ICT in Changes of Learning Theories
E. Mechlova*, M. Malcik**
*University of Ostrava/Department of Physics, Ostrava, Czech Republic
** University of Ostrava /Department of Pedagogy and, Ostrava, Czech Republic
erika.mechlova@osu.cz, martin.malcik@osu.cz
Abstract—Learning theories have been developed over the
past 150 years. The development of these learning theories
over many decades is fascinating story. Some theories
developed as a negative reaction to earlier ones. The others
learning theories built foundational theories, looking a
specific context for learning, or taking them to more
sophisticated level. Positive features from many theories
influence teaching/learning process in schools to this day.
From the point of view information and communication
technology there were three learning theories that have been
often utilized in the creation of instructional environments:
behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism. New
learning theory connectivism that is "a learning theory for
the digital age" was introduced as a theory of learning
based on the premise that knowledge exists in the world
rather than in the head of an individual. Paper will discuss
impact technology on relations to learning theories
behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism and school
practice with research results of science teachers. The last
part of paper gives example of using ICT in the inquiry-
based education in science subjects.
I. INTRODUCTION
Learning theories have been developed over the past
150 years. The development of these learning theories
over many decades is fascinating story. There are many
learning theories. Learning theories are part of psychology
[1].
Learning theories are utilized in the creation of
instructional environments. These theories were
developed in a time when learning was not impacted
through digital technology. Over the last twenty years,
digital technology has reorganized how we live, how we
communicate, and how we learn. Learning needs and
theories that describe learning principles and processes
should be reflective of underlying social environments.
From the point of view information and communication
technology there were three learning theories that have
been often utilized in the creation of instructional
environments: behaviourism, cognitivism, and theory
constructivism. New learning theory is connectivism.
Digital technology has been developed over the past 30
years.
Paper will start with learning theories followed by ICT
changing in traditional paradigma of education and
modern paradigma of education.
II. LEARNING THEORIES
A. Behaviourism
Behaviourism is more concerned with behaviour than
with thinking, feeling, or knowing. It focuses on the
objective and observable components of behaviour. The
behaviourist theories all share some version of stimulus-
response mechanisms for learning [1].
Behaviourism was founded by John B. Watson [2] in
the early part of the 20th Century. This was the earliest
formulation of a coherent learning theory. Watson's work
was based on the experiments of Ivan Pavlov, and
classical conditioning. A variety of perspectives emerged
over the next few decades, including the work of
Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, Hull, Skinner, and others.
Nowadays, behaviourism is associated with the name of
B.F. Skinner [3], who made his reputation by testing
Watson's theories in the laboratory. Skinner believed that
people respond to their environment, but they also operate
on the environment to produce certain consequences. Thus
they participate in a feedback loop as an important part of
a larger system. Skinner developed the theory of operant
conditioning, the idea that we behave the way we do
because this kind of behaviour has had certain
consequences in the past.
From the behaviourist perspective, three assumptions
are held to be true. First, the focus was on observable
behaviour rather than on internal cognitive processes. If
learning has occurred, then some sort of observable
external behaviour is apparent. Second, the environment is
the shaper of learning and behaviour, not individual
characteristics. Third, principles of contiguity and
reinforcement are central to explaining the learning
process.
The behaviourist orientation is fundamental to much
current educational practice, including adult education.
Skinner believed the ultimate goal of education was to
train individuals to behaviours which would ensure their
personal survival, as well as the survival of cultures and
the species. The teacher's role, in this perspective, is to
provide an environment that elicits the desired behaviours
and extinguishes the undesirable ones.
Educational practices which have these notions at their
core include systematic design of instruction, behavioural
and performance objectives, programmed instruction,
competency-based instruction, and instructor
accountability. Training for skills and vocations is
particularly heavily saturated with learning and being
reinforced for "correct responses and behaviours."
Neobehaviourism are new theories emerged which
retained some of the behaviourist concepts but deleted
others, and added new ideas which later came to be
associated with the cognitive views of learning. The neo-
behaviourists, then, were a transitional group, bridging the
gap between behaviourism and cognitive theories of
learning.
B. Cognitive learning theories
Cognitive learning theories are concerned with
processes which occur inside the brain and nervous
system as a person learns. They share the idea that people
actively process information and learning takes place
through the efforts of the learner. Internal mental
processes include inputing, organizing, storing, retrieving,
and finding relationships between information. New
information is linked to old ones, schema and scripts.
All the various cognitive approaches emphasise how
information is processed. There were some very early
efforts to organize cognitive theories in the late 1900's, but
these were usurped by the behaviorist work being done at
that time. It was not until the years after World War II that
cognitive theories began to find their strength.
The gestalt learning theories were the first to challenge
the behaviorist point of view. They criticized behaviorism
for its reductionistic tendencies, and felt it was too
dependent on external behaviors to explain learning. By
the mid twentieth century, gestalt learning theories and the
work of M. Wertheimer, W. Kohler, K. Koffka, and
Lewin provided competition to behaviorism as the only
accepted theory of learning at these times.
Gestalt learning theories emphasized perception,
insight, and meaning as the key elements of learning. The
individual was seen as a perceptual organism, who
organized, interpreted, and gave meaning to the events
that impinged upon his consciousness. Making sense of
events and phenomena was a driving concept. The learner
makes sense of things by thinking about them. For
gestaltists, the individuality of the learner and his internal
mental processes is the core.
Jean Piaget was influenced by the behaviorist and the
gestalt schools, and proposed that one's internal cognitive
structures change as a result of developmental changes in
the nervous system and as a result of being exposed to
variety of experiences and the environments that contain
them.
Contemporary research in cognitive learning theories
focuses on information procession, memory,
metacognition, theories of transfer, computer simulations,
artificial intelligence, mathematical learning models, these
are very close to digital tecchnology.
D. P. Ausubel [4], J. S. Bruner [5], and R. M. Gagne [6]
are all classified as contemporary cognitive theorists. Each
of these theorists emphasized different aspects of
cognitive functioning of the individual and group
contexts.
Cognitive learning theories are quite diverse, but all are
unified by the importance of the learner's internal mental
processes. These three pioneering cognitive theorists,
Bruner, Ausubel and Gagné also shared common ideas.
They did not emphasize a developmental perspective, as
much as Piaget did. These three theorists were doing
much of their work in the 1960's and 1970's. Even then,
each was recognized as an authority in his field.
Although Ausubel, Bruner and Gagné each took
different perspectives on learning, each has made
significant contributions to the overall model of human
learning. D. P. Ausubel [4], considered the impact of prior
learning and originated the tool called the "advanced
organizer". The behaviourists did not consider the
importance of prior learning.
Bruner's work [5], on categorisation and concept
formation provided models of how the learner derives
information from the environment. Gagné [6] looked at
the events of learning and instruction as a series of phases,
using the cognitive steps of coding, storing, retrieving and
transferring information.
C. Constructivistic learning theoriess
Constructivism is a meta-concept. It is not just another
way of knowing, but a way of thinking about knowing. It
is a theory of communication and suggests that each
listener or reader will potentially use the content and
process of the communication in different ways. There are
numerous constructivist learning theories, and the
common core that unites them is that learning is an active
process, unique to the individual, and consists of
constructing conceptual relationships and meaning from
information and experiences already in the learner's
repertoire.
The core ideas were mentioned by John Dewey, so it is
not a new idea. Constructivism claims that each learner
constructs knowledge individually and socially. The
"glue" that holds the constructs together is meaning.
Knowledge is not "out there", as the realist philosophers
such as Plato claimed. Knowledge is always an
interpretation of reality, not a "true" representation of it.
Main Contributors to Constructivism are as follows:
David Ausubel – subsumption theory, Jerome S. Bruner –
constructivism, Jean Piaget – genetic epistemology, Lave
– situated cognition, C. Argyris – double loop learning, R.
J. Spiro – cognitive flexibility [7], D. A. Kolb [8] –
learning styles, J. H. Flavell [9] – metacognition, Schank
[10] – script theory.
Principles of constructivist learning:
1. The learner uses sensory input and does something
with it, ultimately making meaning of it.
2. Learning consists of both constructing meaning and
constructing systems of meaning. Learning is layered.
3. Learning occurs in the mind. Physical activity may be
necessary, but is not sufficient alone.
4. Learning involves language. Vygotsky [11] believed
that language and learning are inextricably
intermeshed.
5. Learning is a social activity.
6. Learning is contextual. We do not isolate facts from
the situations and environments in which they are
relevant.
7. Knowledge is necessary for learning. It is the basis of
structure and meaning-making. The more we know,
the more we can learn.
8. Learning takes time; it is not spontaneous. Learners
go over information, ponder over them, use them,
practice, experiment.
9. Motivation is a necessary component, because it
causes the learner's sensory apparatus to be activated.
Relevance, curiosity, fun, accomplishment,
achievement, external rewards and other motivators
facilitate ease of learning.
There are many schools of constructivism:
Trivial (Cognitive) Constructivism is based on the
concept that knowledge is actively constructed by the
learner, not passively received by the environment.
Derived from the assimilation – accommodation and
schema models of J. Piaget [12].
Radical constructivism is derived from Von Glaserfeld
(1990). Von Glaserfeld [13] put forth the notion that the
learner's constructions do not necessarily reflect
knowledge of a “real world”. Coming to know is a process
of dynamic adaptation toward viable interpretations of
experiences. We have no way of knowing what “real”
reality might be, since input is filtered. Previous constructs
also influence our perceptions of current experience. We
construct “viable” models of what reality is based on
social and physical constraints.
Social constructivism was the theory of Vygotsky [11]
in the late 1970's. Vygotsky's point of view was that
acquisition and participation were synergistic strategies in
learning situations. Aspects of participation involved
teaching in contexts that could be meaningful to students
based on their personal and social history, negotiating,
class discussions, small group collaborative learning with
projects and tasks, and valuing meaningful activity over
correct answers. Social constructivism emphasizes that
learning takes place through interactions with other
students, teachers, and the world-at-large.
Cultural constructivism brings in a wider context to
learning, including customs, religion, language,
physiology, tools available (computers, books, etc.). Tools
are used to redistribute the cognitive load between the
learner and the tool, and can affect the mind beyond actual
use by changing one's skills, perspectives, and responses.
Critical Constructivism adds a dimension of critical
evaluation and cultural reform to the educational process.
This approach incorporates the use of communicative
ethics which defines the conditions for establishing dialog
oriented toward mutual understanding among learners and
teachers. Communicative ethics promotes (1) primary
concern for maintaining empathetic, caring, and trusting
relationships, (2) commitment to achieve reciprocal
understanding of goals, interests and standards, and (3)
concern for and critical awareness of the often-invisible
rules of the classroom, including social and cultural
myths.
Prevalent myths in today's educational system include
at the first cold reason, the notion of knowledge as eternal
truth, teacher as transmitter of objective truths, and
curriculum as a product which is delivered, and at the
second hard control, the perspective of teacher as
controller, in which there is a power differential between
teacher and learners, and a dominance-subordinate
relationship.
Suggestions of Constructivism for course design
(presuppositions from J. S. Bruner)
- Students come with a world view.
- Their world view acts as a filter to all their
experiences and incoming observations
- Changing a world view takes work
- Students learn from other students and the teacher
- Students learn by doing
- When all participants have a voice, construction of
new ideas is promoted
- Constructivism works best when the learner prepares
something for others to see or hear. When the learner
prepares visuals such as text, graphics, web sites, or
activities in which another can participate, or
endeavors to explain material to other students, or
works in a group context, leaning is especially
powerful.
Nine characteristics of a constructivist teacher:
1. Teacher serves as one of many resources for students,
not necessarily the primary source of information.
2. The teacher engages students in experiences that
challenge previous conceptions of their existing
knowledge.
3. The teacher uses student responses in the planning of
next lessons and seeks elaboration of students' initial
responses.
4. The teacher encourages questions and discussion
among students by asking open-ended questions.
5. The teacher assists students to understand their own
cognitive processes (metacognition) by using
cognitive terminology such as classify, analyze,
create, organize, hierarchy, etc. when framing tasks.
6. The teacher encourages and accepts student
autonomy and initiative by being willing to let go of
classroom control
7. The teacher makes available raw data and primary
resources, along with manipulative and interactive
physical materials.
8. The teacher does not separate knowing from the
process of finding out. Nouns and verbs.
9. The teacher facilitates clear communication from
students in writing and verbal responses, from the
point of view that communication comes from ones
deep structural understanding of the concepts being
communicated. When they can communicate clearly
and meaningfully, they have truly integrated the new
learning.
Principles of constructivist course design:
- Maintain a buffer between the learner and potentially
damaging effects of instructional practices.
Emphasize the affective domain, make instruction
relevant to the learner, help learners develop attitudes
and beliefs that ill support both present learning and
lifelong learning, and balance teacher-control with
personal autonomy in the learning environment.
- Provide contexts for both autonomous learning and
learning within relationships to other students. Group
discussion, projects, collaboration as well as
independent.
- Provide reasons for learning within the learning
activities themselves. Have students identify
relevance and purpose.
- Promote and make conscious the skills and attitudes
that enable a learner to assume responsibility for
his/her cognitive and developmental processes.
D. Connectivist learning theories
Connectivism was introduced as a learning theory based
on the premise that knowledge exists in the world rather
than in the head of an individual. Connectivism proposes a
perspective similar to the activity theory of L. S. Vygotsky
[11] as it regards knowledge to exist within systems which
are accessed through people participating in activities. It
also bears some similarity with the social learning theory
of A. Bandura [14] that proposes that people learn through
contact. The add-on "a learning theory for the digital age",
that appears on G. Siemens [15] paper indicates the
special importance that is given to the effect digital
technology has on how people live, how they
communicate, and how they learn.
One aspect of connectivism is the use of a network with
nodes and connections as a central metaphor for learning.
In this metaphor, a node is anything that can be connected
to another node within a network such as an organisation:
information, data, feelings, images. Connectivism sees
learning as the process of creating connections and
developing a network. Not all connections are of equal
strength in this metaphor, in fact, many connections may
be quite weak. The idea of organisations being cognitive
systems where knowledge is distributed across a network
of nodes can be traced back to the work on the
Pperceptron. This metaphor is directly borrowed from
cnnectionism, "a paradigm in cognitive sciences that sees
mental or behavioural phenomena as the emergent
processes of interconnected networks of simple units".
This network metaphor allows for a notion of "know-
where" (the understanding of where to find the knowledge
when it is needed) to supplement to the ones of "know-
how" and "know-what" that make the cornerstones of
many theories of learning.
Connectivism is the integration of principles explored
by theories chaos, network, complexity, and self-
organization. Learning is a process that occurs within
nebulous environments of shifting core elements – not
entirely under the control of the individual. Learning
(defined as actionable knowledge) can reside outside of
ourselves (within an organization or a database), is
focused on connecting specialized information sets, and
the connections that enable us to learn more are more
important than our current state of knowing, see Fig. 1.
Remarks to Fig. 1: “Informace=uzel” is Information=nod,
and “Znalost=spojení” is Knowledge=connection
specialized information sets.
Connectivism is driven by the understanding that
decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations. New
information is continually being acquired. The ability to
draw distinctions between important and unimportant
information is vital. The ability to recognize when new
information alters the landscape based on decisions made
yesterday is also critical [15].
Principles of connectivism:
- Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of
opinions.
- Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes
or information sources.
- Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
- Capacity to know more is more critical than what is
currently known.
- Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to
facilitate continual learning.
- Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and
concepts is a core skill.
- Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the
intent of all connectivist learning activities.
Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing
what to learn and the meaning of incoming information is
Figure 1. Learning from the point of view theory connectivism [16]
seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a
right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to
alterations in the information climate affecting the
decision.
Connectivism also addresses the challenges that many
corporations face in knowledge management activities.
Knowledge that resides in a database needs to be
connected with the right people in the right context in
order to be classified as learning. Behaviourism,
cognitivism, and constructivism do not attempt to address
the challenges of organizational knowledge and
transference.
Information flow within an organization is an important
element in organizational effectiveness. In a knowledge
economy, the flow of information is the equivalent of the
oil pipe in an industrial economy. Creating, preserving,
and utilizing information flow should be a key
organizational activity. Knowledge flow can be likened to
a river that meanders through the ecology of an
organization. In certain areas, the river pools and in other
areas it ebbs. The health of the learning ecology of the
organization depends on effective nurturing of
information flow.
Social network analysis is an additional element in
understanding learning models in a digital era. Art Kleiner
[17] explores Karen Stephenson’s “quantum theory of
trust” which “explains not just how to recognize the
collective cognitive capability of an organization, but how
to cultivate and increase it”. Within social networks, hubs
are well-connected people who are able to foster and
maintain knowledge flow. Their interdependence results
in effective knowledge flow, enabling the personal
understanding of the state of activities organizationally.
The starting point of connectivism is the individual.
Personal knowledge is comprised of a network, which
feeds into organizations and institutions, which in turn
feed back into the network, and then continue to provide
learning to individual. This cycle of knowledge
development (personal to network to organization) allows
learners to remain current in their field through the
connections they have formed.
T. K. Landauer and S. T. Dumais [18] explore the
phenomenon that “people have much more knowledge
than appears to be present in the information to which
they have been exposed”. They provide a connectivist
focus in stating “the simple notion that some domains of
knowledge contain vast numbers of weak interrelations
that, if properly exploited, can greatly amplify learning by
a process of inference”. The value of pattern recognition
and connecting our own “small worlds of knowledge” are
apparent in the exponential impact provided to our
personal learning.
John Seely Brown [19] presents an interesting notion
that the internet leverages the small efforts of many with
the large efforts of few. The central premise is that
connections created with unusual nodes supports and
intensifies existing large effort activities. Brown provides
the example of a Maricopa County Community College
system project that links senior citizens with elementary
school students in a mentor program. The children “listen
to these “grandparents” better than they do their own
parents, the mentoring really helps the teachers…the small
efforts of the many – the seniors – complement the large
efforts of the few – the teachers.” This amplification of
learning, knowledge and understanding through the
extension of a personal network is the epitome of
connectivism.
Implications: The notion of connectivism has
implications in all aspects of life. This paper largely
focuses on its impact on learning, but the following
aspects are also impacted:
- Management and leadership. The management and
marshalling of resources to achieve desired outcomes is a
significant challenge. Realizing that complete knowledge
cannot exist in the mind of one person requires a different
approach to creating an overview of the situation. Diverse
teams of varying viewpoints are a critical structure for
completely exploring ideas. Innovation is also an
additional challenge. Most of the revolutionary ideas of
today at one time existed as a fringe element. An
organizations ability to foster, nurture, and synthesize the
impacts of varying views of information is critical to
knowledge economy survival. Speed of “idea to
implementation” is also improved in a systems view of
learning.
- Media, news, information. This trend is well under
way. Mainstream media organizations are being
challenged by the open, real-time, two-way information
flow of blogging.
- Personal knowledge management in relation to
organizational knowledge management.
- Design of learning environments.
Connectivist teaching methods: Summing up
connectivist teaching and learning, S. Downes states: "to
teach is to model and demonstrate, to learn is to practice
and reflect."
In 2008, G. Siemens and S. Downes delivered an online
course called "Connectivism and Connective Knowledge".
It covered connectivism as content while attempting to
implement some of their ideas. The course was free and
open to anyone who wished to participate, with over 2000
people worldwide signing up. The phrase "Massive Open
Online Course" (MOOC) was coined to describe this open
model. All course content was available through RSS
feeds, and learners could participate with their choice of
tools: threaded discussions in Moodle, blog posts, Second
Life, and synchronous online meetings. The course was
repeated in 2009 and in 2011.
Criticisms. The idea that connectivism provides a new
theory of learning has not received wide acceptance. P.
Verhagen [20], for instance, has argued that connectivism
is not a learning theory, but rather is a "pedagogical view".
The absence of reference to prior works on connectivism
makes it difficult to evaluate what their unique
contribution is (if any). Bill Kerr, for instance, believes
that, although technology does affect learning
environments, existing learning theories are sufficient.
The critique is further elucidated by Kop and Hill who
concludes that while it does not seem that connectivism is
a separate learning theory, it "continues to play an
important role in the development and emergence of new
pedagogies, where control is shifting from the tutor to an
increasingly more autonomous learner."
Conclusion: The pipe is more important than the
content within the pipe. Our ability to learn what we need
for tomorrow is more important than what we know today.
A real challenge for any learning theory is to actuate
known knowledge at the point of application. When
knowledge, however, is needed, but not known, the ability
to plug into sources to meet the requirements becomes a
vital skill. As knowledge continues to grow and evolve,
access to what is needed is more important than what the
learner currently possesses.
Connectivism presents a model of learning that
acknowledges the tectonic shifts in society where learning
is no longer an internal, individualistic activity. How
people work and function is altered when new tools are
utilized. The field of education has been slow to recognize
both the impact of new learning tools and the
environmental changes in what it means to learn.
Connectivism provides insight into learning skills and
tasks needed for learners to flourish in a digital era.
III. PARADIGMS OF EDUCATION
Paradigm is frame of special science and its research
approaches. Paradigm is theoretical complex of ideas and
conceptions a special science in historical period. It gives
problems for solving, ways of solving, and is reflected in
practice in this historical period.
Comparisons of learning theories are very useful for
understanding of changes in educational paradigms of
behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, and
connectivism..
These comparisons give answers on five questions to
distinguish learning theories:
1. How does learning occur?
2. What factors influence learning?
3. What is the role of memory?
4. How does transfer occur?
5. What types of learning are best explained by this
theory?
6.
Answers are given in Tab. I. and Tab. II.
Learning theories tend to fall into one of several
perspectives or paradigms, including behaviourism,
cognitivism, constructivism, and connectivism.
Learning theories behaviourism and cognitivism are
older, Tab. I. They compose so called core of the
traditional paradigm of education. Learning theories explained sources
constructivism and connectivism are newer and compose
core of the modern paradigm of education Tab. II. Change of educational paradigm impacts on all
TABLE I. structure of education, all component of education.
Comparison of learning theories Change of paradigm impacts on process of learning, on
behaviourism and cognitivism role of teacher, and on role of pupil. New demands rise on
Property Behaviourism Cognitivism role of teacher, on pupil, and on school class.
Learning Thorndike, Koffka, Digital technologies in education are the reason
theorists Pavlov, Kohler, changing of all educational components. As follows from
Watson, Lewin,
Guthrie, Piaget,
conectivism learning theory, the knowledge is outside of
Hull, Ausubel, man brain, is in”cloud”.
Tolman, Bruner, As concerns education, it is possible follow the
Skinner Gagne changing of all of educational components:
How Black box – Structured,
learning observable Compu- 1. Teacher’s role
occurs behaviour tational 2. Teaching style
main focus 3. Pupil’s role
Influencing Nature of Existing
factors reward, schema, 4. Curriculum
punishment, previous 5. Pupil’s learning
stimuli experiences
Role of Memory is the Encoding,
6. Objectives of pupil’s learning
memory hardwiring of storage, 7. Methods and forms of teaching/learning process
repeated retrieval 8. Pupil’s learning resources
experiences –
where reward 9. Role of technology
and 10. Evaluation of pupil’s progress
punishment
are most
influential IV. ICT IN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN EDUCTIONAL
How Stimulus, Duplicating PARADIGMS
transfer response knowledge Traditional and modern educational paradigms have
occurs constructs
of
place in theory and school practice. Both paradigms have
“knower” relevant approach that can help in teaching/learning
Types of Task-based Reasoning, process. Terms “traditional and modern paradigms” are
learning learning clear applied by E. Hinostroza [21], N. Law, W. Pelgrum, T.
best objectives, Plomp [22], A. Loveless, G. DeVoogd, R. Bohlin [23], J.
explained problem Voogt [24]. We analyze role of ICT in both paradigms.
solving
A. Traditional educational paradigm
TABLE II. The first foundation of traditional paradigm is the
Comparison of learning theories general system theory that affects instructional design.
constructivism and connectivism The second foundation is behaviourism with learning
Property Constructivis Connectivism machines and programmed learning in fifties the last
m century. The programmed learning emphasizes the active
Learning Piaget, Siemens, role of subject in learning, role of feedback and control of
theorists Vygotsky Downes learning process. Behaviourism is considered as simple,
How Social, Distributed within
elegant and consistent by Burton, Moore, Magliaro [25].
learning meaning a network, social,
occurs created by technologically Behaviourism is considered by them as relevant and vital
each learner enhanced, philosophy that gives foundation and support for widely
(personal) recognizing and understand concept of “educational technology”.
interpreting patterns Key elements of traditional paradigm and their
Influencing Engagement, Diversity of network, application in education with relations to ICT are as
factors participation, strength of ties,
social, context of occurrence follows:
cultural 1. Teacher’s role – central person controls learning
Role of Prior Adaptive patterns, process, the highest authority
memory knowledge representative of
remixed to current state,
2. Teaching style – transfer findings, instructive
current existing in networks teaching, check on pupil’s work and feedback
context 3. Pupil’s role – passive role, role of teacher and role
How Socialization Connecting to (adding) of pupil are strictly given, pupil is controlled,
transfer nodes and growing pupil’s activity in excercises
occurs the network
(social/conceptual/ 4. Curriculum – determinate strictly, consistent
biological) standards and curriculum, subjects and lessons
Types of Social, Complex learning, 5. Pupil’s learning – receptive and reproductive, inner
learning Vague rapid changing core, motivation, knowledge is memorised information
best (“ill defined”) diverse knowledge
 6. Objectives of pupil’s learning – concrete
knowledge and skill are adopted or keep in mind
7. Methods and forms of teaching/learning process –
frontal teaching, individualized way and rate of
pupil, homogeneous groups of pupils, typical low
variability of learning activities
8. Pupil’s learning resources – principal resource is
teacher or given learning materials
9. Role of technology – carrier of learning subject
matter, for exercise, for repetition, for feedback
10. Evaluation of pupil’s progress – testing, marking,
summative evaluation
Application of key elements or principles traditional
paradigm onto using of technology and learning programs
has several forms. Subject matter is presented in small
parts or in modules. Pupil has to master basic or the first
level for continuing learning. Learning program gives
opportunity to repeat subject matter, gives supplementary
information or gives example. Program can tested pupil’s
knowledge and skills and gives his or her progress in
learning. Technology can suplement teacher in certain
cases.
ICT are compatible with the traditional paradigm.
Sophiticated using ICT in traditional paradigm is
ADDIE model for creation and planning education. It is
applied in instructionaal design of eLearning cousrses.
ADDIE consists of five steps from analyse pupil’s needs
to evaluation of effective programme. ADDIE model was
inspired by behaviorism. Phases of model are: Analysis,
Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation, and
hases concur.
Another application of techology are CAI (Computer-
assisted Instruction) and CML (Compter-managed
Learning).
The traditional paradigm was criticized but some of
approaches are uncoverable. Critique was aimed at
passivity of pupil, stress on learning by heart, stress on
inner conditions of learning and low using of technology
[16].
B. Modern educational paradigm
Modern paradigm was developed as reaction on
traditional paradigm. The foundation of modern paradigm
was constructivism and newly connectivism.
Constructivism is considered as prevailing present
paradigm. Pupil’s learning is personal, reflective and
transfomative process. Teacher has to find way to
diagnose pupil’s momental level of knowledge and skills
to help pupil’s learning (Wellington, 208). New demands
on teacher by D. Jonassen [26] are not accepted by all
teachers. Many of teachers are resistent to this approach or
refuse it.
Key elements of modern paradigm and their application
in education with relations to ICT are as follows:
1. Teacher’s role – facilitator, entrepreneur,
conductor, coach, creator of authentic experience
2. Teaching style – interactive or dialogic, cognitive
support, matching to pupil’s concepts and skills
3. Pupil’s role – active and cooperative “creator” of
knowledge, developer of competences, sometimes
expert or “teacher”, responsible for own learning,
organizing own activities
4. Curriculum – based on projects, problem learning,
flexible and dynamic curriculum, subjects and
lessons are put together by themes
5. Pupil’s learning – productive learning, learning
new information and learning how to learn,
learning in context, learning is social activity,
learning demands time and is focused on
understanding and achievement
6. Objectives of pupil’s learning – pupil’s ability to
construct knowledge, reconstruction,
understanding and utilisation of knowledge,
cognitive flexibility, critical thinking and ability to
solve problems, sharing of experiences
7. Methods and forms of teaching/learning process –
group work in small heterogeneous groups, project
methods, experimentations, finding and synthesis
of information, presentations, large variability of
learning activities
8. Pupil’s learning resources – whatever can be a
resource – textbooks, books, magazines, audio and
video recording, internet, electronic
encyclopaedias, classmates, teacher, and specialists
out of school
9. Role of technology – innovative, constructive,
cognitive, communicative
10. Evaluation of pupil’s progress – achievement tests,
portfolios, formative evaluation, self-evaluation,
evaluation by classmates
ICT in modern paradigm are significant entrepreneur.
Technology can help modern teaching/learning process
following ways [26]:
- ICT as tool for construction of science -
presentation of ideas, conceptions, and opinions of
pupil; creation of multimedia knowledge databases
by pupils
- ICT as information tool for discovering science
that supports learning through construction –
acquisition needed information; comparison
perspectives, opinions, and look on world
- ICT as creator context supporting learning by
doing – presentation and simulation problems of
real world, situations and contexts; presentation of
opinions, perspectives, arguments and stories of the
others; definition safety and controllabel
environment that has problems or project for
students’ thought
- ICT as social medium supporting learning by
conversation or communication – cooperation with
the others; discussion, argumentation, formation
consenzus among members of community; support
of discurs in communities based on knowledge
- ICT as intellectual partner of pupils that support
learning by reflection – helps students express and
present knowledge; reflects knowledge of pupils
and the way of obtaining knowledge; supports
pupils inner dialogue and creation of meaning;
constructs personal presentation of meaning;
supports thinking.
Principles of modern paradigm reflects in concept
Resource-based Learning (RBL) and Web-based Learning
(WBL). Research on preferring digital or printed textbook
was carried out on 10 000 students in Europe. Students
that prefere digital textbooks are 36 %. In the USA 58 %
of students prefere digital textbooks.
V. RESEARCH OF TEACHERS’ OPINIONS ON ICT
The researches of natural-science teachers at 15
primary schools and 15 secondary schools contain
opinions of active teachers who cooperated with the
Pedagogical Faculty of University of Ostrava on projects
(years 2011-2012) as partners.
The first research of teachers was focused on
supporting the development of key competencies of pupils
with information technologies in connection with the
curriculum reform. The second research was focused on
the relation between the traditional and modern paradigms
of education in natural-science subjects with teachers who
went through a course focused on the change of paradigm
in connection with digital technologies.
A. Research on ICT and key competences
However, Czech framework education programmes do
not include all key competencies of the European
reference framework; mainly missing are the key
competencies for working with digital technologies.
Questionnaire was focused on supporting the development
of key competencies of pupils by using information
technologies in connection with the curriculum reform.
Questionnaires were given to active teachers of natural-
science subjects at the beginning of projects electronically
in 2011. The research shows that more than half of the
teachers of natural-science subjects do not have
multimedia tools to support the development of key
competencies of pupils (problem solving, learn how to
learn, social and personal competencies, competencies for
working with digital technologies) at their disposal during
the teaching and they do not have resources for pupils to
use computer aided experiments in natural-science
subjects. The results also show that 93 % of the teachers
want to further educate themselves in this field.
B. Research on ICT and educational paradigms
Today’s issues of education are closely connected with
a general shift in teaching and learning paradigm that has
taken place in connection with the arrival of globalise
world together with the information revolution and
continuous requirements of knowledge society. This field
is taken into account in the second research. Current
education paradigm has shifted from the traditional one
based on philosophical behaviourism and cognitivism to a
modern one based on constructivism and connectivism.
The main part of the paradigm change lies in more
accessible, open and liberal education focused more on the
development of individualism and human personality.
This change impacts the whole structure of education, all
its aspects. It manifests in all the layers, i.e. learning and
teaching process, roles of teachers and pupils. The arrival
of connectivist paradigm connected with the emergence of
Web 2.0, which has already taken its role in everyday
human lives (e.g. blogs), but has not been worked into
education yet. The research of opinions natural-science
subjects teachers who went through a course focused on
the change of paradigm in connection with digital
technologies has been focused on the relation between the
traditional and modern concept of education.
This research of natural-science teachers at 15 primary
schools and 15 secondary schools contains opinions of
active teachers who cooperated with the Pedagogical
Faculty of University of Ostrava for two years (2010-
2012) on the project as partners. Project was called the
New Approaches to Using ICT in Teaching Natural-
Science Subjects at Primary Schools and the second one
at Secondary Schools. Teachers participated in an
accredited course and in 6 mono-thematic workshops. The
focus was given on modern educational paradigm and
using ICT. In the questionnaires, teachers evaluated the
contribution of specific project activities, they commented
on their personal changes, and if these changes impacted
their actual work with pupils in natural-science classes.
The opinions of teachers varied – some accepted several
elements of the new paradigm, some did enthusiastic work
with pupils, which created a true partnership between
them. This is the goal to which teachers and pupils are
gradually heading. The opinions of the teachers were in
favour of the modern paradigm in 2:1 ratio.
Statement of one teacher is characteristic for this time.
“Every one of us should strive to be a modern teacher who
sets the example for their pupils not only due to the
knowledge of their field but also due to the
unconventional methods of teaching, and these are easily
prepared with the use of information and communication
technologies. Very often we encounter the opinion that
every innovative method will take too much of teacher’s
time and that the resuscitation of already devised lessons
is too complicated. However, if you passing course, you
will acquire on how to effectively use the internet, where
you can find unlimited number of encyclopaedic pages,
interactive objects, internet magazines, dictionaries, video
clips, web cameras, natural-science themed games, or
scientific publications. Incredibly significant is the easy
communication over the internet – not only between
pupils themselves, but also between pupils and the
teacher. Electronic mail, chatting (often through the ICQ
client), Moodle, SMS sending, or phoning and video-
phoning (e.g. through Skype) can be used. The latest
phenomenon is undoubtedly the emergence of information
exchange through social networks (Twitter and
Facebook). Besides the use of the abovementioned
activities, this courser also provides links for ideas on
project teaching or on lab work innovation. A large
number of foreign language sources might be threatening,
but do not worry and browse the pages. Even if you are
not the most linguistically gifted, you will see that much
of the terminology is the same and you will be able to get
to essential information without much effort. I will repeat
the above-mentioned sentence once more: ‘Be a modern
teacher!’ … without the use of ICT that will be hard.”
VI. ICT IN FOUR LEVELS OF INQUIRY BASED SCIENCE
EDUCATION
Inquiry-Based Science Education in the biotechnology
field is an often used term. But Inquiry-Based Science
Education with ICT support is not so often used [27]. Four
levels of pupil’s research have clear specifications and
rules, including ICT support. Not every level of research
is suitable for all pupils or groups of pupils. Each level of
Inquiry-Based Science Education is different with respect
to availability of ICT resources. These resources
availability varies depending on particular institutions.
They are however available, it can be stated. Inquiry-
Based Science Education applied on cross-sectional
environmental education enables wide range of
opportunities to connect ICT with this teaching strategy.
Possibilities are point out of connecting ICT, four levels
of Inquiry-Based Science Education and the
environmental education.
A. ICT in teaching – problem-solvng
Special methods and forms of work with ICT are used
in problem-solving [28]:
- computer aided experiment – remote experiment,
virtual experiment
- work with sensors and suitable software to execute the
experiment
- pupils preparing a presentations of the experiment
results
- sharing experiment results with other pupils on social
networks and various blogs
- pupils and teachers prepare presentations on special
topic
- pupils and teachers prepare materials for interactive
board
- pupils search for information and work with
information
- pupils publish various materials on portals concerning
teaching (digital tuition materials).
B. Inquiry-Based Science education
Inquiry-Based Science Education is based on teacher's
consideration; pupils can work in research oriented
teaching/learning of following four levels [29]:
1st level – Confirmation Inquiry – pupils are provided
with the question and action (method), results are known
in advance, the purpose is to confirm a principle through
own experience.
2nd level – Structured Inquiry – the teacher presents
question and possible action (method), based on their
knowledge, pupils determine the explanation of studied
phenomenon.
3rd level – Guided Inquiry – the teacher presents a
research question but leaves the method and solution open
to pupils.
4th level – Open Inquiry – pupils present a question,
think of method, realize the research and define the
results.
C. ICT on particular levels of Inquiry-Based Science
Education
Within four levels of Inquiry-Based Science Education
can be ICT implemented into computer aided experiment
as follows [30]:
1st Confirmation Inquiry
a) Internet. Searching for information and checking
own answers, if necessary supplying other information
concerning given topic. The teacher provides the pupils
with web pages to help them find the information. The
pupils will find the information in e-text.
b) Teaching programs. Practicing already discussed
topic.
c) Work with sensors. Pupils follow the instructions.
The result is known in advance. The purpose is to get
acquainted with technologies which can be used during
the computer aided experiment and to confirm the
correctness of the action (method) with respect to the
outputs known in advance.
2nd Structured Inquiry
a) Work with sensors following the task. It based on the
measurements, the pupil must evaluate on the results of
the experiment. The pupil must analyze the results and
deliver the conclusion in particular form answering the
following questions: Why he/she executed the
experiment? What did he/she found out?
b) Preparation of presentation of their own results and
justifying them. Pupil is searching the internet for the
information to confirm the obtained data.
3rd Guided Inquiry
a) Searching the Internet. Searching for the information
necessary to execute the experiment, following various
simulations and animations connected with the
experiment, an effort to optimize the experiment to the
school lab conditions or outside it as an remote or virtual
experiment.
b) Presenting the experiment to the other pupils in the
class, justifying the method.
c) Work with sensors. Pupils execute the experiment,
based on task given by a teacher. They choose their own
suitable sensors. At the first they analyze the strategy of
executing of the experiment. They execute the experiment.
Finally they will provide the following information: the
aim of the experiment, reason the method of execution.
d) Exploitation of all available technologies at school
and beyond. Individual pupil gives proposals for solving
the problems, in certain way also innovative methods.
Pupil publishes the problem-solving results and discusses
them (social networks, school www network), preparing
materials for interactive boards – supplementing the
results of the experiment.
4th Open Inquiry
a) Pupil's own proposals for experiments concerning
the topic presented by the teacher during the class-work.
Pupils suggest their own experiments. They try to make
use of sensors available at school. At the same time they
try to suggest which sensors are necessary. They try to
find out with the aid of the teacher and the internet
whether the suggested sensors are available.
b) Exploitation of all available technologies at school
and beyond. Individual pupil gives proposals for problem-
solving, in certain way also innovative methods. Pupil
publishes the results. The results of the experiment are
discussed among the others pupils (social networks,
school www network). Pupils prepare materials for
interactive boards – supplementing the results of
experiment.
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