Learning Packets CRIM7 Research Methods & Applied Statistics

LEARNING PACKETS
for
RESEARCH METHODS
AND APPLIED STATISTICS (CRIM
7)
(Week 1-18)
Source: canstockphoto.com
PREFACE
The course covers the study of the research methods, designs, applicable
to the conduct of criminological research. It focuses on the conduct of
qualitative and quantitative research in criminology and criminal justice fields.
The learners will be provided competencies in identifying research topics,
determining research methods, data analysis and interpretation, research budget
planning, legal, ethical and safety considerations and measures in the conduct of
research, research proposal and report presentation and research output
endorsement procedures.
This is a three (3) units course which focuses on the conduct of
criminological research on crimes, crime causation, victims and offenders to
include deviant behavior. It encompasses the nature and concept of
criminological research and the application of appropriate statistical tools in the
analysis and interpretation of research data.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 1
Table of Contents 2
Course Guide 3
General Course Information 3
Course Learning Plan 3
Course Forum 4
Policies 4
Unit I – Fundamentals in Investigation 6
Unit II – Crime Scene Search 27
2
COURSE GUIDE
General Course Information
Course Title : Research Methods and Applied Statistics
No. of Units : 3 units
Duration : 18 weeks
Course Learning Plan

Week Content/Topic Objectives/Competencies Teaching-Learning Modality/
No. Strategies
Week Introduction to 1. Know the brief history and Home-based activity with learning
1 Research definition of research. modules/activity sheets to be
distributed through social media
2. Determine the different platform (GC), or in hard copy to be
characteristics of research picked-up in designated area.
3. Determine the different

characteristics of a
researcher.
4. Identify the importance of

research to Man.
Week Types of Research 1. Identify the different types Home-based activity with learning
2 of research. modules/activity sheets to be
2. Determine the various platform (GC), or in hard copy to be
classification of research picked-up in designated area.

sources of knowledge and
3
information.
Week Introduction to 1. Identify the three (3) types of Home-based activity with learning
3 Research Methods descriptive methods modules/activity sheets to be
2. Determine the different types platform (GC), or in hard copy to be
of Qualitative Research picked-up in designated area.
Methods
Week Writing Up the 1. Identify how to formulate a Home-based activity with learning
4 Research successful proposal. modules/activity sheets to be
2. Determine the guidelines to platform (GC), or in hard copy to be
be followed in writing a title picked-up in designated area.
Week Ethical Standard 1. Apply the knowledge of using Home-based activity with learning
5 In Research ethical guidelines in modules/activity sheets to be
conducting the research. distributed through social media
platform (GC), or in hard copy to be
picked-up in designated area.

No. Strategies
Week Guide for Make a title for the research Home-based activity with learning
6 preparing a Thesis proposal. modules/activity sheets to be
Proposal distributed through social media
Week Writing the Thesis Make the introduction for the Home-based activity with learning
7 Proposal research proposal. modules/activity sheets to be
Week Writing the Thesis Make the theoretical background Home-based activity with learning
8 Proposal of the research proposal modules/activity sheets to be
Week Writing the Thesis Write the statement of the Home-based activity with learning
9 Proposal problem for the research modules/activity sheets to be
proposal distributed through social media
Week Writing the Thesis Make the significance of the Home-based activity with learning
10 Proposal study for the research proposal modules/activity sheets to be
4
No. Strategies
Week Writing the Thesis Make the research methodology Home-based activity with learning
11 Proposal including the research design for modules/activity sheets to be
the research proposal distributed through social media
Week Writing the Thesis Make the research environment Home-based activity with learning
12 Proposal for the research proposal modules/activity sheets to be
Week Writing the Thesis Make the research informants Home-based activity with learning
13 Proposal and research instrument for the modules/activity sheets to be
research proposal. distributed through social media
Week Writing the Thesis Make a research procedure for Home-based activity with learning
14 Proposal the research proposal modules/activity sheets to be
Week Writing the Thesis Make the definition of term for Home-based activity with learning
15 Proposal the research proposal. modules/activity sheets to be
Week Writing the Thesis Make corrections based on the Home-based activity with learning
16-18 Proposal evaluation by the instructor modules/activity sheets to be
Course Forum
This is a read-and-write forum, which means you can access all learning materials and
related discussions and activities here.
Policies
Class policies may be slightly different depending on the modality in which you
attend class, in this case, you may be using the distance learning or the distance blended
learning. If you chose the distance learning, your activity portfolio must be sent to the school
through courier service or may behand-carried or dropped at the school campus. Your
portfolio must be secured in a sealed brown envelop and labeled as follows:
5
For distance blended modality, you may send your activity portfolio to my email
address aqastillaiii630@gmail.com, and indicate the following:
I. Study Guide
1. Manage your time well. Be mindful of time requirements to complete weekly

lessons and activities.
2. Focus your attention. Avoid other distractions while working on your weekly
lessons and activities.
3. Submit on time. If you need to mail your Activity Portfolio, take note of the
length of time it will take to send it. You might need to finish all activities
ahead of time, so your Activity Portfolio will reach me as scheduled.
4. Answer confidently. Preparation provides the needed confidence. Put value
on the time you allot to go over your lessons. This will ensure your answers
coming out right.
5. Work independently. The whole learning process is about you. Focus on the
goal to learn. There is nothing more satisfying than the safe knowledge that
you completed the course working truly independently.
6. Motivate yourself. The learning process here will certainly depend on the
habits of the mind that you cultivate. An optimistic outlook will help you
finish the course without a hitch. It would help if you start breaking the
routines during the quarantine lockdowns, and take control of your schedule.
Prioritize how you spend your time and set learning goals for yourself.
Remember this is not just about finishing a course, this is about getting a
bigger goal done – like graduating and getting a good job in the future.
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II. Class Assessment and Grading System
To pass the course, you must go through the Learning Packets with care and
do the pre-assessment and self-assessment activities.
Pre-Assessments,
Self-Assessment and
Examination - 30 %
Activities - 30 %
Final Projects - 40 %
-------------
100%
III. Support and Services

Instructor’s Information:
AMADOR Q. ASTILLA III, MSCrim
OIC-Dean, College of Criminal Justice
09999922061 (Smart)
09955385133 (Globe)
aqastillaiii630@gmail.com
FB Account: Amador Q. Astilla III
Messenger Account: Amador Q. Astilla III
You may contact me for clarifications and questions when moving through this
learning packet anytime between 9:00am-3:00pm using this format, for easy identification
7
UNIT I: Lesson 1 – Introduction to
Research (Week 1-5)
This periodic lesson is about Research

Methods and Applied Statistics. At the
end of this lesson, you should be able
to:
1. Know the brief history and

definition of research.

characteristics of research

characteristics of a researcher.
4. Identify the importance of research

to man.
5. Identify the different types of

research.
6. Determine the various classification

of research
7. Determine the different sources of

Source: alamystockphoto.com
knowledge and information.
Please note that you

need to finish this
lesson on
____________
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INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any

systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing
problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific
method. The primary purpose for basic research (as opposed to applied
research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and
systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of
scientific matters of our world and the universe (en.academic.com).
Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the

stock of knowledge" (OECD, 2015). It involves the collection, organization, and
analysis of information to increase understanding of a topic or issue. A research
project may be an expansion on past work in the field. Research projects can be
used to develop further knowledge on a topic, or for education. To test the
validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate
elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.
The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research)

are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development
(R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge.
Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably
both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of
research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing,
practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research
practices is known as meta-research.
The word research is derived from the Middle French "recherche", which
means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the Old French
term "recerchier" a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher",
meaning 'search' (Merriam-Webster.com, 2018).
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Definitions
Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there
are similarities, there does not appear to be a single, all-encompassing definition
that is embraced by all who engage in it.
One definition of research is used by the OECD, "Any creative systematic

activity undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including
knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this knowledge to devise
new applications” (OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms, 2018).
Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states

that "research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to
increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a
question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the
question (Creswell, 2008).
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail

as "studious inquiry or examination; especially : investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of
such new or revised theories or laws.
According to Singh (2006), research simply seeks the answer of certain

questions which have not been answered so far and the answers depend upon
human efforts. It may be illustrated by taking an example of the moon. Some
years ago man did not know what exactly the moon is? Was this problem which
had no solution? Man could only make some assumptions about it but the man
now this time by his efforts, he went to the moon brought the soil of the moon
and studied it. The man is now able to give concrete answer of the problem
what is the moon? But the question arises, “Is the answer of the question in
examination also research”? The answer is ‘no’, because the answers of these
questions are available. They are available in text-books, class-notes etc.
Research answers only those questions of which the answers are not available in
literature i.e., in human knowledge.
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Thus, we can say research seeks the answer only of those questions of
which the answers can be given on the basis of available facilities. Actually
research is simply the process of arriving as dependable solution to a problem
through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of
data. Research is the most important process for advancing knowledge for
promoting progress and to enable man to relate more effectively to his
environment to accomplish his purpose and to resolve his conflicts. Although it
is not the only way, it is one of the more effective ways of solving scientific
problems.
From the beginning of time man has noted certain irregularities among
the phenomena and events of his experiences and has attempted to devise laws
and principles which express these regularities. These laws and principles are of
course not without expectation, any law is valid only under the conditions under
which it was derived. Even though objects tend to fall, they have been known to
rise when other forces are active, but this does not deny the general principle of
gravity. Research is devoted to find the conditions under which a certain
phenomenon occurs and the conditions under which it does not occur in what
might appear to be similar circumstances.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:
(https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/)
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting

information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must
have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be systematic, controlled,
rigorous, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an

investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others. Research
follows an orderly and sequential procedure.
Controlled - in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two
variables (factors), we set up our study in a way that minimizes the effects of
other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in
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the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a
laboratory.
However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely

difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in
society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and
Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their
impact. All variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept
constant.
 A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or
phenomenon that you are trying to measure in some way. The
best way to understand the difference between a dependent and
independent variable is that the meaning of each is implied by what
the words tell us about the variable you are using.
 Dependent Variable -- The variable that depends on other factors

that are measured. These variables are expected to change as a
result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable
or variables. It is the presumed effect.
 Independent Variable -- The variable that is stable and unaffected

by the other variables you are trying to measure. It refers to the
condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by
the investigator. It is the presumed cause.
 The dependent variable is the condition that you measure in an

experiment. You are assessing how it responds to a change in the
independent variable, so you can think of it as depending on the
independent variable. Sometimes the dependent variable is called
the "responding variable."
Independent and Dependent Variable Examples:
 In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps

affects test scores; the independent variable is the length of
time spent sleeping while the dependent variable is the test
score.
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 You want to compare brands of paper towels, to see which
holds the most liquid. The independent variable in your
experiment would be the brand of paper towel. The
dependent variable would be the amount of liquid absorbed
by the paper towel.
 In an experiment to determine how far people can see into
the infrared part of the spectrum, the wavelength of light is
the independent variable and whether the light is observed
(the response) is the dependent variable.
 If you want to know whether caffeine affects your appetite,

the presence/absence of a given amount of caffeine would be
the independent variable. How hungry you are would be the
dependent variable.
 You want to determine whether a chemical is essential for rat

nutrition, so you design an experiment. The
presence/absence of the chemical is the independent
variable. The health of the rat (whether it lives and can
reproduce) is the dependent variable. If you determine the
substance is necessary for proper nutrition, a follow-up
experiment might determine how much of the chemical is
needed. Here, the amount of chemical would be the
independent variable and the rat health would be the
dependent variable.
Rigorous - you must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed

to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the
degree of Materials & Methods varies markedly between the physical and social
sciences and within the social sciences. Valid and verifiable-this concept
implies that whatever we conclude on the basis of our findings is correct and
can be verified by us and others.
Empirical - this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard
evidence gathered from information collected from real life experiences or
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observations. They are also based on observations and experimentation on
theories.
Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be
foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures
used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny
Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem

and ends with a problem.
Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or

repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
Characteristics of the Researcher
1. A good researcher must be open-minded and must also adopt a critical way of
thinking.
2. He/she should be hard working, diligent, focused and devoted to his/her

specific field of interest.
3. Updating his/her knowledge is of utmost importance and can be

accomplished in several ways, such as following the current literature, attending
conferences or exchanging ideas with colleagues working in a relevant field.
4. Modern researcher must be resourceful and inventive in order to transform

his/her scientific queries and hypotheses into a realisable protocol (Stefanadis,
2006).
Research is important in our everyday life because it:
1. Gives us a light to inquire about the right information.

2. Develops and attitude to not believe everything easily available and go
on one track.
3. Sharpens the brain and gives it a judicious vision to look.
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4. Leads us to the ultimate philosophy of all the subjects and builds a
graphic vision of life.
5. Empowers us with knowledge and efficient learning of new things.
6. Helps us in understanding various issues of life in a larger manner.
7. Evolves us to mark out the thin line between truth and lie (Singh,
2018).
Types of Research
1. Basic research. This is also called as “fundamental research” or “pure

research”. It seeks to discover basic truths or principles. It is intended to add to
the body of scientific knowledge by exploring the unknown to extend the
boundaries of knowledge as well as to discover new facts. Basic research is a
research approach that is entirely theoretical and aimed at improving or
expanding the knowledge-base of a particular field of study. It focuses on
"knowledge for its own sake" and it is primarily driven by curiosity and the
need to explore the unknown. It is a systematic investigation set to achieve a
better and more detailed understanding of a research subject or phenomenon,
not to solve a specific problem.
Examples of basic research:

a. How do panic attacks happen?
b. What are the symptoms of anxiety disorders?
2. Applied research. This type of research involves seeking new

applications of scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as the
development of a new system or procedure, new device, or new method in order
to solve the problem. Applied research is designed to focus on
providing practical solutions to a specific problem. It is a form of investigation
that entails solution-oriented inquiries into a phenomenon, a field of study or
research subject generally employing empirical methodologies. In many
cases, applied research is a follow-up research design for basic research because
it further investigates the outcomes of pure or basic research in order to validate
these findings and apply them to create innovative solutions to specific
problems.
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Examples of applied research in psychology include:
a. What are the treatment options for anxiety disorders?
b. What are the ways to improve employees' productivity in the workplace?
3. Developmental research. This is a decision-oriented research involving

the application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate
need to improve existing practices (Paler-Calmorin & Calmorin, 2007).
Developmental research is particularly important in the field of instructional
technology. The most common types of developmental research involve
situations in which the product-development process is analyzed and described,
and the final product is evaluated.
Classification of Research
1. Library research. This is done in the library where answers to specific

questions or problems of the study are available.
2. Field research. Here, research is conducted in a natural setting. No

changes in the environment are made. Field research is both applicable to
descriptive survey and experimental methods.
3. Laboratory research. The research is conducted in artificial or controlled

conditions by isolating the study in a thoroughly specified and equipped area
(Paler-Calmorin & Calmorin, 2007).
Sources of Knowledge and Information
1. Knowledge based on superstition

Acquiring knowledge based on superstition means acquiring knowledge
based on subjective feelings, belief in chance, belief in fate, belief in curse or
belief in some magical events.
2. Knowledge based on intuition

When knowledge is acquired through intuition, we have knowledge of
something without being consciously aware of where it came from. Sometimes,
we intuit knowledge not because we feel it or “gut feeling” but on some events
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observed. The issue here is that the events may be misinterpreted and not
representative of all events in that category. This may create illusory
correlation, the perception of a relationship that does not exist.
3. Knowledge based on authorities

This is a knowledge gained through authority figures such as parents,
teachers and others whom you viewed as authority figures. Most people tend to
blindly accept information imparted by those they view as authority figures.
However, problems may arise when the perceived authority figure really is not
knowledgeable in the subject area.
4. Knowledge through tenacity

This is gained via hearing a piece of information so often that you begin
to believe it is true and then, despite evidence to the contrary, you cling
stubbornly to that belief.
5. Knowledge through rationalism

This involves logical reasoning.
6. Knowledge through empiricism

This involves gaining knowledge through objective observation and the
sensory experiences.
7. Knowledge through Science

This involves a merger of rationalism and empiricism.
Purpose of Research
 To answer a specific question, to solve a particular controversy or issue

(Sanchez, 1997).
 To improve the quality of life. This means that the problems encountered
are solved through research. And as problems never end, thus research
become a cyclic process (Selltiz, et al., 1976:7).
Objectives of Research
 To seek new knowledge and
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 To provide useful information in the form of verifiable data (Sanchez,
1997).
Research Requirements
Recognition of problems or identification of a topic. Research was

born out of man’s determination to solve the problems that confront him. There
are numerous problems in education and in the social and behavioral sciences.
Problems for research is everywhere. Historical sources accumulate with each
passing day or week. Earlier studies need reinterpretation in the light of new
findings or evidence (Sanchez, 1997).
Five Basic Sources use to select a topic and a researchable problem
a. Professional Experience. Perhaps the most immediate and important source

from which research problems emerge is professional experience. The daily
ideas and confusions that arise from professional challenges often yield
significant areas of inquiry.
b. Professional Trends. Research topics may also come from publications and
newsletters. Investigators frequently read them with the intent to determine the
broad topic areas and problems of current interest to the profession. For
example, the Psychological Association of the Philippines identified the need to
develop more research in the area of therapeutic effectiveness.
c. Published Research. Reading research in professional journals provides an

overview of the important studies that are being conducted in the topic area of
interest. There are many published journals in other disciplines that may assist
in the identification of a topic.
d. Societal trends. Social, political, and economic concerns and trends are
reflected in legislation and the funding priorities of government, and local
agencies, foundations and corporations provide a second and critical of potential
inquiry of investigation. For example, the report Philippines 2000 establishes
the priority for the nation.
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e. Existing theory. Theories also provide sources for generating topics and
research problems. Inquiry related to theory development is intended to
substantiate the theory and advance its development or modify it by refuting
some or all of its principles. For example, Piaget’s principles on the structural
development of cognition (De Poy & Gitlin, 1994).
Factors to be considered in the selection of a research or thesis problem
1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication. Research needs

considerable care in the formulation of the problem; hence it calls for
originality.
2. The importance of the study to its field. This criterion refers to the
significance of the study to the field involved, its timeless and its practical value
in terms of applicability, and the eventual implementation of its results.
3. Interest, intellectual curiosity, and drive. One of the motives for research is
pure curiosity. This accompanied, by a genuine interest and a drive to satisfy
one’s curiosity, is necessary in the choice of the problem.
4. Training and special qualification. One must have special qualifications to

carry out the research. It is obvious that the researcher must have some
acquaintance with the general field on which his subject falls. One’s area of
specialization is in fact a fruitful source of problem for research.
5. Availability of data and choice of method. The data under consideration

must meet certain standards of accuracy, objectivity, and verifiability. The
contemplated problem should be viewed in the light of possible research
approaches.
6. Special equipment and working conditions. The library or study room is

not the only place where ideas for a solution to a problem can occur. Ideas for a
solution to a problem can come to a researcher at any place any time and not
only when he/she is at his/her working table.
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7. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation. In graduate schools, it is the
practice to assign a faculty adviser to every student writing a thesis. The adviser
is always one in whose area of specialization the problem lies.
8. Cost and returns. For scientific research to be effective in realizing any one
or all of its objectives, it should be well organized, properly directed, or
managed, and well financed.
9. Hazards, penalties and hardships. In the selection of certain types of

problems, the researcher should also consider special hazards, penalties, or
hardships that may be personal, social, or professional in nature. The lack of
cooperation among the subjects of a research study is one of the difficulties one
may encounter in the course of undertaking the research.
10. Time factor. The time required for completion of the thesis depends on
many factors such as the problem, the student, the adviser, and the institution
(Good, 1972).
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ACTIVITY 1:
Answer the question by explaining and giving
examples. Provide your answers in the box provided.
Name:__________________________ Subject/ Code: ______________ Rating:

_____
1. What is Research?
2. How important is research to man (NOT LESS THAN 150 WORDS)?
3. Differentiate Laboratory Research from Field Research.
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CHAPTER II
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODS
Descriptive Methods
Sometimes characterized as a survey or normative approach to the study

of conditions, is an essential guide to one’s thinking. Knowledge of facts
concerning the conditions or where we are at present, knowledge of conditions
desired or where we wish to be, and knowledge of how to get where we wish to
be are gained from studies that deal with causation (Sanchez, 1997).
There are three (3) types of descriptive methods, to wit:

1. Observational method
2. Case study method
3. Survey method
Observational Method
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field

observation) animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two
main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and
laboratory observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that

researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to
greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say.
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Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in
real-life situations.
Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more

control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation
are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation.
Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper

than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory
observation are important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge.
Case Study Method
Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group

of indviduals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to
study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and
effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.
There are two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects
and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s
underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting research.
These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing
atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external
validity.
Survey Method
In survey method research, participants answer questions administered

through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions,
researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both
reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly.
Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend (Jackson,
S.L, (2009).
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What is Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population,

situation, or phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how,
what, when, and where questions in a research problem, rather than the why.
This is mainly because it is important to have a proper understanding of

what a research problem is about before investigating why it exists in the first
place.
For example, an investor considering an investment in the ever-changing

Amsterdam housing market needs to understand what the current state of the
market is, how it changes (increasing or decreasing), and when it changes (time
of the year) before asking for the why. This is where descriptive research comes
in.
What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research?
The characteristics of descriptive research can be highlighted from its

definition, applications, data collection methods, and examples. Some
characteristics of descriptive research are:
 Quantitativeness
Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting

quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population
sample. This is very common when dealing with research in the physical
sciences.
 Qualitativeness
It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to

properly describe the research problem. This is because descriptive research is
more explanatory than exploratory or experimental.
 Uncontrolled variables
In descriptive research, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in

experimental research (www.formpl.us, 2020).
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Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Design (Streefkerk, 2019).
When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with

numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and
meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds of knowledge.
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to

test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to
establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as
numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand

concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to gather
in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood.
Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended

questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore
concepts and theories.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
Qualitative research is a type of scientific research. In general terms,

scientific research consists of an investigation that:
1. Seeks answers to a question;

2. Uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question
systematically;
3. Collects evidence;
4. Produces findings that were not determined in advance and;
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5. Produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries
of the study.
The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex

textual descriptions of how people experience a given research issue. It provides
information about the “human” side of an issue. When used along with
quantitative methods, qualitative research can help us to interpret and better
understand the complex reality of a given situation and the implications of
quantitative data.
Qualitative methods can be:
1. case study method
2. archival method
3. interviews
4. focus group interviews
5. field studies
6. action research
Case Study Method
It is one of the oldest qualitative research methods. This is an in-

depth study of one or more individuals, groups, social settings, or events in the
hope of revealing things that are true of all of us. Case study research often
suggests hypotheses for future studies and provides a method to study rare
phenomena. It also offers tentative support for a psychological theory.
Archival Method
It involves describing data that existed before the time of the study
which means to say that the data were not generated a part of the study. One of
the biggest advantages of archival research is that the problem of reactivity is
somewhat minimized because the data have already been collected and the
researcher does not have to interact with the participants in any way. This is less
time consuming because the data already exist. Thus researchers are not
confronted with the problems of getting participants for their study and taking
the time to observe them because these tasks have already been done for them.
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In all archival research studies, researchers based their conclusions on data
collected by another person or organization.
WRITING UP THE RESEARCH
One of the skills essential to successful research is that of writing. Good

communication is an essential requirement at every stage of the project, but the
main writing tasks are located at the beginning and end of the research project
—at the beginning to explain what you will do in the research, and at the end, to
explain what you have done and what you have found out.
What is a thesis proposal?
Thesis proposal is a detailed plan or blueprint used by a student as a guide

in conducting the research. This proposal assures the student of a logical and
systematic approach to the conduct of his/her thesis (Arboleda, 1998).
Formulating a Successful Research Proposal
Before starting a research program, it is necessary to work out exactly

what you want to do, why and how. A research proposal is a brief summary of
it. Obviously, it will be very helpful to the researcher to make it clear what the
aims of the research are and what are needed to do to achieve the desired
outcome. It will also be useful as a way to inform others of the intentions or the
objectives.
The Main Ingredients and Sequence
Academic research proposals are usually composed of the following

elements:
1. The title;
2. The rationale;
3. The Theoretical background to the research;
4. Statement of the problem;
5. Significance of the study;
6. Research Methodology;
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7. Definition of terms;
8. References;
9. Appendices; and
10.Curriculum Vitae.
The Title
The function of the title is to encapsulate in a few words the essence of

the research. Ideally it should contain all the essential key words that someone
might use in an attempt to locate the kind of study you are proposing. The title
identifies the research and tells the reader what the study is all about (Arboleda,
1998).
The following parameters can be used to help you formulate a suitable

research paper title:
1. The purpose of the research
2. The narrative tone of the paper [typically defined by the type of the
research
3. The methods used
The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to draw his
or her attention to the research problem being investigated.
Create a Working Title
Typically, the final title you submit to your professor is created after the
research is complete so that the title accurately captures what was done. The
working title should be developed early in the research process because it can
help anchor the focus of the study in much the same way the research problem
does. Referring back to the working title can help you reorient yourself back to
the main purpose of the study if you feel yourself drifting off on a tangent while
writing.
The Final Title
Effective titles in academic research papers have several characteristics.

 Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.
 Avoid using abbreviations.
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 Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.
 Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
 Identify key variables, both dependent and independent.
 May reveal how the paper will be organized.
 Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major
hypothesis.
 Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
 Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar constructions.
 Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also be in the form of a
question.
 Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words
capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns,
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last words
of the title are also capitalized.
 In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an exclamation mark.
However, a title or subtitle can be in the form of a question.
The Subtitle
Subtitles are quite common in social science research papers. Examples of why

you may include a subtitle:
1. Explains or provides additional context, e.g., "Linguistic Ethnography

and the Study of Welfare Institutions as a Flow of Social Practices: The
Case of Residential Child Care Institutions as Paradoxical Institutions."
2. Adds substance to a literary, provocative, or imaginative title, e.g.,

"Listen to What I Say, Not How I Vote: Congressional Support for the
President in Washington and at Home."
3. Qualifies the geographic scope of the research, e.g., "The Geopolitics

of the Eastern Border of the European Union: The Case of Romania-
Moldova-Ukraine."
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4. Qualifies the temporal scope of the research, e.g., "A Comparison of
the Progressive Era and the Depression Years: Societal Influences on
Predictions of the Future of the Library, 1895-1940."
5. Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or work of a particular

individual, e.g., "A Deliberative Conception of Politics: How Francesco
Saverio Merlino Related Anarchy and Democracy."
Guidelines in Writing the Title
1. The title should be clear and distinctively stated.

2. Subject matter of the study, the place of the study, the population
involved, the period when the data were gathered should not be
necessarily included since these are going to be mentioned in the
methodology section under the research environment and research
respondents.
3. The variables being examined should always be written as part of the
title. Choose terms that will summarize the variables if there were many
variables being studied.
4. Title should be short. It should not exceed twenty words.
5. Title should not contain acronyms.
6. Some forms of title phrasing such as “Study of….”, “An Analysis of….”,
“A Preliminary Study of……” are to be avoided.
7. Title should not contain formulas, symbols or subscripts or other non-
alphabetic symbols instead word substitute should be used.
8. In case the title contains more than one line, it should be written like an
inverted pyramid, all words in capital letters.
The Rationale
A rationale is an explanation of why you are studying the topic and why
it is important. It is in this section that the researcher shows evidence that
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specialists in the field find it important. It is not good enough to say that you
find it personally interesting instead think of the consumers of your research.
 Gives the overview of the chosen study topic

 Presents a situation
 Explains the reason for choosing the research topic
 Creates the need for the study (UC Graduate School Research
Manual, 2007).
Guidelines in Writing a Rationale

1. Describe the problem situation by considering global, national and local
environments.
2. Justify the existence of the problem situation by citing statistical data and
authoritative sources as bases to support the problem.
3. It must be short as possible with an average of three (3) pages.
4. Use the deductive line of reasoning, like an inverted triangle, from
generic (macro perspective) to specific (micro perspective).
5. Maintain an objective tone, having in mind that it is a formal exposition
of a research problem not a forum of personal opinion.
6. Indicate what is wrong in the present system, and expresses the desire to
conduct one to correct the system, thus the need to conduct the study.
7. Provide a clinching statement relating the background to the research
problem.
8. Do not start with a quotation. Research is a formal, scholarly undertaking
not a literary work.
Theoretical Background
 Discuss related literature and studies

 Presents a schematic either to introduce or to summarize the coverage of
this section.
The Research Problem
The research problem provides the focus of the research project. It is the
culmination of the background work and the initiator of the specific research
tasks. It must be very clearly defined to explain the nature of the problem and
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why it is significant. The problem may be expressed in abstract terms initially,
but through the statement of the sub-problems, you should indicate how it can
be investigated practically.
Research questions often have three (3) elements:

1. The problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to
establish why it is important;
2. The method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or a working
thesis;
3. The purpose, statement of objective and scope of the document the writer
is preparing
To develop a strong research question from your ideas, you should ask
yourself these things:
 Do I know the field and literature well?

 What are the important research questions in my field?
 What areas need further exploration?
 Could my study fill a gap? Lead to a greater understanding?
 Has a great deal of research already been conducted in this topic area?
 Has this study been done before? If so, is there room for improvement?
 Is the timing right for this question to be answered? Is it a hot topic, or is
it becoming obsolete?
 Is the target community interested?
 Most importantly, will my study have a significant impact on the field?
Research questions in research are divided into two (2)—general and

specific. The general problem consists of the general purpose of the study and is
usually patterned from the research title. The specific or the sub-problems help
answer the main or the general problem.
Statement of the Problem

 Contains the main problem or general objective
 States the sub-problems or specific objectives
Guidelines in writing the sub-problems

1. It must be a completely researchable unit.
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2. It is arranged from factual to analytical order.
3. It must be worded in the language of research.
4. They must be mutually exclusive, meaning they do not overlap one
another.
5. It should not be answerable by yes or no.
6. Each should have a corresponding statistical tool for treatment of data
gathered.
Significance of the Study
In this section, the researcher states the value or importance of the

research study. It is where the significant contributions of the results of the
study are itemized. It will justify the reason for your study.
In writing the significance of the study, the researcher or writer must
explain the rationale, timeliness’ and or relevance of the study to existing
conditions. Also, the possible solutions to existing problems or improvements
must be identified.
Significance of the Study

 Mentions who are to benefit from the study and how each may
be benefitted.
 Discusses the value of the study to individuals, groups,
institutions and to the discipline (UC Graduate School Research Manual,
2007).
In addition, it must be shown who are the individuals, groups or

communities who may be placed in a more advantageous position on account of
the study.
The following phrases could help express the importance of the study:
Researchers may find the findings useful as……
This study will encourage them to…..
It will also serve as basis in the study of…..
This study will contribute to……..
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The study will provide…….
This study can help boost the…..
Through this study, students will become aware of…..
The results of this study will provide some insights and
information on how they………..
Research Methodology
The Method section begins wherever the introduction ends; it does not
begin on new page. The heading Method in boldfaced font is centered wherever
the Method section begins. This section describes exactly how the study was
conducted, in sufficient detail that it can be replicated by anyone who has read
the Method section. This section is generally divided into subsections. Although
subsections vary across papers, the most common are participants (quantitative)
or informants (qualitative) and procedure, although it is also possible to have a
separate materials or apparatus section.
The participant’s subsection should include a description of the

participants and how they were obtained. Major demographic characteristics
such as gender, age, and ethnicity should be described when appropriate and the
total number of participants should be indicated. The procedure section
summarizes each step in the execution of the research, including the groups
used in the study, instruction given to the participants, the experimental
manipulation employed, any counterbalancing or randomization used, and
specific control features utilized in the design. If the design is particularly
complex, you may want to consider having a separate design subsection
preceding the procedure.
Research Methodology
Research Design
Research Environment
Research Respondents/Informants
Research Instruments
Research Procedures
Research Design
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The type and conduct of research study are described and explained in the
research design. This part includes in detail the plan on how the research study
is to be conducted in order to address or answer the problem and achieve its
objectives, particularly the framework for the gathering, analysis and
interpretation of data to ensure the authority, integrity and credibility of research
outcome. It is the function of research design to describe the set-up and
structure the mechanism of the study, including the use and validation of
instrument for the testing and observation of the hypothesized relationships.
The main function of the research design is to link and integrate the
research method and instrument, the sampling design and procedure, and the
statistical tools with the theoretical and/or conceptual framework as an overall
guide or frame in the correlation and synchronization of the research activities
(De Belen, 2015).
Research Environment
This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in brief the
place where the study is conducted. Only important features which have the
bearing on the present study are included (https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-
content/uploads/pdf/urco/guidelines.pdf).
Research Respondents/Informants
Refer to individuals who agree to become part of research study. Reflects
a distinct way that an individual participates in a research study and the type of
relationship formed between the individual and researcher (Sanchez, 1997).
Research Participants must not be unnecessarily, unreasonably and
arbitrarily exposed to public humiliation and ridicule particularly when the
research outcomes have some adverse implications, whether legal, ethical or
moral (De Belen, 2015).
Research Instruments
A research instrument is a tool used to obtain, measure, and analyze data
from subjects around the research topic. You need to decide the instrument to
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use based on the type of study you are conducting. For a quantitative study, you
may decide to use a questionnaire (https://www.editage.com/insights/what-is-a-
research-instrument).
They are mainly used by researchers to collect reliable data which will
later be analyzed. They include questionnaire, interviews, observations, focus
group discussion and experiment (Aina, 2004).
Research Procedures
Reviews the steps taken to collect the data, including any occurrence that
may have influenced the results such as changes in the schedule for
administering tests, disturbances during the testing situation, or unexpected
subject reactions.
A discussion of any step taken to establish control or to reduce errors in
the study such as administering measures to all groups simultaneously or at the
same time of the day, procedures employed to provide for make up for students
absent in the initial testing, methods of avoiding contamination, or controls
employed to reduce observer bias (Sanchez, 1997).
Definition of Terms
It is important to include definition of terms in your thesis or dissertation

in order to understand the key terms being used in the study. These terms should
be clearly defined according to how they are used in the study in order to make
easy understanding of the problem and avoid ambiguous meaning to terms
which can be otherwise interpreted in different ways. Complicated and lengthy
definition should be included in your appendix.
Guidelines in writing the definition of terms

1. There should be an introductory paragraph or sentence before
defining the first term.
2. Terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order and
acronyms should always spell out fully most especially if it is used
for the first time and not commonly known.
3. Depending on the institutional format, but usually, the term is
defined in paragraph form and is not numbered.
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4. The definition should be operational, which means that it must be
based on how it is used in the context of the study.
5. DICTIONARY-BASED DEFINITION IS NOT ACCEPTABLE.
ETHICAL STANDARDS IN RESEARCH
Research, however novel its discoveries, is only of any value if it is

carried out honestly. We cannot trust the results of a research project if we
suspect that the researchers have not acted with integrity. In conducting study,
ethical standards for the research participants must be observed.
Avoiding Harm
Researchers should take reasonable steps to avoid harming their
clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, organizational
clients, and others with whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is
foreseeable and unavoidable.
Maintaining Confidentiality
Researchers have the primary obligation and take reasonable precautions
to protect confidential information obtained through or stored in any medium,
recognizing that the extent and limits of confidentiality may be regulated by law
or established by institutional rules or professional or scientific relationship.
Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality
Researchers discus with persons (including, to the extent feasible, persons

who are legally incapable of giving informed consent and their legal
37
representatives) and organizations with which they establish a scientific or
professional relationship the following:
1. Relevant limits of confidentiality, and
2. Foreseeable uses of the information generated through their psychological
activities.
Recording Stage
This stage of interview process may be considered as part of the
implementation phase of the interview method. However, depending on the
method interview used, the recording stage includes the taking of notes, during
the implementing stage or the actual interview, recording in tape recorder or
video camera and transcribing the interview proceedings. It is easy for the
researcher to review, analyze and comment on hard documents as transcribed
from the interview proceedings.
However, before the start of the interview, it must be noted that the
researcher must be inform that the interviewee of his/her desire to record the
interview proceeding. In this process, the recording of interview proceedings,
whether through tape, video and/or other electronic devices, needs the
permission of the interviewee (De Belen, 2015).
Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy

Researchers include in written and oral reports and consultations, only
information germane to the purpose for which the communication is made.
They should discuss confidential information obtained in their work only for
appropriate scientific or professional purpose and only with persons clearly
concerned with such matters.
Disclosures
Researchers may disclose confidential information with the appropriate
consent of the organizational client, the individual client/patient, or another
legally authorized person on behalf of the client/patient unless prohibited by
law. They may disclose confidential information without the consent of the
individual only as mandated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid
purpose such as to:
38
1. Provide professional services;
2. Obtain appropriate professional consultations;
3. Protect the client/patient, researcher, or others from harm; or
4. Obtain payment from services from a client/patient, in which instance
disclosure is limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve the
purpose.
Consultations
When consulting with colleagues, (1) researchers do not disclose
confidential information that reasonably could led to the identification of a
client/patient, research participant/informant, or other person or organization
with whom they have a confidential relationship unless they have obtained the
prior consent of the person or organization or the disclosure cannot be avoided,
and (2) they disclose information only to the extent necessary to achieve the
purposes of the consultation.
Use of Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes

Researchers do not disclose in their writings, lectures, or other public
media, confidential, personally identifiable information concerning their
clients/patients, students, research participants/informants, organizational
clients, or other recipients of their services that they obtained during the course
of their work, unless:
1. They take reasonable steps to disguise the person or organization
2. The person or organization has consented in writing, or
3. There is legal authorization for doing so.
Research and Publication

When institutional approval is required, researchers provide accurate
information about their research proposals and obtain approval prior to
conducting the research. They conduct the research in accordance with the
approved research protocol.
Informed Consent to Research
39
When obtaining informed consent as required, researchers inform
participants/informants about:
1. The purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures;
2. Their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research
once participation has begun;
3. The foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;
4. Reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their
willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse
effects;
5. Any prospective research benefits;
6. Limits of confidentiality;
7. Incentives for participation; and
8. Whim to contact for questions about the research and research
participants’ rights. They provide opportunity for the prospective
participants to ask questions and receive answers.
Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research

Researchers obtain informed consent from research participants prior to
recording their voices or images for data collection unless:
1. The research consists solely of naturalistic observations in public places,
and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that
could cause personal identification or harm, or
2. The research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the
recording is obtained during debriefing.
Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research

Researchers may dispense with informed consent only on the following reasons:
1. Where research would not reasonably be assumed to create distress or
harm and involves:
a) The study of normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom
management methods conducted in educational settings;
b) Only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or
archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place
participants at risk of criminal or civil liability or damage their
40
financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality
is protected; or
c) The study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness
conducted in organizational settings for which there is no risk to
participant’s employability, and confidentiality is protected.
2. Where otherwise permitted by law or federal or institutional regulations.
Offering Inducements for Research Participation
Researchers make reasonable efforts to avoid offering excessive or

inappropriate financial or other inducements for research participation when
such inducements are likely to coerce participation. Moreover, when offering
professional services as an inducement for research participation, researchers
clarify the nature of the services, as well as the risks, obligations, and
limitations.
Deception in Research
Researchers do not conduct a study involving deception unless they have

determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s
significant prospective, scientific, educational, or applied value and that
effective non-deceptive alternative procedures are not feasible. Also, the
researchers do not deceive prospective participants about research that is
reasonably expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional distress. Lastly,
the researchers must explain any deception that is an integral feature of the
design and conduct of an experiment to participants as early as is feasible,
preferably at the conclusion of their participation, but no later than at the
conclusion of the data collection, and permit participants to withdraw their data.
Humane care and Use of Animals in Research
Researchers acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals in compliance

with current local laws and regulations, and with professional standards.
Researchers trained in research methods and experienced in the care of
laboratory animals supervise all procedures involving animals and are
41
responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and
humane treatment. More so, they ensure that all methods and in the care,
maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate
to their role. Further, they should make reasonable efforts to minimize the
discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. To do this, they
should use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress, or privation only
when alternative procedures are unavailable and the goal is justified by its
prospective scientific, educational, or applied value. If they perform surgical
procedures, they must put the subjects under appropriate anesthesia and follow
techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain during and after surgery. When
it is appropriate that an animal’s life be terminated, researchers proceed rapidly,
with an effort to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures.
Reporting Research Results
Researchers do not fabricate data. If they discover significant errors in

their published data, they take reasonable steps to correct such errors in a
correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication means.
Plagiarism
Researchers do not present portions of another’s work or data as their

own, even if other work or data source is cited occasionally (UC Graduate
School Research Manual, 2007).
Failure to properly acknowledge and cite sources or any unauthorized use
of the words or ideas of another as if they are their own, whether deliberately or
accidentally. Is basically a deliberate attempt to steal and pass off, or actually
stealing and disposing the ideas or writings of another person as one’s own,
whether for free or profit (De Belen, 2015).
Among the forms of plagiarism are:
(a) taking an unchanged phrase from an original source and not citing the source
in text;
(b) taking an idea from an original source and not citing the source in-text;
© paraphrasing a sentence or paragraph from an original source and not citing it
in-text; and
(d) copying-and-pasting or even paraphrasing information from the internet and
not citing the source (Stanford University, 2006).
42
Publication Credit
The researchers take responsibility and credit, including authorship credit,

only for work they have actually performed or to which they have substantially
contributed. Principal authorship and other publication credits accurately reflect
the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved,
regardless of their relative status. Mere possession of an institutional position,
such as department chair, does not justify authorship credit. Minor contributions
to the research or to the writing for publications are acknowledged
appropriately, such as in footnotes or in an introductory statement. Except under
exceptional circumstances, a student is listed as principal author on any
multiple-authored article that is substantially based on the student’s doctoral
dissertation. Faculty advisors discuss publication credit with students as early as
feasible and throughout the research and publication process as appropriate.
Duplicate Publication of Data
Researchers do not publish, as original data, data that have been

previously published. This does not preclude republishing data when they are
accompanied by proper acknowledgment.
Informed Consent
When participants in a study are at risk, an informed consent form is

needed. The informed consent form is given to individuals before they
participate in a research study in order to inform them of the general nature of
the study and in order to obtain their consent to participate. It typically describes
the nature and purpose of the study. Yet, the researcher obviously cannot inform
participants about the expected results to avoid compromising the results
making it to contain broad, general statements about the nature and purpose of a
study. When deception is used in the study, then the form tells participants
nothing about the true nature and purpose of the study.
Citation
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Citing the ideas of an author in a research paper without appropriate
acknowledgement is unethical, illegal and immoral. There are standard rules
and principles of citation and bibliography entries which have been consistently
adopted used and followed in research and thesis writing since time
immemorial. They were formulated and are continuously improved to ensure
integrity, protection and respect for the written expression of the author. The
extent of reproduction or borrowing of ideas is also governed by certain
reasonable standards and parameters. The borrower or punter of another
person’s words or ideas must cite and acknowledge the owner (author) of those
words or ideas and the publishing details whether they are used and reproduced
by way of direct or indirect quotations.
The basic standard rules of acknowledgement or research referencing in
research writing are:
 The citation of sources in the body of the paper, and
 The acknowledgement or full references of sources at the end of the
work or paper.
The citation may be in the form of in-text style, footnote or endnote.

While the full references may be either in the form of bibliography, references
or works cited (De Belen, 2015).
APA Format
American Psychological Association (APA) is one of the most currently

and popularly used formats or styles of documentation/ recording of research
sources or citations. Is primarily used in scientific researches such as in science,
nursing, medicine, psychology, public health, forensic sciences and
criminology. It serves to protect and promote intellectual honesty and integrity
of the authors.
Is also called the author-date method of parenthetical documentation or
in-text citation. It means that at the end of borrowed word/s or passage/s the last
name of the author and the year of publication should appear in a parenthesis as
a source, and a list of complete references is placed at the end paper called
“References” (De Belen, 2015).
44
 Some writers suggest or use APA documentation in citing the text to
include not only the author’s last name and date but also the page
number/s in open and closed parentheses particularly placed at the end of
the direct or indirect quotation, e.g. (De Belen, 2006, p.68).
 Other APA Format subscribers are consistently using only the author’s
last name and the date, e.g. (De Belen, 2006) or De Belen (2006), in
citing within the source of the text (De Belen, 2015).
References (APA)
The list of references in APA is called and entitled as “References.”

There are also some important rules to remember about the works cited as listed
in the References of the APA format as follows:
(a) Use the initial for the author’s first name;

(b) Italicize titles and subtitles (There are others who use underline or bold fonts
in the titles and subtitles);
(c) Use “p.” for a page number, and “pp.” for more than one page;
(d) Alphabetize the author’s last names. If the author is unknown, use the first
word in the title excluding an, an or the, and
(e) Indent the first line only (regular indentation) or do not indent the first line,
but indent the rest by 5 spaces (hanging indentation rule). However, some
authors who do not indent, suggest no indentation (De Belen, 2015).
Bibliography
On top of the basic citation in the body of the paper, whether in the note
format or parenthetical system, the thesis or dissertation must have a full list of
sources and reference materials known as bibliography. Categorizes the
sources of data and provides full information about each source. It is also called
the “work-cited” or “references” in ordinary research papers which can be found
at the end of the paper. It contains three main information: the author, title and
publication information. It is divided into sections such as books, theses and
dissertations, periodicals, internet articles, legal documents, etc. where the
sources of data or citations for each section are arranged alphabetically
45
according to the surname of the author or the title of the work if there is no
author.
APA Format Citation Guide
This is a complete guide to APA (American Psychological Association) in-text

and reference list citations. This easy-to-use, comprehensive guide makes citing
any source easy. Check out our other citation guides on MLA
8 and Harvard referencing.
Core Components of an APA Reference:
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1. APA Referencing Basics: Reference List
A reference list is a complete list of references used in a piece of writing

including the author name, date of publication, title and more. An APA
reference list must:
 Be on a new page at the end of the document

 Be centered
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 Be alphabetically by name of first author (or title if the author isn’t
known, in this case a, an and should be ignored)
o If there are multiple works by the same author these are ordered by
date, if the works are in the same year they are ordered
alphabetically by the title and are allocated a letter (a, b, c etc.)
after the date
 Contain full references for all in-text references used
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2. APA Referencing Basics: In-Text Citation
In-text references must be included following the use of a quote or paraphrase

taken from another piece of work.
In-text citations are citations within the main body of the text and refer to a
direct quote or paraphrase. They correspond to a reference in the main reference
list. These citations include the surname of the author and date of publication
only. Using an example author James Mitchell, this takes the form:
Mitchell (2017) states… Or …(Mitchell, 2017).
The structure of this changes depending on whether a direct quote or

parenthetical used:
 Direct Quote: The citation must follow the quote directly and contain a
page number after the date, for example (Mitchell, 2017, p.104). This rule
holds for all of the variations listed.
 Parenthetical: The page number is not needed.
Two Authors:
The surname of both authors is stated with either ‘and’ or an ampersand

between. For example:
Mitchell and Smith (2017) state… Or … (Mitchell & Smith, 2017).
Three, Four or Five Authors:

47
For the first cite, all names should be listed:
Mitchell, Smith, and Thomson (2017) state… Or … (Mitchell, Smith, &

Thomson, 2017).
Further cites can be shorted to the first author’s name followed by et al:
Mitchell et al (2017) state… Or … (Mitchell et al, 2017).
Six or More Authors:
Only the first author’s surname should be stated followed by et al, see the above
example.
No Authors:
If the author is unknown, the first few words of the reference should be used.
This is usually the title of the source.
If this is the title of a book, periodical, brochure or report, is should be

italicised. For example:
(A guide to citation, 2017).
If this is the title of an article, chapter or web page, it should be in quotation

marks. For example:
(“APA Citation”, 2017).
Citing Authors with Multiple Works from One Year:
Works should be cited with a, b, c etc following the date. These letters are
assigned within the reference list, which is sorted alphabetically by the surname
of the first author. For example:
(Mitchell, 2017a) Or (Mitchell, 2017b).
Citing Multiple Works in One Parentheses:
If these works are by the same author, the surname is stated once followed by
the dates in order chronologically. For instance:
48
Mitchell (2007, 2013, 2017) Or (Mitchell, 2007, 2013, 2017)
If these works are by multiple authors then the references are ordered
alphabetically by the first author separated by a semicolon as follows:
(Mitchell & Smith 2017; Thomson, Coyne, & Davis, 2015).
Citing a Group or Organization:
For the first cite, the full name of the group must be used. Subsequently this can
be shortened. For example:
First cite: (International Citation Association, 2015)
Further Cites: (Citation Association, 2015)
Citing a Secondary Source:
In this situation the original author and date should be stated first followed by
‘as cited in’ followed by the author and date of the secondary source. For
example:
Lorde (1980) as cited in Mitchell (2017) Or (Lorde, 1980, as cited in Mitchell,

2017)
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3. How to Cite Different Source Types
 In-text citation doesn’t vary depending on source type, unless the author
is unknown.
 Reference list citations are highly variable depending on the source.
How to Cite a Book (Title, not chapter) in APA Format
Book referencing is the most basic style; it matches the template above, minus
the URL section. So the basic format of a book reference is as follows:
49
Book referencing examples:
Mitchell, J.A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R.P. (2017). A guide to citation.
London, England: My Publisher
Jones, A.F & Wang, L. (2011). Spectacular creatures: The Amazon

rainforest (2nd ed.). San Jose, Costa Rica: My Publisher
How to Cite an Edited Book in APA Format
This reference format is very similar to the book format apart from one extra
inclusion: (Ed(s)). The basic format is as follows:
Edited book example:
Williams, S.T. (Ed.). (2015). Referencing: A guide to citation rules (3rd ed.).

New York, NY: My Publisher
How to Cite a Chapter in an Edited Book in APA Format
Edited books are collations of chapters written by different authors. To

reference a single chapter, a different format is needed. The basic structure is as
follows:
50
Edited book chapter example:
In the following example, B.N. Troy is the author of the chapter and S.T.
Williams is the editor.
Troy, B.N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S.T, Williams (Ed.). A guide to
citation rules (2nd ed., pp. 50-95). New York, NY: Publishers.
How to Cite an E-Book in APA Format
An E-Book reference is the same as a book reference expect the publisher is

swapped for a URL. The basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s) (Ed(s).*). (Year). Title (ed.*). Retrieved from URL
*optional.
E-Book example:
Mitchell, J.A., Thomson, M., & Coyne, R.P. (2017). A guide to citation.
Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-
manage
How to Cite an E-Book Chapter in APA Format
This follows the same structure as an edited book chapter reference except the
publisher is exchanged for a URL. The structure is as follows:
Last name of the chapter author, initial(s). (Year). Chapter title. In editor
initial(s), surname (Ed.). Title (ed., pp.chapter page range). Retrieved from URL
E-Book chapter example:
51
Troy, B.N. (2015). APA citation rules. In S.T, Williams (Ed.). A guide to
citation rules (2nd ed., pp. 50-95). Retrieved from
https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager
How to Cite a Journal Article in Print or Online in APA Format
Articles differ from book citations in that the publisher and publisher location
are not included. For journal articles, these are replaced with the journal title,
volume number, issue number and page number. The basic structure is:
Journal Article Examples:
Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important. Mendeley Journal,

67(2), 81-95
Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Citation: Why is it so important. Mendeley Journal,

67(2), 81-95. Retrieved from https://www.mendeley.com/reference-
management/reference-manager
How to Cite a Newspaper Articles in Print or Online in APA Format
The basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, Month Day). Title. Title of

Newspaper, column/section, p. or pp. Retrieved from URL*
**Only include if the article is online.
Note: the date includes the year, month and date.
Newspaper Articles Example:

52
Mitchell, J.A. (2017). Changes to citation formats shake the research world. The
Mendeley Telegraph, Research News, pp.9. Retrieved from
https://www.mendeley.com/reference-management/reference-manager
How to Cite Magazine Articles in Print or Online in APA Format
The basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Title of the Magazine, pp.
Magazine Article Example:
Mitchell, J.A. (2017). How citation changed the research world. The Mendeley,
pp. 26-28
How to Cite Non-Print Material in APA Format
How to Cite an Image in APA Format
The basic format to cite an image is:
Image Example:
Millais, J.E. (1851-1852). Ophelia [painting]. Retrieved

from www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/millais-ophelia-n01506
How to Cite a Film in APA Format
The basic format of a film citation is:
Producer surname, initial (Producer), & Director surname, initial (Director).

(Year of Release). Title of film [Motion Picture]. Country of Origin: Studio.
Film Example:
53
Hitchcock, A. (Producer), & Hitchcock, A. (1954) Rear window. United States
of America: Paramount Pictures.
How to Cite a TV Programme in APA Format
The basic format is as follows:
Writer surname, initial(s) (Writer), & Director surname, initial(s) (Director).

(Year of Release). Episode title [Television series episode]. In Executive
producer surname, initial(s) (Executive Producer), TV series name. City, State
of original channel: Network, Studio or Distributor
TV Programme Example:
Catlin, M., and Walley-Beckett, Moire (Writers), & Johnson, R (Director).

(2010). Fly [Television series episode]. In Schnauz, T. (Executive
Producer). Breaking bad. Culver City, CA: Sony Pictures Television
How to Cite a Song in APA Format
The basic format to cite a song in APA format is as follows:
Song Example:
54
Beyonce, Diplo, MNEK, Koenig, E., Haynie, E., Tillman, J., and Rhoden, S.M.
(2016) Hold up [Recorded by Beyonce]. On Lemonade [visual album]. New
York, NY: Parkwood Records (August 16)
How to Cite a Website in APA Format
When citing a website, the basic structure is as follows:
Author surname, initial(s). (Year, month day). Title. Retrieved from URL
Website example:
Mitchell, J.A. (2017, May 21). How and when to reference. Retrieved from
https://www.howandwhentoreference.com.
55
REFERENCES
Arboleda, C. (1998). Writing a Thesis Proposal First ed. Rex Bookstore, Manila,
Philippines.
Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
https://enacademic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/15666
https://www.formpl.us/blog/descriptive-research.
Jackson, S.L. (2009). Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach
3rd edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
OECD (2015). Frascati Manual. The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and
Innovation Activities. doi:10.1787/9789264239012-en. ISBN 978-9264238800.
"OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms – Research and development UNESCO
Definition". stats.oecd.org. Archived from the original on 19 February 2007.
Retrieved 20 May 2018.
Paler-Calmorin, L. & Calmorin, M. (2007). Research Methods & Thesis Writing 2nd ed.
Rex Bookstore. Manila, Philippines.
Raimo Streefkerk, R. (2019). Revised on June 19, 2020
"Research". Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, Inc. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
Retrieved in https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/25033/21/
9.1.%20materials%20&%20methods.pdf
Singh, S. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.quora.com/Why-is-research-important-to-
our-daily-life.
56
Stefanadis, C. I. (2006). Characteristics of the good researcher: innate talent or
acquired skills?. Hellenic J Cardiol, 47, 52-53.
"The Origins of Science". Scientific American Frontiers.
UC Graduate School Research Manual, 2007
57

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LEARNING PACKETS

Course Learning Plan

3. Determine the different

4. Identify the importance of

3. Determine the different

Week Content/Topic Objectives/Competencies Teaching-Learning Modality/

1. Manage your time well. Be mindful of time requirements to complete weekly

III. Support and Services

This periodic lesson is about Research

1. Know the brief history and

2. Determine the different

3. Determine the different

4. Identify the importance of research

5. Identify the different types of

6. Determine the various classification

7. Determine the different sources of

Please note that you

Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any

Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the

The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research)

One definition of research is used by the OECD, "Any creative systematic

Another definition of research is given by John W. Creswell, who states

The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research in more detail

According to Singh (2006), research simply seeks the answer of certain

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting

Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an

However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely

 Dependent Variable -- The variable that depends on other factors

 Independent Variable -- The variable that is stable and unaffected

 The dependent variable is the condition that you measure in an

Independent and Dependent Variable Examples:

 In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps

 If you want to know whether caffeine affects your appetite,

 You want to determine whether a chemical is essential for rat

Rigorous - you must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed

Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods

Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem

Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or

Characteristics of the Researcher

2. He/she should be hard working, diligent, focused and devoted to his/her

3. Updating his/her knowledge is of utmost importance and can be

4. Modern researcher must be resourceful and inventive in order to transform

Research is important in our everyday life because it:

1. Gives us a light to inquire about the right information.

1. Basic research. This is also called as “fundamental research” or “pure

Examples of basic research:

2. Applied research. This type of research involves seeking new

3. Developmental research. This is a decision-oriented research involving

1. Library research. This is done in the library where answers to specific

2. Field research. Here, research is conducted in a natural setting. No

3. Laboratory research. The research is conducted in artificial or controlled

Sources of Knowledge and Information

1. Knowledge based on superstition

2. Knowledge based on intuition

3. Knowledge based on authorities

4. Knowledge through tenacity

5. Knowledge through rationalism

6. Knowledge through empiricism

7. Knowledge through Science

 To answer a specific question, to solve a particular controversy or issue

 To seek new knowledge and

Recognition of problems or identification of a topic. Research was

Five Basic Sources use to select a topic and a researchable problem

a. Professional Experience. Perhaps the most immediate and important source

Learning Packets CRIM7 Research Methods & Applied Statistics

Learning Packets CRIM7 Research Methods & Applied Statistics

Name:____________ Subject/ Code: Rating: