ETAP 22.

Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Analysis

Slide 2
Load Flow Problem
• Given
– Load Power Consumption at all buses
– Configuration
– Power Production at each generator

• Basic Requirement
– Power Flow in each line and transformer
– Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus

Slide 3
Load Flow Studies
• Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
– Voltage Profile
– Power Flows
– Current Flows
– Power Factors
– Transformer LTC Settings
– Voltage Drops
– Generator’s Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
– Total Generation & Power Demand
– Steady State Stability Limits
– MW & Mvar Losses
Slide 4
Size & Determine System
Equipment & Parameters
• Cable / Feeder Capacity
• Capacitor Size
• Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)
• Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting
• Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.
• MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
• Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
• Generator’s Mvar Demand
• Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Slide 5
Optimize Operating
Conditions
• Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits

• Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits

of Equipment

• Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the

Maximum Ratings

• System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined

• Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated

Slide 6
Calculation Process
• Non-Linear System
• Calculated Iteratively
– Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
– Calculate the Current I Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
– Based on the Current, Calc: Vd = I * Z
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd

– Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

– Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the
results are within the specified precision.
Slide 7
Load Flow Calculation
Methods

1. Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method

• Low Requirements on initial values,
but slow in speed.
3. Fast-Decoupled Method
• Two sets of iteration equations: real
power – voltage angle,
2. Newton-Raphson Method reactive power – voltage magnitude.

• Fast in speed, but high requirement on • Fast in speed, but low in solution
initial values. precision.

• First order derivative is used to speed up • Better for radial systems and
calculation. systems with long lines.

Slide 8
Load Nameplate Data

kWRated HP × 0.7457 kVA = (kW ) 2 + ( kVar) 2

kVARated = =
PF × Eff PF × Eff kW
kVARated PF =
FLA3φ = kVA
3 × kV kVA
I3φ = 1000 ×
kVARated ( 3 × kV)
FLA1φ =
kV kVA
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %
I1φ = 1000 ×
kV
loading conditions

Slide 9
Constant Power Loads
• In Load Flow calculations induction,
synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads.
• The power output remains constant even
if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).
• The lump load power output behaves like
a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.

Slide 10
Constant Impedance Loads
• In Load Flow calculations Static Loads, Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
• The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
• In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
• MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
Constant Current Loads
• The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
• DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity.
• AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
• DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
PowerStation by defining Load Duty Cycles
used for Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.

Slide 12
Constant Current Loads

Slide 13
Generic Loads

Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load

Slide 14
Generator Operation Modes

Feedback Voltage
•AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
•Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)

Slide 15
Governor Operating Modes
• Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generator’s power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
• Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.

Slide 16
In PowerStation Generators and Power Grids have four
operating modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.

Swing Mode
•Governor is operating in
Isochronous mode
•Automatic Voltage Regulator

Voltage Control
•Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
•Automatic Voltage Regulator

Mvar Control
•Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
•Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)

PF Control
•Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
•AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
Slide 17
Slide 18
Lump Load Negative
Loading

Slide 19
Load Flow Adjustments
• Transformer Impedance
– Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance

• Reactor Impedance
– Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance

• Overload Heater
– Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance

• Transmission Line Length

– Adjust Transmission Line Impedance based on possible length
variation tolerance

• Cable Length
– Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance

Slide 20
Load Flow Study Case
Adjustment Page
Adjustments applied
•Individual
•Global

Temperature Correction
• Cable Resistance
• Transmission Line
Resistance

Slide 21
 Load Flow Example 1 Power Grid
1000 MVAsc
Part 1 X/R = 22

Gen1
10 MW
Voltage Control
Design:
%Pf = 85
Transformers MW = 5
T1 = 30 MVA Max Q = 4
T2 = 15 MVA Min Q = -1
T3 = 5 MVA
T4 = 3 MVA
Select typical %Z &
X/R

Cable1
ICEA 15kV 3/C CU,
100%
Size= 250 Impedance
Length= 400 ft Z1
13.8 kV
Cable2 100MVA
KERITE 5kV 3/C % Z = 0.01+j1
CU, 100%
Size= 500
Length= 300 ft
Load Flow Example 1 Transformer
T5 = 5 MVA
Part 2 Select typical %Z
& X/R

Cable3
ICEA 5kV 3/C
CU, 133%
Size= 500
Length= 100 ft

Slide 23
Load Flow Alerts

Slide 24
Equipment Overload Alerts

Bus Alerts Monitor Continuous Amps

Cable Monitor Continuous Amps
Reactor Monitor Continuous Amps
Line Monitor Line Ampacity
Transformer Monitor Maximum MVA Output
DC Link DC Link Loading Capability (Idc,
Max. MVA)
Panel Monitor Panel Continuous Amps
Generator Monitor Generator Rated MW
Slide 25
Protective Device Alerts

Protective Devices Monitored parameters % Condition reported

Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad

High Voltage Circuit Breaker Continuous rated Current OverLoad
Fuses Rated Current OverLoad
Contactors Continuous rated Current OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches Continuous rated Current OverLoad

Slide 26
If the Auto Display
feature is active, the
Alert View Window
will appear as soon as
the Load Flow
calculation has
finished.
Load Flow Convergence
• Negative Impedance

• Zero or Very Small Impedance

• Widely Different Branch Impedance Values

• Long Radial System Configurations

• Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values

Slide 28
Voltage Control
• Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.

• Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:

– Transformer Replacement
– Capacitor Addition
– Transformer Tap Adjustment

Slide 29
Under-Voltage Example
• Create Under Voltage
Condition
– Change Syn2 Quantity to 6.
(Info Page, Quantity Field)
– Run LF
– Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under
Voltage Condition)
• Method 1 - Change Xfmr
– Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8
MVA, will notice slight
improvement on the Bus8 kV
– Too Expensive and time
consuming
• Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
– Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
– 300 kvar 3 Banks
– Voltage is improved
• Method 3 - Change Tap
– Place LTC on Primary of T6
– Select Bus8 for Control Bus
– Select Update LTC in the
Study Case
– Run LF
– Bus Voltage Comes within
specified limits
Slide 30
Mvar Control
• Vars from Utility
– Add Switch to CAP1
– Open Switch
– Run LF
• Method 1 – Generator
– Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
– Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
• Method 2 – Add Capacitor
– Close Switch
– Run Load Flow
– Var Contribution from the
Utility reduces
• Method 3 – Xfmr MVA
– Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
– Will notice decrease in the
contribution from the Utility
Slide 31