Ore Element Formation Minerals

Bauxite Aluminum Weathering of aluminum- Gibbsite, boehmite,

rich rocks diaspore

Hematite Iron Precipitation from Hematite

aqueous solutions

Chalcopyrite Copper Hydrothermal alteration Chalcopyrite

of igneous rocks

Galena Lead Hydrothermal Galena

replacement of
sedimentary rocks

Sphalerite Zinc Hydrothermal Sphalerite

replacement of
sedimentary rocks

Cassiterite Tin Hydrothermal alteration Cassiterite

of granitic rocks

Magnetite Iron Precipitation from Magnetite

 aqueous solutions

Pyrolusite Manganese Precipitation from Pyrolusite

aqueous solutions

Cinnabar Mercury Hydrothermal alteration Cinnabar

of sedimentary rocks

Uraninite Uranium Hydrothermal alteration Uraninite

of igneous rocks

Ore Element Formation Process Minerals

Bauxite Aluminum Weathering of aluminum- Gibbsite, boehmite,
rich rocks diaspore
Chromite Chromium Igneous processes such as Chromite
fractional crystallization
Cinnabar Mercury Hydrothermal alteration Cinnabar
of sedimentary rocks
Cobaltite Cobalt Hydrothermal Cobaltite
replacement of
sedimentary rocks
Columbite- Niobium, Pegmatites and Columbite, tantalite
Tantalite Tantalum hydrothermal veins
(Coltan)
Copper Copper Porphyry copper deposits, Chalcopyrite,
hydrothermal alteration of bornite, chalcocite,
rocks covellite
Galena Lead Hydrothermal Galena
replacement of
sedimentary rocks
Gold Gold Hydrothermal veins, Gold
 placer deposits, and
magmatic processes
Hematite Iron Precipitation from Hematite
aqueous solutions
Ilmenite Titanium Igneous processes such as Ilmenite, rutile,
fractional crystallization leucoxene
Iron Iron Banded iron formations, Hematite, magnetite,
hydrothermal processes goethite
Lead Lead Hydrothermal Galena
replacement of
sedimentary rocks
Lithium Lithium Pegmatites, brines, Spodumene,
hydrothermal fluids lepidolite, petalite,
amblygonite
Magnetite Iron Precipitation from Magnetite
aqueous solutions
Manganese Manganese Hydrothermal veins and Pyrolusite
sedimentary deposits

Method Definition/Methodology
Open Pit A mining technique that involves the excavation of an open pit or
Mining surface mine to extract valuable minerals or ores. This method is
typically used for shallow deposits and involves the use of heavy
equipment such as bulldozers, excavators, and haul trucks.
Underground A mining technique that involves the excavation of tunnels or
Mining shafts to extract minerals or ores that are located deep
underground. This method is typically used for deposits that are
too deep or too difficult to mine using surface mining techniques.
Placer Mining A mining technique that involves the extraction of minerals or ores
that are found in alluvial deposits, such as rivers or streams. This
method involves the use of water to separate the valuable minerals
or ores from the surrounding sediment or rock.
In Situ Mining A mining technique that involves the extraction of minerals or ores
without the need for physical excavation. This method typically
 involves the use of chemicals or solvents to dissolve the valuable
minerals or ores in place and then pump them to the surface for
processing.
Heap Leaching A process that involves the extraction of minerals or metals from
low-grade ores or waste rock by piling the material into heaps and
then irrigating it with a chemical solution to dissolve the valuable
minerals or metals. The solution is then collected and processed.
Smelting A process that involves the extraction of metals from ores by
heating them to high temperatures and then melting and separating
the metals from the surrounding rock or waste material. This
method is typically used for metals such as copper, lead, and iron.
Froth A process that involves the separation of minerals or ores from
Flotation gangue (unwanted material) by creating a froth on the surface of a
water-based slurry. The froth contains the valuable minerals or
ores, which are then separated from the gangue and collected for
processing.
Solvent A process that involves the extraction of metals from ores or
Extraction solutions using a solvent. This method is typically used for metals
such as copper, nickel, and uranium. The solvent extracts the metal
ions from the ore or solution and is then collected for further
processing.
Carbon-in- A process that involves the extraction of gold from ores by
Leach (CIL) leaching the ore with a cyanide solution, which dissolves the gold
and forms a gold-cyanide complex. The solution is then passed
through activated carbon, which absorbs the gold complex and is
then processed to recover the gold.
Carbon-in- A process similar to CIL that involves the extraction of gold from
Pulp (CIP) ores by leaching the ore with a cyanide solution and then passing
the solution through activated carbon. However, in CIP, the
activated carbon is mixed with the leaching slurry, which improves
the gold recovery.
Ore Formation Definition
Process
Hydrothermal Ores that form from the deposition of minerals from hot, mineral-
rich fluids that circulate through rocks. These fluids are often
associated with igneous intrusions and volcanic activity. As the
fluids cool, minerals precipitate out and form veins or other
deposits. Examples of ores formed by hydrothermal processes
include gold, silver, copper, and lead-zinc ores.
Sedimentary Ores that form from the accumulation and cementation of mineral
grains in sedimentary rocks. These ores typically form in
environments such as riverbeds, lakes, or shallow seas where
sediments settle and accumulate over time. As the sediments are
buried and compacted, minerals precipitate out of the pore fluids
and cement the grains together. Examples of ores formed by
sedimentary processes include iron, bauxite, phosphate, and
uranium ores.
Magmatic Ores that form from the crystallization of minerals from a cooling
magma. These ores are typically associated with large igneous
intrusions such as plutons or batholiths. As the magma cools,
minerals crystallize and settle out, forming ore deposits.
Examples of ores formed by magmatic processes include
chromite and platinum group metal ores.
Metamorphic Ores that form from the alteration of existing minerals in rocks
due to heat, pressure, or the circulation of fluids. This process
typically occurs deep within the Earth's crust and can be
associated with tectonic activity or regional metamorphism. As
the minerals are altered, they may become concentrated and form
ores. Examples of ores formed by metamorphic processes include
iron, copper, and gold ores.
Placer Ores that form from the accumulation of heavy minerals, such as
gold or diamonds, in riverbeds, stream beds, or beach sands.
These minerals are often eroded from existing ore deposits and
transported by water or wind. As the water or wind slows down,
the heavy minerals settle and accumulate in specific areas. Placer
deposits are typically mined using open pit or dredging
 techniques.
Residual Ores that form from the weathering and decomposition of existing
rocks and minerals in place. As rocks are weathered and eroded,
certain minerals may become concentrated in the residual soil or
regolith. These ores are typically found in tropical or subtropical
regions where intense weathering and leaching have occurred.
Examples of ores formed by residual processes include bauxite,
laterite, and iron ores

Energy Advantages Disadvantages

Production
Method
Fossil Fuels - Relatively - Non-renewable<br>- Carbon
inexpensive<br>- Well- emissions and other air
established pollutants<br>- Environmental
infrastructure<br>- High degradation from extraction,
energy density transportation, and use<br>-
Potential for accidents and
spills<br>- Vulnerable to supply
chain disruptions and geopolitical
conflicts
Nuclear - High energy density<br>- - High upfront capital costs<br>-
Power Relatively low carbon Complex and expensive safety
emissions<br>- Reliable and protocols<br>- Nuclear waste
consistent power output disposal and storage issues<br>-
Potential for accidents and radiation
leaks<br>- Vulnerable to sabotage
and terrorism
Solar Power - Renewable and - Intermittent power output<br>-
abundant<br>- Low Requires large land areas for utility-
operating costs<br>- No scale installations<br>- Upfront
emissions or pollution<br>- capital costs for equipment and
 Modular and scalable
Wind Power - Renewable and
abundant<br>- Low
operating costs<br>- No
emissions or pollution<br>-
Modular and scalable<br>-
Complements well with solar
power
Hydroelectric - Reliable and consistent
Power power output<br>- Low
operating costs<br>- No
emissions or pollution<br>-
Can also serve as flood
control and water
management
Geothermal - Renewable and
Power abundant<br>- Reliable and
consistent power
output<br>- Low emissions
and pollution<br>- Can also
serve as heating and cooling
Biomass - Can utilize waste and
Energy agricultural residues<br>-
Renewable and
abundant<br>- Can serve as
a source of heat, electricity,
and fuels
Tidal Power - Predictable and consistent
power output<br>- No
emissions or pollution
installation<br>- Potential for
environmental impacts during
manufacturing and disposal of
panels and batteries
- Intermittent power output<br>-
Requires large land areas for utility-
scale installations<br>- Potential
for noise and visual impacts<br>-
Upfront capital costs for equipment
and installation
- Limited potential for new large-
scale installations<br>- Can have
significant environmental impacts
from damming and flooding<br>-
Vulnerable to drought and water
availability
- Limited to certain geographic
locations with suitable geothermal
resources<br>- High upfront capital
costs for drilling and
equipment<br>- Potential for
environmental impacts during
exploration and development
- Potential for air pollution and
emissions from burning<br>- Can
compete with food production and
land use<br>- Limited potential for
large-scale power generation
- Limited to certain coastal areas
with suitable tidal ranges<br>-
High upfront capital costs for

Wave Power - Renewable and
abundant<br>- No emissions
or pollution<br>- Can also
serve as wave breakers and
coastal protection
equipment and installation<br>-
Potential for environmental impacts
during installation and operation
- Intermittent power output<br>-
Requires large and expensive
equipment and infrastructure<br>-
Potential for environmental impacts
during installation and operation

A solid lubricant is a type of lubricant that exists in a solid form and can reduce
friction and wear between two surfaces that are in contact with each other. Solid
lubricants are used in situations where traditional liquid lubricants, such as oils or
greases, are not suitable or effective.
Solid lubricants can be classified into two main categories: dry and wet. Dry
lubricants include materials such as graphite, molybdenum disulfide, and tungsten
disulfide, which are typically applied as a powder or a thin film. Wet lubricants, on
the other hand, are typically used in combination with a carrier fluid or binder, and
include materials such as PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) and various types of
waxes.
Solid lubricants have several advantages over traditional liquid lubricants,
including their ability to withstand high temperatures, their resistance to oxidation
and corrosion, and their ability to operate in vacuum or other environments where
liquids are not practical. They are commonly used in applications such as high-
temperature bearings, gears, and chains in industrial machinery, as well as in
aerospace and automotive applications.

B - Beaufort number is the scale that is commonly used to describe wind intensity.
The Beaufort scale ranges from 0 to 12 and is based on visual observations of the
effects of wind on the sea surface, land objects, and vegetation. The higher the
Beaufort number, the stronger the wind.
A - Mach number is used to describe the speed of an object in relation to the speed
of sound.
C - Froude number is used to describe the resistance of an object moving through
water.
D - Reynolds number is used to describe the fluid dynamics of a fluid flow, such as
air or water, over an object.

Quarries are commonly used to extract various types of construction materials,

including:
1. Aggregate: Crushed stone, gravel, and sand are commonly extracted from
quarries to be used in the construction of roads, bridges, buildings, and other
infrastructure.
2. Dimension stone: High-quality and decorative stones such as granite,
marble, and limestone are extracted from quarries for use in building
construction and decoration.
3. Industrial minerals: Quarries may also extract minerals such as clay,
gypsum, talc, and kaolin, which are used in the production of ceramics,
glass, and other industrial products.
4. Precious and semi-precious stones: Some quarries also extract gemstones
like diamonds, rubies, and emeralds.
5. Metals and metal ores: Some quarries may extract metals and metal ores
such as iron, copper, and gold, although this is less common.
The specific types of materials extracted from a quarry depend on the geology of
the area and the demand for those materials in the local or regional construction
industry.
Reason Description Example Minerals
This occurs when magma cools and
Crystallization solidifies, allowing minerals to form as the
from magma magma crystallizes. Quartz, feldspar, mica
This occurs when dissolved minerals in
Precipitation from water or other solutions become Halite (salt), gypsum,
solution concentrated enough to form solid minerals. calcite
This occurs when minerals are subjected to
high pressure, temperature, or chemical
activity and are transformed into new Marble, quartzite,
Metamorphism minerals. schist
This occurs when hot fluids circulate
Hydrothermal through the Earth's crust, interacting with Gold, silver, copper,
activity rocks and depositing minerals. lead, zinc
This occurs when minerals are broken down Sand (composed of
by chemical or physical processes and the minerals such as
Weathering and resulting particles are transported by wind, quartz), clay, iron
erosion water, or other agents. oxide

Process Description Example

Minerals
A- Minerals This occurs when salty water from the Halite (salt),
precipitate from ocean evaporates and leaves behind mineral gypsum,
evaporating ocean deposits, often in coastal or desert areas. borates
water
B- Minerals This occurs when hot water is released from Gold, silver,
precipitate from magma chambers and reacts with the copper, lead,
magmatically heated surrounding rocks to form mineral deposits, zinc
water often in hydrothermal veins or other
structures.
C- Minerals are This occurs when mineral-rich fluids are Gold,
deposited during released during metamorphism and deposit platinum,
metamorphic minerals in fractures or other openings in diamonds
reactions the surrounding rocks.
D- Minerals are This occurs when water carrying sediment Gold,
deposited when or mineral particles slows down and platinum, tin,
flowing water slows deposits the particles in layers, often in river diamonds
down beds or other sedimentary environments.

Property Description Examples

Specific The ratio of the weight of a substance to the Gold, silver, platinum,
gravity weight of an equal volume of water. galena, pyrite
The ability of a substance to conduct Copper, aluminum, silver,
Conductivity electricity. gold, graphite
Silver, aluminum, gold,
Reflectivity The ability of a substance to reflect light. copper, iron pyrite
The ability of a substance to be stretched Gold, silver, copper,
Ductility into a wire. aluminum, platinum
Type Description Examples
Industrial Materials that are used in various Cement, steel,
materials industrial applications, such as aluminum, copper, coal,
construction, manufacturing, and energy oil, natural gas
production.
Mineral Natural concentrations of minerals that are Gold, silver, copper,
deposits economically valuable and can be iron, nickel, diamonds,
extracted and processed for various uses. rare earth elements

A- More carbon and more thickness is the correct answer. As coal is formed
from the compression and heating of organic matter, such as dead plant
material, the content of carbon increases as more and more of the volatile
components are driven off through the heating process. At the same time,
the thickness of the coal seam can increase as more and more layers of
organic matter are added to the deposit over time. So, the more carbon that
is present in a coal deposit, the more likely it is to be thicker as well.

Stage Description Examples

Stage 1: Organic material, such as plants and plankton, Dead plants
Deposition accumulate in a low-oxygen environment, such and algae
as a swamp or ocean floor, and are buried by
sediment.
Stage 2: Over time, the weight of the overlying Peat
Compaction sediment causes the organic material to
become compacted and compressed, squeezing
out water and gases.
Stage 3: Heat As burial continues, the temperature and Lignite,
and Pressure pressure in the subsurface increase, causing the bituminous
organic material to undergo chemical changes coal, oil shale
and break down into simpler compounds.
Stage 4: At higher temperatures and pressures, the Crude oil,
Catagenesis organic material is converted into natural gas
hydrocarbons, such as oil and gas.
Stage 5: In some cases, coal and other organic-rich Anthracite
Metamorphism rocks may be subjected to additional heat and coal
pressure from tectonic activity, causing further
chemical changes and the development of
different types of coal.

Subduction zones are areas where two tectonic plates converge, and one plate is
forced underneath the other plate into the Earth's mantle. This process is known
as subduction, and it occurs at convergent plate boundaries where one plate is
usually oceanic crust and the other is either oceanic or continental crust.
As the denser oceanic plate sinks into the mantle, it causes melting of the mantle
rock and the production of magma. This magma can rise to the surface and create
volcanoes, such as the Cascades in the western United States and the Andes in
South America. The subduction process can also cause earthquakes, as the two
plates grind against each other or as the subducting plate fractures under the
pressure of the overlying plate.
Subduction zones are important in the Earth's geologic cycle as they play a role
in the formation of new crust, the recycling of old crust, and the exchange of
material between the Earth's surface and interior. They are also associated with
the formation of mineral deposits, particularly those that contain valuable metals
such as gold, copper, and silver.
Overall, subduction zones are dynamic and complex geologic systems that shape
the Earth's surface and have significant impacts on human societies living near
them.
 Why It's
Economic Mined That Mining Why It Formation Ore Element
Significance Way Method Forms Method Mineral
Formed by the
cooling and
crystallization
Open-pit of magma,
mining is precipitation
used for from
large, near- hydrothermal
Used for steel surface fluids, or
production, deposits, precipitation
one of the while from seawater
most widely underground or
used metals in mining is Open-pit groundwater Fe-ores
construction used for mining, in Magmatic, (magnetite,
and deeper underground sedimentary hydrothermal, hematite,
manufacturing deposits mining environments sedimentary pyrite)
Open-pit
mining is
used for
large, near-
surface Formed by the
deposits, cooling and
while crystallization
Widely used in underground of magma or
electrical mining is Open-pit precipitation Cu-ores
wiring, used for mining, from (chalcopyrite,
plumbing, and deeper underground hydrothermal Magmatic, malachite,
construction deposits mining fluids hydrothermal native Cu)
Used for lead- Underground Underground Formed by the Hydrothermal, Pb-ores
acid batteries, mining is mining precipitation sedimentary (sphalerite,
ammunition, used for of galena)
and radiation deeper hydrothermal
shielding deposits fluids or
precipitation
 Why It's
Economic Mined That Mining Why It Formation Ore Element
Significance Way Method Forms Method Mineral
from seawater
or
groundwater
in
sedimentary
environments
Open-pit
mining is
used for
large, near-
surface
deposits,
while
underground Formed by the
Used for mining is Open-pit precipitation Precious
jewelry, used for mining, of metals (native
currency, and deeper underground hydrothermal Au and native
investment deposits mining fluids Hydrothermal Ag)
The formation method of Fe-ores is largely dependent on the type of
environment in which they form. Magmatic ores form from the cooling and
crystallization of magma, while hydrothermal and sedimentary ores form from
precipitation from fluids. Fe-ores are often mined using open-pit mining or
underground mining methods, depending on the size and depth of the deposit.
Fe-ores are economically significant because iron is a crucial component of steel,
.which is widely used in construction and manufacturing
The formation of Cu-ores is also dependent on the type of environment in which
they form. Magmatic and hydrothermal ores form from precipitation from fluids
during the cooling and crystallization of magma. Cu-ores are mined using open-
pit mining or underground mining methods, depending on the size and depth of
the deposit. Copper is widely used in electrical wiring, plumbing, and
.construction, making Cu-ores economically significant
The formation of Pb-ores is similar to that of Fe-ores, with hydrothermal and
sedimentary ores forming from precipitation from fluids. Pb-ores are typically
mined using underground mining methods. Lead is used for lead-acid batteries,
.ammunition, and radiation shielding, making Pb-ores economically significant
The formation of precious metal ores is largely dependent on hydrothermal
activity, with precipitation from fluids being the primary formation method.
Precious metal ores are mined using open-pit or underground mining methods,
depending on the size and depth of the deposit. Precious metals such as gold and
silver are highly valued for their use in jewelry, currency, and investment,
.making precious metal ores economically significant

here is a simple table explaining the formation methods of common ores:

Ore
Element Formation Method Why does it form like that?
Sedimentary,
metamorphic, Fe-rich sediments are compressed and heated, or
Iron (Fe) magmatic magmatic fluids introduce Fe.
Copper Hydrothermal, Cu is often transported in hydrothermal fluids or
(Cu) sedimentary deposited in sedimentary rocks.
Hydrothermal, Pb is often transported in hydrothermal fluids or
Lead (Pb) sedimentary deposited in sedimentary rocks.
Hydrothermal, Gold is often transported in hydrothermal fluids or
sedimentary, deposited in sedimentary rocks. It can also be
Gold (Au) magmatic introduced by magmatic fluids.
Hydrothermal, Silver is often transported in hydrothermal fluids or
Silver sedimentary, deposited in sedimentary rocks. It can also be
(Ag) magmatic introduced by magmatic fluids.
And here is a table explaining the mining methods for these ores:
 Ore Mining Method Why is this method used?
Element
Iron (Fe) Open-pit, Depends on the location and depth of the deposit.
underground Open-pit mining is used for shallow deposits, while
underground mining is used for deeper ones.
Copper Open-pit, Depends on the location and depth of the deposit.
(Cu) underground Open-pit mining is used for shallow deposits, while
underground mining is used for deeper ones.
Lead Underground Pb deposits tend to be deeper and more narrow,
(Pb) making underground mining the most efficient
method.
Gold Placer, Depends on the location and size of the deposit.
(Au) underground, Placer mining is used for small, shallow deposits,
open-pit while underground and open-pit mining are used for
larger, deeper deposits.
Silver Placer, Depends on the location and size of the deposit.
(Ag) underground, Placer mining is used for small, shallow deposits,
open-pit while underground and open-pit mining are used for
larger, deeper deposits.

Placer deposits are formed when minerals, usually heavy metals, are transported
and deposited by flowing water. The minerals settle out of the flowing water due to
their weight and are then concentrated in certain areas. Placer mining involves
extracting these minerals from the sediment using various methods such as
panning, sluicing, and dredging. Placer deposits are economically significant
because they can contain high concentrations of valuable minerals such as gold,
.platinum, and tin
Here is a table explaining the formation and mining methods of placer deposits:
Formation Method Explanation
Transport by flowing Minerals are carried by flowing water and settle out due to
 Formation Method Explanation
water their weight
Concentration in Minerals become concentrated in areas where the flowing
certain areas water slows down or changes direction
Mining Method Explanation
Panning Manual separation of minerals from sediment using a pan
Use of a sluice box to separate minerals from sediment using
Sluicing flowing water
Use of a dredge to excavate and process sediment containing
Dredging minerals
Placer deposits can contain high concentrations of valuable
Economic Significance minerals such as gold, platinum, and tin

1. Igneous deposits: These are formed from molten rock, and include
deposits of copper, nickel, platinum, and chromium.
2. Sedimentary deposits: These are formed from weathered and eroded rocks,
and include deposits of coal, oil, gas, and salt.
3. Metamorphic deposits: These are formed from rocks that have been altered
by heat and pressure, and include deposits of marble, slate, and schist.
4. Hydrothermal deposits: These are formed from hot water that circulates
through rocks, and include deposits of gold, silver, copper, and zinc.
5. Volcanic deposits: These are formed from volcanic activity, and include
deposits of sulfur and obsidian.
6. Placer deposits: These are formed from the accumulation of valuable
minerals in river or beach sediments, and include deposits of gold, tin, and
diamonds
Result Cause Definition Process
Groundwater that leaches The process by which
ore minerals from a minerals are
primary deposit and concentrated in a
Concentration of carries them to a weathered portion of a
economic minerals in weathered zone where rock that overlies a Secondary
.a near-surface zone .they are deposited .primary ore deposit enrichment
The physical and
Alteration of mineral chemical breakdown of
composition and the rocks and minerals
breakdown of Exposure to atmospheric exposed to the
minerals into smaller gases, water, and atmosphere and
.particles .temperature changes .hydrosphere Weathering
The process by which
minerals are
Oxidation of sulfide concentrated in a
Concentration of minerals in the primary weathered portion of a
economic minerals in deposit by circulating rock that overlies a Supergene
.a near-surface zone .groundwater .primary ore deposit enrichment

Mining Formation Chemical

Method Why Does it Form Method Element Ore Mineral
Open-pit Weathering of Laterite
mining aluminum-rich rocks weathering Aluminum Bauxite
Mining Formation Chemical
Method Why Does it Form Method Element Ore Mineral
Open-pit
mining,
underground Settling of iron-rich Magmatic
mining minerals in magma segregation Iron Magnetite
Open-pit
mining,
underground Alteration of iron-rich Hydrothermal
mining rocks by hot fluids alteration Iron Hematite
Underground Precipitation from hot Hydrothermal
mining metal-rich fluids precipitation Iron, Sulfur Pyrite
Open-pit Settling of copper-rich Magmatic
mining, minerals in magma, segregation,
underground precipitation from hot hydrothermal Copper, Iron,
mining metal-rich fluids precipitation Sulfur Chalcopyrite
Weathering and leaching
of primary copper Copper,
minerals, followed by Carbon,
Open-pit redeposition in near- Secondary Oxygen,
mining surface environments enrichment Hydrogen Malachite
Underground Precipitation from hot Hydrothermal Zinc, Iron,
mining metal-rich fluids precipitation Sulfur Sphalerite
Underground Precipitation from hot Hydrothermal
mining metal-rich fluids precipitation Lead, Sulfur Galena
Precipitation from hot
Underground metal-rich fluids, Hydrothermal
mining, placer concentration by stream precipitation,
mining or wave action placer deposits Gold Native Gold
Underground Precipitation from hot Hydrothermal Silver Native Silver
mining metal-rich fluids, precipitation,
Mining Formation Chemical
Method Why Does it Form Method Element Ore Mineral
weathering and leaching
of primary silver
minerals, followed by
redeposition in near- secondary
surface environments enrichment
Open-pit
mining,
underground Precipitation from hot Hydrothermal
mining metal-rich fluids precipitation Tin Cassiterite
Underground Precipitation from hot Hydrothermal
mining metal-rich fluids precipitation Uranium Uraninite
Underground Precipitation from hot Hydrothermal Mercury,
mining metal-rich fluids precipitation Sulfur Cinnabar