Objective-collapse

theory

Objective-collapse theories, also known

as models of spontaneous wave function
collapse or dynamical reduction
models,[1][2] are proposed solutions to the
measurement problem in quantum
mechanics.[3] As with other theories called
interpretations of quantum mechanics,
they are possible explanations of why and
how quantum measurements always give
definite outcomes, not a superposition of
them as predicted by the Schrödinger
equation, and more generally how the
classical world emerges from quantum
theory. The fundamental idea is that the
unitary evolution of the wave function
describing the state of a quantum system
is approximate. It works well for
microscopic systems, but progressively
loses its validity when the mass /
complexity of the system increases.

In collapse theories, the Schrödinger

equation is supplemented with additional
nonlinear and stochastic terms
(spontaneous collapses) which localize
the wave function in space. The resulting
dynamics is such that for microscopic
isolated systems the new terms have a
negligible effect; therefore, the usual
quantum properties are recovered, apart
from very tiny deviations. Such deviations
can potentially be detected in dedicated
experiments, and efforts are increasing
worldwide towards testing them.

An inbuilt amplification mechanism makes

sure that for macroscopic systems
consisting of many particles, the collapse
becomes stronger than the quantum
dynamics. Then their wave function is
always well-localized in space, so well-
localized that it behaves, for all practical
purposes, like a point moving in space
according to Newton's laws.

In this sense, collapse models provide a

unified description of microscopic and
macroscopic systems, avoiding the
conceptual problems associated to
measurements in quantum theory.

The most well-known examples of such

theories are:

Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber (GRW) model

Continuous spontaneous localization
(CSL) model
 Diósi–Penrose (DP) model

Collapse theories stand in opposition to

many-worlds interpretation theories, in
that they hold that a process of wave
function collapse curtails the branching of
the wave function and removes
unobserved behaviour.

History of collapse theories

The genesis of collapse models dates
back to the 1970s. In Italy, the group of L.
Fonda, G.C. Ghirardi and A. Rimini was
studying how to derive the exponential
decay law[4] in decay processes, within
quantum theory. In their model, an
essential feature was that, during the
decay, particles undergo spontaneous
collapses in space, an idea that was later
carried over to characterize the GRW
model. Meanwhile, P. Pearle in the USA
was developing nonlinear and stochastic
equations, to model the collapse of the
wave function in a dynamical way;[5][6][7]
this formalism was later used for the CSL
model. However, these models lacked the
character of “universality” of the dynamics,
i.e. its applicability to an arbitrary physical
system (at least at the non-relativistic
level), a necessary condition for any model
to become a viable option.
The breakthrough came in 1986, when
Ghirardi, Rimini and Weber published the
paper with the meaningful title “Unified
dynamics for microscopic and
macroscopic systems”,[8] where they
presented what is now known as the GRW
model, after the initials of the authors. The
model contains all the ingredients a
collapse model should have:

The Schrödinger dynamics is modified

by adding nonlinear stochastic terms,
whose effect is to randomly localize the
wave function in space.
For microscopic systems, the new terms
are mostly negligible.
 For macroscopic object, the new
dynamics keeps the wave function well
localized in space, thus ensuring
classicality.
In particular, at the end of
measurements, there are always definite
outcomes, distributed according to the
Born rule.
Deviations from quantum predictions
are compatible with current
experimental data.  

In 1990 the efforts for the GRW group on

one side, and of P. Pearle on the other side,
were brought together in formulating the
Continuous Spontaneous Localization
(CSL) model,[9][10] where the Schrödinger
dynamics and the random collapse are
described within one stochastic
differential equation, which is capable of
describing also systems of identical
particles, a feature which was missing in
the GRW model.

In the late 1980s and 1990s, Diosi[11][12]

and Penrose[13][14] independently
formulated the idea that the wave function
collapse is related to gravity. The
dynamical equation is structurally similar
to the CSL equation.
In the context of collapse models, it is
worthwhile to mention the theory of
quantum state diffusion.[15]

Most popular models

Three models are most widely discussed
in the literature:

Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber (GRW) model:[8] It

is assumed that each constituent of a
physical system independently
undergoes spontaneous collapses. The
collapses are random in time,
distributed according to a Poisson
distribution; they are random in space
and are more likely to occur where the
wave function is larger. In between
collapses, the wave function evolves
according to the Schrödinger equation.
For composite systems, the collapse on
each constituent causes the collapse of
the center of mass wave functions.
Continuous spontaneous localization
(CSL) model:[10] The Schrödinger
equation is supplemented with a
nonlinear and stochastic diffusion
process driven by a suitably chosen
universal noise coupled to the mass-
density of the system, which
counteracts the quantum spread of the
wave function. As for the GRW model,
the larger the system, the stronger the
collapse, thus explaining the quantum-
to-classical transition as a progressive
breakdown of quantum linearity, when
the system's mass increases. The CSL
model is formulated in terms of identical
particles.
Diósi–Penrose (DP) model:[12][13] Diósi
and Penrose formulated the idea that
gravity is responsible for the collapse of
the wave function. Penrose argued that,
in a quantum gravity scenario where a
spatial superposition creates the
superposition of two different
spacetime curvatures, gravity does not
 tolerate such superpositions and
spontaneously collapses them. He also
provided a phenomenological formula
for the collapse time. Independently and
prior to Penrose, Diósi presented a
dynamical model that collapses the
wave function with the same time scale
suggested by Penrose.

The Quantum Mechanics with Universal

Position Localization (QMUPL) model[12]
should also be mentioned; an extension of
the GRW model for identical particles
formulated by Tumulka,[16] which proves
several important mathematical results
regarding the collapse equations.[17]
In all models listed so far, the noise
responsible for the collapse is Markovian
(memoryless): either a Poisson process in
the discrete GRW model, or a white noise
in the continuous models. The models can
be generalized to include arbitrary
(colored) noises, possibly with a frequency
cutoff: the CSL model has been extended
to its colored version[18][19] (cCSL), as well
as the QMUPL model[20][21] (cQMUPL). In
these new models the collapse properties
remain basically unaltered, but specific
physical predictions can change
significantly.
In collapse models the energy is not
conserved, because the noise responsible
for the collapse induces Brownian motion
on each constituent of a physical system.
Accordingly, the kinetic energy increases
at a faint but constant rate. Such a feature
can be modified, without altering the
collapse properties, by including
appropriate dissipative effects in the
dynamics. This is achieved for the GRW,
CSL and QMUPL models, obtaining their
dissipative counterparts (dGRW,[22]
dCSL,[23] dQMUPL[24]). In these new
models, the energy thermalizes to a finite
value.
Lastly, the QMUPL model was further
generalized to include both colored noise
as well as dissipative effects[25][26]
(dcQMUPL model).

Tests of collapse models

Collapse models modify the Schrödinger
equation; therefore, they make predictions,
which differ from standard quantum
mechanical predictions. Although the
deviations are difficult to detect, there is a
growing number of experiments searching
for spontaneous collapse effects. They
can be classified in two groups:
Interferometric experiments. They are
refined versions of the double-slit
experiment, showing the wave nature of
matter (and light). The modern versions
are meant to increase the mass of the
system, the time of flight, and/or the
delocalization distance in order to
create ever larger superpositions. The
most prominent experiments of this kind
are with atoms, molecules and phonons.
Non-interferometric experiments. They
are based on the fact that the collapse
noise, besides collapsing the wave
function, also induces a diffusion on top
of particles’ motion, which acts always,
 also when the wave function is already
localized. Experiments of this kind
involve cold atoms, opto-mechanical
systems, gravitational wave detectors,
underground experiments.[27]

Problems and criticisms to

collapse theories

Violation of the principle of the

conservation of energy

According to collapse theories, energy is

not conserved, also for isolated particles.
More precisely, in the GRW, CSL and DP
models the kinetic energy increases at a
constant rate, which is small but non-zero.
This is often presented as an unavoidable
consequence of Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle: the collapse in position causes a
larger uncertainty in momentum. This
explanation is fundamentally wrong.
Actually, in collapse theories the collapse
in position determines also a localization
in momentum: the wave function is driven
to an almost minimum uncertainty state
both in position as well as in
momentum,[17] compatibly with
Heisenberg's principle.

The reason why the energy increases

according to collapse theories, is that the
collapse noise diffuses the particle, thus
accelerating it. This is the same situation
as in classical Brownian motion. And as
for classical Brownian motion, this
increase can be stopped by adding
dissipative effects. Dissipative versions of
the QMUPL, GRW and CSL model
exist,[22][23][24] where the collapse
properties are left unaltered with respect
to the original models, while the energy
thermalizes to a finite value (therefore it
can even decrease, depending on its initial
value).

Still, also in the dissipative model the

energy is not strictly conserved. A
resolution to this situation might come by
considering also the noise a dynamical
variable with its own energy, which is
exchanged with the quantum system in
such a way that the total system+noise
energy is conserved.

Relativistic collapse models

One of the biggest challenges in collapse

theories is to make them compatible with
relativistic requirements. The GRW, CSL
and DP models are not. The biggest
difficulty is how to combine the nonlocal
character of the collapse, which is
necessary in order to make it compatible
with the experimentally verified violation of
Bell inequalities, with the relativistic
principle of locality. Models exist[28][29] that
attempt to generalize in a relativistic sense
the GRW and CSL models, but their status
as relativistic theories is still unclear. The
formulation of a proper Lorentz-covariant
theory of continuous objective collapse is
still a matter of research.

Tail problem

In all collapse theories, the wave function

is never fully contained within one (small)
region of space, because the Schrödinger
term of the dynamics will always spread it
outside. Therefore, wave functions always
contain tails stretching out to infinity,
although their “weight” is smaller in larger
systems. Critics of collapse theories argue
that it is not clear how to interpret these
tails, since they amount to the system
never being really fully localized in
space.[30][31] Supporters of collapse
theories mostly dismiss this criticism as a
misunderstanding of the theory,[32][33] as in
the context of dynamical collapse theories,
the absolute square of the wave function
is interpreted as an actual matter density.
In this case, the tails merely represent an
immeasurably small amount of smeared-
out matter, while from a macroscopic
perspective, all particles appear to be
point-like for all practical purposes.

See also
Interpretation of quantum mechanics
Many-worlds interpretation
Philosophy of information
Philosophy of physics
Quantum information
Quantum entanglement
Coherence (physics)
Quantum decoherence
EPR paradox
Quantum Zeno effect
 Measurement problem
Measurement in quantum mechanics
Wave function collapse
Quantum gravity

Notes
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External links
Giancarlo Ghirardi, Collapse Theories (ht
tp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-colla
pse/) , Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (First published Thu Mar 7,
 2002; substantive revision Fri May 15,
2020)
"Physics Experiments Spell Doom for
Quantum 'Collapse' Theory" (https://ww
w.quantamagazine.org/physics-experim
ents-spell-doom-for-quantum-collapse-t
heory-20221020/) . Quanta Magazine.
2022-10-20. Retrieved 2022-10-21.

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