I, R-II, S-IV
(C) The ‘GO’ gage controls the lower limit of a hole. (B) P-III, Q-II, R-I, S-IV
(D) The ‘NO GO’ gage controls the lower limit of a (C) P-IV, Q-II, R-I, S-III
hole. (D) P-IV, Q-I, R-II, S-III
39. A project consists of 7 activities. The network along 4 3. The figure below represents a triangle PQR with
with the time durations (in days) for various activities initial coordinates of the vertices as P(1, 3), Q(4,
is shown in the figure. 5) and R(5, 3, 5). The triangle is rotated in the
X-Y plane about the vertex P by angle q in clock-
12 11 10 wise direction. If sin q = 0.6 and cos q = 0.8,
1 3 5 6
the new coordinates of the vertex Q are: [2016]
14 12
9 Y
Q(4, 5)
7
2 4

The minimum time (in days) for completion of the R(5, 3, 5)

project is _______. [2015] P(1, 3)
40. A drill is positioned at point P and it has to proceed to
point Q. The coordinates of point Q in the incremental
O X
system of defining position of a point in CNC part
program will be [2015]
(A) (4.6, 2.8) (B) (3.2, 406)
Y
(C) (7.9, 5.5) (D) (5.5, 7.9)
4 4. For the situation shown in the figure below the expres-
Q sion for H in terms of r, R and D is : [2016]
H = D + r 2 + R2
(A)
P
12 H = (R + r) + (D + r)
(B)
5
D
X
3 4

(A) (3, 12) (B) (5, 7) r

(C) (7, 12) (D) (4, 7)
4 1. In a CNC milling operation, the tool has to machine
H
the circular arc from point (20, 20) to (10, 10) at a R
sequence number 5 of the CNC part program. If the
center of the arc is at (20, 10) and the machine has
incremental mode of defining position coordinates,
the correct tool path command is: [2015]
(A) N 05 G90 G01 X-10 Y-10 R10
(B) N 05 G91 G03 X-10 Y-10 R10
(C) N 05 G90 G03 X20 Y20 R10 H = (R + r) + D 2 − R 2
(C)
(D) N 05 G91 G02 X20 Y20 R10
H = (R + r) + 2 D ( R + r ) − D 2
(D)
 Chapter 5  •  Metrology and Inspection Computer Integrated Manufacturing  |  3.881

45. Match the following part programming codes with Monochromatic light
their respective functions: [2016]
Part Programming
Functions
Codes
  P. G01    I.   Spindle stop
Q. G03 II. Spindle rotation,
clockwise
  R. M03 III. C
 ircular interpolation, θ
anticlockwise
 S. M05   IV. Linear interpolation
If the wavelength of light used to get a fringe spacing
(A) P–II, Q–I, R–IV, S–III of 1 mm is 450 nm, the wavelength of light (in mm) to
(B) P–IV, Q–II, R–III, S–I get a fringe spacing of 1.5 mm is ________. [2016]
(C) P–IV, Q–III, R–II, S–I
(D) P–III, Q–IV, R–II, S–I 47. A point P (1, 3, –5) is translated by 2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 4 kˆ
and then rotated counter clockwise by 90o about the
46. Two optically flat plates of glass are kept at a small z-axis. The new position of the point is: : [2016]
angle θ as shown in the figure. Monochromatic light is
incident vertically. (A) (–6, 3, –9) (B) (–6, –3, –9)
(C) (6, 3, –9) (D) (6, 3, 9)

Answer Keys
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. D 8. C 9. A 10. D
11. B 12. C 13. D 14. A 15. D 16. B 17. C 18. A 19. A 20. C

Practice Problems 2
1. B 2. C 3. A 4. D 5. B 6. C 7. A 8. D 9. A 10. B
11. C 12. A 13. D 14. B 15. C 16. A 17. D 18. D 19. B 20. A
21. A 22. A 23. D 24. C 25. C 26. D 27. C 28. A 29. B 30. D

Previous Years’ Questions

1. D 2. A 3. D 4. C 5. C 6. A 7. A 8. B 9. A 10. A
11. C 12. C 13. B 14. D 15. C 16. C 17. A 18. D 19. C 20. A
21. C 22. C 23. C 24. D 25. B 26. A 27. C 28. D 29. B 30. B
31. A 32.  91 to 94 33. D 34. B 35. B 36. D 37. B 38. C
39.  39 to 40 40. D 41. B 42. A 43. A 44. D 45. C 46.  675 47. A
3.882  |  Part III  •  Unit 7  •  Manufacturing Technology
Test
Manufacturing Technology
Direction for questions 1 to 25: Select the correct a­ lternative
from the given choices
1. The condition for interference fit is that the lower limit
of the shaft
(A) Should be greater than the upper limit of the hole
(B) Should be greater than the lower limit of the hole
(C) Should be less than the upper limit of the hole
(D) Should be less than the lower limit of the hole
2. In an assembly of shaft and hole, shaft size is specified
as
+0.010 -0.000
20 -0.040 mm and hole size as 20 +0.020 mm.
The maximum clearance possible in the assembly
(A) 20 microns (B) 30 microns
(C) 40 microns (D) 10 microns
3. Cold working of steel means:
(A) Mechanical working of steel below the lower criti-
cal temperature
(B) Mechanical working of steel below the recrystal-
lisation temperature
(C)  Mechanical working below 2/3 of the melting
­temperature
(D) Mechanical working of steel below the upper criti-
cal temperature
4. In punching operation the clearance is given:
(A) On the die
(B) On the punch
(C) In the die or punch
(D) In the die and the punch
5. From a sheet metal of thickness 1 mm a cup of
diameter 30 mm and height 150 mm is to be drawn.
If limiting draw ratio is 1.8, the number of draws
required are
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
6. A lead plate is mechanically worked at room tempera-
ture. It is
(A) A cold working process
(B) A hot working process
(C) Neither hot working nor cold working
(D) It is not defined
7. A metal having recrystallisation temperature TA is cold
worked. The recrystallisation temperature of this cold
worked item is TA′. Then
(A) TA = TA′ (B) T A > TA′
(C) TA < TA′ (D) Cannot say from this data
Time: 60 Minutes
8. A rolling mill has rollers of 400 mm diameter. The
coefficient of friction is 0.15. In order to reduce the
thickness from 150 mm to 10 mm for a strip, the num-
ber of passes required are
(A) 4 (B) 5
(C) 6 (D) 7
9. Consider tungsten, aluminium, copper and titanium.
If they are arranged in the decreasing order of magni-
tude of forgeability
(A) Copper, tungsten, aluminium, titanium
(B) Aluminium, titanium, tungsten, copper
(C) Aluminium, titanium, copper, tungsten
(D) Aluminium, copper, titanium, tungsten
10. The pattern allowance for a cylindrical casting of diam-
eter 100 mm and length 150 mm is specified as follows:
shrinkage allowance is 2 in 50 and machining allow-
ance is 2 mm/side. The pattern size is
(A) d = 110.16 mm, d = 170.16 mm
(B) d = 715.32 mm, d = 178.56 mm
(C) d = 108.16 mm, d = 160.16 mm
(D) d = 112.5 mm, d = 163.52 mm
11. Which of the following gating ratio indicates
a pressurised system
(A) 4:8:3 (B) 1:3:3
(C) 1:2:4 (D) 3:3:4
12. If ‘a’ is the rate rake angle of the tool and ‘f’ the shear
angle, then shear strain ‘e’ is given by
(A) e = cot (f - a) + tan f
(B) e = cos (f - a) + tan f
(C) e = cos (f - a) + cot f
(D) e = tan (f - a) + cot f
13. When chip thickness ratio is 1 and tool rake angle is
12°, shear angle is equal to
(A) 33° (B) 51°
(C) 57° (D) 62°
14. 18–4–1 High speed tool steel has the following
composition
(A) 18% molybdenum, 4% tungsten, 1% vanadium
(B) 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium
(C) 18% molybdenum, 4% chromium, 1% cobalt
(D) 18% tungsten, 4% molybdenum, 1% cobalt
15. Ceramic tools generally have
(A) Positive rake angle
(B) Negative rake angle
(C) Zero rake angle
(D) Zero or positive rake angle
 Test  |  3.883

16. Aspiration effect in gating system is 21. Two grades of tools (A and B) are used to machine a
(A) Due to pressure difference, air flows from the gat- steel piece. The cutting speed per minute of tool life is
ing system to outside 80 for the first tool (A) and cutting speed per minute of
(B) It is the intake of air from outside atmosphere to tool life for second tool (B) is 100. If Tailors index for
the gate due to pressure difference first tool (A) is 0.2 and that for second tool (B) is 0.25,
(C) It is the oxidation of molten metal during pouring the tool which is giving maximum tool life is
(D) It is the purposeful admission of air into the mould (A) Tool A (B) Tool B
17. Non-consumable electrodes are used in (C) Both A & B (D) Data is insufficient
(A) TIG welding 22. During a machining process with 12° rake tool, the
(B) MIG welding chip thickness ratio is found to be 0.4. The shear angle
(C) Submerged arc welding is
(D) Resistance projection welding (A) 23.1° (B) 31.2°
18. Two cutting tools are designated as (C) 34.5° (D) 36.2°
A: 5, 6, 8 – 3 - 7 - 25 -0.2 mm 23. In an operation the ratio between thrust force and cut-
B: 5 - 6 - 8 - 3 - 5 - 30 - 0.2 mm ting force is found to be 2.8. Then the operation is
For the same speed and feed, which of the cutting tool (A) Drilling (B) Turning
gives better surface finish (C) Grinding (D) Milling
(A) B has better surface finish
Direction for questions 24 and 25:
(B) A produces better surface finish
A cylindrical rod of 120 mm diameter is forged from 60
(C) Both A & B give the same surface finish
mm height to 40 mm height at 900°C. The flow stress of the
(D) Data is insufficient
material is 75 MPa
19. Out of the following cutting tools, the one which is
24. The work of deformation will be
hardest next to diamond
(A) 51 kNm (B) 61 kNm
(A) Cemented carbide (B) HSS
(C) 71 kNm (D) 81 kNm
(C) Cubic boron nitride (D) Ceramics
25. If a drop hammer weighing 16 kN is used for forging to
20. In orthogonal cutting operation the cutting force and
be done in one blow, the height of fall for the hammer
thrust force are 950 N and 450 N respectively. The rake
is
angle is zero. The coefficient of friction is
(A) 2.5 m (B) 3.2 m
(A) 0.21 (B) 0.32
(C) 4.8 m (D) 5.6 m
(C) 0.4 (D) 0.47

Answer Keys
1. A 2. B 3. B 4. A 5. B 6. B 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. C
11. A 12. D 13. B 14. B 15. B 16. B 17. A 18. A 19. C 20. D
21. A 22. A 23. C 24. A 25. B