Massachusett

writing systems

Massachusett is an indigenous
Algonquian language of the Algic
language family. It was the primary
language of several peoples of New
England, including the Massachusett in the
area roughly corresponding to Boston,
Massachusetts, including much of the
Metrowest and South Shore areas just to
the west and south of the city; the
Wampanoag, who still inhabit Cape Cod
and the Islands, most of Plymouth and
Bristol counties and south-eastern Rhode
Island, including some of the small islands
in Narragansett Bay; the Nauset, who may
have rather been an isolated Wampanoag
sub-group, inhabited the extreme ends of
Cape Cod; the Coweset of northern Rhode
Island; and the Pawtucket which covered
most of north-eastern Massachusetts and
the lower tributaries of the Merrimack
River and coast of New Hampshire, and
the extreme southernmost point of Maine.
Massachusett was also used as a
common second language of peoples
throughout New England and Long Island,
particularly in a simplified pidgin form.[1]

The missionary John Eliot learned the

language from bilingual translators and
interpreters. In writing down the language,
he used the Latin alphabet and English-
style orthographical conventions. By the
1650s, Eliot had begun translating
portions of the Bible, some published, that
were distributed to the Indians, and the
Indians that learned to read became active
agents in the spread of literacy. Eliot used
the dialect of the Massachusett,
specifically the speech of Natick, in his
Bible translation—the first Bible in any
language printed in the Americas—and
other printed works; dialect leveling
ensued. Several other missionaries fluent
in the language also offered their own
missionary tracts and translations. By the
1670s, only twenty years after Eliot's first
translations, one in three Indians were
literate. The language faded as Indians
faced increasing dispossession and
assimilation pressures, with the last
speakers dying off at the tail end of the
nineteenth century.

In 1993, Jessie Little Doe Baird (née

Fermino), co-founded the Wôpanâak
Language Reclamation Project in an effort
to bring the language back to her people.
She studied at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology with linguists Kenneth Hale
and later Norvin Richards. In her master's
thesis, completed in 2000, Baird
introduced a modernized orthography, one
that while still based in Latin and inspired
by the colonial system, represented a one-
to-one correlation between sound and
spelling.[2]

Pre-writing
Drawing of the engravings on Dighton Rock in the Taunton River, the best known site in Massachusetts. Examples of
similar depictions carved into rocks have been found across New England, such as Bellows Falls, Vermont.

Prior to the introduction of literacy by the

missionary Eliot, the Massachusett-
speaking peoples were mainly an orally
transmitted culture, with social taboos,
mores, customs, legends, history,
knowledge and traditions passed from the
elders to the next generation through song,
stories and discussion. With peoples from
further away, speakers switched to a
pidgin variety of Massachusett used
across New England, but when spoken
language failed, sign language was used.
Little is known about the Eastern
Woodlands Algonquian sign language
other than its usage. Lenape were often
recruited in the wars with the Indians of
the west because of their ability to
effectively communicate in silence. Even
American Sign Language was likely
influenced by the sign language of the
Wampanoag of Martha's Vineyard, who
interacted with a large population of
English colonists who were deaf and
signed. Martha's Vineyard Sign Language
went extinct at the beginning of the
twentieth century, but many of its users
were influential in the development of
ASL.[3] Little is known of it other than its
existence, but it was likely similar in scope
and usage such as extant Plains Indian
Sign Language.

Ojibwe wiigwaasabak. Similar dendroglyphs likely were used by the Indians of New England.

The most important form of symbolic

communication that the Indians employed
were dendroglyphs. These symbols carved
into trees and logs served as boundary
markers between tribes, to thank local
spirits in the wake of a successful hunt
and to record one's whereabouts.
Moravian missionaries in the mid-
eighteenth century noted that the Lenape
of Pennsylvania and New Jersey would
carve animals and etchings onto trees
when they camped, and were able to
pinpoint the tribe, region or village of
symbols that they encountered. Similarly,
the Abenaki peoples of northern New
England used etchings on trees to mark
paths or drew beaver huts and ponds to
mark their trapping areas. The Mi'kmaq
pictographic tradition was later converted
into a true writing system with
adjustments by French missionaries.
These symbols were also painted. In 1813,
residents found a tree carved into the
shape of a woman and a child around Lake
Winnipesaukee. Evidence for
dendroglyphic picture writing in southern
New England is lacking, as most of the
trees were felled by the Federal Period,
with current forests consisting of
secondary growth after farms were
abandoned for land in the Great Plains in
the end of the nineteenth century.[4] The
markings may have been similar to the
wiigwaasabak of Anishinaabe (Ojibwe)
culture in scope and usage, able to record
mnemonically songs related to ritual
traditions, meetings between clans, maps
and tribal identity.[5]
Designs such as these were painted or woven into Nipmuc baskets into the 1920s. The lines represent fields, while the
domes represent wetus with dots representing people. Arranged in groups, it represents a village and its people.

Pictographs carved into the rocks date

back to the middle Archaic Period, ca.
6000-4000 BC up until a century after
colonization. Most notorious are the
etchings on Dighton Rock in the Taunton
River but also several sites around
Assawompset Pond. The figures depicted
on Dighton Rock are similar to those of
Bellows Falls, Vermont and other sites
across New England. Most depictions
include carved hands, the sun, the moon in
various phases, people or spirits,
anthropomorphic beings, various native
animals, markings similar to the letters 'E,'
'M,' 'X,' and 'I,' slashes and crosses, circles
that may represent planetary figures, trees,
river courses and figures from shamanic
tradition like giants, thunderbirds and
horned serpents. During and after
colonization, some depict Europeans and
ships. Many are carved near water, and
probably because these were sacred sites,
commemorated historic agreements or to
mark the land.[6]
Early adopters of literacy are known to
have signed their names with animal
symbols related to their tribe, clan or
stature. For a century after English arrival,
the Indians continued to mark rocks and
trees, and one site in Massachusetts
features a large boulder, with depictions of
wetus from as far back as 3000 years old,
to depictions of ships shortly after the
period of English settlement began, and a
few drawings and the Latin letters of the
owner's name, where a Wampanoag family
was present until the early twentieth
century.[6] As late as the 1920s, Nipmuc
women in central Massachusetts, a people
closely connected culturally and
linguistically with the Massachusett-
speaking peoples, still made traditional
baskets that were often decorated with
woven or painted symbols representing
the local landscape, such as the use of
domed figures for homes (wetus), dots for
people, parallel and diagonal lines to
represent plots of land and other symbols
whose meaning are lost. It is unknown
whether or not the basketry traditions
represent a continuation or have any
connection to the earlier petro- and
dendroglyph traditions.[7]
Alphabet
Colonial Modern Example

Letter Values Name Letter Values Name Colonial Modern English

/a/, /aː/, / (apun) /apən/,

Aa a Aa /a/ (a ) appin[8] 'bed'
ã/, /ə/ 'bed'[9]

'bee'
(âhkeeôm8s) /aːhk
'to go
ókéomꝏs[10] ˈiː ˌãm ˌuːs/[12]
undernea
 â1,5 /aː/ (â ) ágqushau-[11] (âquhshô-)
somethin
pasuk /aːkʷəhʃã-/[13]
'one' (of
(pâsuq) /paːsək/
somethin

Bible (Bible) 'Bible'

B b2 /b/4, /p/ bee
-baug (-pâq) /paːk/ 'pond'

/k/, /s/, / ſee consteppe (constable) 'constabl

C c2
ʃ/ (see) mockis (mahkus) /mahkəs/ 'shoe'

/tʃ/, /tʲ/, (chapunuwôk)

Ch ch chee Ch ch /tʃ/ cha chippanꝏonk[14] 'division'
/tjᵊ/ /tʃapənəwãk/[15]

'Deuteron
3[16]
Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy) 'he/she
D d2 /d/4, /t/ dee [17]
adtôau (atôwâw) /atãwaːw/ intends' (
buy)

(weeputeash)
/wiːpətjᵊaʃ/[21]
/iː/, /ə/, / wepitteash[18] 'his teeth
Ee e Ee /ʲᵊ/ (e ) (wuhtuhq)
∅/, /jᵊ/ wuttucke[19]nes[20] 'wood'
/wəhtəhk/
(nees) /niːs/

(nees) /niːs/[23] 'two'

Ee nees[20]
/iː/ (ee) (meenan) (someon
ee1 menan[22]
/miːnan/[22] 'tongue'

F f3 /f/4, /p/ ef fgſe (figse) ('figs') 'fig'

 /g/4, /k/, Galilee3[24] (Galilee)[24] 'Galilee'
G g2 /dʒ/4, / gee George (George) 'George'
ʒ/4 ahtuquog ahtuqak /ahtəkʷak/ 'deer' (pl)

[25]
(hâwan) /hawan/[27] 'who?'
*aitch howan
Hh /h/, /∅/ Hh /h/ (ha) (mapeeak) (someon
(?)6 mohpeeak[26]
/mapiːak/ 'hips'

'Indians'
(Native
/ə/, /iː/, ' Indiansog (Indiansak)
Ii i American
/aːj/, /aj/ wompi (wôpây) /wãpaːj/
'it is white
(color)

/dʒ/4, / Jehovah manitt (Jehovah manut) 'God Jeho

J j2,7 ʒ/4, /tʃ/, ji nawaj (nawach) /nawatʃ/ 'I keep'
[28]
/tʲ/, /tjᵊ/ sonjum (sôtyum) /sătʲəm/ 'chief', 'le

Kk /k/ ka Kk /k/ (ka) ken[29] (keen), /kiːn/[30] 'you' (sing

L l3 /l/4, /n/ el leviathan3[31] (Leviathan)[31] 'Leviatha

'moose'
[32]
(m8s), /muːs/,
/m/, mꝏse 'wompoo
Mm em Mm /m/ (ma) [33]
'moose'[34]
/~∅[/p/]/ wompoose (extinct
(wôp8s) /wãpuːs/
Eastern e

nen[35] (neen), /niːn/[30] 'I' or 'me'

Nn /n/, /~∅/ en Nn /n/ (na)
usquond[36] (usqôt) /əskʷãt/[37] 'door'

[38]
(ahkee) /ahkiː/[41]
ohke 'my friend
/a/, /aː/, / [39]
(neetôp) /niːtãp/[30]
Oo o netop 'earth'
ã/, /ə/ [40]
(weetawâm-)
weetauom- 'to marry'
/wiːtawaːm/[42]

(m8ôây)

1
mꝏôi /muːãaːj/[43] 'it is deep
Ôô /ã/ (ô )
wasketomp (waskeetôp) 'man'
/waskiːtãp/[9]

Ꝏ /uː/, *ꝏ 8 81 /uː/ ( 8) askꝏk[44] (ask8k) /askuːk/[45] 'snake'

ꝏ8 /wə/, / (?)6 hettꝏonk (hutuwôk) 'speech'
əw/, /ə/ 'ꝏweemattog' /hətəwãk/
 (weematak) 'his/her
/wiːmatak/ brothers'

Pp /p/ pee Pp /p/ (pa) pummee[46] (pumee) /pəmiː/[47] 'fat' or 'gr

(qaqeew)
[48]
quaqueu /kʷakʷiːw/[49] 'she/he ru
9
/kʷ/, [49]
Qq /kʷ/, /k/ kéuh Qq (qa) mosq (masq) 'bear'
/k/9
mettugqosh (mehtuqash) 'trees'
/məhtəkʷaʃ/

R r3 /r/4, /n/ ar rabbi3[50] (rabbi)[50] 'rabbi'

eſ sépu[51] (seepuw) /siːpəw[52] 'river'

Ssſ /s/, /ʃ/ Ss /s/ (sa)
(es) Maſſachuſett (Muhsachuw[ee]sut) 'Massach

Sh
/ʃ/ sha kꝏſh[53] (k8sh) /kuːʃ/[54] 'your fath
sh1

Tt /t/ tee Tt /t/ (ta) taquonck[55] (taqôk) /taqãk/[56] 'autumn'

(keetyâw) 'he/she
Ty keteau[57]
1
/tʲ/ (tya) /kiːtʲaːw/[57] recovers'
ty wetu
(weetyuw) /wiːtʲəw/ 'wigwam'

(umuhsees) /
/uː/, /a/, / ummissies[58] əməhsiːs/, 'his/her 'her/his s
Uu u Uu /ə/ (u )
ə/ wetu sister'[54] 'home'
(weetyuw)

vf
3,7 4
Vv /v/ , /p/ (uf), silver[59] (silver)[59] 'silver'
úph

(weeyâws)
weyaus[60] 'meat'
Ww /w/ wee Ww /w/ (wa) /wiːjaːws/[62]
mauag[61] 'they cry'
(mawak) /mawak/

oxenog (oxenak) 'oxen'

X x2 /ks/, /z/4 eks
nux (nukees) /nəkiːs/ 'yes'

(yâw) /jaːw/,
/j/, /aj/, yau[63] 'four'
Yy wy Yy /j/ (ya) 'four'[64]
/aːj/, /iː/ wopy 'it is white
(wôpây) /wãpaːj/
 (Zion)[65] 'Zion'
Zion[65]
Z z2 /z/4, /s/ zad (keesuheâw) 'she/he
kez[i]heau[66] [66]
/kiːsəhjᵊaːw/ creates'

Y (Þ)
/θ~ð/4, *thorn Yurſday (Thursday) 'Thursday
y
3,8
/t/ (?)6 mony (month) 'month'
(þ)

^1 Exists as a separate letter in the

modern alphabet.
^2 Used in both native and English loan
words in the colonial system. Not used
in the modern spelling save proper
names and places.
^3 Only exists in loan words in the
colonial spelling.
^4 Pronunciation only found in loan
words in English, and likely, only found
among speakers proficiently bilingual in
English, otherwise was substituted with
closest native equivalent.
^5 Vowels with a circumflex ( ˆ ) in the
colonial spelling generally indicated the
nasal vowel /ã/ or that the vowel was
stressed or long, which could also be
indicated by the acute accent ( ´ ).
Although  and Ô were not considered
separate letters in the colonial alphabet,
they are in the modern alphabet.
^6 Eliot never listed a name for these
symbols.
^7 The colonial alphabet differentiated J
and V from I and U even though this was
not the case in the English alphabet at
the time. These letters are now
considered distinct in most languages
that use the Latin alphabet, but are not
in use in the modern script as they
represent sounds not found in the
language.
^8 The double ligature Ꝏ was not
considered a letter, but its modern
variant 8 is in the modern alphabet. The
letter thorn, although used as a letter in
Eliot's period, was replaced by the
digraph Th and was not listed as part of
the Massachusett alphabet and stopped
being included in the English alphabet.
 ^9 Q in final positions is pronounced as
/k/ in both spelling systems.

Orthography

Colonial system

Top right corner of the first page of Genesis from the 1663 printing of Eliot's translation of the Bible. One can see the
diacritics and long s that were in use.

As Eliot listened to the Indians from the

Praying Town of Natick, he wrote down
words according to English orthography,
which later developed into the colonial
system in use from the 1650s until the
mid-nineteenth century. Eliot used the
entire Latin alphabet as used in English at
the time to write the language.

Accent marks

Vowels could be marked with the acute

accent ( ´ ) or the circumflex ( ˆ ) over the
vowel. As a general rule, the acute accent
served to mark stress or to lengthen a
vowel, and the circumflex was used to
mark nasal vowels. However, colonial ô
was consistently used for /ã/, whereas â
was used to mark nasal vowels as well as
the long vowel /aː/. Both the Indians and
the English missionaries used these
accent marks sparingly, but when they
were employed, usage was inconsistent
and sometimes interchangeable.

The possible vowels with diacritics include

acute accent Á, É, Í, Ó and Ú as well as
circumflex accent Â, Ê, Î, Ô and Û. Only Â
and Ô are in common use, the other
vowels with circumflexes are only rarely
attested and generally used where,
prescriptively, an acute accent would be
used.[67] They do serve as disambiguation,
for example, e could represent /ə/ such as
in hettuog (hutuwôk) /hətəwãk/, 'speech,'
/iː/ in ken (keen) /kiːn/, 'you' or the /j/ in
wepitteash, but é always represents /iː/, as
in wunnékin (wuneekun) /wəniːkən/, 'it is
good.' At other times, the marks are
confusing, as in the case of what would be
(awasuw) /awasəw/ in the modern
orthography, 'he warms himself,' which
was written as auwossu, ouwassu, âwosu
(suggesting /ãwasəw/) and auwósu
(suggesting /awaːsəw/) in the colonial
script.[68]
Retention of archaic Early Modern English
features

As Massachusett was first committed to

writing just around 1650, based on an
adaptation of the Latin alphabet and
English orthography, it adopted aspects of
Early Modern English conventions that
disappeared in England by the late
seventeenth century, but probably lingered
a few generations later in the American
colonies due to isolation. Since John Eliot
wrote at this time, it was natural that
orthographical conventions in use were
transferred into Massachusett. It shares
the following features:
S has a variant minuscule form, the long
s 'ſ' used as s but word initially or
medially. It is easily confused with f,
which in print and handwriting of the
time often was written akin to the florin
'ƒ'. Although not generally reproduced
when discussing the language, either in
this article or scholarly literature, most
printed and handwritten texts of the
English and the Indians would have
featured ſ in place of s word-initially or
word-medially in the seventeenth
century.
Early Modern English 'aſſure' and 'ƒiſsure'
but 'is' vs. Modern 'assure,' 'fissure and
'is.'
Colonial Massachusett woſketop,
Maſſachuſett but weyaus vs. Modern
(waskeetôp), (Muhsachuwusut) and
(weeyâws).
E is often a silent letter at the end of
words, and consonants are doubled
before it, or final k is written ck.
Early Modern English 'ſhoppe' and
'logicke' and Modern English 'shop' and
'logic.'
Colonial wompatucke and
wampumpeague and Modern
(wôpuhtuq) /wãpəhtək/, 'snow goose,'
and (wôpôpeeak) /wãpãpiːak/, 'stringed
wampum.'
J is still considered a consonantal
variant of I, and I replaces J especially in
formal texts word initially. The end of
Early Modern English finally led to its
separation as a distinct letter. In the
colonial alphabet, J is used to represent
/tʃ/, /tjᵊ/ and /tʲ/ in native words.
Early Modern English 'Julius' or 'Iulius'
and 'juſt' or 'iuſt' and Modern 'Julius' and
'just.'
Colonial Massachusett waju and nawaj
and Modern (wach8), 'mountain,' and
(nuwach) /nəwatʃ/, 'chief.'
O represented the short vowel /ʊ/ in
Early Modern English, but this has
mostly been replaced by U, e.g.,
'sommer' and modern 'summer,' but
common words such as 'some,' 'one,'
'come' and 'love' retain the spelling of
Middle English. In the colonial
orthography for Massachusett, o is
usually interchangeable as a symbol for
a, thus could represent /a/, /aː/ and /ã/
and even /ə/.
Early Modern English 'ſommer' vs.
'plommes' vs. Modern 'summer' and
'plums' (but still 'one' and 'some' not
*'wun' and *'sum')
Colonial Massachusett maſquog and
ohtomp vs. Modern (masqak)
/maskʷak/, 'bears,' and (ahtôp) /ahtãp/,
'bowstring.'
U is not yet distinguished from V. As a
general rule, v is used initially and U
elsewhere, although in formal texts and
book titles, V was more common.
Although by Eliot's time, the use of v as
a consonant and u as a vowel was
beginning to develop as a general rule, it
was still in that transition. When applied
to Massachusett, U was a vowel and V,
its consonantal variant, was used for
loan words from English, such as ſilver
and Jehovah, however, were not
distinguished as separate letters.
Y, originally descended from Anglo-
Saxon runic Þ, was used to write /θ/ and
/ð/. Although the Normans replaced it
with th, the practice of using Y came
from the similarity in certain black letter
fonts to Y (/j/) in use during Middle
English. By Early Modern English, the
use of Y to represent the old letter Þ
'thorn,' was fading in print, but remained
in handwriting and occasionally in print
as a shorthand for th, often with either
the letter or the letters after in
superscript to distinguish it from Y (/j/).
Although it was not part of the
Massachusett alphabet, it was likely
used to spell some loan words from
 English especially in the early colonial
period.
Early Modern English 'yis and yat' and
'whiyer yiyer' vs. Modern 'this and that'
and 'whither thither.'
Colonial Massachusett mony and Yurſday
(loans from English).

Modern system

The Old Indian Church and Meetinghouse of the Mashpee Wampanoag tribe. The first literate Indian parishioners used the
old colonial orthography, but today, the Mashpee and three other Wampanoag tribes use the modern system developed by
the WLRP at the turn of the twenty-first century.
The modern, phonetic system in use by the
(Wôpanâak) Language Reclamation
Project was first introduced by Baird in her
master's thesis, An Introduction to
Wampanoag Grammar, which she
completed 2000 at MIT. Baird adjusted the
writing system to better fit the phonology
of the language. She found vocabulary and
Massachusett radicals from the large
corpus of missionary translations and
personal letters and records of literate
Indians that survives today—it is, in fact,
the largest corpus of Native American
written documents in North America.
Pronunciation was pieced together with
clues in the early writing, as well as
through comparative linguistics work
studying sound changes and other
patterns of development from Proto-
Algonquian and its various descendants.

Alphabetic differences

The most striking feature of the new

orthography is substitution of (8) for the
double-o ligature ꝏ of the colonial period.
This was done to ease inputting, rendering
and printing and possibly because of its
resemblance to the ou-ligature ȣ used in
Algonquin and Abenaki Latin-script
orthographies, although the Abenaki have
also replaced ȣ with 8 for similar reasons.
For example, historical mꝏs
(Massachusett) and mȣs (Abenaki) and
WLRP (m8s). Inspired by the colonial
script, the modern orthography uses (â)
and (ô) which resemble A and O with
circumflexes, but modern usage restricts
the former to represent /aː/ and the latter /
ã/ whereas any vowel with a circumflex
usually indicated nasality in the colonial
script. These are considered letters in their
own respective right, and not vowels with
diacritics, in the modern orthographical
system.

As the WLRP favors resurrecting old

vocabulary, neologisms based on
Massachusett radicals or use of forms
from other extant languages over the use
of English loan words, the new alphabet
noticeably lacks the letters F, L, V and R,
used only in loan words, as well as B, C, D,
G, J, and Z that were previously used in
both loans and native words as alternates
to their respective voiced or unvoiced
counterparts.[67] Although excluded from
the alphabet, these letters are used to
write proper names and some loans from
English as all speakers and language
learners and speakers today are native
English speakers in a predominately
English-speaking nation. X, which mainly
appears in rare syncopated versions of
native words and English loan words, now
only appears in loan words, but was
originally used in dialects that allowed for
syncopation.

Exceptions to phonemic spelling

The Modern orthography lacks the

confusing array of multiple, often
contradictory, spellings, essentially
representing a one-to-one correspondence
between sound and spelling. It lacks
gemination (letter doubling), silent E's,
letter thorn, excessive English loan words
and frustratingly variant spellings of the
previous system.
A few exceptions to the general rule exist.
(Q) as /kʷ/ before vowels and /k/
elsewhere, where (K) would be expected.
The reason for this is because it prevents
alternations between (Q) and (K) when
medial and final radicals are appended, it
would remain (Q) before certain ones and
(K) elsewhere. For example, in Colonial
spelling, the word for 'bear' was moſk or
moſhk (but also moſhq and moſq), but
when any endings, such as the plural or
obviative endings are attached, Q was
always used, often accompanied by U, e.g.,
masquog or mosquohwhereas the modern
orthography avoids this alteration by using
(Q) in all cases, with a simple rule to gleam
its proper pronunciation, hence modern
(masq) /mask/, 'bear,' (masqash), 'bears'
and (masqah) 'bear' (obviative).[69]

(TE) and the letter (TY) produce essentially

the same alveo-palatal /tʲ/ sound, although
there is a slight difference in their
respective origins which is distinguished in
the orthography. The letter (TY) represents
palatization of /k/, which occurs when /k/
is followed by /ə/, if that /ə/ is
etymologically a weakened form of PEA *ī,
which is in turn followed by either /hp/,
/p/, /m/, /hk/ or /k/. Palatization is also
triggered when /k/ is followed by /aː/,
which derives from PEA *ē, and /əw/,
which remains unchanged from PEA *əw.
For example, (weekuw), 'it is his/her house,'
vs. (weety8), 'house,' both derive from
Proto-Algonquian *wi·kiw[a·ʔmi] and
(sôtyum) from Proto-Algonquian
*sa·kima·wa.[57]

(TE) is actually (T) followed by (E), the

latter is used to represent vowel affection.
In Massachusett, this involves /j/-insertion
before vowels that follow /iː/ or /ə/ but
after /n/, /h/, /t/ or /ht/.[70] For example,
(weeputeash) /wiːpətjᵊaʃ/, 'his teeth.' In
both cases, the /ə/ descends
etymologically from Proto-Eastern
Algonquian /iː/. Although similar, infection
often occurs as a replacement for a vowel
that was once present. For instance,
Massachusett (weeputeash) descends
from Proto-Algonquian *wi·pitiari. (E) is
used similarly to the Colonial orthography,
where E was used in analogous positions.
Although (E) is taken as /j/, most current
speakers, and likely historical speakers,
pronounce it as /jᵊ/ which is represented
here.

The colonial orthography used the ligature

letter ꝏ generally represented /uː/ but was
also used in place of /wə/ and /əw/,
whereas these sounds are represented in
the modern orthography as (8), (wu) and
(uw), respectively. In rapid speech, /uː/ and
/əw/ can be confused, for example,
Colonial hettꝏonk vs. Modern (hutuwôk)
/hətəwãk/, 'speech.'[71]
Consonants and clusters
Comparison of consonants and consonantal clusters in both orthographies

Sound Colonial Modern Colonial example Modern example

(cheekuheekôk) /tʃiːkəhiːkãk/,
/tʃ/ ch, dt, dj, j (ch) cheek[e]hikunk[72]
'broom'[73]

/h/ h, hh (h ) howan[25] (hawân) /hawaːn/, 'who?'[27]

hch, ch, (mahchây8-) /mahtʃaːyuː/, 'to be room

/htʃ/ (hch) mohchiyeu[74]
tch enough' or 'to be empty'[75]

/hk/ hk, k, kk (hk) ohke[76] (ahkee) /ahkiː/, 'earth' or 'land'[41]

(m8hm8hshquhe-) /muːhmuːhʃkʷəhə-/,
[77]
/hm/ m, mm, hm (hm) mꝏmꝏsquehe- 'to cause to become angry,' 'to provoke'
or 'to cause to complain'[43]

(neehneekuhkôsu) /niːhniːkəhãsə-/, 'to

/hn/ n, hn, nn (hn) nehnikikôsu[78]
be torn'[79]

(ahpaput), /ahpapət/, 'place upon which

/hp/ p, pp, hp (hp) appapit[80]
he/she sits'[80]

hpw, hp, (suhpwahtâ-) /səhpwahtaː-/, (of the

/hpw/ (hpw) supp[attau][81]
pp, p eyes) 'to be shut'[82]

qu, hq,
/hkʷ/ hqu, hgu, (hq) ahquon[83] (uhqôn) /əhkʷãn/, 'hook'[21]
gu

/hs/ ss, s, hs (hs) hassan[84] (ahsun) /ahsən/, 'stone'[85]

hsw, sw, (chakahswu-) /tʃakahswə-/, 'to be

/hsw/ (hsw) chikkóswu-[86]
hs, hsu burned' (by fire)[87]

/hʃ/ sh, hsh, hs (hsh) nush-[88] (nuhsh-) /nəhʃ-/, 'to kill'[89]

hshw, hsh, (qahshwee-) /kʷahʃwiː-/, 'to be

/hʃw/ (hshw) quoshwi-[90]
hshu, hsu ready'[91]

/ht/ ht, t, tt (ht) mehtauog[85] (muhtawaq) /məhtawak/, 'ear'[85]

/htjᵊ/ the, hti, tt (the) kꝏchteau-[92] (k8theaw-)[93]

(kakâhtyum-) /kakaːhtʲəm/, 'to

/htʲ/ the, hti, tt (hty) kogkahtim-)[94]
advise'[95]

/htw/ ht, htw, tt, t (htw) nattin-[96] (nahtwun-) /nahtwən/, 'to take'[97]

(sahwuchuwan) /sahwətʃəwan/, 'to

/hw/ hw, hu, hꝏ (hw) sahwuchuan[98]
flow out' or 'to discharge'[87]

c , k, g, q ,
/k/ ck, kk', cg, ( k) kꝏsh[99] (k8sh) /kuːʃ/, 'your (sg.) father'[54]
kg

/m/ m, mm (m) matta[100] (mata) /mata/, 'no' or 'not'[101]

mw, mu,
/mw/ (mw) annimuog (anumwak) /anəmwak/, 'dogs'[9]
mꝏ

/n/ n, nn ( n) nén[102] (neen) /niːn/, 'I' or 'me'[30]

(nanweetyuw) /nanwiːtʲɘw/, 'she/he is

/nw/ nw, nu (nw) nanweetu[103] common born,' 'he/she is a
commoner'[104]

p, b, bb, bp, (pâsuq) /paːsək/, 'one' (unitary thing,

/p/ ( p) pasuk[17]
pb, pp not the number)[105]

(chupwut8nâpuwôk),
/pw/ pw, po, pu (pw) chupwuttoonapwaog[106]
/tʃəpwətuːnaːpəwãk/, 'kiss'[107]

/kʷ/ q, qu, gu (q ) quinni[108] (qunây) /kʷənaːj/, 'it is long'[109]

s, z, ss, zz,
/s/ ( s) sepꝏ[110] (seepuw) /siːpuː/[52]
sz

sk, shk, sc,

/sk/ (sk) askꝏk[44] (ask8k) /askuːk/, 'snake'[45]
sg

squ, sq,
(sôkusqâ) /sãkəskʷaː/, 'female chief,'
/skʷ/ sgu, shqu, (sq) sonkisq[ua][111]
'queen' or 'wife of the chief'[112][113]
shq

(m8swôsu-) /muːswãsə-/, 'to be

/sw/ sw, su, s (sw) mꝏsusu-[10]
shaven'[114]

/ʃ/ sh, s (sh) mehtugquosh (muhtuqash) /məhtəkʷaʃ/, 'trees'

/ʃk/ sk, shk (shk) wuski, wushke (wushkee) /wəʃkiː/, 'new'

/ʃp/ sp, shp (shp) nashpe[80] (nashpee) /naʃpiː/, 'with'[80]

squ, sq, (qashqusôsu-) /kʷaʃkʷəsãsə-/, 'to be

/ʃkʷ/ (shq) quoshquussausu-[115]
shq, shqu circumcised'[109]

(nanashwe-) /nanaʃwə/, 'to be

/ʃw/ shw, sw (sw) nanashwe-[90]
prepared'[116]

t, tt, dt, d,
/t/ (t ) tamogkon[117] (tamakun) /tamakən/, 'flood'[118]
dd

(weeputeash) /wiːpətjᵊaʃ/, 'his/her

/tjᵊ/ t[e], t[y], t[i] (te) wepitteash[119]
teeth'[21]

(natwântam) /natwaːntam/, 'to consider

/tw/ tw, tu (tw) natwantam[120]
something'[79]

te, ti, t[u],

/tʲ/ ty, ch, dj, j, (ty) sachem[121] (sôtyum) /sãtʲəm/, 'chief'[122]
jt, ge

/w/ w (w) wasketop[123] (waskeetôp) /waskiːtãp/, 'man'[124]

/j/ y, i (y ) yáw[125] (yâw) /jaːw/, 'four'[64]

Vowels and vowel-semivowel
combinations
Comparison of vowel and vowel-semivowel combinations

Sound Colonial Modern Colonial example Modern example

/a/ a, au, o, u ( a) ohtomp[126] (ahtôp) /ahtãp/, 'bowstring'[127]

/aw/ au, aw (aw) kenau[128] (keenaw /kinaw/, 'you' (pl.)[30]

awa, aua, (watawahtôqusuwôk)

/awa/ oa, owa, (awa) wadtauatonkqussuwonk[129] /watawahtãkʷəsəwãk/, 'voice' or
awo 'sound'[130]

awô, auwo, (natawôpu-) /natawãpə-/, 'to look

/awã/ (awô) nadtauwompu[131]
awá for'[132]

(payaquhtam /pajakʷəhtam/, 'to

/aja/ aya, aia, ia (aya) piaquttum[133]
have authority over'[134]

/ajuː/ ayeu, aiꝏ (ay8) nayeum[135] (nay8m) /naju/, 'to be ridden'[136]

(payôsuhkee-) /pajãsəhkiː-/, 'to be

/ajã/ iu, iô, aiâ (ayô) piusuhke[137]
up against,' 'to be adjoining'[134]

ayu, ayeu, (ayuwuhtyuwôk) /ajəwəhtʲəwãk/,

/ajə/ (ayu) ayeuwuttúonk[138]
ayꝏ 'fighting'[139]

a, ai, á, â, o, (nupâh) /nəpaːh/, 'I wait' (for

/aː/ ( â) nuppaih[140]
ó, ah, oa him/her)[140]

(Wôpanâak) /wãpanaːak/,
/aːa/ aa, oa, áa (âa) Wampanoag
'Wampanoag' (people)

/aːaː/ aa, oá, aá (ââ) waáp-[141] (wââp-) /waːaːp-/, 'up'[142]

(ôpuhmaqâee-) /ãpəhmakʷaːiː-/, 'to

/aːiː/ ae, aé, aee (âee) ompuhmaquae[143]
turn (oneself) around'[144]

aon, aô, aâ, (qunuwâôtam-) /kʷənəwaːãtam-/, 'to

/aːã/ (âô) quénꝏwantam-[145]
ꝏwan deny'[109]
 aw, au, âu,
/aːw/ (âw) âu (âw) /aːw/, 'he/she goes'[146]
áu

i, y, ae, ie, (ashkashqây) /aʃkaʃkʷaːj/, 'it is

/aːj/ (ây) ashkoshqui[147]
ei green'[13]

/aːja/ io, iu (âya) piuk[148] (pâyaq) /paːjak/, 'ten'[134]

(mayuhtyâ) /majəhtʲaː/, 'to make a

/aːjə/ aya, ia (âyu) mayateau[149]
path'[150]

(wutâheemuneash)
/jᵊa/ ea (ea) wettohimunneash[151]
//wətaːhiːmənjᵊaʃ/, 'strawberries'[151]

eao[n], eô, (wunôpeuhkahteâôk)

/jᵊaːã/ eâ, eo[n], (eâô) wunnompeuhkohteaonk[152] /wənãpjᵊəhkahtjᵊaːãk/,
eo[m] 'craftiness'[64]

eo[m],
eo[n],
(wusqueeheôk) /wəskʷiːhjᵊãk/,
/jᵊã/ ea[n], (eô) ꝏsq[ui]heonk[153]
'her/his blood'[154]
ea[m], eâ,
eô

(wunôpeuhkahteâôk)
eu, ei, ea, [152]
/jᵊə/ (eu) wunnompeuhkohteaonk /wənãpjᵊəhkahtjᵊaːãk/,
eo
'craftiness'[64]

eꝏ, euw, (washkeenuneuw-) /waʃkiːnənjᵊəw/,

/jᵊəw/ (euw) woshkenunneꝏ-[155]
uuw 'to be young'[64]

/iː/ e, é, i (ee) nek[156] (neek) /niːk/, 'my house'[146]

(ushpeeâhtaw-) /əʃpiːaːhtaw/, 'to

/iːaː/ ea, éa, ia (eeâ) ushpeatau[157] make raised' or 'to make go
upward'[142]

/iːə/ eu, éa, éu (eeu) ohkeussó-[158] (ahkeeuhshâ-)[159]

(qaqeew) /kʷakʷiːw/, 'he/she

/iːw/ e, é, i (ee) quogquiu[48]
runs'[49]

ewe, eewe, (peewuhe-) /piːwəhə-/, 'to debase' or

/iːwə/ (eewu) péwehe-[133]
ewi 'to make small'[136]
 (ut8cheeyuwu-) /ətuːtʃiːjəwə-/, 'to be
eye, eye,
/iːjə/ (eeyu) uttꝏcheyeuꝏ[160] a time' or 'to be the (right)
eyu
season'[142]

á, â, ô, u ,
(pôhpuwôk) /pãhpəwãk/, 'playing' or
/ã/ a[m], a[n], ( ô) pohpuwonk[80]
'the act of fun play'[161]
o[m], o[n]

(whatôatu-) /wahtãatə-/, 'to

/ãa/ ôa, áa, óa (ôa) wahteauatu-)[162]
understand each other'[142]

(8nôâyuw) /nãaːjəw/, 'to be dark

/ãaːj/ ói, ôi, ôy (ôây) ꝏnóiꝏ[163]
blue'[136]

(wôeenuhkaw) /wãiːnəhkaw/, 'to

/ãiː/ ôé, âe, ôi (ôee) waénuhkauw[164]
surround'[150]

/ãw/ o, ó, ô, au (ôw) keekꝏoash[165] (keekuwôwash)[37]

(makôwatuk) /makãwatək/, 'that

/ãwa/ ôa. ôo, âwa (ôwa) magkôatik[166]
which is precious'[167]

(môwâwee-) /mãwaːwiː-/, 'to

/ãwaː/ ou, oa, awa (ôwâ) moui-[168]
gather'[132]

ꝏ, u, oo, ó,
/uː/ (8 ) mꝏs[32] (m8s) /mus/, 'moose'[34]
ú

ꝏwo, ꝏâu, (unôt8âôk /ənãttuːaːãk/, (a)

/uːaːã/ (8âô) unnontoowaog
oowo 'people's language'[34]

(sôty8ut) /sãtuːət/, 'place of the

/uːə/ ui, ꝏi (8u) santuit
sachem'[34]

/uːw/ ꝏ, oo, úw (8w) mꝏi (m8wây) /muːwaːj/, 'it is black'[43]

ua, ꝏwo, (peen8waht) /piːnuːwaht/, 'a

/uːwa/ (8wa) ' penꝏwoht[169]
ꝏwa stranger'[134]

(umuhsh8n) /əməhʃuːn, 'his/her

/ə/ a , e , i, o , u (u ) umishꝏn[170]
boat'[171]

/əw/ u, ꝏ, uw (uw) pittu[57] (putyuw) /pətʲəw/, 'it is pitch'[57]

uwa, ua, (k8shuwak) /kuːʃəwak/, 'your (pl.)

/əwa/ (uwa) kꝏashawog[172]
ꝏa fathers'[54]
 ui, ae, uwe,
/əwiː/ (uwee) ôsꝏwe-[173] (ôsuwee-) /ãsəwiː/, 'to change'[174]
ꝏwe

uwo, ꝏô, (up8nukuwôh) /əpuːnəkəwãh/,

/əwã/ (uwô) upꝏnukkuwoh[175]
awô 'he/she (obv.) puts them'[176]

/əj/ e, ey, ei (uy) peantam[177] (puyôhtam) /pəjãhtam/, 'to pray'[178]

References

Notes

1. Goddard, "Introduction," 1–16.

2. Fermino, 9.
3. Pritchard, 151-55; Nash, 608-12.
4. Lenik, 23-34.
5. Hoffman, 286-89.
6. Lenik, 113-38.
7. Prindle, 'Nipmuc Splint Basketry (http://ww
w.nativetech.org/weave/nipmucbask/) '.

8. Trumbull, 13.
 9. Fermino, 11.
10. Trumbull, 224.
11. Trumbull, 4.
12. Fermino, 18.
13. Hicks, 11.
14. Trumbull, 246.
15. Hicks, 13.
16. Deuteronomy. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse
Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.

17. Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 57.

18. Trumbull, 128.
19. Trumbull, 346.
20. Trumbull, 295.
21. Fermino, 20.
22. Goddard, "Unhistorical Features," 229.
23. Hicks, 24.
24. I Kings 9:11. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse
Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.

25. Trumbull, 29, 344.

26. Trumbull, 277.
27. Fermino, 14.
28. Costa, 84-85.
29. Trumbull, 32.
30. Fermino, 26.
31. Job 41:1. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse
Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.

32. Trumbull, 66, 297.

33. Wiktionary. Proto-Algonquian lemmas.
*wa·p- and *mo·swa.

34. Baird.
35. Trumbull, 180.
36. Trumbull, 247.
37. Fermino, 15.
38. Trumbull, 281.
39. Trumbull, 264.
40. Trumbull, 287.
41. Fermino, 59.
42. Hicks, 48.
43. Hicks, 19.
44. Trumbull, 324.
45. Wiktionary aθko·ka (https://en.wiktionary.or
g/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonquian/
a%CE%B8ko%C2%B7ka) .

46. Trumbull, 134, 302.

47. Wiktionary. pemyi (https://en.wiktionary.or
g/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonquian/pe
myi) .

48. Trumbull, 141, 316.

49. Fermino, 13.
50. John 6:25. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse
Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.

51. Trumbull, 315.

52. Fermino, 48.
53. Trumbull, 56, 112.
54. Fermino, 22.
55. Trumbrull, 159.
56. Hewson, 274.
57. Goddard, "Unhistorical Features," 230.
58. Trumbull, 230, 322.
59. I Chronicles 29:2. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse
Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.

60. Trumbull, 191, 260.

61. Trumbull, 52.
62. Fermino, 40.
63. Trumbull, 214, 264.
64. Hicks, 46.
65. Micah 4:7. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse
Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.

66. Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 58.

67. Eliot, Indian Grammar Begun, 9.
68. Goddard, "Unhistorical Features."
69. Fermino, 12-13.
70. Ferminio, 9.
71. Hicks, 41.
72. Trumbull, 22.
73. Hicks, 12, 57.
74. Trumbull, 61, 315.
75. Hicks, 16.
76. Trumbull, 102, 250.
77. Trumbull, 310.
78. Trumbull, 323.
79. Hicks, 23.
80. Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 64.
81. Trumbull, 150.
82. Hicks, 38.
83. Trumbull, 168, 278.
84. Trumbull, 27, 328.
85. Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 65.
86. Trumbull, 34, 230.
 87. Hicks, 81.
88. Trumbull, 98, 298.
89. Hicks, 25.
90. Trumbull, 309.
91. Hicks, 34.
92. Trumbull, 41.
93. Hicks, 14.
94. Trumbull, 219, 238.
95. Hicks, 15.
96. Trumbull, 73-74.
97. Hicks, 21.
98. Trumbull, 261.
99. Trumbull, 113, 256.
100. Trumbull, 51, 300.
101. Hicks, 18.
102. Trumbull, 81, 280.
103. Trumbull, 77.
104. Hicks, 57.
105. Hicks, 30.
106. Trumbull, 25, 284.
107. Hicks, 50.
108. Trumbull, 140.
109. Hicks, 35.
110. Trumbull, 148, 315.
111. Trumbull, 153, 296.
112. Wiktionary. *sa·kima·wa (https://en.wiktion
ary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonqui
an/sa%C2%B7kima%C2%B7wa) .
113. Wiktionary. *eθkwe·wa (https://en.wiktionar
y.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonquia
n/e%CE%B8kwe%C2%B7wa) .

114. Hicks, 54.

115. Trumbull, 142, 234.
116. Hicks, 22.
117. Trumbull, 164, 239.
118. Hicks, 39.
119. Trumbull, 186, 335.
120. Trumbull, 79.
121. Trumbull, 316.
122. Fermino, 3.4
123. Trumbull, 198, 292-293.
124. Fermino, 51.
125. Trumbull, 214, 263.
126. Trumbull, 104, 228.
127. Wiktionary. *ahta·pya (https://en.wiktionary.
org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonquian/
ahta%C2%B7pya) .

128. Trumbull, 32.

129. Trumbull, 340.
130. Hicks, 43.
131. Trumbull, 290.
132. Hicks, 67.
133. Trumbull, 125.
134. Hicks, 31.
135. Trumbull.
136. Hicks.
137. Trumbull, 126.
138. Trumbull, 258.
139. Hicks, 58.
140. Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 69.
141. Trumbull, 177-178, 315.
142. Hicks, 42.
143. Trumbull, 105.
144. Hicks, 55.
145. Trumbull, 138, 244.
146. Fermino, 31.
147. Trumbull, 15.
148. Trumbull, 125, 226.
149. Trumbull, 53, 298.
150. Hicks, 58.
151. Wiktionary. *wete·himini (https://en.wiktion
ary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonqui
an/wete%C2%B7himini) .
152. Trumbull, 203.
153. Trumbull, 206, 227.
154. Wiktionary. *meskwi (https://en.wiktionary.
org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Algonquian/
meskwi) .

155. Trumbull, 205, 347.

156. Trumbull, 80, 191.
157. Trumbull, 322.
158. Trumbull, 102, 268.
159. Hicks, 10.
160. Trumbull, 177.
161. Hicks, 32.
162. Trumbull, 183, 293.
163. Trumbull, 227.
164. Trumbull, 330.
165. Trumbull, 191.
166. Trumbull, 46, 309.
167. Hicks, 61.
168. Trumbull, 65.
169. Trumbull, 122, 318.
170. Trumbull, 70.
171. Fermino, 21.
172. Trumbull, 257.
173. Trumbull, 111, 233.
174. Hicks, 28.
175. Trumbul, 357.
176. Fermino, 58.
177. Trumbul, 120, 309.
178. Hicks, 79.
Bibliography

Baird, J. L. D. "Fun With Words" (http://w

ww.wlrp.org/fun-with-words.html) .
Wôpanâak Language Reclamation
Project, 2014.
Costa, David J. "The dialectology of
Southern New England Algonquian." In
38th Algonquian Conference, 81-127.
2007.
Eliot, John. Indian Grammar Begun.
Cambridge, MA: Marmaduke Robinson,
1666.
Eliot, John, trans. Mamvsse
Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God
(The Holy Bible containing the Old
Testament and the New), rev. ed., 1685.

Fermino, Jessie Little Doe. "An

Introduction to Wampanoag Grammar."
Master's Thesis, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 2000.
Goddard, Ives. "Eastern Algonquian as a
genetic subgrouping." Algonquian
Papers-Archive 11 (1980).

Goddard, Ives. "Unhistorical features of

Nassachusett." Edited by J. Fisiak,
Historical Linguistics and Philology:
Trends in Linguistics. Studies and
Monographs (TILSM), vol. 46, 228–233.
Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter,
1990.
Goddard, Ives. "Introduction." In Ives
Goddard, ed., The Handbook of North
American Indians, Volume 17.
Languages, 1–16. 1996.
Hewson, John. "Proto-Algonquian
Roots." 2014. Compiled from data
generated in the publication of Hewson's
A Computer-Generated Dictionary of
Proto-Algonquian. Canadian Ethnology
Service: Mercury Series Paper 125.
Ottawa, ON: Canadian Museum of
Civilization, 1993.
Hicks, Nitana. "A List of Initials and
Finals in Wôpanâak." Master's thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
2006.
Hoffman, W. J. "The Mide'wiwin or
"Grand Medicine Society" of the Ojibwa."
In Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology to the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, 1885-1886, 286–
89. Washington, D. C.: Government
Printing Office, 1891.
Lenik, E. J. Making Pictures in Stone:
American Indian Rock Art of the
Northeast. Tuscaloosa: University of
Alabama Press, 2009.
Nash, J. C. P. "Martha's Vineyard Sign
Language." In Julie Bakken Jepsen,
Goedele De Clerck, Sam Lutalo-Kiingi,
and William B. McGregor, eds., Sign
Languages of the World: A Comparative
Handbook. Boston, MA: Walter de
Gruyter, 2005.
Pritchard, E. T. Native New Yorkers: The
Legacy of the Algonquin People of New
York. Tulsa, OK: Council Oak Books,
2002.
Prindle, T. (1994). 'Nipmuc Splint
Basketry (http://www.nativetech.org/we
ave/nipmucbask/) .', Nipmuc Indian
Association of Connecticut. Adapted
 from Native splint basketry: A Key into
the Language of Woodsplint Baskets,
edited by Russell G. Handsman and Ann
McMullen, published in 1987 by the
American Archaeological Institute in
Washington, CT.
Trumbull, James Hammond. Natick
Dictionary. Bureau of American
Ethnology Bulletin 25. Washington, D.C.:
Government Printing Office, 1903.

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Massachusett_writing_systems&oldid=11372
23042"
This page was last edited on 3 February 2023, at
13:27 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless
otherwise noted.