Th AES TN ANGUSEIE, Pak GATTI NT AMT PustisHinc me &Published by AMT PUBLISHING Australian Mathematics Trust University of Canberra ACT 2601 AUSTRALIA Copyright ®2001 AMT Publishing Telephone: +61 2 6201 5137 AMTT Limited ACN 083 950 341 National Library of Australia Card Number and ISSN Australian Mathematics Trust Enrichment Series ISSN 1326-0170 101 Problems in Algebra ISBN 1 876420 12 XTHE AUSTRALIAN MATHEMATICS TRUST —— ENRICHMENT SERIES © Chairman GRAHAM H Pottarn, Canberra AustRALIA e Editor Perer J TayLor, Canberra AUSTRALIA Warren J ATKINS, Canberra AUSTRALIA Ep J BARBEAU, Toronto CANADA GeorGe BERZSENYI, Terra Haute USA Ron DuNKLEY, Waterloo CANADA Watter E Mienrka, Lincoln USA NikOLAY KoNSTANTINOV, Moscow RUSSIA Anpy Liu, Edmonton CANADA JorDAN B Tasov, Sofia BULGARIA JouN Wess, Cape Town South AFRICA The books in this series are selected for their motivating, interesting and stimulating sets of quality problems, with a lucid expository style in their solutions. Typically, the problems have occurred in either national or international contests at the secondary school level. They are intended to be sufficiently detailed at an elementary level for the mathematically inclined or interested to understand but, at the same time, be interesting and sometimes challenging to the undergraduate and the more advanced mathematician. 1t is believed that these mathematics competition problems are a positive influence on the learning and enrichment of mathematics.PREFACE This book contains one hundred highly rated problems used in the train- ing and testing of the USA International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) team. It is not a collection of one hundred very difficult. impenetrable questions. Instead, the book gradually builds students’ algebraic skills and techniques. This work aims to broaden students’ view of mathemat- ics and better prepare them for possible participation in various mathe- matical competitions. It provides in-depth enrichment in important areas of algebra by reorganizing and enhancing students’ problem-solving tac- tics and strategies. The book further stimulates students’ interest for future study of mathematics.INTRODUCTION In the United States of America, the selection process leading to par- ticipation in the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) consists of a series of national contests called the American Mathematics Con- test 10 (AMC 10), the American Mathematics Contest 12 (AMC 12), the American Invitational Mathematics Examination(AIME), and the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad (USAMO). Partici- pation in the AIME and the USAMO is by invitation only, based on performance in the preceding exams of the sequence. The Mathemati- cal Olympiad Summer Program (MOSP) is a four-week. intense train- ing of 24-30 very promising students who have risen to the top of the American Mathematics Competitions. The six students representing the United States of America in the IMO are selected on the basis of their USAMO scores and further IMO-type testing that takes place during MOSP. Throughout MOSP, full days of classes and extensive problem sets give students thorough preparation in several important areas of mathematics. These topics include combinatorial arguments and identi- ties, generating functions, graph theory. recursive relations, telescoping sums and products, probability, number theory, polynomials, theory of equations. complex numbers in geometry, algorithmic proofs, combinato- rial and advanced geometry, functional equations and classical inequali- ties. Olympiad-style exams consist of several challenging essay problems. Cor- rect solutions often require deep analysis and careful argument. Olym- piad questions can seem impenetrable to the novice, yet most can be solved with elementary high school mathematics techniques, cleverly ap- plied. Here is some advice for students who attempt the problems that follow. © Take your time! Very few contestants can solve all the given prob- lems. ¢ Try to make connections between problems. A very important theme of this work is: all important techniques and ideas featured in the book appear more than once! © Olympiad problems don’t “crack” immediately. Be patient. Try different approaches. Experiment with simple cases. In some cases, working backward from the desired result is helpful. ¢ Even if you can solve a problem, do read the solutions. They may contain some ideas that did not occur in your solutions, and theyviii Introduction may discuss strategic and tactical approaches that can be used else- where. The formal solutions are also models of elegant presenta- tion that you should emulate, but they often obscure the torturous process of investigation, false starts, inspiration and attention to detail that led to them. When you read the solutions, try to re- construct the thinking that went into them. Ask yourself, “What were the key ideas?” “How can I apply these ideas further?” Go back to the original problem later, and see if you can solve it in a different way. Many of the problems have multiple solutions, but not all are outlined here. All terms in boldface are defined in the Glossary. Use the glossary and the reading list to further your mathematical education. Meaningful problem solving takes practice. Don’t get discouraged if you have trouble at first. For additional practice, use the books on the reading list.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to Tiankai Liu who helped in proof reading and preparing solu- tions. Many problems are either inspired by or fixed from mathematical contests in different countries and from the following journals: High-School Mathematics, China Revista Matematica Timisoara, Romania Kvant, Russia We did our best to cite all the original sources of the problems in the solu- tion part. We express our deepest appreciation to the original proposers of the problems.ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS eo I EOE EzeE————= Abbreviations AHSME AIME AMC10 AMC12 ARML IMO USAMO MOSP Putnam American High School Mathematics Examination American Invitational Mathematics Examination American Mathematics Contest 10 American Mathematics Contest 12, which replaces AIISME American Regional Mathematics League International Mathematical Olympiad United States of America Mathematical Olympiad Mathematical Olympiad Summer Program The William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition St. Petersburg St. Petersburg (Leningrad) Mathematical Olympiad Notations for Numerical Sets and Fields the set of integers the set of integers modulo n the set of positive integers the set of nonnegative integers the set of rational numbers the set of positive rational numbers the set of nonnegative rational numbers the set of n-tuples of rational numbers the set of real numbers the set of positive real numbers the set of nonnegative real numbers the set of n-tuples of real numbers the set of complex numbersPREFACE INTRODUCTION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS 1, INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS 2. ADVANCED PROBLEMS 3. SOLUTIONS TO INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS 27 4. SOLUTIONS TO ADVANCED PROBLEMS 65 GLOSSARY 131 FURTHER READING 137INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS1. INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS Problem 1 Let a.b. and c be real and positive parameters. Solve the equation atbrt Voter + Vetar = Vb—-art Ve- br + Va- ex. Problem 2 Find the general term of the sequence defined by wry = 3. 2; = 4 and 2 Lnp1 = Uy — Nay for all’n € N. Problem 3 Let 2.22.....%, be a sequence of integers such that (i) -lL <2, <2. fori = 1.20 0.00: (ii) 2) +ag+ - +2, = 19: (iii) 22+ 23+ +22 =99. Determine the minimum and maximum possible values of etarsee +23 Problem 4 The function f. defined by _ arth “ert d’ fix) where u.b.c. and d are nonzero real nunibers. has the properties S19) = 19. f(97)=97. and f(f(r)) =e. for all values of x. except -- os Find the range of f.2 1. Introductory Problems Problem 5 Prove that (ab)? 4b (a5)? a- a mae a-— fm Sg OS for alla >b>0. Problem 6 Several (at least two) nonzero numbers are written on a board. One may erase any two numbers. say a and }, and then write the numbers a + 3 a, and b— 3 instead. Prove that the set of numbers on the board, after any number of the preceding operations, cannot coincide with the initial set. Problem 7 The polynomial l-ata? 23 4.--42'6— 2! may be written in the form ao tay tagy? +--+ ary! + ai7y”, where y = x +1 and a,s are constants. Find a9. Problem 8 Let a,b, and c be distinct nonzero real numbers such that attabttacts Prove that |abe| = 1. Problem 9 Find polynomials f(x), g(x), and h(z), if they exist, such that for all x, -1 ifa<-l Walia +e) = | 9 if-1<¢2<0 -22+2 ife>0.1. Introductory Problems Problem 10 Find all real numbers x for which 84277 7 12% + 18 ~ 6 Problem 11 Find the least positive integer m such that, (*) * 6 the equation 1 1 1 gtgtetgel has integer solutions. Problem 21 Find all pairs of integers (a,b) such that the polynomial ax}? + br!6 + 1 is divisible by x? — x — 1.1. Introductory Problems 5 st Problem 22 Given a positive integer 7, let p(n) be the product of the non-zero digits of n. (If n has only one digit, then p(n) is equal to that digit.) Let S = p(1) + 7(2) +--+ + 7(999). What is the largest prime factor of S? Problem 23 Let t, be a sequence of nonzero real numbers such that a Tn-2En—-1 7 2Ey-2 — Eni for n = 3,4,.... Establish necessary and sufficient conditions on z; and 22 for rz, to be an integer for infinitely many values of n. Problem 24 Solve the equation 8 —3¢ = Vrt+2. Problem 25 For any sequence of real numbers A = {a1,a2,43,-::}, define AA to be the sequence {a2 — a1, a3 —a2,4—a3,...}. Suppose that all of the terms of the sequence A(AA) are 1, and that ai9 = ao2 = 0. Find a}. Problem 26 Find all real numbers z satisfying the equation 27 + 37 — 47 +67 -9 = 1. Problem 27 Prove that l6< s _ < 17. tai VE Problem 28 Pa ae the number of ordered pairs of integers (m,n) for which mn > ane mS + n° + 99mn = 33°.6 1. Introductory Problems Problem 29 Let a,b, and c be positive real numbers such thata+b+c < 4 and ab + be+ ca > 4. Prove that at least two of the inequalities jab <2, lb-c <2 [c-al<2 are true. Problem 30 Evaluate > 1 Bo (n- b)M(n+ ky! Problem 31 Let 0 (ac + bd - 1). Prove that a+ > land +d > 1. Problem 48 Find all complex numbers z such that (82 + 1)(42 + 1)(6z +.1)(122 +1) =2. Problem 49 Let 21,2,-++,%n-1, be the zeros different from 1 of the polynomial P(r) =2"-1,n2>2. Prove that 1 1 1 n-1 pepo a te, Tom *I-mt titan 2 Problem 50 Let a and b be given real numbers. Solve the system of equations zy Vr? -y? yaar? -y? Vint for real numbers x and y = aADVANCED PROBLEMS2. ADVANCED PROBLEMS Problem 51 Evaluate 2000) ‘2000 '2000° 2000 ( 2 )+( 5 )+( 8 )+ * (2000): Problem 52 Let x, y, 2 be positive real numbers such that x4 + y4 + 24 =1. Determine with proof the minimum value of Problem 53 Find all real solutions to the equation 2? + 37 +67 = 2. Problem 54 Let: {an}n>1 be a sequence such that a) = 2 and =", 1 Oe = a+ an for all n € N. Find an explicit formula for ay. Problem 55 Let 2, y, and z be Positive real numbers. Prove that —— 5 et Var wat2) yt Myt2yta) z + JesGT14 2. Advanced Problems Problem 56 Find, with proof, all nonzero polynomials f(z) such that fe?) + flefe+1) =0. Problem 57 Let f : NN bea function such that f(n +1) > f(n) and F(f(n)) = 3n for all n. Evaluate f(2001). Problem 58 Let F be the set of all polynomials f(x) with integers coefficients such that f(x) = 1 has at least one integer root. For each integer k > 1. find mx, the least integer greater than 1 for which there exists f € F’ such that the equation {(r) = mx has exactly Fk distinct integer roots. Problem 59 Let 7) = 2 and Tn+1 = x; -in+l, forn > 1. Prove that 1 1 1 1 1 Vay tat te cli. get < nt + +? <1 eo Problem 60 Suppose that f : Rt — R* is a decreasing function such that for all xy eR, f(a ty) + £(F(@) + fy) = FL (a + fly) + fly + (2). Prove that f(f(x)) = x.2, Advanced Problems ____15 Problem 61 Find all functions f:Q—Q such that f(a ty) + f(a —y) = 2f(2) + f(y) for all z.y € Q Problem 62 Let $ Rand g: R — R such that f(o(z))=2? and g(f(z)) = 2° for all x € R? (b) Do there exist functions f : R > R and g: RR such that Jig(z))=2? and of f(x) = a4 for all x € R? Problem 74 Let 0 < a) < a2::: < an, 0 < by < bg: ++ < by be real numbers such that n 22 Sob. 1 11 kk. Prove that IA @102 +++ dy 2 b1b2 +++ bn. Problem 75 Given eight non-zero real numbers Q;,02.°**,@g, prove that at least one of the following six numbers: 4103 + A204, G1A5 + A2Q6, 147 + a2dg, 9305 + 040g, aga7 + a4dg. asa7 + Qgag is non-negative. Problem 76 Let a, b and c be positive real numbers such that abe = 1, Prove that ab bc ca = YH + 1 O+i tab Broth opaetoa <18 2. Advanced Problems Problem 77 Find all functions f : R — R such that the equality S(f(2) +9) = fe? -y) + 4f@)y holds for all pairs of real numbers (z. y). Problem 78 Solve the system of equations: 3sr-y at Pry zt+3y _ Y- a yo 0. Problem 79 Mr. Fat and Mr. Taf play a game with a polynomial of degree at least 4: emp gem lg gm Pt etd. They fill in real numbers to empty spaces in turn. If the resulting poly- nomial has no real root, Mr. Fat wins; otherwise, Mr. Taf wins. If Mr. Fat goes first, who has a winning strategy? Problem 80 Find all positive integers k for which the following statement is true: if F(z) is a polynomial with integer coefficients satisfying the condition O 2.2. Advanced Problems ______________19 Problem 82 Find all functions u : R > R for which there exists a strictly monotonic function f: R > R such that f(z+y) = f(x)u(y) + fy) for all z,y € R. Problem 83 Let z1,22,---;%n be complex numbers such that lz] + [zal +--+ + [2nl = 1. Prove that there exists a subset S of {21, z2,....2n} such that Problem 84 A polynomial P(x) of degree n > 5 with integer coefficients and n distinct integer roots is given. Find all integer roots of P( P(.r)) given that 0 is a root of P(x). Problem 85 Two real sequences 21, £2,..., and yy, yo,..., are defined in the following way: =n =V3. tne =tnt 1+72. and as Yn ee Ty ite for all n > 1, Prove that 2 < Inn <3 for all n> 1. Problem 86 For a polynomial P(x), define the difference of P(x) on the interval [a. 6] ((a,6). (a,b). (a, 6}) as P(b) — P(a). Frove that it is possible to dissect the interval (0. 1] into a finite number acm and color them red and blue alternately such that, for every 2 Tatic polynomial P(x). the total difference of P(r) on red intervals equal to that of P(x) on blue intervals. What about cubic polynomials?20 2. Advanced Problems Problem 87 Given a cubic equation o+_2?+_2+_=0, Mr. Fat and Mr. Taf are playing the following game. In one move, Mr, Fat chooses a real number and Mr. Taf puts it in one of the empty spaces, After three moves the game is over. Mr. Fat wins the game if the final equation has three distinct integer roots. Who has a winning strategy? Problem 88 Let n > 2 be an integer and let f : R? — R be a function such that for any regular n-gon A;42...An, f(Ai) + f(A2) +++ + f(An) = 0. Prove that f is the zero function. Problem 89 Let p be a prime number and let f(x) be a polynomial of degree d with integer coefficients such that: (i) £0) =0, £1) =1; (ii) for every positive integer n, the remainder upon division of f(r) by pis either 0 or 1. Prove that d >p-—1. Problem 90 Let n be a given positive integer. Consider the sequence ao, @1.:--.@, with a9 = ; and 2 a; kt Oy = an. + ——. n for k= 1,2,---.n, Prove that 1 l-- eR n=l k=l22 2. Advanced Problems Problem 95 Let » > 3 be an integer. and let XCS={1.2.....n5} be a set of 3n? elements. Prove that one can find nine distinct numbers a,, j.c, (i = 1.2.3) in X such that the system aqrthytaz = 0 aattbhoytoaz = 0 agr+byy+c3z = 0 has a solution (20, yo, 20) in nonzero integers. Problem 96 Let n > 3 be an integer and let x). .r2.+-+..tn be positive real numbers. n L Si that =l. uppose thal x lee, Prove that e Vit Vit + VED (01) ( +t ). L Va Ve Vin Problem 97 Let 21.22..... Zn be distinct real numbers. Define the polynomials P(x) = (@—2)(2 ~t2) ++ (2 ~ tn) and Let 1, ya:..0+ Yn-1 be the roots of Q. Show that inla,—2;| < miniy, — ys]. min los z;| min |ys y5|vanced Problems 23 Problem 98 Show that for any positive integer n. the polynomial f(z) =(2? +2)" 41 cannot be written as the product of two non-constant polynomials with integer coefficients Problem 99 Let fi, fo. fa: R—-Rbe functions such that afi tarfr+asfs is monotonic for all a,,@2,a3 € R. Prove that there exist c:,c2,c3 € R. not all zero. such that eafi(t) + cofa(x) + cafs(x) = 0 for all c ER. Problem 100 Let 21.22,...5 Zp, be variables. and let y1.yo.-...yor—1 be the sums of nonempty subsets of .r,. Let py(x1.....2n) be the kt* elementary symmetric polynomial in the y; (the sum of every product of distinct y,s). »En) For which k and n is every coefficient of p, (as a polynomial in 11, even? For example, if n = 2. then yy. y2- ys are x1.22,21 +72 and Pr=yi + yo t+ ys = 2x + 2x2. Pa = yrya + yous + yotn = 27 + 23+ Brite. Ps = yry2ys = 2x2 + m2}. Problem 101 Prove that there exist 10 distinct real numbers a1,a2... +, @0 such that the equation (@ ~ a3)(@ —ag)- (2 — ayo) = (a +a1)(a + a2): +: (a + 210) has exactly § different real roots.SOLUTIONS TO INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS3. SOLUTIONS TO INTRODUCTORY PROBLEMS SSS. oa Ooo—== Problem 1 [Romania 1974] Let a,b, and c be real and positive parameters. Solve the equation fa+brt+ Vbt+cr+ Vet+ar= Vb-ar+Ve~br+ Va-cx. Solution 1 It is easy to see that x = 0 is a solution. Since the right hand side is a decreasing function of x and the left hand side is an increasing function of 2, there is at most one solution. Thus x = 0 is the only solution to the equation. Problem 2 Find the general term of the sequence defined by zo = 3, 1 = 4 and Trt = Thy — Lp for all n € N. Solution 2 We shall prove by induction that zt, = n+ 3. The claim is evident for n=0,1. Fork > 1, if 4) =k +2 and 1 =k +3, then Teor = Thy — kay = (bk +2)? —k(k +3) =k +4, as desired. This completes the induction.28 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems feo Solutions to Introductory Froblems Problem 3 [AHSME 1999] Let r1.22,...,2, be a sequence of integers such that (i) -1 $ a < 2, fori =1,2,...,n; (ii) a tag t++++ tn = 19; (iii) 22 +03 +---+ 22 = 99. Determine the minimum and maximum possible values of titagte +3. Solution 3 Let a,b, and c denote the number of —1s, 1s, and 2s in the sequence, respectively. We need not consider the zeros. Then a, b,c are nonnegative integers satisfying —a+b+2%=19anda+b+4c=99. It follows that a = 40—c and b = 59— 3c, where 0 < c < 19 (since b > 0), so tpitaite-- +23 =-a+b+8e= 19+ 6c. When c = 0 (a = 40, = 59), the lower bound (19) is achieved. When c = 19 (a = 21, = 2), the upper bound (133) is achieved. Problem 4 [AIME 1997] The function f, defined by az+b f= where a,b,c, and d are nonzero real numbers, has the properties f(19)=19, f(97)=97. and f(f(x)) =2, for all values of x, except -£ Find the range of f. Solution 4, Alternative 1 For all x, f(f(x)) =z, ie., a axt+b +b crt+d ar+b ad °\catd =2,3. Solutions to Introductory Problems 29 a aaes ie. (a? + be)a + d(a +d) _ clat+d)z+oe+@ i c(a + d)x? + (d? -— a?)x — b(a +d) =0, which implies that c(a + d) = 0. Since c # 0, we must have a = —d. The conditions f(19) = 19 and f(97) = 97 lead to the equations 19%c=2-190+b and 97c=2-97a+b. Hence (97? — 19?)c = 2(97 — 19)a. It follows that a = 58c, which in turn leads to b = —1843c. Therefore 58x — 1843 1521 Sl) = eg = 8 + Sp: which never has the value 58. Thus the range of f is R - {58}. Solution 4, Alternative 2 The statement implies that f is its own inverse. The inverse may be found by solving the equation _ ayt+b a cy+d for y. This-yields dr—b 1/2) = fi@= —cr+a" The nonzero numbers a, b, c, and d must therefore be proportional to d, ~b, ~c, and a, respectively; it follows that a = —d, and the rest is the same as in the first solution. Problem 5 Prove that (a—b)? a+b (a — b)? Ba Sy VOSS for alla>b>0. Solution 5, Alternative 1 Note that va+vo\" va+vo\" (2) a1 (455)30 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems ie. (vat Vora = Vb) ea vie g Wt vor va = vb)? (a—b)? _ a—2Vab+b_ (a—b)? =< 7 ES SS 8a 2 8b from which the result follows. Solution 5, Alternative 2 Note that, a ° ab a+b y= 2 _ (a — b)? 2 a+b 7 Aatd)+4vab™ 2 Thus the desired inequality is equivalent to 4a > a+b + 2Vab > 4b. which is evident as a > b > 0 (which implies a > Vab > 6). Problem 6 (St. Petersburg 1989] Several (at least two) nonzero numbers are written on a board. One may b erase any two numbers, say a and }, and then write the numbers a + 3 and b — 3 instead. Prove that the set of numbers on the board. after any number of the preceding operations, cannot coincide with the initial set. Solution 6 Let S be the sum of the squares of the numbers on the board. Note that S increases in the first operation and does not decrease in any successive operation, as 6? ay? _ 5) op 24 42 (+5) +(6-$) = gla +b°)>a’ +b with equality only if a = 6 =0. This completes the proof.3, Solutions to Introductory Problems 31 3, So problem 7 [AIME 1986] The polynomial Tartar? 2g. $6 yl? may be written in the form ao tary + a2y?+-- +ar6y!® + airy”, where y = z+ 1 and a,s are constants. Find a2. Solution 7, Alternative 1 Let f(z) denote the given expression. Then af(z)=2-2? +23-- --a!8 and (1+2)f(z) =1-.2'8. me yee) = yt) = de eg 4 1+(y-1) y , Therefore a2 is equal to the coefficient of y* in the expansion of 1-(y-1)4, ie, a2 = (3) = 816. Solution 7, Alternative 2 Let f(x) denote the given expression. Then F(z) = fy-1) =1--Y+(y- IP = -(y- 1)" =14(l-y)t(l-y)? +. +(1-y), a: -( + 3 “peed 1) = 3) 2a) *\e 2) \3/7 @ we used the formula ()-(2)-2) Q-0) Thus and the fact that32 3._Solutions to Introductory Problems ge mo tuions ®o anrroquerory Sreonems Problem 8 Let a. b, and c be distinct nonzero real numbers such that 1 attase acest. b c a Prove that |abc| = 1. Solution 8 From the given conditions it follows that b-c a a-b a-b= be -b-c= ca .andc-a= om Multiplying the above equations gives (abc)? = 1, from which the desired result follows. Problem 9 [Putnam 1999} Find polynomials f(x), g(x), and h(x). if they exist. such that for all x, -1 ife<-l f(z) - lola + A(x) = 4 3r4+2 if-ld. Solution 9, Alternative 1 Since x = —1 and z = 0 are the two critical values of the absolute functions, one can suppose that F(x) ajx+1/+b]z]+cer+d { (c-a-b)t+d-a ife<-l (at+e—b)rt+at+d if-l0. which implies that a = 3/2, b = -5/2.c =—1. and d = 1/2. Hence f(x) = (3x + 3)/2, g(x) = 52/2, and h(x) = -x +3. Solution 9, Alternative 2 Note that if r(x) and s(x) are any two functions, then r+s+|r—s| — Therefore, if F(x) is the given function. we have max(r.s) = F(x) = max{—3z -— 3.0} — max{5zr.0} + 3r +2 (—32 — 34+ [3x + 3])/2— (50 + [5x])/2+ 3242 |(3x + 3)/2| — [52/2] — 2+ é3. Solutions to Introductory Problems 33 Ga problem 10 Find all real numbers « for which 84277 7 sis 6 Solution 10 By setting 2* = a and 3* = 6, the equation becomes th 7 @b+ba 6° 7 oh -ob +P 7 ab ~ 6! ie. 6a? — 13ab+ 6b? =0. ie. (2a - 36)(3a — 2b) = 0. Therefore 27+! = 37+! or 27-1 = 37-1, which implies that x = —1 and z=l. It is easy to check that both x = —1 and zx = 1 satisfy the given equation. Problem 11 [Romania 1990] Find the least positive integer m such that (*) > 9° Qn\ Qn gn ot (Sh) ean =4 Thus m = 4,34 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems Problem 12 Let a. b, c, d, and e be positive integers such that abcde =a+b+c+dte. Find the maximum possible value of max{a, b,c. d, e}. Solution 12, Alternative 1 Suppose that a lande-1<4ore<5. It is easy to see that (1.1, 1,2,5) is a solution. Therefore max{e} = 5. 1 Comment: The second solution can be used to determine the maxi- mum value of {1,22,...,2n}, When 71,2,.... In are positive integers such that @1LQ°°°Ly = 1] + LQ +++ + Ly. Problem 13 Evaluate 8 tom 1+ 2!+ 3! $4+3!+4! 1999! + 2000! +- 2001!"3 Solutions to Introductory Problems 35 ao Solution 13 Note that k+2 k+2 fae+ D+ (RFD ~— MLE R+ 1+ (R+ RTD] 1 K(k + 2) k+l (E+)! (R+2)-1 (k +2)! 1 1 (K+ 0! (+2)! By telescoping sum, the desired value is equal to 1 ~ 2001!" Nin Problem 14 Let x = Va? Fat+1—Vat—atlaeR. Find all possible values of z. Solution 14, Alternative 1 Since va? + [al +1 > || and 7 2a we have |x| < |2a/a| = 2. Squaring both sides of w+ Va —att= Vo tat Yields 2eVa? ~at+1=2a-27.36 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems Squaring both sides of the above equation gives 2?(x? — 4) 2 1)92 = 72(z?'_- 2 . 4(x? — 1)a? = 2?(2? — 4) ora Wat) Since a? > 0, we must have 2?(a? — 4)(x? ~1) 20, Since |x| < 2, 2? -4 < 0 which forces 22-1 < 0. Therefore, -1 1/2. By symmetry, we may assume that a > b. Then If(@)-f()| = If(a)- FQ) + FO) - FO)! S [f(@)- FA) +1£0) - FO] < ja-1/+|0-5] = 1l-at+b-0 1-(a-5) I < 7 as desired. Problem 18 Find all pairs of integers (x,y) such that e+y=(r+y). Solution 18 Since r°+y? = (x+y)(z? — zy +y?), all pairs of integers (n, —n), n € Z. are solutions. Suppose that «+y #0. Then the equation becomes ePoaty=cty, e—(ytDety?—-y=0.3, Solutions to Introductory Problems 39 ee ted as a quadratic equation in «, we calculate the discriminant A=y? t+ Qt —4y? + 4y = —3y? + by +1. Solving for A > 0 yields 3-2v3 34+2Vv3 = 6 the equation t4ee tien af a3 a has integer solutions. Solution 20 Note that 1 1 1 1 1 == + + +40 3._Solutions to Introductory Problems » Solutions to Introductory Froblems from which it follows that if (21,22,++,2n) = (@1.@2,° +.@n) is an inte. ger solution to 1 1 = fetal ap a3 rm then (@1,22)+++)Pn-15 Lay Ent Tn$2+Tn43) = (01, @2,+**An-1. 24n; 20n, 24n. 2an. ) is an integer solution to 11 1 atagtet =1 Ty XQ Tha Therefore we can construct the solutions inductively if there are solutions for n = 6,7, and 8. Since z; = 1 is a solution for n = 1, (2,2,2,2) is a solution for n = 4, and (2, 2.2,4,4.4,4) is a solution for n = 7. It is easy to check that (2,2,2,3,3,6) and (2,2.2,3, 4,4, 12, 12) are solu- tions for n = 6 and n = 8, respectively. This completes the proof. Problem 21 [AIME 1988] Find all pairs of integers (a,b) such that the polynomial azt” + ba! +1 is divisible by x? — 2 — 1. Solution 21, Alternative 1 Let p and q be the roots of 2? -x—1 = 0. By Vieta’s theorem, p+q=1and pg = —1. Note that p and q must also be the roots of az!” +br'6 + 1=0. Thus ap'” + bp'® = ~1 and aq!” + bg!® = -1. Multiplying the first of these equations by q'®, the second one by p!®, and using the fact that pg = —1, we find ap +b = —q'® and ag +b = —p'®. q) Thus pie ~ git 8 4 ah) (m2 4 9? a= +P (rt + a'\(0? +P) (Pp +9).3. Solutions to Introductory Problems 41 TT Since ptg = 1, p+g = (p+q)?-pq=1+2=3, pitg’ = (p?+9°)?-2p'q?=9-2=7, p+ = (pt+q4)?— pig = 49-2 = 47, it follows that a = 1-3-7-47 = 987. Likewise, eliminating a in (1) gives pt =i? p-q -b = = p+ plgt pig? t+ 4g" = (plo +4") + pg(p'* + q'*) + pq?(p"? +4") tet pgp? +9?) + pPg? = (pS +g") — (pl qi) +---- (+g?) +1. For n> 1, let kon = p?" + q?". Then ky = 3 and kg = 7, and I. = 2n+4 2n+4 Kontg = prt’ 4 g?nt = (pt? 4 g2#2)(p? +g?) — p2q?(p?" + g?) 3kon+2 — kon il for n > 3. Then ke = 18, kg = 47, kio = 123, kiz = 322, hig = 843, hye = 2207. Hence —b = 2207 — 843 + 322 — 123+ 47 - 18 +7-3+1=1597 or (a,b) = (987, -1597). Solution 21, Alternative 2 The other factor is of degree 15 and we write (casa — eyga!4 +--+ +e, — co)(x? — 2-1) = az"? + ba’? +1. Comparing coefficients: o=l. zh: 9-4 =0,¢4 =1 —Co — C1 + C2 = 0.6; and for 3 —2. We consider the following cases. L—-2<2r<2, Setting c = 2cosa, 0 < a< 7m, the equation becomes 8 cos? a — 6 cosa = \/2(cosa + 1). 2cos 3a = \/4cos? -44 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems OE et from which it follows that cos3a = cos §. Then 3a — $ = 2mz, m € Z, or 3a+$ =2nr,neZ. Since 0 < a <7, the solution in this case is z=2cos0 =2, © = 2c08, and r= 2eos 2. 2 > 2. Then 2? ~ 4x = 2(x? — 4) > 0 and x? —x-2=(x-2)(x+1)>0 or r>Vvz+2. It follows that 2-32>2>VeF2. Hence there are no solutions in this case. Therefore, x = 2, x = 2cos47/5, and x = 2cos 47/7. Solution 24, Alternative 2 For x > 2, there is a real number t > 1 such that 1 z=Up Bp The equation becomes >», 1\° 21 ad Pra) -3(P +a) =Verate (7 — (8 - 1) =0, which has no solutions for t > 1. Hence there are no solutions for x > 2. For -2 < x < 2, please see the first solution.3. Solutions to Introductory Problems 45 5 ee problem 25 [AIME 1992] For any sequence of real numbers A = {a1,a2.a3,:+:}, define AA to be the sequence {az — 41,03 — a2,04 — a3,...}. Suppose that all of the terms of the sequence A(AA) are 1, and that aig = G92 = 0. Find 4). Solution 25 Suppose that the first term of the sequence AA is d. Then AA = {d,d+1,d+2,...} with the nth term given by d+(n-1). Hence A= {a,a, +4,0, +d+ (d+ 1).a,+d+(d+1)+(d+2)....} with the nt! term given by Oy, =a, +(n-1)d+ zn -1)(n-2). ris shows that a, is a quadratic polynomial in n with leading coefficient ia 19 = dg2 = 0. we must have Qn = Zin — 19)(n — 92), 80 a, = (1 — 19)(1 — 92)/2 = 819. Problem 26 (Korean Mathematics Competition 2000] Find all real numbers x satisfying the equation 27 + 3% —47 +67 -97 = 1. Solution 26 Setting 2? =a and 3" = b, the equation becomes 1+a?+b?-a-b-ab=0. Multiplying both sides of the last equation by 2 and completing the Squares gives (1a)? + (ab)? + (b- 1)? =0.46 3. Solutions to Introductory Problem a Therefore 1 = 27 = 37, and x =0 is the only solution. Problem 27 [China 1992] Prove that st 16 > td (VERT vk) =1 which proves the inet bound. On the other hand, 2(vE- vE=1) 1 2 =—*— > =. VeE+VE=1~ Vk Therefore 80 1 80 se <14+2S° (Ve - Ve=1) = 2V80-1< 17. Lary ) which proves the upper bound. Our proof is complete. Problem 28 [AHSME 1999} Determine the number of ordered pairs of integers (m. n) for which mn > O and m? + n° + 99mn = 33°. Solution 28 Note that (m+n)? =m +n3+3mn(m +n). If m+n =33. then =(m+n) =m + n° + 3mn(m +n) =m? +n? +:99mn. Hence m +n ~ 33 is a factor of m> + n° + 99mn — 33°. We have m? +n? + 99mn — 33° =(m+n—33)(m? +n? — mn + 33m + 33n + 337) zm +n —33)[(m—n)? + (m+ 33)? + (n + 33)?).5. Solutions to Introductory Problems 47 there are 35 solutions altogether: (0,33), (1.32), --, (33,0). and (-33, —33). Comment: More generally, we have a? +08 +c° — 3abe = slat b+ c)[(a — b)? + (b- 0)? + (e~a)’]. Problem 29 [Korean Mathematics Competition 2001] Let a,b, and c be positive real numbers such thata+b+c < 4 and ab+be+ca > 4. Prove that at least two of the inequalities ja-b] <2, fb-el <2, |e-al<2 are true. Solution 29 We have (a+b+c)? < 16. ie. a? +6? +c? + 2(ab + be + ca) < 16, ie. +P 47 <8, ie. a? +b? + —(ab+be+ca) <4, Le. (a-0)? + (b-0)? +(c-a)? <8 and the desired result follows. Problem 30 Evaluate = 1 & (n—B)(n +k)48 3. Solutions to Introductory Problem, Solution 30 Let S,, denote the desired sum. Then 5 = 1 < (2n)! "Gn & r= Bn +b)! = and (s) = a2 (()+()] - dn tlm-C) grt = Qml * Und? Problem 31 [Romania 1983] Let 0 n. Let y=2™~”. Since 0 <2 <1,2%< 2" and 0 0 > y. Then (1+2)(1+27)(1+24) > 1 and 1+y" <1. There are no solutions in this case. 3. 2,y > 0 and « # y. By the symmetry, we can assume that 2 > y>0. Then (l+2)(1+2?)(l+24)>1+a27 >1+y’, showing that there are no solutions in this case. 4. x,y <0 and x # y. By the symmetry, we can assume that «<< y < 0. Multiplying by 1—« and 1—y the first and the second equation, respectively, the system now reads 1-28 1-48 (lt+y")(1-2)=1l-2+y"-2y" (l+27)(l-y)=1-y+2"-27y. Subtracting the first equation from the second yields a8 — 8 = (ey) + (27 —y") — ay(a® — 9°). () Since « 0,2-y <0, 27—y’ <0, —2y <0, and z° —y8 > 0. Therefore, the left-hand side of (1) is positive while the right-hand side of (1) is negative. Thus there are no solutions in this case.52 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems 5. z=y. Then solving 1-28 =1-2ty’-2y’=1-2427-2° leads to z = 0,1,—1, which implies that (x.y) = (0.0) or (~1,-1), Therefore, (z,y) = (0,0) and (—1,—1) are the only solutions to the system. Problem 36 Solve the equation 2(2 — 1)2? + (2 — 2)¢ = 27+! 9 for real numbers =. Solution 36 Rearranging terms by powers of 2 yields 2x + 2Ft1(q? — 1)— (22 +21) =0. (1) Setting y = x? — 1 and dividing by 2 on the both sides, (1) becomes Wae+2y-(x+y)=0 or 2(2¥ -1)+ 9(27-1) =0. (2) Since f(x) = 27 — 1 and z always have the same sign, 2(2¥—1)-y(27-1) 20. Hence if the terms on the left-hand side of (2) are nonzero, they must have the same sign, which in turn implies that their sum is not equal to 0. Therefore (2) is true if and only if x = 0 or y = 0, which leads to solutions z=-1,0, and 1. Problem 37 Let a be an irrational number and let n be an integer greater than 1. Prove that 1 7 (a+ Vat=1)* + (a Ye=1)* is an irrational number.3, Solutions to Introductory Problems 53 ae Solution 37 Let N= (a+ Ve=1)* + (a- @=1)*. oa’ b= (at Vaeotyt Then N = b+1/b. For the sake of contradiction. assume that N is rational. Then by using the identity ures pres = (65) ("+ pm) (+ Geer) repeatedly for m = 1,2...., we obtain that 6” + 1/6” is rational for all meN. In particular, Pa beat va l+a-—Va?-1=2a is rational, in contradiction with the hypothesis. Therefore our assumption is wrong and N is irrational. Problem 38 Solve the system of equations (t1-a2 +23)? = A(z (x4 ) (x2 — 23 + 24)? 3 (mt + £1 — 23) (v3 — 4 + 25)? @4(a1 + £2 — £4) ( ) ( ) (4-23 +7)? @5(L2 + T3 — 25 (w5 — 2 + 22)? 21 (£3 + £4 —- 2) for real numbers 21, 22, £3, 24; Z5- Solution 38 Let rei = xp. Adding the five equations gives 5 5 D2 Ga} = Areas + 2etes2) = ¥0(-2f + 2eee42)- k=1 k=l Tt follows that 5 So (eR - tates) = 0. k=l54 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems Multiplying both sides by 2 and completing the squares yields 8 So (ee - te)? = 0, ket from which 2; = rg = &3 = £4 = a5. Therefore the solutions to the system are (21, 22,3, 24,25) = (a,a,a,0,a) fora eR. Problem 39 Let x.y, and z be complex numbers such that z+y+z = 2, 2?+y?+2?7 = 3, and ryz = 4. Evaluate 1 1 1 wyPenl’ ype zety-1 Solution 39 Let S be the desired value. Note that sytz-l=asy+1—2-y=(x-1)(y- 1). Likewise, yzt+n-1=(y-1)(x-1) and. ze+y—-1=(z-1)(x-1). Hence 1 1 1 ° = Gane *G-ne- * ED - rtytz-3 _ 1 (@=)Y-NE-1) @-Ny-YE-) -1 * ay2z — (cy +yz+2z0)+a+y+2z-1 -1 = 5-(cy+yz+22)" But Any +yzt+2x) =(etyt2)?- (2? +y? +27) =1. Therefore S = —2/9.3. Solutions to Introductory Problems 55 problem 40 [USSR 1990] Mr. Fat is going to pick three non-zero real numbers and Mr. Taf is going to arrange the three numbers as the coefficients of a quadratic equation + _2+_= 0. Mr. Fat wins the game if and only if the resulting equation has two distinct rational solutions. Who has a winning strategy? Solution 40 Mr. Fat has the winning strategy. A set of three distinct rational nonzero numbers a,b, and c, such that a+b+ c= 0, will do the trick. Let A, B, and C be any arrangement of a,b, and c, and let f(z) = Az? +Br+C. Then fQ)=A+B+CH=a+b+c=0. which implies that 1 is a solution. Since the product of the two solutions is C/A, the other solution is C/A. and it is different from 1. Problem 41 (USAMO 1978] Given that the real numbers a,b,c.d, and e satisfy simultaneously the telations a+b+c+dt+e=8anda+P+c+d+e=16, determine the maximum and the minimum value of a. Solution 41, Alternative 1 a the total of b.c.d, and e is 8 — a, their average is x = (8 — a)/4. b=a+b, c=rt+aq, d=r+d, e=r+eq). Then by +c, +d, + e; =0 and (8a)? a) 16 = a? +407 +02 +2 +d? +e? > a? +40? =a? + or 0 > 5a? — 16a = a(5a — 16). Therefore 0 < a < 16/5, where a = 0 if and only ifb =c=d=e=2 and a = 16/5 if and only if b=c=d =e = 6/5.56 3. Solutions to Introductory Problemy eM Solution 41, Alternative 2 By the RMS-AM inequality, (1) follows from (b+c+d+e)? _ (8—a)? yy P+Pt+Pre>d 7 and the rest of the solution is the same. Problem 42 Find the real zeros of the polynomial P,(x) = (x? +.1)(2- 1)? — az. where a is a given real number. Solution 42 We have (x? + 1)(x? — 22 + 1) - az? = 0. Dividing by x? yields (+3) (#08) oo By setting y = z+ 1/z, the last equation becomes y—2y-a=0. It follows that at + =1l+tVl+a, which in turn implies that, if a > 0, then the polynomial P,(z) has the real zeros _1t+yvitat Vat 2i+a-2 Ss 71.2 In addition, if a > 8, then Pa(zx) also has the real zeros _ l-vil+atVa-2vVl+a-2 T34 Problem 43 Prove that for all positive integers n.Solutions to Introductory Problems 57 TT Solution 43 We prove @ stronger statement: . Qn-1 < 1 / an ~ VanF1 a 24 We use induction. For n= 1, the result is evident. Suppose the statement is true for some positive integer k, i.e., 1 3 %-1 %Ww+1 1 Qk+1 24° Oe W+2~ Vaee1 W+D In order for the induction step to pass it suffices to prove that 1 %+1 V3R+1 2k+2~ /3k+4 This reduces to 2k +1 a 3k+1 2k+2 3k+4’ ie. (4k? + 4k + 1)(3k +4) < (4k? + 8k +4)(3k + 1), ie. O0 0 > bp41, or bm > 0. If there exists a & for which by > 0 > bg41, then One = —Sbp + dk41 < 8. If bm > 0, then @m = —Sbm < —s. In either case, there is a k such that ag < —s, as desired. Problem 45 Let m be a given real number. Find all complex numbers x such that 2 2 £ z og (=) +(=4) =m +m. Solution 45 Completing the square gives = + 2)? = oe +m? +m, gtloa-1) 2-1 , Qa? \? 20? 2 pa) pate tm Setting y = 2x?/(x? — 1), the above equation becomes y —y-(m? +m) =0, (y-—m-—1)(yt+m) =0. ifm #1.4 Solutions to Introductory Problems 59 problem 46 ‘The sequence given by zp = a, 2; =b, and Int. = 1s, at net = 9 (Tn + is periodic. Prove that ab = 1. Solution 46 Multiplying by 2z,, on both sides of the given recursive relation yields 2pTnt1 =In-12n +1 or 2(fnIn+1 — 1) = Ln-1Tn — 1. Let Yn = Tn-1n — 1 for n EN. Since yn+i = Yn/2; {yn} is a geometric sequence. If r, is periodic. then so is yn, which implies that y, = 0 for alln€ N. Therefore ab= 292) =y1 + Problem 47 Let a,b,c, and d be real numbers such that (a? +b? —1)(c? +d? -1) > (ac + bd - 1)?. Prove that a+b? > Lande? +d? >1. Solution 47 For the sake of the contradiction, suppose that one of a? + 6? or c? +d? is less than or equal to 1. Since (ac + bd — 1)? > 0, a? + 0? — 1 and +d? —1 must have the same sign. Thus both a? + 6? and c? +d? are less than 1. Let r=1-a@?-bandy=1-c?-d?. a 0 <2,y < 1. Multiplying by 4 on both sides of the given inequality 4zy > (2ac+2bd — 2)? = (2 — 2ac — 2bd)? = (74+ +24+0? +d? +y—2ac— 2bd)? = [(a-c)?+(b-d)?+24+y) 2 (ety ar? +2ryty’,60 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems or 0 > x? -— 2zy + y? = (x — y)?, which is irnpossible. Thus our assumption is wrong and both a? + 6? and c? + d? are greater than 1. Problem 48 Find all complex numbers 2 such that. (3z + 1)(42 + 1)(6z + 1)(122 + 1) =2. Solution 48 Note that 8(3z + 1)6(42 + 1)4(6z + 1)2(12z + 1) = 768, (242 + 8)(24z + 6)(242 + 4)(24z + 2) = 768. Setting u = 24z +5 and w= w? yields (u + 3)(u + 1)(u — 1)(u — 3) = 768, ie. (u? — 1)(u? - 9) = 768, ie. w? — 10w — 759 =0, ie (w — 33)(w + 23) = 0. Therefore the solutions to the given equation are — FVB=5 og 5 VBI z= — a an ny . Problem 49 Let 21,22,::+,2n-1, be the zeros different from 1 of the polynomial P(r) =2"-1, n> 2. Prove that3. Solutions to Introductory Problems 61 ——— Solution 49, Alternative 1 For i= 1.2..--57 let a; =1—2,. Let P(l-2 l-2)"-1 Q(e) = PG=2) _ Gaara t r x Then Q(2) = (-1)"e""! + (-1) (He bed (5)= - (") and ajs are the nonzero roots of the polynomial Q(.). as — (=a)? -1_ op-1_ Qai) = a; ~1-% Thus the desired sum is the sum ofthe reciprocals of the roots of poly- nomial Q(z), that is, 1 1 L 1-2 T-m7 1-2-1 ety44.., a a2 An-1 — 9203 ++ * On +4103 ++: On +++ + G12 - 103° Gn By the Vieta’s Theorem. the ratio between S = 02-++Gn +0103 °+ On + +++ +0102 +*On-1 and P=a---dn is equal to the additive inverse of the ratio between the coefficient of x and the constant term in Q(z), i.e., the desired value is equal to 8s desired. Solution 49, Alternative 2 pr any polynomial R(x) of degree n—1, whose zeros are 11.1,.--. Tn-1s le following identity holds: 1 1 1 Ri(z) 4 of = : 2-2 z-a* L-Iy-1 R(z)62 3. Solutions to Introductory Problems seer eee _ _ _ SS For ny R(z) = — Satter 24 4041, R(1) =n and RU) = (n-1) + (n-2) tH MED, It follows that 1 1-2 Problem 50 Let a and b be given real numbers. Solve the system of equations w-yfr-y a /\= 2? +y? . y-ray for real numbers x and y. Solution 50 Let u= arty andv=2x-—y. Then utu u-v , and y= 3 Adding the two equations and subtracting the two equations in the orig- inal system yields the new system u-uva = (a+b)Vl—w vt+vvuv = (a-b)VI-w. Multiplying the above two equations yields uv(1 — uv) = (a? — b?)(1 — uv). a? — }?. It follows that _ (at+)vi-a@ +e 0<2?-yYa=w 0. Then s? = 2° + 3° +6° > 3, so s > V3, and hence [s} > 1. But then s > |s| yields a >als a+ lel >1+ [s] >s, which in turn implies that 6° > 4° = (28)? > 8”.4, Solutions to Advanced Problems 67 go 2° + 3° + 6° > s?, a contradiction. Therefore z= —1 is the only solution to the equation. problem 54 Let {dn}n2>1 be a sequence such that a, = 2 and a, 1 Ong = + n for all n € N. Find an explicit formula for an. Solution 54 Solving the equation leads to « = +2. Note that 2 Angr t V2 _ a2 +220, +2 7 (2243) Qnti— V2 a2 —2V2an+2 an - V2 Therefore, grt an + V2 itv? an a tvi= =(V24+1 movi (nave) 7 (+1) and . v3 ((v3+1)" +4] an = = . (v2+1)" -1 Problem 55 Let x, y, and z be positive real numbers. Prove that ee rtV(cty(atz) y+Vytz\yto) z + zt V(zt+a)(z+y) Solution 55 Note that, Vet Mets) > H+ VE.68 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems In fact, squaring both sides of the above inequality yields x? + yz > WV/yz, which is evident by the AM-GM inequality. Thus — ee ee r+ Vatyat2) tt yt+Vr Vet fitve Likewise, ye y+ Jutta) ver Vyrve and a z Pe VetaGty © Et Vite Adding the last three inequalities leads to the desired result. Problem 56 Find, with proof, all nonzero polynomials f(z) such that f(z?) + fl2F(z+ 1 =0. Solution 56 Let f(z) = az™(z ~ 1)"g(z), where m and n are non-negative integers and 9(2) = (2 — 2)(z — 22) +++ (2 - 2), 2 # Oand 2; #1, for i=1,2,...,&. The given condition becomes az?™(z— 1)"(z + 1)"(z? — 21)(2? — 22) ++ (2? — zx) = —a?2™"(z 4 1)™(z — 1)"(z — 24) (z — 22) + (2 — %) (zt1—2)(zt L—2z2) (z+ 1-2). Thus a = —a?, and f is nonzero, so a = —1. Since z, # 1, 1-2 #0. Then 2?” = 2™+”, that is, m=n. Thus f is of the form —2z™(z—1)"9(z). Dividing by z?"(2 — 1)*(z + 1)”, the last equation becomes 9(27) = 9(z)9(2 + 1).4 Solutions to Advanced Problems 69 ‘We claim that g(z) = 1. Suppose not; then clearly g must have at least one complex root r #0. Now g(r?) = g(r)g(r +1) =0, g(r*) = 0, g(r?) = 0. and so on. Since g cannot have infinitely many roots, all its roots must have absolute value 1. Now, g(r — 1) = alr ~ 1)g(r) = 0, 80 |(r — 1)?| = 1. Clearly, if irl =r 12] =1. then (ie 4) re 7? 3 . But r? is also a root of g, so the same should be true of r?: 2, J1+v3i 1-V3i rey gee This is absurd. Hence, g cannot have any roots. and g(z) = 1. Therefore, the f(z) are all the polynomials of the form —2™(z — 1)™ for meN. Problem 57 Let f : NN be a function such that f(n+1) > f(n) and f(f(n)) = 3n for all n. Evaluate f(2001). Solution 57, Alternative 1 We prove the following lemma. Lemma for n=0,1.2,..., 1. f(3") = 2-3": and 2. f(2-3") = 374,70 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems Proof: We use induction. For n = 0, note that f(1) # 1, otherwise 3 = f(f(1)) = f(1) =1, which is impossible. Since f : N — N, f(1) > 1. Since f(n+1) > f(n), f is increasing. Thus 1 < f(1) < f(f(1)) = 3 or f(1) = 2. Henc9e £(2) = fF) =3. Suppose that for some positive integer n > 1, f (3") =2-3" and f (2-3") =3"*!, Then, S(3"*1) = f (f(2- 3") = 2-34, and F234) =f (F094) = 39, as desired. This completes the induction. Oo There are 3" — 1 integers m such that 3" < m < 2-3” and there are 3" — 1 integers m’ such that f (8°) = 2-3" 1, find m,, the least integer greater than 1 for which there exists an f € F such that f(c) = m, has exactly & distinct integer roots. Solution 58 Suppose that f, € F satisfies the condition that f,(x) =m, has exactly k distinct integer roots, and let a be an integer such that f,(a) = 1. Let gx be the polynomial in F such that 9x2) = f(a +a) for all x. Now gx(0) = f(a) = 1, so the constant term of g is 1. Now gx(x) = mx has exactly & distinct integer roots r1,7....,r%, SO we can write ge (2) — Me = (w— 71 )(%— 7)... (@— Te) OKC), where g},(x) is an integer polynomial. Note that rivo++-r, divides the constant term of gx(x) — mx, which equals 1 ~ m,. Since m, > 1, 1—m, cannot be 0, [1 — mg] > [rire -rel- Now r1,r2,-'-7, are distinct integers, and none of them is 0. so Iraras+rel & [L- (1) +2+(-2)-38--(—1)*[k/2]), hence my > [k/2]!-[k/2]!+1. This value of m, is attained by g(x) = (107) (@ - let 1)(@- 2)(e + 2) see (=1)*[k/2]) + [k/2]!- [k/2]! +1. Thus, mg = [k/2|!- [h/21! + 1.72 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems Problem 59 Let 2) = 2 and Tn+1 = a2 -Iyt1. for n> 1. Prove that i-opo eta tep be-bk. prt ay" xe In 2" Solution 59 Since 2; = 2 and Int1 — 1 =2n(Ln — 1), py, is increasing. Then z, — 140. Hence Thus it suffices to prove that, for n € N, 1 1 1 ~ae ec} -— e 1 - ' germ Int1 — 1 22" sal nad in 2 9°" 9" = 0%,4, Solutions to Advanced Problems 73 Since tx+1 is an integer, the lower bound of (2) implies that Tear $2 and thy 1S 2-1, from which it follows that, Theo —1 = Teei(Te+1 — 1) < . (2 - 1) 2, the left hand side of this equation is negative, so L(f(2) + F(F (2) > fe+ F(2)) and f(x) + f(f(a)) <2 + f(a), 4 contradiction. A similar contradiction occurs if f(f(z)) < 2. Thus f(f(x)) = x as desired. Comment: In the original formulation f was meant to be a continous function. The solution above shows that this condition is not necessary.74 4. Solutions to Advanced Problems Problem 61 [Nordic Contest 1998} Find all functions f : Q — Q such that f(a+y)t f(c -y) = 2f(x) + 2f(y) for all z,y € Q. Solution 61 The only such functions are f(a) = kx? for rational k. Any such function works, since f(et+y)+ fey) = katy)? +k(e-y)? = ka? + Qkay + ky? + ka? — Qkey + ky? = 2kx? + 2ky? = Of (2) + 2f ly). Now suppose f is any function satisfying f(at+y) + f(e—y) = 2f(2) + 2f(y). Then letting c = y = 0 gives 2f(0) = 4f(0), so f(0) =0. We will prove by induction that f(nz) =n? f(z) for any positive integer n and any rational number z. The claim holds for n = 0 and n = 1; let n > 2 and suppose the claim holds for n — 1 and n — 2. Then letting x = (n — 1)z, y =z in the given equation we obtain f(nz) + f((n- 2)z) = f((m— lz +2) + f((n- 12-2) = 2f((n — lz) + 2f(2) so f(nz) = 2f((n - 1)2) + 2f(2) - f((n - 2)2) = An 1)?f (2) + 2f (2) — (n - 2)?f(2) = (2n? — 4n+242-n? + 4n-4) f(z) =n? f(z) and the claim holds by induction. Letting x = 0 in the given equation gives f(y) + f(-y) = 2F 0) + 2f(y) = 2F(y), so f(-y) = f(y) for all rational y; thus f(nz) = n?f(z) for all integers n.4, Solutions to Advanced Problems 75 Now let k= f(1); then for any rational number zx = p/q, # f(z) = fqr) = f(p) = pf (1) = kp? 7 $(0) = kp? /q? = ke’. Thus the functions f(x) = ka?, k € Q. are the only solutions. Problem 62 [Korean Mathematics Competition 2000] Let 3 3Vatbe = 3a.: 4, Solutions to Advanced Problems jkewise, bike (bc + 67a + 1) > 3b and (Pa + cb +1) > 3c. ‘Therefore we only need to prove that Wa+bt+c) +3 < 3(a+b+0), ie. 3 0. which implies that a} + bf > ayb(a; + 61). Therefore, 1 1 a+ot1 a} + 03 + aby cy a 163 (a; + 61) + arbre aby ¢1 yb (a1 + b1 + e1) a atht+a: Likewise, —-_ b+et+l~athta and 1 by ——_— < —_1_. ctat+1l~ath+c Adding the three inequalities yields the desired result.