International Journal of Digital Earth

ISSN: 1753-8947 (Print) 1753-8955 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjde20

Earth observation using radar data: an overview of

applications and challenges

C. Palmann , S. Mavromatis , M. Hernandez , J. Sequeira & B. Brisco

To cite this article: C. Palmann , S. Mavromatis , M. Hernandez , J. Sequeira & B. Brisco

(2008) Earth observation using radar data: an overview of applications and challenges ,
International Journal of Digital Earth, 1:2, 171-195, DOI: 10.1080/17538940802038317

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International Journal of Digital Earth,
Vol. 1, No. 2, June 2008, 171
195

Earth observation using radar data: an overview of applications and

challenges
C. Palmanna*, S. Mavromatisa, M. Hernandezb, J. Sequeiraa and B. Briscoc
a
LSIS Laboratory
Equipe I&M (ESIL), Case 925, 163 avenue de Luminy 13288 Marseille
cedex 9, France; bUNESCO
Natural Sciences Sector Division of Ecological and Earth
Sciences, 1 rue Miollis 75732 Paris cedex 15, France; cCanada Centre for Remote Sensing, 588
Booth St., Ottawa, Canada
(Received 2 June 2007; final version received 5 October 2007)

The first pictures of the earth were taken from a balloon in the mid-19th century
and thus started ‘earth observation’. Aerial missions in the 20th century enabled
the build-up of outstanding photographic libraries and then with Landsat-1, the
first civilian satellite launched in 1972, digital images of the earth became an
operational reality. The main roles of earth observation have become scientific,
economic and strategic, and the role of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is
significant in this overall framework. Radar image exploitation has matured and
several operational programs regularly use SAR data for input and numerous
applications are being further developed. The technological development of
interferometry and polarimetry has helped further develop these radar based
applications. This paper highlights this role through a description of actual
applications and projects, and concludes with a discussion of some challenges for
which SAR systems may provide significant assistance.
Keywords: remote sensing; synthetic aperture radar; applications

Introduction
The first pictures of the earth were taken from a balloon in the mid-19th century. The
event was mentioned in an account by Gaspard Félix Tournachon, who took the first
aerial photo of Paris in 1858, and thus started ‘earth observation’. Aerial missions in
the 20th century enabled the build-up of outstanding photographic libraries. There
was, however, a wait for Landsat-1, the first civilian satellite, launched in 1972, to
obtain digital images of the earth from a height of about 900 km. At the time, many
countries recognised the importance of having such satellite observation technology,
as the new science of remote sensing supported assessments (e.g, soil management),
analyses (e.g. meteorology) and prediction (e.g. agriculture). The main roles of earth
observation have become scientific, economic and strategic, and the role of synthetic
aperture radar (SAR) is significant in this overall framework. This paper highlights
this role through a description of actual applications and projects, and concludes
with a discussion of some challenges for which SAR systems may provide significant
assistance.

*Corresponding author. Email: christophe.palmann@lsis.org

ISSN 1753-8947 print/ISSN 1753-8955 online

# 2008 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17538940802038317
http://www.informaworld.com
172 C. Palmann et al.

Research and applications are developed by non-governmental organisations,

research centres and industrial groups that aim to promote the use of computer
programs, and especially remote sensing ones, for a better understanding of earth
dynamics, and to prevent (and/or mitigate) natural and man-made disasters.
Remote sensing systems are classified as passive and active. Passive systems,
which are based on optical sensors, capture radiation emitted from the earth’s
surface. Active systems, such as radar, transmit their own radiation and capture
reflected data. Passive systems are classified as three types, depending on their
sensors: multispectral, hyperspectral or infrared. Multispectral sensors capture
radiation energy in various electromagnetic bands to produce images whose pixels
are vectors (i.e. sets of scalar values, each associated with a band of the spectrum).
Hyperspectral sensors are an extension of multispectral ones, as data are presented
as a set of spectral band values, each corresponding to a very narrow band. Thus,
hyperspectral images provide a spectral view of the reflected radiation at each pixel
location of a given area. Comparing these data with the elements of a spectral
signature library helps identify which kind of material has been identified for the
corresponding pixel.
These passive systems enable the extraction of information for a given area, but
all have an important drawback
they cannot capture data during darkness or in
unfavourable weather conditions (e.g. rain, clouds, fog).
Active satellite systems have been developed on four principles:
. The capacity for antennae to send out short electromagnetic pulses in a given
direction;
. The capacity for sensors to detect, also in a given direction, the reflected echo
(that is greatly diminished);
. The capacity for sensors to measure the time between emission and reception;
. The capability of scanning a wide area.
Because they transmit their own radiation, and capture the returning echoes, radar
systems are independent of solar illumination. Thus, they can be used night and day,
and under whatever meteorological conditions may exist. Resolution depends on the
size of the antenna
the larger the antenna, the better the resolution. SAR systems
use platform movement to simulate a larger antenna. Emitted radiation used in SAR
systems are centimetric ones and are classified into bands depending on their
wavelength, l:
. X band: 2,40 cm Bl B3,75 cm
. C band: 3,75 cm Bl B7,50 cm
. S band: 7,50 cm Bl B15 cm
. L band: 15 cm Bl B30 cm
. P band: l 30 cm
These wavelengths have been chosen for two primary purposes:
. They are not dissipated in the atmosphere and thus can penetrate clouds and
other meteorological obstructions;
. Their phase stability is sufficient to use them as coherent waves, and thus
determine the distance of the target by comparing the transmitted radiation to
the echo.
 International Journal of Digital Earth 173

Table 1 shows the features of some SAR systems. From Table 1, it appears that
there is an evolution toward polarimetric systems with high-resolutions capabilities.
The use of small SAR systems by emerging countries is also becoming more
common. It also illustrates how the remote sensing field is dynamic, as shown by
collaboration between countries.
Although SAR imagery is not easily understood, even by scientists and
technicians, it can contain important information which can be captured indepen-
dently of meteorogical conditions. Consequently, SAR imagery has become
indispensable for many applications.The following sections highlight the capabilities
of SAR systems, compared to optical ones, for those applications that contribute to
Digital Earth concepts. The challenges and possible improvements that could be
considered for future satellites conclude the paper.

Polarisation and interferometry techniques

This background section summarises the basics of polarimetry and interferometry, as
these technologies are key to the effective use of SAR systems, particularly in the
framework of the applications presented in the body of this paper.

Polarimetry
SAR systems transmit electromagnetic waves that are almost completely polarised,
with a given orientation and ellipticity. XY is a convention where X represents the
emission orientation and Y the reception orientation.
. Simple polarisation: HH, VV, HV, or VH;
. Double polarisation: HH and HV, VV and VH, or HH and VV;
. Quadrature polarisation: HH, VV, HV, and VH;
Some systems use a double polarisation technology to measure the phase difference
between the two channels, which provides the polarimetric information. Quadrature-
polarised radar systems measure the phase differences between all the channels, and
also the signal magnitudes, which enables the evaluation of the target properties.
This type of radar is considered ‘fully polarimetric’, and is called ‘polarimetric
radar’.
By transmitting an electromagnetic wave with a given polarisation, receiving it
through two orthogonal polarisation planes, and repeating this process with a second
wave, the scattering matrix can be computed-a process is called ‘polarisation
synthesis’. This matrix, that takes into account all the phase changes, is symmetrical
for most targets when using a monostatic radar (i.e. emission and reception are
carried out with the same antenna). The result (i.e. the scattering matrix) depends on
the wavelength, but also on the acquisition angle. These two parameters have to be
carefully chosen for each application. When using polarisation synthesis, one can
determine which combination of polarisations (emission/reception) provides the best
contrast between the target and its neighbourhood (e.g. ship versus sea).
It is also possible to represent the target-diffusing properties in terms of power,
using the coherency matrix that can be computed from the same data as the
scattering matrix. Its trace (sum of all diagonal elements) is equal to the total power
diffused by the target (if one considers that this incident radiation has unit power). In
 174
Table 1. SAR features.

Missions Country Band Polarity Resolution Sub-cycle Applications Launching

Seasat USA L HH 25 m 3 days Oceanography 1978 (105 days)

ERS-1 Europe C VV 30 m 4 days Oceanic waves, wind ERS-1: 1991-
ERS-2 measuring, coast watching, 2000
glaciology, hydrology, ERS-2:1995
geology, vegetation
JERS-1 Japan L HH 18 m N/A Environment watching, 1992
1998
fishing and agriculture,
disaster prevention
Radarsat-1 Canada C HH 9m 3 à 7 days Ocean and coast watching, 1995
glaciology, hydrology,

C. Palmann et al.
geology, vegetation
SRTM Germany/ C/X VV or HH/HH 30 m N/A Interferometry 2000
USA
LightSAR USA L double (HHVV) and 3m B2 days Environment and coast Planned for
quadruple watching, agriculture, 2002, cancelled
forestry, cartography, in 2000
resource management
Envisat Europe C VV or HH or VH or HV 30 m 3 days Ocean watching, glaciology, 2002
VVHH or HVHH or hydrology, geology
VHVV
Alos Japan L HH or VV HHHV or 7m 2 days Environment watching, 2006
VVVH HHVV agriculture, forestry, disaster
VHHV and resource management,
interferometry
Radarsat-2 Canada C HH or VV or VH or HV 3 m Latitudes: 708: every Ocean and coast watching, 2007
HHHV or VVVH day 488: 1 to 2 days glaciology, geology,
HHVVVHHV Equator: 2 to 3 days vegetation
Table 1 (Continued)
Missions Country Band Polarity Resolution Sub-cycle Applications Launching

Risat India C HH or VV or VH or HV 3 m 7 days Hydrology, agriculture, 2007

HHHV or VVVH forestry, cartography
HHVVVHHV
Saocom-1 Argentina L HH or VV 10 m 2 days Risk management 2007
TerraSAR-X/ Germany X HH or VV HHVV or 1m 4 to 5 days Interferometry, coast 2007 and 2009
Tandem- X HHHV VVHV watching, agriculture,

International Journal of Digital Earth

HHVVVHHV hydrology
Cosmo- Italy X HH or VV 1m 12 hours Glaciology, environment and 2008
Skymed ocean watching, resource and
risk management,
cartography
TerraSAR-L Germany L simple, double, 5m N/A Agriculture and forestry 2008
quadruple
BISSAT (see Italy X HH or VV or HV or VH 1m Dependent on satellite Interferometry, classification 2009
Cosmo- HHHV or VVVH constellation (using various acquisition
Skymed) angle)
GPM Japan Ku/ H, V and circular (radio- 4 km at 3 hours Rainfall study 2010
Ka meter) HHHV (radar) ground/250 m
vertically
Sentinel-1 Europe C HH or VV or VH or HV 5 m 12 hours Risk management, disasters, 2011
HHHV or VVVH or environment
HHVV HHVV
VHHV
MapSAR Brazil/ L simple, double, 3m B1 day Environment, agriculture, for- 2012
Germany quadruple estry, desaster prevention,
ocean watching,
interferometry
Note: Risat: Misra et al. 2005. Saocom-1: Giraldez 2003. BISSAT is a passive receiver only; intended to operate with COSMO-Skymed constellation (and possibly others).

175
Actuel capabilities dependent on transmitting sensor/platform systems. GPM: based on airborne test instrument
not otherwise specified. MapSar: Schroder et al. 2005
176 C. Palmann et al.

addition, coherency matrix values are real numbers, (compared to scattering matrix
ones which are complex numbers) that can be easily interpreted. In particular, they
can be used to compute the polarimetric entropy, polarimetric anisotropy, and the a
angle. Polarimetric entropy, H, quantifies the random feature of the diffusion
process. H0 means that only one diffusion mechanism is involved in this process
while H1 denotes that a set of such mechanisms are involved and thus the target
depolarises the signal. The a angle is computed from the eigenvectors and gives the
main diffusion mechanism. For example, a 08 indicates that the scattering is
dominated by the surface, a 458 indicates that the scattering is bipolar or provided
by a volume, and a908 indicates scattering by a dihedron or multiple reflections.
Finally, it is possible to compute the polarimetric anisotropy from the ratio of the
corresponding eigenvalues, which is a very useful parameter to indicate volume
scattering targets.
The polarimetric signature is a function that shows the response from a target to
a given set of polarised waves. In order to better understand this function, one only
considers the backscattered waves that are polarised in the parallel direction
(‘co-polarised’ signature), or in the orthogonal direction (‘cross-polarised’ signature)
to the incident wave. Such a polarimetric signature does not give all the possible
polarisation combinations between transmission and reception, but provides a visual
model of the target-scattering properties.
The pedestal height is a useful parameter that can be evaluated from polarimetric
signatures. It is the minimal intensity value of the normalised signature. In particular,
it is efficient in characterising a component of the echo that is diffused but not
polarised. Its value is zero when a wave is completely polarised, and increases when
the signal is noisy, or results from multiple reflectors. Finally, the pedestal height
provides a powerful way to estimate the various scattering mechanisms.

Interferometry
Interferometry is a class of techniques using several SAR images of the same area
that have been captured from various viewpoints or at different times (Van Zyl 1997).
The transmitting antenna receives the returning radar wave, but another antenna can
also be used (a passive one) to capture the signal. By combining both signals in a
coherent manner, the phase difference at each pixel of the image can be computed.
The phase difference depends on the respective distances traveled by the two
reflected signals, and thus, by knowing the respective positions of these two antennae
(called the ‘baseline’), one can compute the corresponding height for each pixel. This
technique is called ‘single-pass interferometry’.
A second technique consists of using a similar process (i.e. by signal comparison
and phase difference evaluation), with data captured not in different locations, but at
different times. As in the previous case, the phase difference between images is
calculated. These images are supposed to have exactly the same geometry, or, the
corresponding pixels are associated with a unique point on the ground. If the
platform does not use exactly the same path, (as in the case of ‘cross-track
separation’) and if the surface did not change between the two acquisitions, the scene
topography can be computed. If the platform uses exactly the same path, we can
measure the surface movements in the radar look direction. This technique, which
evaluates radial movements, is called ‘repeat-pass interferometry’.
 International Journal of Digital Earth 177

Usually, the ‘exact path’ condition is not verifiable and thus one cannot directly
study radial movements. A solution to this problem is provided using the ‘differential
interferometry’ technique. This consists of using three SAR images, two being
captured at close intervals, and these provide support for computing the scene
topography. By using one of these two images and the third one, the scene movement
can be computed. When the time period between two image acquisitions is too long
(e.g. several days or weeks), objects may be at another location or have another
orientation. Errors resulting from such changes are considered a drawback in
estimating ground variations, or an advantage if such information is to be used to
conduct an image classification.
Other systems have been developed to produce interferometric images. One
example of such a system is the multistatic radar systems, called the ‘interferometric
wheel’ which uses one radar antenna for transmission, and several radar antennae
for reception. As the information contained in a SAR image depends on its
acquisition angle, more information is collected using such systems.
Another solution is provided by ‘tandem missions’. TerraSAR-X (launched in
May 2007) and Tandem-X (to be launched in March 2009), will orbit between 500 m
and 2 km apart, and provide interesting interferometric data. The project involves
the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and EADS Astrium. One possible concern for
this project is the precision of the satellite position determination (e.g. Envisat can
provide such evaluations at centimetric accuracy).

Radar polarimetry and interferometry applications

In this section, descriptions of research results and applications that have been
developed and demonstrated elsewhere are presented. The previous section provided
details of polarimetry and interferometry including the principles terms, and
techniques, as these are the most important ones for applications described in this
section of the paper.

Ice
Clouds almost permanently cover many parts of both polar regions, and they are
also in darkness (polar night) for almost half the year. Thus, optical systems cannot
collect data, and SAR systems are used for remote sensing on these regions. In
addition, many parts of the polar areas are flat, so that image capture is relatively
easier. Figure 1 shows a typical scene along the Antarctic coast as an example.
Polarimetry greatly improves information capture by clarifying ambiguities
between water and ice (under a low incidence angle or high winds), as well as
decreasing the confusion between water and thin ice (difficult to characterise ice
signature in wet conditions and to identify the kind of ice). Two solutions to the
‘water and ice’ ambiguity problem are proposed:
. Using a signal from orthogonal polarisation: knowing that earth, as well as ice,
reflects waves in three dimensions, a signal in orthogonal polarisations (HV or
VH one) will provide a higher contrast between sea water and ice (Scheuchl
et al. 2001c).
178 C. Palmann et al.

Figure 1. Ice field collapse in the Antarctic (Larsen platform 3250 km2). Image from Envisat
(ASAR), March 2002.

. Using H-A-a parameters: images computed from anisotropy (A) in C band

and from entropy (H) in L band will also provide a higher contrast between sea
water and ice (Scheuchl et al. 2001a).
The polarimetric signature is an efficient descriptor of ice structure, as ice evolves
through four stages (Onstott and Gaboury 1989): new ice, grey ice, coarse grey ice,
and desalinated sea ice. During this process, the maximum response received changes
from that of HH to that of VV polarisation, owing to the change in dielectric
constant of the ice (ice becomes coarser as its salinity decreases).
H-A-a parameters allow better classification of sea-ice (Scheuchl and Cumming
2002a): a low entropy (H) corresponds to ‘smooth ice’ as its diffusion is the most
homogeneous (unlike earth which has high entropy). Anisotropy (A) is low for earth
and high for ice, giving a higher contrast between earth and the four different types
of ice. The value of a angle is low for ‘smooth ice’, confirming, with the low value of
the entropy, that this result is provided mainly through surface scattering (coarser ice
provides higher values for the a angle and for the entropy, associated with a greater
volume scattering).
Fully polarimetric C and L band systems also provide important information,
owing to their different penetration capabilities, that enable characterisation of
surface and volume scattering properties. Differentiation of multi- and first-year ice
types is possible using this difference.
Interferometry is capable of providing cartographic coverage of large ice areas
(Joughin et al. 1996, Kwok and Fahnestock 1996), measurements of ice velocity
(Goldstein et al. 1993, Joughin et al. 1995, Joughin et al. 1998, Mohr et al. 1998), and
the evaluation of rates of glacial melting (Rignot et al. 1997, Joughin et al. 1999).
An objective of the Polar View program is to set up a system for Polar Region sea
ice surveillance (Arctic, Antarctic, but also Europe, Russian, Canada, and the North
Atlantic). This system uses eight satellites, including Envisat (ASAR) and Radarsat-
1, as well as in-situ observations and digital models. Access to this program will be
 International Journal of Digital Earth 179

for a fee, and customers will be government agencies and private companies (e.g. the
Norwegian Institute of Nature, the Royal Arctic Line, and the Volvo Ocean Race) as
well as the Swedish Coast-Guard, the International Ice Patrol, and the European
Agency for Environment, which can all access the information. As an example of the
importance of this program, in 2003, some one hundred ships were damaged as a
result of an interruption of the Polar View program.
It is projected that a significantly increased research effort will be done in these
application areas with the declaration of the International Polar Year (for 2007/
2008), during which SAR imagery will be used to study the stability and the
thickness of the ice, and other problems mentioned above.

Agriculture and polarimetry

Much research and many applications using SAR imagery deal with agriculture,
primarily for two reasons. Firstly, data can be collected at any time in the growing
period, and thus help monitor growth. Secondly, a global overview of soils can be
collected, providing better control for local and regional soil management (e.g. the
direction of ploughing may accelerate soil erosion and modify preservation of
organic matter).
Two polarimetric measures are able to distinguish ploughed fields from others.
These are the polarimetric signature and the phase difference between two
co-polarised bands.
. Polarimetric signature (McNairn et al. 2002a):
k Ploughed fields: with C band, the smoothest ploughed fields are
characterised by a maximum scattering in VV polarisation (orientation
angle: 908); with L band, there is still a maximum response for a 908
orientation angle. The pedestal height is not very high, as the main
mechanism is the surface scattering process.
k Unploughed fields: with C band, the saddle-shaped signature is typical of
a double reflection, and the pedestal height is higher (these fields provide
a higher depolarisation of the incident waves). With L band, the
scattering by double bounce is not very high and maximum signatures
are with VV polarisation (surface scattering process), as in the case of
wheat, barley and sunflower fields.
. Differences between two co-polarised bands:
The polarisation phase difference (McNairn et al. 2002a) makes it possible
to distinguish fields whose crops have reached maturity (as these are
characterised by a phase difference well above 08), from the already-
harvested fields. Studying the phase difference distribution characterises the
ploughed-field ‘quality’ (Ulaby et al. 1987), as its standard deviation is
lower than 308 for ploughed fields, with few residuals, and higher than 458
for others.
Polarimetric SAR is also used in agricultural productivity studies to identify
variations within cultivated fields. For example, winter wheat fields can be monitored
using HV polarisation (McNairn et al. 2004), as it reveals very high contrast (4.1 dB)
between low- and high-productivity areas. Another example is given in Cloude and
180 C. Palmann et al.

Figure 2. Two images taken by the C band DLR
SAR system (19 April and 24 May 2006),in
Demmin, an agricultural site located in Mecklenburg
Vorpommern in North-East Germany.

Pottier (1997) where a H-A-a parameter classification helps in characterising the

‘intra-field’ variations using scattering mechanism identification.
Figure 2 shows how it is possible to monitor temporal growth of crops using
polarimetric radar data.

Agriculture and Interferometry

Interferometry is also an important tool in monitoring plant growth. A study on the
Âgrâ wheat fields in India (Srivastava et al. 2006) showed it is possible to determine
the relationship between wheat height and image backscatter. When the stalks are
high volume scattering dominates from the canopy and the correlation is weak.
Wheat height has been calculated to within a few centimetres by using a
straightforward linear relation with the image backscatter. L and C bands also
provide interesting information related to biomass. L band is most sensitive to wide-
leafed plant biomass, and C band to the small-leafed plants (Paloscia 2002).
In the field of interferometry, the ‘Rice Monitoring in China’ project is one of the
most important projects to date. It was developed through collaboration between the
ESA and the National Remote Sensing Center of China (NRSCC), and ended in
2006. Its goal was to develop a methodology to study and manage rice fields,
especially as related to water management (the ASAR system of Envisat was used for
this project).
 International Journal of Digital Earth 181

Hydrology
Soil moisture can be estimated through analysis of SAR data owing to the
relationship between moisture and the dielectric constant, when using centimetric
electromagnetic waves. It has been shown that, for a given set of soil parameters
(such as texture, roughness), there is a linear dependency (with a reliability of 80%-
90%) between the radar backscatter and the volumetric moisture in the upper 2 to
5cm of the ground (Dobson and Ulaby 1986). But, this information may be masked
by the surface roughness response that is the main component of the overall
response, and which may be attenuated by vegetation. In order to minimise these
effects, the use of incidence angles less than 30 degrees and C band data (Sokol et al.
2004) is recommended.
Polarimetric radar data can be used to study snow and to determine its type
(Sokol et al. 2004). To do this, C band is used. For wet snow, the signature indicates a
smooth surface (the pedestal height is low) and is quite independent from
polarisation. For dry snow, the pedestal height is higher as the waves penetrate to
the ground, which is coarser. In this case, the VV polarisation peaks indicating
surface scattering. When the snow layer is thicker and has a nival coat, ice layers are
developing inside it, and this causes changes to the polarimetric signature. In this
case, the surface seems coarser, with a much higher pedestal height, and a significant
scattering is produced using HH and VV polarisations.
Another application of polarimetric radar systems in the field of hydrology is
wetland classification, using vegetation diversity (shape, size and repartition
varieties, with a random distribution of trees among vertical plants, such as rushes).
Vertical plants are identified by combining HH and VV polarisations, and vegetal or
aquatic targets are detected through orthopolarisation (especially when their courses
are winding).
Two projects, Aquifer and GlobWetland, deal with hydrology and use radar
satellites. Aquifer aims to assist government organisations and international
institutions in managing their ground water, especially in Africa, particularly when
they are shared among several countries. Envisat (ASAR) is being used for this
project. The GlobWetland project, which uses Envisat and Radarsat-1, aims to
provide several national authorities with the capability of monitoring/controlling
wetlands of their respective countries, and thus to help manage the soil/ground and
water resources with respect to the Ramsar Convention on wetlands management
and conservation.

Forestry
Radar imaging is a high-performing technology for studying the dynamics of forest
ecosystems. As for both the polar regions, clouds often cover tropical forests and
SAR systems are required to capture the necessary information from these areas.
Many structural parameters that characterise the forest canopy are closely
related to ecosystem functions. These parameters include, for example, forest
classification, detection of clear-cut or burned-out areas, extraction of biophysical
data (including the ligneous biomass), tree density, height and diameter of trees, their
age, foliar index and biomass, vegetative cycle, etc.
Polarimetric data provide unique information about the forest canopy, especially
its architecture, through identification of the different scattering mechanisms. These
182 C. Palmann et al.

mechanisms include direct scattering from branches (unique reflection or volume

diffusion), from tree trunks (unique reflection), and from the ground (surface
scattering). But, there is also scattering from ground and branches (double
reflection), and from trunks and branches (double reflection). All these parameters
are directly related to the type of forest.
Simulations on a hardwood forest using L band (Durden et al. 1989) showed that
if the canopy density is very high, HH polarisation returns are quite similar to VV
ones (VV being slightly lower). This suggests that, in this case, the main mechanism
is branch-multiple scattering, with a slight double bounce component. The pedestal
height is high, as expected in such a situation where the scattering mainly results
from a depolarisation by the branches. When using the same canopy architecture,
but reducing its density, the copolarised signature is a saddle-shaped one, which is
typical of double bounce scattering (dihedral reflection). This is caused by trunk-
ground reflections, related to a lower branch density. At the same time, there is less
volume effect as the signal is less depolarised, and the pedestal height is low.
Other simulations, performed on a eucalyptus forest (Coops 2002), demonstrated
the ability of SAR data to extract biomass information. In particular, it has been
shown that there is a strong correlation between ‘P and C bands’ and ‘leaves and
trunks’, and also between the ‘P and L band ratio’ and ‘leaves and branches’. P band
is the most appropriate one for forestry biomass monitoring, as HV polarisation is
strongly correlated with it (Castel 1998).
Figure 3 shows one result using radar data for forest biomass calculation.
Many approaches have been developed to characterise wooded areas and non-
wooded areas (clear-cut areas), as described in Durden et al. (1989), by using:
. Pedestal height: very low in the case of a non-wooded areas;
. VV and HH polarisation: VV is higher than HH one for non-wooded areas
(surface reflection);
. Co-polarised phase difference: this difference is lower for non-wooded areas
(surface scattering).
Interferometry can also be used to improve forest classifications. By using the
temporal decorrelation, (Wegmuller and Werner 1997) obtained very interesting
results (90% of classifications were successful).
In conclusion, radar imaging makes it possible to study primary and secondary
forests and their evolution. The ESA is launching a project, entitled BIOMASS. This
project will use a P band SAR system to study the biomass spatial distribution on a
global scale, and it will particularly focus on regions considered in critical condition.

Oceans
Several physical processes, natural or related to human activities, cause perturbations
of the ocean surface, and can be studied using radar imagery. This includes
atmospheric phenomena (convective cells, atmospheric fronts, gravity waves) as well
as oceanic phenomena caused by currents (marine eddies, internal waves, water mass
boundaries and surface gravity waves). It is possible to use these irregularities to
extract information about surface winds, internal waves and currents.
Two approaches have been developed to study surface wind. The first is a direct
one and takes advantage of changes in ocean surface roughness, as this parameter is
 International Journal of Digital Earth 183

Figure 3. Biomass calculated using SIR-C/X-SAR in Raco, Michigan.

directly related to speed and direction of the wind. There are several ways to establish
the correlation between wind vector data and radar data, depending on the incident
angle value. When this angle is low, the main mechanism is the Bragg diffusion
process, as the main component of the signal is proportional to roughness, but there
may be a saturation effect for some wind speed values. For intermediate incident
angle values, models, which include many geophysical parameters, have been
developed to evaluate surface winds (Shimada et al. 2003). For the latter approach,
VV polarisation is used.
The second approach in studying surface wind uses the well-known Doppler
effect. Ocean wave movements cause an image distortion in the azimuthal direction.
One tries to establish the correlation between the two phenomena (distortions are
proportional to ocean wave speed variance), and to use the result to estimate wind
vector data. As a complement to either of these approaches, information can be
obtained through C band HH and VV polarisations.
Ocean currents change the relative speeds between air and ocean surfaces,
causing changes of its roughness. These perturbations can be detected by analysing
radar images. In addition, these ocean currents are directly related to the movement
of water masses that have different temperatures. These water masses change the
temperature difference between water and the air, causing a ‘stress’ that is detectable
in radar images (for detecting ocean currents, HH is the better polarisation). Finally,
184 C. Palmann et al.

use of the Doppler effect, as mentioned above for surface wind detection, can
provide a separation of the different components-those related to the wind, and
those related to ocean currents. Usually, the signal in cross-polarised images is too
weak, and does not provide any significant information about winds and waves.
Ship detection is another ocean application. Simple radar polarisation systems
provide efficient ship detection so long as the most appropriate wavelength and a
reliable system for automatic target detection are selected. Maximising the
polarimetric contrast, as discussed above, facilitates this detection capability.
However, without using this technique, one can conclude:
. Cross-polarisations (HV and VH) are the most useful. HH polarisation
(because of the entropy associated with this polarisation) and VV polarisation
(because the scattering mechanism between the ship and the ocean is a double
bounce);
. VV polarisation may be useful for detecting ship wakes.
When there are very high winds, ships may be indistinguishable from water owing to
surface roughness. But, if one can extract the wind parameters, one can separate the
signal associated with surface coarseness from the signal enabling ship detection.
This ship detection capability is very important for monitoring and control of
maritime areas that have critical military or commercial interests (fishing areas,
specific coastal jurisdictions).

Coastal areas
Coastal areas are fragile ecosystems that can be destabilised by human or natural
activity (chemical discharge, urbanisation, tourism, sediment accumulation, etc.).
Polarimetric SAR systems are an efficient tool for monitoring/controlling the
evolution of such ecosystems, mainly through permanent programs of updating
coastal maps and charts, seabed charting, and monitoring human and natural
pertubations of the coastal environment.
Calm water acts as a specular reflector that returns a weak signal, unlike the
earth that produces a more intense response. Under these conditions, charting the
coastline is a straightforward problem, unlike the case when the water surface is
modified by high winds. HV polarisation provides a solution to this problem through
earth/water contrast enhancement. Coastal cartography is a crucial question as, in
many cases, the charts are obsolete or do not exist, particularly in developing
countries. This lack of cartographic information generates risks to coastal naviga-
tion. The COASTCHART project, supported by the ESA, which used ASAR data
from Envisat, ended in 2006 with the production of coastal charts at scales from
1:50 000 to 1:15 000, and included the charting of much of the African coast
(6000 km, from Senegal to Congo).
As mentioned earlier, in the case of coastal areas, the identification of scattering
mechanisms using polarimetry, can be used to ‘classify’ the substrate:
. Mud: the pedestal height is low; with a maximum in VV polarisation (surface
reflection) and odd number of bounces (smoothed or slightly coarse surfaces);
. Sands: the pedestal height is high; with a maximum in VV polarisation
(surface reflection), and a main cross-polarised backscatter in C band
 International Journal of Digital Earth 185

(associated with volumetric and multiple scattering); it is also characterised by

an odd number of reflections correlated to a combination of even and diffuse
scattering;
. Gravels: the pedestal height is high; with a maximum in VV polarisation
(surface reflection), and a strong echo in HH polarisation (double reflection
caused by small stones that act as corner reflectors).
SAR systems are also used for identification and monitoring oil pollution, spills, and
oil exploration. Oil slicks reduce ocean surface roughness and, as a consequence, the
backscatter intensity is reduced. Figure 4 is an example of an oil spill in the ocean.
The best conditions for oil slick detection occurs when there are moderate winds
(3 m/s to 10 m/s), which produce waves from 30 cm to 2 m. VV polarisation is the
most sensitive to wind variability, and thus aids in characterising oil slicks, although
not noticeably. In addition to this information, knowing the wind speed may help to
avoid false alarms.
The I-STOP monitoring program (Integrated Satellite Tracking of Pollution) is
dedicated to identifying oil spills caused by marine transportation or offshore oil
production. This project uses Radarsat-1 images to direct aircraft toward locations
where oil spills have been identified. The program is used for surveillance of waters
under Canadian jurisdiction and involves the coordination of several Departments,
federal organisations and private companies. It involves the Canadian Space Agency,
Transport Canada, and the Canadian Coast Guard. Recently (March 2007), the
Rowan Gorilla VI oil rig paid a CAN$70,000 fine because it illegally discharged
polluting material into Canadian waters.
Coastal area bathymetry can also be obtained from radar imagery when then
depth is less than 30 m. The radar signature is related to current changes that
modulate capillary waves. A study in the Netherlands showed that bathymetric
measurements obtained in this manner are within a 30 cm level of accuracy
(Hasselmans et al. 1997). An extension of this same study of the wind detection in

Figure 4. Envisat (ASAR) image of oil pollution (shown in black) from the wreck of the
tanker Prestige off the Spanish coast in November, 2002. (courtesy ESA)
186 C. Palmann et al.

relation to the ocean-atmosphere interaction in coastal areas could be developed to

optimise establishment of wind ‘farms’.

Natural disasters
SAR systems are an efficient way of providing information support for planning
delivery of humanitarian assistance when natural disasters occur. While there are
several types of disasters, in this section, the focus is on flood management with
some comments on landslides.
Several approaches may be applied depending on the areas of concern, as the
data collected is different for open areas, forest areas and urban areas:
. Open areas: the water surface is smooth and thus reacts as a specular reflector,
which produces very weak echoes. Comparatively, the surrounding ground is
rougher and thus produces a higher signal return. SAR images of floods in
open areas appear as very dark zones, which are flooded ground, and brighter
zones, which are non-flooded (Henderson 1995). Because of this property, a
threshold procedure is sufficient, in most cases, to detect flooded areas (Brivio
et al. 2002, Malnes et al. 2002). The contrast between the two zones depends
on the polarisation and on the incident angle. VV polarisation and shallow
incident angles reduce the contrast. A solution to this problem has been
proposed by (Solbø et al. 2004), where a ‘maximum likelihood criterion’ is
applied after a preliminary threshold, so that the analysis is almost
independent of the incident angle (Ahtonen et al. 2004). Figure 5 is a
composite of two radar images of a typical flood area illustrating this
approach to flood monitoring.
. Forested areas: long radar waves can penetrate the forest canopy, thus the
flooded areas will generate significant signal returns, owing to the double
reflection ‘trunk/flooded ground’. In these cases it is usually better to use
interferometry, where the flooded areas can be identified by comparing them
to a reference scene (Mouginis-Mark et al. 1984, Kandus et al. 2001,
Townsend 2001 and 2002). Other methods use active contours (snakes)
(Horritt and Mason 2001, Horritt et al. 2003), but their initialisation is quite
difficult. Because of the forest canopy, it is impossible to use remote sensing
systems other than SAR to characterise flooded zones in forested areas
(Bourgeau-Chavez et al. 2001).
. Urban areas: reflected signals are significant because of the many corner
reflectors that are unaffected by the flooding. In these cases, interferometry,
based on temporal decorrelation, is used to identify flooded areas (Dellepiane
et al. 2000, Stabel and Löffler 2003). Buildings, which remain at exactly the
same locations, will produce a maximum correlation, while the water surface,
which moves continuously, will produce a correlation equal to zero. This
approach can also be used in the two other cases of flooding discussed above.
Using SAR systems, in some cases it is possible to detect small variations in the
terrain using the ‘persistent scatterer’ technique and differential interferometry
(Colesanti et al. 2003b, Delacourt et al. 2003, Hilley et al. 2004). This technique
consists of reviewing a large number of images (from archives) to automatically
identify objects that are very stable in space and time (identification being possible
 International Journal of Digital Earth 187

Figure 5. Flooding in Bangladesh and parts of India brought on by two weeks of persistent
rain.

because of their high correlation). These objects are used to correct the bias
introduced by the satellite orbit imprecision, and also to correct the phase delay that
is produced by varying atmospheric water content.
‘Global Monitoring for Environment and Security’ (GMES), including Sentinel-
1 for SAR imaging, is a program initiated by the ESA and the European Community.
The goal of this program is to centralise and rationalise European activities in Earth
Observation, in order to access these data very quickly if there is an urgent
requirement. ‘Sentinel Asia’ is a project proposed in 2004 by the Asia-Pacific Space
Agency. This project is similar to GMES, but it is dedicated to Asian countries, and
uses the Japanese satellite Alos (PALSAR).

Topography
The only technique used for topography is differential interferometry. It can be
applied to seismology, cartography in mountainous areas, vulcanology, and
subsidence studies.
Work in seismology has developed in several directions using differential
interferometry. These deal with co-seismic deformation studies (i.e. those directly
188 C. Palmann et al.

related to the main earth tremor) (Reilinger et al. 2000, Pedersen et al. 2001), post-
seismic deformation analysis (after earthquakes) (Jónsson et al. 2003), tectonic event
observation (i.e. slippage along the rifts that do not generate seismic waves) (Rosen et
al. 1998), and inter-seismic monitoring (Wright et al. 2001, Colesanti et al. 2003a)
(i.e. between two earthquakes).
The following is an example of the use of SAR images in understanding the
movement of seismic activity (Bawden et al. 2003). A magnitude 6.7 earthquake
occurred in October, 2002 at Nenna Mountain (Alaska). Radar images showed it
resulted in new deformation far away from the epicentre of the quake. Interfero-
grams suggested that geological constraints had ‘migrated’ to another part of the
same scene. Another earthquake, magnitude 7.9, occurred two weeks later in the
location identified by interferometry.
Geologists theorise that seismically-produced deformations can be located far
from the quake epicentre, as the ground offsets the first tremor. This hypothesis led
to the use of SAR systems for studying rifts, in order to detect distant movement and
to attempt to predict other quakes. As the technology stands at present, only SAR
systems can be used for such applications, as the movement involved in these
processes may be only 1mm per year (for aseismic and inter-seismic cases). It is
interesting to note that differential interferometry enables the detection of radial
deformation (i.e. in the radar look direction). Because of the incident angles, radar is
more sensitive to vertical rather than horizontal deformation, which does not allow
reliable three-dimensional studies. Solutions to this three-dimensional analysis
problem have been found through the use of ascending and descending orbits for
data capture (Fialko and Simons 2001), or by using several interferograms (Wright
et al. 2004).
Mountain-area cartography (with Digital Terrain Elevation) also takes advan-
tage of differential interferometry, with the use of ascending and descending orbits
(or image capture ‘from left’ and ‘from right’), of several baselines, of various
viewing angles, and of frequencies (Eineder 2005). A variety of parameters are used,
as the respective target and radar positions (slant range) induce distortions in the
mountainous regions, with objects on the mountains being closer to the radar.
Consequently, the mountainside facing the radar will appear contracted and its
density of energy will be higher (‘highlighting’ phenomenon) as the illuminated
surface will be significantly smaller, and the opposite for the opposite mountainsides
(‘lowlighting’ phenomenon). In some extreme cases (e.g. for a peak or for the top of a
cliff), it is even possible that a high point will seem to be closer to the radar than
another point whose ground position is between the two.
Differential interferometry also provides important information for vulcanology
studies. Compared to other means of surveillance (e.g. GPS beacon networks), it can
be used for regional studies, such as volcanic upheaval (caused by rising magma
rising or increased gas pressure from below) and volcanic subsidence (caused by
surface lava accumulation, depressurisation during eruptions, or hydrothermal
cooling) (Amelung et al. 2000, Lu et al. 2000, Massonnet and Sigmundsson 2000,
Salvi et al. 2004). Vulcanologists have been very surprised that these phenomena
could be monitored, even for very long-term inactive volcanoes. GlobVolcano is a
project of the ESA to monitor volcanic risk using many satellites with SAR systems,
in particular Envisat (ASAR) and Radarsat-1.
 International Journal of Digital Earth 189

Subsidence and upheaval phenomena may be a result of fluid extraction,

construction, or geothermal activity, as mentioned in many publications (Ulaby et
al. 1987, Cloude and Pottier 1997, McNairn et al. 2002a and 2004). Studies on such
phenomena are mainly concerned with urban areas, for which differential
interferometry is a very efficient technique, as towns have very few temporal
decorrelations, even over long periods. Figure 6 is typical, and shows the subsidence
of Mexico City over six months in 1996. These studies may be extended beyond
urban areas (into other neighbourhoods and industrial areas) by using the ‘persistent
scatterer’ technique.
Seasonal ground displacements owing to underground fluid flow variations have
been observed in the Los Angeles area (Bawden et al. 2001). This information is very
useful in correcting results obtained from seismic studies or unknown rift detection.
SAR systems can also be used for monitoring construction deformation, as in the
cases of buildings, bridges, dams and pipelines. The monitored structure may

Figure 6. Displacement map of Mexico City metropolitan area over six months in 1996.
190 C. Palmann et al.

naturally reflect radar waves, but this is not usually the case. Two techniques are then
used to provide an interaction with the radar system:
. A set of hollow tetrahedrons are ‘hung’ on the structure to produce a double
reflection. This technique is called the ‘Corner Reflector Interferometry’;
. Active electronic boxes, called transponders, are also ‘hung’ on the structure,
and emit a signal that can be interpreted by SAR systems. This technique is
called the ‘Compact Active Transponder Interferometry’;
In both cases, small objects are detected and produce significant echoes. These
configurations enable the analysis of very small deformations.
One example of successful deformation detection is the McMicken Bridge in
Arizona. It is a 15-km-long structure, which subsided more than 1.5 m since its
construction in 1955. Radar imaging (Ralph et al. 2004) confirmed the subsidence,
and thus engineers were able to use the data to analyse potential structure
weaknesses.
A global project-the PIPEMON Project-was created by the ESA in the
framework of the ‘ Earth Observation Market Development ’ program (EOMD).
Its goal is to provide services for the study of infrastructure deformation using SAR
systems.

Challenge and perspectives

Many applications related to Digital Earth concepts can benefit by using SAR
systems. This paper outlined where this technology can provide unique support for
these applications, and some important projects that promote (or have promoted)
their use. In this light, it is interesting to review some SAR limitations, and offer
some challenges. Some possible directions for future development and improvements
in the field include:
. Low frequency microwaves, such as L and P band, penetrate the forest canopy
and interact with structural elements (leaves, branches, and trunks). Higher
frequencies, such as C band, interact with the upper part of the canopy. Thus,
high frequency sensors have a limited utility for measuring the dry biomass
variations, but it should be possible to use L and P band information for such
analyses.
. Coastal wind studies using SAR imagery is generally not reliable enough,
because of the interaction of bathymetric, internal waves and tide effects
(Christiansen and Hasager 2006). It would be useful to improve on existing
current-interaction models.
. SAR systems have evolved toward fully polarimetric radar systems. However,
it would be very useful to have information from different bands over the same
area, for the same application. Although some systems already have two
bands, the next generations of SAR systems should be fully polarimetric and
multifrequency.
. Radar images are not intuitively understandable. In addition, they depend on
incident angles, coarseness criteria, winds, and knowledge of precipitation
before the acquisition. Optical images, on the other hand, are easily under-
standable. Improved data fusion between SAR and optical imagery should be
 International Journal of Digital Earth 191

developed to most efficiently visualise information that can be extracted from

SAR images.
. Several challenges also concern interferometry (Ge et al. 2006). A phase
discontinuity problem needs to be solved for differential interferograms when
the variations are too large in relation to the phase definition (2p module). A
priority should also be to reduce the noise in these images without modifying
information on various types of deformation.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the reviewers for their valuable suggestions.

Notes on contributors
Christophe Palmann received a ScM degree in computer science from the University of
Marseilles, France, in 2007. He is currently preparing his PhD degree under the supervision of
Jean Sequeira and Sébastien Mavromatis. His research interests lie in registration and fusion
of multisensor images.
Sébastien Mavromatis received his PhD degree in Computer Science from the University of
Marseilles, France, in 2001. He is currently an associate professor at the University of
Marseilles (ESIL). He is also a member of the Laboratory of Information Science and Systems
(LSIS). His research interests include Remote Sensing, Three-dimensional Scene Reconstruc-
tion and Virtual Reality.
Mario Hernandez is of Mexican nationality. In 1994 he joined the United Nations
Environment Programme on the use of remote sensing to assist countries in their associated
State of the Environment reporting. Since 2001 Mr. Mario Hernandez is working at the United
Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). He is coordinating an
important partnership of space agencies, space research institutions and universities that are
assisting UNESCO in the monitoring of the famous World Heritage sites.

Jean Sequeira has been a Full Professor at the University of Marseilles since 1991. In 1994, he
created a research group on ‘Image Analysis and Computer Graphics’. He is now a Vice-
Director of the LSIS. He published more than 90 papers, 27 of them in Journals and 40 in
International Conferences.
Brian Brisco has been involved in remote sensing since 1975. He worked for Intera from 1989
until 1997 as a research associate after completion of an NSERC post-doctoral fellowship
served at the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS). From 1997 to 2006 he has worked
for Noetix Research Inc. where he was the Director of Research and Applications
Development. Brian is currently a Research Scientist at CCRS.

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