Landforms of the earth

20 June 2022 19:21

The earthÕs internal structure is made up of three major layers: the crust,
the mantle, and the core, The mantle and the core are further subdivided to
form five distinct layers in total. Each of the layers involving the main layers
has its own set of characteristics that are described below along with their
chemical compositions, and physical or mechanical properties. The names of
these layers, in order of their presence from the top, are as follows:

1. Crust

2. Upper Mantle

3. Lower Mantle

4. Outer Core

5. Inner Core

From <https://www.sciencefacts.net/layers-of-the-earth.html>
 All the EarthÕs Layers, Their Structure and Composition
1. Crust
Temperature: 475 K (∼200°C) at the surface to 1300 K (∼1000°C)

Thickness: 25 miles (32 km) for continental crust and 3-5 miles (8 km) for oceanic
crust

Density: ∼ 2830 kg/m3 at the continental crust and ∼ 3000 kg/m3 at the oceanic
crust

It is the outermost and thinnest layer of our planet and is least dense among all
other layers. Based on its thickness and location, the crust is of two types, the
continental crust that consists of granite rocks and found near the mountain ranges,
and the oceanic crust that consists of basalt and found under the oceans. The most
abundant elements found in the earthÕs crust include oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
and calcium. The temperature within the earthÕs crust is high enough to melt rocks
and form the lower layer called the upper mantle.

2. Upper Mantle
Temperature: 1200 K (∼ 932°C) at the upper boundary with the crust to 1900 K (∼
1652 °C) at the boundary with the lower mantle

Thickness: 255 miles (410 km)

Density: ∼ 3400 kg/m3

It is the largest and thickest layer of earth. The upper mantle, along with the crust,
makes up the lithosphere of earth, which is physically distinct from the layers lying
below due to its low temperature high thickness. Below the lithosphere is found a
much hotter and malleable portion of the upper mantle called the asthenosphere
layer that begins at the bottom of the lithosphere and extends up to 450 miles (700
km) deep inside.The composition of the upper mantle is not found to be in a steady-
state but always in constant motion. The upper mantle moves large areas of crust,
called tectonic plates, resulting in the formation of volcanoes, mountains, or
earthquakes. Between the upper and lower mantle, there is the presence of the
transition zone, which ranges in depth from 250 – 410 miles (410 – 660 km).

3. Lower Mantle
Temperature: 1900 K (∼ 1600°C) in the outer regions which can reach up to 4300 K
(∼4000°C) at the bottom

Thickness: 1,400 miles (2,250 km)

 Density: ∼ 4400 kg/m3

It is found below the upper mantle from a depth of about 400 miles (650 km) down to
1,800 miles (2,900 km) and is thus incredibly large and takes up most of the earthÕs
volume. Being so deep inside the earth, the temperature and pressure of the lower
mantle are extremely high. Here in the lower mantle, the convection currents allow
heat from the interior of the earth to rise to the surface.

4. Outer Core
Temperature: 4,300 K (4,030°C) in the outer regions to 6,000 K (5,730°C) closest to
the inner core

Thickness: 1,355 miles (2,180 km)

Density: 9,900 – 12,200 kg/m3

Found below the mantle and having a composition similar to the inner core with 80%
iron, along with nickel and some other lighter elements. The outer core has a very
high density and thus always found to exist in the viscous-liquid state due to not
having enough pressure to be compressed to a solid.

5. Inner Core0
Temperature: 5,700 K (∼5,500°C)

Thickness: 760 miles (∼1,220 km)

Density: 12,600 – 13,000 kg/m3

It is the center, and the hottest part of the earth. Similar to the outer core, the
inner core is composed primarily of iron and nickel and has the highest density among
all other layers. The inner core is made mostly metals such as gold, platinum,
palladium, silver, and tungsten. Due to extremely high temperature and pressure, the
metals present in the inner core change their structural conformation and are found
to exist in solid state. Recent discoveries also suggest that the solid inner core itself
is composed of two layers, separated by a transition zone of about 150 – 250 miles
(250 – 400 km) thickness.

From <https://www.sciencefacts.net/layers-of-the-earth.html>

Tectonic Plate

A tectonic plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a massive, irregularly-shaped

slab of solid rock, generally composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.
The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying
between 5-100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.
How do these massive slabs of solid rock float despite their tremendous weight?
The answer lies in the composition of the rocks. Continental crust is composed of
granitic rocks which are made up of relatively lightweight minerals such as quartz
and feldspar. By contrast, oceanic crust is composed of basaltic rocks, which are
much denser and heavier. The variations in plate thickness are nature's way of
partly compensating for the imbalance in the weight and density of the two types
of crust. Because continental rocks are much lighter, the crust under the
continents is much thicker (as much as 100 km) whereas the crust under the
oceans is generally only about 5 km thick. Like icebergs, only the tips of which are
visible above water, continents have deep "roots" to support their elevations.

Most of the boundaries between individual plates cannot be seen, because they
are hidden beneath the oceans. Yet oceanic plate boundaries can be mapped
accurately from outer space by measurements from GEOSAT satellites.
Earthquake and volcanic activity is concentrated near these boundaries. Tectonic
plates probably developed very early in the Earth's 4.6-billion-year history, and
they have been drifting about on the surface ever since-like slow-moving bumper
cars repeatedly clustering together and then separating.

From <https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/tectonic.html>

The concept of Tectonic Plates was first introduced in 1967.

The tectonic plates are not fixed but constantly move horizontally over
the Asthenosphere as rigid units.

• Sometimes these plates collide, move apart, or slide next to each other
which leads to Earthquakes or Volcanic Eruptions.
• Rates of Movement of Tectonic Plates: The rates of movement of the
tectonic plates vary considerably.
• The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and
the East Pacific Rise, in the South Pacific (about 3,400 km west of
Chile) has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr).

From <https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/paper1/tectonic-plates>
 Landforms

Landforms are the physical features on the EarthÕs surface. Mountains, Plateaus and Plains
are some major landforms of the Earth. Natural processes such as weathering, water,
elevation, sinking, and erosion of the soil are constantly shaping the EarthÕs surface. It
doesnÕt really happen overnight. In fact, it takes hundreds and thousands of years for us
to notice these changes. These processes lead to the formation of various landforms. In
other words, landforms originate from these geological processes. LetÕs understand the
processes that shape the landforms.

External Process
External process means effects caused by external factors such as rain or wind. These
cause erosion and deposition. Erosion and deposition are natural processes that change the
surface of the Earth. To clarify, erosion is a process in which sediments get deposited or
dropped off in a different location. And sediments are nothing but the materials on the
EarthÕs surface such as soil and rocks.

Internal Process
As the name suggests, internal processes are processes that occur inside the surface of
the Earth i.e. beneath the crust. For example, volcanic eruption and plate
tectonics. These occur because of the intense heat in the EarthÕs core which causes the
molten rock in the mantle layer to move. As a result, creating uneven movement on the
surface. These layers are either uplifting or sinking.

From <https://www.toppr.com/guides/geography/major-landforms-of-the-earth/some-
major-landforms-of-the-earth/>

Major Landforms of Earth :

Mountains
Hills
Plateaus
Plains

Mountain
 A mountain is a kind of landform that ascends rapidly to an immense height compared to
its nearby landscape. Specifically, it ascends more than 1,000 feet (305 meters) above its
nearby landscapes and consists of steep sides that meet up in a summit or peak, which is a
lot less narrow in width than the base of the mountain. Any raised ground that ascends not
higher than 1,000 feet (305 meters) above its nearby landscapes normally consists of a
rounded top and is not as rugged as a mountain; which is why itÕs known as a hill. High hills
occurring at a mountain base are called foothills.

From <https://eartheclipse.com/science/geology/mountain-landform-formation-
types.html>

Mountain Formation

Mountains can form in a variety of ways. However, these mountain formation methods have one
thing in common; they take millions of years. Most mountains existing today were formed as a
result of tectonic movement, earthÕs tectonic plates colliding with each other, if you will. The
earthÕs crust is composed of numerous tectonic plates that are still in motion today due to
geologic activity underneath the earthÕs surface.
When two tectonic plates meet, their edges crumble the same way aluminum crumbles when
crushed. When the two tectonic plates crumble, the outcome is rock or large slabs being
forced up into the air resulting in a landform called mountain.
For instance, tectonic plates found underneath India and AsiaÕs earth crust collided with each
other over many millions of years, culminating in the formation of the Himalayas and Mount
Everest. Today, the plates are still pushing against each other, which means the mountains are
still growing.
Some mountains have also formed along natural fault lines. Natural fault lines are areas in the
earthÕs crust where tectonic plates meet and crush against each other. Two Plates sporadically
crash against each other leading to one plate rising above the other and leaning over. The
outcome? A mountain range such as the Cascade Range found in western North America.
Volcanic activity underneath the earthÕs crust is another way through which mountains are
formed. On few occasions, molten rock, commonly known as magma, is forced up from
underneath the earthÕs crust due to buildup of pressure. When magma is pushed up, it slowly
cools and forms a hard rock. Wind and rain eventually erode the softer rock above to expose
the dome-shaped mountain below. Sometimes the pressure is so intense that the magma is
forced to break through the surface. When this happens, itÕs called a volcano.
Another way mountains form is through erosion. In an area filled with towering plateaus,
streams and rivers can carve out rocks to form deep channels. What is left behind after
millions of years is a gorgeous mountain in-between deep river valleys.
 Types of Mountains

At times the crust folds and buckles. At times it disintegrates into large blocks. In both
scenarios, vast areas of land are pushed up, leading to formation of mountains. Other
mountains occur as a result of the earthÕs crust lifting up into a dome or due to volcanic action
when the crust breaks open. With that said, here are the types of mountains that form by the
scenarios stated above:
1. Folded mountains

These are the most common kinds of mountain on the planet. Folded mountains form majorly
by the impact of folding on layers in the upper section of the earthÕs crust. To put it clearly,
two plates ram against each other, resulting in crumbling of their edges. You can reflect this
scenario to when a piece of paper folds when you push it together. The upward folds are called
anticlines, while the downward folds are called synclines. Typical examples of Fold Mountains
include the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians in the east of the U.S., The Jura Mountains,
Himalayan Mountains in Europe, the Rockies in North America, the Alps in Europe, the Urals in
Russia and the Andes in South America.
2. Fault Block Mountains

Fault Block Mountains form when blocks of bedrock slide along fault lines within the earthÕs
crust. Fault lines are the broken pieces between the tectonic plates. The blocks of bedrock
are, essentially, lifted up and down. Naturally, when blocks of bedrock slide along fault lines,
the earth folds over. In this case, the earthÕs crust pulls apart (fractures) and disintegrates
into chunks or blocks leading to the formation of a Fault-block Mountain. Naturally, Fault Block
Mountains feature a steep front side, including a sloping back side. The Sierra Nevada
Mountains found in North America and the Harz Mountains found in Germany are examples of
Fault Block Mountains.
3. Volcanic Mountains

Volcanic eruptions form this kind of mountain. It has a lot in common with the dome mountain,
only the magma makes it way out and erupts into the atmosphere and accumulate on the
surface. When magma finds its way out of the earthÕs crust, itÕs called lava. When the lava
accompanied by ash from beneath the earthÕs crust cools, it culminates into a cone-like rock.
The lava continues to accumulate on the rock forming a huge volcanic mountain. Mount Pinatubo
in Philippines, Mt. St. Helens in North America, and Mt. Loa and Kea in Hawaii are some typical
examples of volcanic mountains.

From <https://eartheclipse.com/science/geology/mountain-landform-formation-types.html>
 Hill

A hill is a piece of land that rises higher than everything surrounding it. It looks like a
little bump in the Earth. Since theyre higher than everything around them, hills are good
places to get a nice view.

Hills are easier to climb than mountains. They are less steep and not as high. But, like
a mountain, a hill will usually have an obvious summit, which is its highest point.

hills are formed all the time, by different types of geologic activity. One of these
activities is faulting, which happens because the rocks underneath the Earth's surface are
constantly moving and changing the landscape. Hills formed by faulting can eventually
become mountains. The Himalayas in Asia, the tallest mountain range in the world, were
once tiny hills. The Himalayas continue to grow because of faulting activity beneath
the Earths surface.

Hills are also formed because of erosion, which happens when bits of rock, soil,
and sediment get washed away and placed in a pile somewhere else.

Hills can be destroyed by erosion, as material is worn away by wind and water. Hills can
also be created by erosion, as material from other areas is deposited near the hill, causing
it to grow. A mountain may become a hill if it is worn down by erosion

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/hill>

Plateaus

A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area on at
least one side. Plateaus occur on every continent and take up a third of the Earths land.
They are one of the four major landforms, along with mountains, plains, and hills.

There are two kinds of plateaus: dissected plateaus and volcanic plateaus.
A dissected plateau forms as a result of upward movement in the Earths crust. The uplift
is caused by the slow collision of tectonic plates. The Colorado Plateau, in the western
United States, has been rising about .03 centimeter (.01 inch) a year for more than 10
 million years.

A volcanic plateau is formed by numerous small volcanic eruptions that slowly build up over
time, forming a plateau from the resulting lava flows. The North
Island Volcanic Plateau covers most of the central part of the North Island of New
Zealand. This volcanic plateau still has three active volcanoes: Mount Tongariro, Mount
Ngauruhoe, and Mount Ruapehu.

Erosion can influence the shape of a plateau. Soft rock often erodes away on the top of
a plateau. Many plateaus are therefore topped with a hard, durable surface
called caprock. Caprock protects the plateau from erosion of the soil underneath it.

Valleys form when river water cuts through the plateau. The Columbia Plateau, between
the Cascade and Rocky mountains in the northwestern United States, is cut through by the
Columbia River.

Erosion shapes plateaus in other ways. Sometimes, a plateau is so eroded that it is broken
up into smaller raised sections called outliers. Many outlier plateaus are composed of very
old, dense rock formations. Iron ore and coal often are found in plateau outliers.

The largest plateau in the world is the Tibetan Plateau, located in central Asia. It
stretches through the countries of Tibet, China, and India and occupies an area of 2.5
million square kilometers (1.5 million square miles), which is four times the size of the U.S.
state of Texas.

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plateau>

•
 Plain

A plain is a broad area of relatively flat land. Plains are one of the major landforms, or
types of land, on Earth. They cover more than one-third of the worldÕs land
area. Plains exist on every continent.

Plain Formation

Plains form in many different ways. Some plains form as ice and water erodes, or wears
away, the dirt and rock on higher land. Water and ice carry the bits of dirt, rock, and
other material, called sediment, down hillsides to be deposited elsewhere. As layer upon
layer of this sediment is laid down, plains form.

Volcanic activity can also form plains. Lava plains form when lava pushes up from below
ground and flows across the land. The earth in a lava plain is often much darker than the
surrounding soil. The dark earth is a result of the lava, mostly a dark-
colored mineral called basalt, broken down into tiny particles over millions of years.

The movement of rivers sometimes forms plains. Many rivers run through valleys. As
rivers move from side to side, they gradually erode the valley, creating broad plains.

As a river floods, it overflows its bank. The flood carries mud, sand, and
other sediment out over the land. After the water withdraws, the sediment remains. If a
river floods repeatedly, over time this sediment will build up into a flood
plain. Flood plains are often rich in nutrients and create fertile farmland.
The flood plain surrounding AfricaÕs Nile River has helped Egyptian civilization thrive for
thousands of years.

Alluvial plains form at the base of mountains. Water carrying sediment flows downhill
until it hits flat land. There, it spreads out, depositing the sediment in the shape of a fan.
The Huang He River in China has created an alluvial plain that covers about 409,500
square kilometers (158,000 square miles). Because much of the sediment the Huang He
carries is yellowish in color, it is also called the Yellow River.

Many rivers deposit their sediment in the ocean. As the sediment builds up, it might
eventually rise above sea level, forming a coastal plain. The
Atlantic Coastal Plain stretches along much of the eastern coast of North America.
These broad underwater plains slope gently down beneath the water.

Abyssal plains are found at the bottom of the ocean. These plains are 5,000 to 7,000
 meters (16,400 to 23,000 feet) below sea level, so scientists have a hard time studying
them. But scientists say abyssal plains are among the flattest, smoothest places on Earth.

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plain>

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/plain>

Valley

A valley is a lowland area or surface depression of the earth between higher lands such as
mountains or hills. In simple terms, it can be defined as a natural trough bounded by
mountains or hills on the surface of the earth sloping down to the lake, ocean or stream,
which is created because of water or ice erosion. On this basis, the rivers or streams flowing
through the valley empty the landÕs precipitation into the oceans.
The lowest parts of the valleys are very fertile and make very good farmlands. Majority of
the valleys on land are made up of running streams and rivers and nearly all their floors slope
downstream. Valleys within the mountains normally have narrow floors. The sides of a valley
are termed as valley slopes or valley walls and the section of floor along riverbanks are
referred to as flood plains.
Valleys physical features include U-shaped and V-shaped caused through the forces of
erosion by the flowing masses that persistently widens and deepens the valley. The flowing
masses are either water or glacier that carries away huge amounts of debris. Very narrow and
deep valleys are known as canyons.

From <https://eartheclipse.com/science/geology/what-are-landforms-and-major-types-of-landforms-
on-earth.html>
 Geyser

A geyser is a rare kind of hot spring that is under pressure and erupts, sending jets of
water and steam into the air.

Geysers are made from a tube-like hole in the Earth's surface that runs deep into
the crust. The tube is filled with water. Near the bottom of the tube is molten rock
called magma, which heats the water in the tube.

Water in the lower part of the tube, close to the magma, becomes superhot. Gradually, it
begins to boil. Some of the water is forced upward. The boiling water begins to steam, or
turn to gas. The steam jets toward the surface. Its powerful jet of steam ejects the
column of water above it. The water rushes through the tube and into the air.

The eruption will continue until all the water is forced out of the tube, or until
the temperature inside the geyser drops below boiling (100 degrees Celsius, or 212
degrees Fahrenheit, at sea level).

After the eruption, water slowly seeps back into the tube. The process begins again. In
some small geysers, the eruption process can take just a few minutes

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/geyser>

Glacier

Glaciers are massive bodies of slowly moving ice. Glaciers form on land, and they
are made up of fallen snow that gets compressed into ice over many centuries.
They move slowly downward from the pull of gravity.
Most of the worldÕs glaciers exist in the polar regions, in areas like Greenland, the
Canadian Arctic, and Antarctica. Glaciers also can be found closer to the Equator
in some mountain regions. The Andes Mountain range in South America contains
some of the worldÕs largest tropical glaciers. About 2 percent of all the water on
Earth is frozen in glaciers.

Glaciers can range in age from a couple hundred to thousands of years old.
Most glaciers today are remnants of the massive ice sheets that covered Earth
during the Ice Age. The Ice Age ended more than 10,000 years ago. During
EarthÕs history, there have been colder periods—when glaciers formed—and
warmer periods—when glaciers melted.

Scientists who study glaciers are called glaciologists. Glaciologists began

studying glaciers during the 19th century in order to look for clues about past ice
ages. Today, glaciologists study glaciers for clues about global warming. Old
photographs and paintings show that glaciers have melted away from mountain
regions over time. Indeed, glaciers worldwide have been shrinking—and even
disappearing—at an accelerated rate for the past several decades.

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/glacier>

Desert

Deserts are areas that receive very little precipitation. People often use the
adjectives “hot,” “dry,” and “empty” to describe deserts, but these words do not
tell the whole story. Although some deserts are very hot, with
daytime temperatures as high as 54°C (130°F), other deserts have cold winters or
are cold year-round. And most deserts, far from being empty and lifeless, are
home to a variety of plants, animals, and other organisms. People have adapted to
life in the desert for thousands of years.

One thing all deserts have in common is that they are arid, or dry. Most experts
agree that a desert is an area of land that receives no more than 25 centimeters
(10 inches) of precipitation a year. The amount of evaporation in a desert often
greatly exceeds the annual rainfall. In all deserts, there is little water available
for plants and other organisms.
 Deserts are found on every continent and cover about one-fifth of EarthÕs land
area. They are home to around 1 billion people—one-sixth of the EarthÕs population.

Although the word “desert” may bring to mind a sea of shifting sand, dunes cover
only about 10 percent of the worldÕs deserts. Some deserts are mountainous.
Others are dry expanses of rock, sand, or salt flats.

Subtropical Deserts
Subtropical deserts are caused by the circulation patterns of air masses. They are
found along the Tropic of Cancer, between 15 and 30 degrees north of
the Equator, or along the Tropic of Capricorn, between 15 and 30 degrees south of
the Equator.

Hot, moist air rises into the atmosphere near the Equator. As the air rises, it cools
and drops its moisture as heavy tropical rains. The resulting cooler, drier air
mass moves away from the Equator. As it approaches the tropics, the air descends
and warms up again. The descending air hinders the formation of clouds, so very
little rain falls on the land below.

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/desert>

Coastal Deserts
Cold ocean currents contribute to the formation of coastal deserts. Air blowing
toward shore, chilled by contact with cold water, produces a layer of fog. This
heavy fog drifts onto land. Although humidity is high, the atmospheric
changes that normally cause rainfall are not present. A coastal desert may be
almost totally rainless, yet damp with fog.

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/desert>

Rain Shadow Deserts

Rain shadow deserts exist near the leeward slopes of some mountain
ranges. Leeward slopes face away from prevailing winds.

When moisture-laden air hits a mountain range, it is forced to rise. The air then
cools and forms clouds that drop moisture on the windward (wind-facing) slopes.
When the air moves over the mountaintop and begins to descend
the leeward slopes, there is little moisture left. The descending air warms up,
 making it difficult for clouds to form.

Polar Deserts
Parts of the Arctic and the Antarctic are classified as deserts.
These polar deserts contain great quantities of water, but most of it is locked
in glaciers and ice sheets year-round. So, despite the presence of millions of liters
of water, there is actually little available for plants and animals.

The largest desert in the world is also the coldest. Almost the
entire continent of Antarctica is a polar desert, experiencing little precipitation.
Few organisms can withstand the freezing, dry climate of Antarctica.

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/desert>

Interior Deserts
Interior deserts, which are found in the heart of continents, exist because no
moisture-laden winds reach them. By the time air masses from coastal areas reach
the interior, they have lost all their moisture. Interior deserts are sometimes
called inland deserts.

From <https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/desert>

Domains of Earth

We know that life only exists on our planet Earth. There are all the things available that
sustain life. It is called a Blue planet and it is the only one where water in liquid form is
present. Here, human settlements exist. So, what are the various domains that make our
planet a unique one from others?
The surface of our planet is complex where different domains or zones interact or affect or
overlap each other. Domain meaning in Geography is simply related to the specific location
and which is related to any geographical feature.

Different domains of Earth are: Lithosphere (land)Hydrosphere (water)Atmosphere (air)

Biosphere (life)

Lithosphere

The solid part of the Earth which consists of rocks or soil etc. is called the Lithosphere. The
layers of soil contain nutrients that sustain organisms whereas rocks are also sources of
various minerals. Our Earth can be divided into two parts, namely the continents and the
oceans. The elevation of the land is taken from the level of the sea which is taken as zero
because the level of its sea remains the same everywhere. The highest point of the Earth
which is 8,848 metres above sea level is Mount Everest.

Hydrosphere

- The Domain of WaterThe domain of water is called the hydrosphere. It comprises

different sources of water and also various types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas,
oceans, etc. Water is very essential for all living organisms in the world. The hydrosphere
comprises water on earth in Oceans, Seas, Rivers, Lakes, and even in frozen forms where
2.5% is freshwater and in this 2.5%; approximately 69% is in snow and ice form. The other
97.5% of EarthÕs water is salt water and 71% of the surface of the Earth is covered by
oceans. Earth got a total of seven oceans namely - the Arctic, North Atlantic, South
Atlantic, North Pacific, South Pacific, Indian, and Southern oceans

Atmosphere -

The Domain of Air

The atmosphere is divided into five layers and they are:

Troposphere (0 - 12 km): It is the lowermost layer of the earthÕs atmosphere, and

extends to an average of 12 km from the surface of the earth. Nearly all the water
vapour and moisture found in the atmosphere lie in this section - the “troposphere”.

Stratosphere (12 - 50 km): It is the second-lowest section of the atmosphere, just after
 the troposphere, and is separated by the troposphere via the tropopause. The ozone
layer of the earth is also included in this layer, the Ozone layer is filled with a high
concentration of Ozone gas.

Mesosphere (50 - 85 km): Mesosphere is in the middle of the other atmospheric layers. In
the mesosphere, the temperature dropped down by the increase in the altitude, this trend
will then be followed by all the layers above it. It can be said to be one of the coldest places
on the planet earth, with a temperature of - 85 °C (- 120 °F; 190 K).

Thermosphere (80 km to 500 - 1000 km): This layer is the second-highest in the five
atmospheric layers. It expands from the mesopause (which separates it from the
mesosphere) all the way above to the thermopause (which cuts it from the exosphere). This
is sometimes referred to as the exobase, as it lies just under the exosphere.'

Exosphere (700 km to ~10,000 km): It is the outermost layer of the earth. It extends to
10,000 km outside the earthÕs surface, after that it disappears in the solar wind. The main
composition of this layer consists of extremely low densities of hydrogen and helium, some
other molecules like traces of Nitrogen gas are also present in this layer.About 99 per cent
of the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen where Nitrogen is 78 percent, oxygen
is 21 per cent, and other gases comprise 1 per cent.

Biosphere –

The Domain of Life

The biosphere is the zone of contact between land, water, and air. It is the zone where life
exists and that is what makes this planet unique.

The organisms in the biosphere are divided into:Plant kingdomAnimal kingdom