ELE 331

COMMUNICATION ELECTRONICS
Introduction
Electronic communication developed from the ideas and experiments of several scientists In
1864, the British Physicist James Clark Maxwell theorized that electromagnetic waves traveled
through space at the speed of light. In 1880, the German Physicists Hertz proved the existence
of electromagnetic waves. In 1895, Marconi combined the ideas of Maxwell, Hertz and others
to send signals through spaces. Marconi called his device the wireless telegraph (radio)

Radio communication is the process of sending information from one place and receiving it in
another place without using any connecting wire (wireless communication)

The following are the important terms used in communication

1. Information: Information means the choice of message –out of a finite set of messages;
the message could be in analog, digital, or optical form. Information is also referred to
as intelligence (audio signal)
2. Audio signal: The signal whose frequency ranges from 20hz to 20khz is called audio
signal. The audio signal cannot be directly sent from one station to another station when
the distance between the two station is large. The energy of the audio signal is very
small. Mathematically, it is represented by vm = Vmsinωmt
3. Microphone: The electronic device which converts sound waves into corresponding
electrical signal is known as microphone
4. Transmitter: Transmitter processes the message and transmits. In fact signal
(electrical equivalent of information) gets modulated in the transmitter. A transmitter
performs three basic function. It produces the radio frequency waves at a given
frequency, it varies or modulates those waves with some intelligence carrying signal,
and finally it amplifies that modulated signal to a level required for transmission
5. Modulation: Modulation means to “change”. Radio waves do not convey the message
unless some of their characteristics are changed in accordance with the information.
The method by which some parameters namely the amplitude, frequency or phase of
the radio waves is varied in accordance with the information is called modulation
6. Transmitting antenna: It radiates the modulated waves into spaces
7. Noise: Noise is defined as the undesirable electrical signal due to various causes present
interfering with the message and resulting reduction in the information
8. Receiving antenna: A receiver that is situated along with its receiving antenna in the
radiation field receives the modulated signal transmitted by the transmitter
9. Channel: Channel means the passage through intelligence (information) flows. The
frequency bands have been assigned for the use of radio (or TV) stations. Each radio
station is allotted a certain carrier frequency by international agreement. Each radio
station therefore broadcast on different channels. Each band is divided in to number of
channels. The same channel can be shared by a number of stations provided the stations
are sufficiently wide apart to avoid any interference between them
10. Receiver: A radio receiver is an electronic device that receives the desired radio signal
from the numerous radio signals propagating at that time through the atmosphere,
amplifies the desired signal to the requisite level, recovers from it the original
modulating signal and eventually displays it in the desired manner
11. Loudspeaker: Loudspeaker is an electronic device which converts electrical signals in
to corresponding sound waves(energy)

Process of communication
The information broadcast may be music, drama or news originating from a broad cast
studio where sound waves are first converted into electrical waves of corresponding
frequencies. These low frequency currents are called audio frequency (AF) and are not
quite suitable for transmission. Audio signal transmitted properly by superimposing them
on high frequency signals known as carrier (RF) signals by means of modulation. These
modulated high frequency currents are fed into transmitting antenna which spread out in
all directions in the form of electromagnetic waves. These carrier waves are picked up by
a receiving antenna and produce in it weak modulated currents at carrier frequency. The
carrier signals of the desired frequency are selected out of many other carrier signals
striking the receiving antenna by a process called selection. The modulating frequencies
(AF) contained in the RF carrier waves are then separated by demodulator. The audio
frequencies are amplified to a sufficient level and then fed into a loud speaker, and
converted into sound waves again in a process called sound conversion. The entire process
of transmission and reception of radio waves for sound broadcasting is shown in the
diagram above.

Need for modulation:

1. At audio frequencies, the signal power is very low and hence cannot be transmitted
efficiently over long distance

2. The theory of antenna shows that the length of the antenna should be at least a quarter
wavelength for effective radiation of an electromagnetic wave. In terms of frequency a
quarter wavelength is given by

L = (1/4) × velocity of light × ( 1/f ) = (1/4) × 3 × 108 × (1/f ) = ( 0.75 × 108 )/ f

If antenna is shorter than L, it will not radiate signals effectively. For instance,

To radiate 1000 Hz audio signals efficiently, we must need an antenna of length

L = (0.75 × 108 ) /1000 = 75 km .

It is practically impossible to construct a vertical antenna of this. Hence it is

 impossible to radiate audio signals directly into space.

3. All sound is concerted within the range from 20Hz to 20 kHz. Therefore signals
From different broadcasting stations would be inseparably mixed up and cannot be
distinguished from one another
Types of modulation
The parameters (V, ω and Ф) of the carrier wave may be varied by the low frequency
modulating signal during the process of modulation. Thus, in the process of modulation, some
characteristics of a high frequency sinusoidal wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal. Since there are three parameters of a carrier wave,
therefore any one of these parameters can be varied in proportion to the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal, giving rise to three types of modulation
They are 1) Amplitude modulation 2) frequency modulation 3) Phase modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM): An amplitude modulation is a system of modulation in which
the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous voltage of the
modulating signal keeping its frequency and phase constant
Frequency modulation (FM): Frequency modulation is defined as system of modulation in
which the frequency of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous voltage
of the modulating signal keeping the amplitude of the carrier constant. The amount of deviation
in frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the signal
Phase modulation (PM): Phase modulation is defined as a system of modulation in which the
phase of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous voltage of the
modulating signal keeping the amplitude of the carrier a constant.
Analysis of Amplitude Modulated wave

Let the instantaneous voltage of the modulating signal be vm = Vm sinωmt ---------(1)

Where Vm is the amplitude of the modulating signal and ωm is the angular modulating
frequency. Let the instantaneous voltage of the carrier signal be vc = Vc sinωct ---(2)
Where Vc is the amplitude of the carrier and ωc is the angular carrier frequency

When the amplitude Vc of the carrier signal varies in proportion to the instantaneous value vm
of the modulating signal, amplitude modulation is attained, shown in figure (c)

If A is amplitude of the amplitude modulated wave, then we have

A = Vc + vm sin ωm t

Vc + Vm sin ωm t ----------(2)

Vc { 1 + Vm/Vc (sin ωm t)}

Vc {1 + ma sin ωm t} ----------------(3)

Where ma = Vm/Vc is called the modulation index or modulation factor or depth of modulation
of AM wave

As the frequency of the carrier wave is unaltered the instantaneous voltage of the resulting
amplitude modulated wave is given by

v = A sin ωc t ------------------- (4)

Substituting the values of A from equation 3 in equation 4 we have

v = Vc{ 1 + ma sin ωm t} sin ωc t

v ={ Vc sin ωc t + Vc ma sin ωc t sin ωm t}

VAM = Vc sin ωc t + (ma Vc)/2 cos (ωc - ωm )t - (ma Vc)/2 cos (ωc + ωm )t
Unmodulated Lower side band Upper side band
carrier

[ sin A sin B = ½ { cos (A-B) - cos ( A+B)}]

Thus the amplitude modulated wave is the sum of three high frequency components. They are
(a) The first term Vc sin ωc t is the orginal carrier signal voltage

(b) The second term (ma Vc)/2 cos (ωc - ωm )t represent the lower side band of amplitude
maVc/2 and frequency fc - fm

(c) The third term (ma Vc)/2 cos (ωc + ωm )t represent the upper side band of amplitude
maVc/2 and frequency fc +fm

The amplitude A of the amplitude modulated wave has a maximum value of (Vc+ Vm) and a
minimum value of (Vc-Vm)

Sideband and Frequency Spectrum of an AM wave

When a RF carrier is modulated by an AF signal wave by mixing the two frequencies, two new
frequencies equal to the sum and difference of the combining frequencies are produced. These
two new frequencies fc - fm and fc +fm are called side band frequencies. The frequency fc
- fm is called the lower side band frequency and fc +fm is called the upper side band
frequency. The frequency spectrum for a carrier frequency modulated by a single Audio
frequency signal is shown below. The two new frequencies which appear on either side of the
carrier frequency are called sidebands. Side band carries complete information. The height of
each vertical line is equal to the amplitude of the components present in AM wave

Band width: The total frequency range occupied by the modulated wave is known as its band
width. The band width required for AM is given by the relation

BW = (fc +fm ) - ( fc - fm ) = 2 fm

Hence the banjd width required for the transmission of an AM wave is twice the modulating
signal frequency

Modulation Index ( ma )
In amplitude modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
variation in the amplitude of the modulating signal. The extent of variation in the amplitude of
the modulated wave can be expressed as the degree of modulation or depth of modulation.
which depend on the relative amplitude of the carrier wave and modulated wave at any instant
during modulation

The ratio of the amplitude of the modulating signal (Vm) to the amplitude of the carrier signal
Vc is called the modulation index and is denoted by ma

Modulation Index ma = Vm/Vc

Modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1 . This can be expressed as a percentage
and it is then called the depth of modulation.

Depth of modulation = (Vm/Vc)× 100 %

Expression for Modulation Index in terms of Vmax and Vmin

Modulation Index ma = Vm/ Vc

The top envelope of the AM wave shown above is given by the relation
A = Vc + Vm sin ωm t and the bottom envelope, A = -(Vc + Vm sin ωm t )

Therefore the modulated wave extends between these two limiting envelopes and has a
repetition rate equal to the unmodulated carrier frequency

From the figure , it is seen that Vm = Vmax - Vc

ma = Vm/Vc = (Vmax – Vc)/Vc ----------------(a)

and also Vm = Vc - Vmin

ma = (Vc- Vmin)/Vc ------------------(b)

Comparing (a) and (b)

(Vmax – Vc)/Vc = (Vc- Vmin)/Vc or Vc = (Vmax + Vmin)/2 ---- ( c)

From the above figure , we can also write 2 Vm = Vmax - Vmin

Therefore Vm = (Vmax - Vmin)/2 ----- ( d)

Dividing the equation (d) by ( c ), we have

ma = Vm/Vc = [ (Vmax – Vmin)/2] / [ (Vmax + Vmin)/2]

ma = [Vmax - Vmin] / [Vmax+ Vmin]

Amplitude Modulated waves with various degree of modulation

The instantaneous voltages of the amplitude modulated wave is given by the relation

VAM = Vc [1+ ma sin sin ωm t ] sin ωc t

Let ma = 0 . It means that no amplitude modulation takes place and VAM reduces to
Vc sin ωc t , representing the carrier wave as shown in the diagram

Let ma = 0.5 . The amplitude of the modulating signal then is half that of carrier amplitude That
is ma = Vm/Vc = 0.5 or 50%

Let ma = 1 . It means that the percentage of the modulation is 100%. The amplitude of the
modulation signal is equal to the amplitude of the carrier signal.
Thus ma = Vm/Vc = 1 or 100 %

Let ma = 1.5 . This the case of over modulation. Ay greater depth of modulation results in utter
distortion of the envelope and loss of information. Large value of ma will produce a poor signal
to noise ratio. A modulation factor between 0.3 and 0.4 is acceptable
Power Relation: It is seen that the carrier component of the modulated wave has the same
amplitude as that of unmodulated wave. Since the modulated wave contains two side bands the
modulated wave contains more power as compared to the unmodulated carrier wave. As the
amplitude of the side band depends upon the modulation index, the total power in the
modulated wave also depends on the modulated index.

If the signal is connected to a matched load (antenna) of resistance RΩ, then the total power
dissipated in the load is given by

Pt = (V2carrier)/R + (V2LSB ) /R + (V2USB)/R

Where all the three voltages are in r m s values

Pc = (V2carrier)/R = [( Vc / √2 )2] / R = Vc2 / 2R

Power in the side band PLSB = PUSB = { [ ( ma Vc / 2) / √2 ] 2 }/ R = (ma2 Vc2) / 8R

Substituting the values of Pc and PSB in the above equation

Pt = Vc2 / 2R + (ma2 Vc2) / 8R +(ma2 Vc2) / 8R

= Vc2 / 2R + (ma2 Vc2) / 4R

= Vc2 / 2R[ 1 + (ma2/2) ]

Pt = Pc[ 1 + (ma2/2) ]

When ma = 1 , the maximum power present in the amplitude wave is

Pt = Pc( 1 + 1/2 ) = 1.5 Pc . It is 150% of the carrier power for the 100% modulation.

η = PSB / Pt = [( PLSB + PUSB )] / Pt = [2(ma2 Vc2) / 8R] / Pc(1 + ma2/2]

[(ma2 Vc2) / 4R] / Pc(1 + ma2/2] = ma2 Pc2 / 2 / [Pc(1 + ma2/2)]

ma2 / 2[(1 + ma2/2]

η = ma2 / [(2 + ma2]

Percentage efficiency of transmission = [ ma2 / (2 + ma2)] × 100

When ma = 0 , η = 0/ ( 0+2) = 0%

ma = 0.5 , η = 0.52 / (2+ 0.52) = 0.25 / 2.25 = 11.1 %

ma = 1 , η = 1 /( 2 + 1) = 1/3 = 33.3 %

It is clear that for maximum depth of modulation when ma = 1 , the efficiency of transmission
is 33 % . Under these conditions 66.66% of the power carried by the carrier is a waste since no
information is carried by this wave. In general ma is less than unity and hence η is less than
33.3%

Current Calculation for AM wave

If Ic and It are the unmodulated carrier current and modulated current of an AM transmitter ,
both being rms values ,then

Pt /Pc = It2 R / Ic 2R = It2 / Ic 2 = 1+ ma2/2

It / Ic = √ 1+ ma2/2

Modulation by Several Sine Waves

In practice, several sinusoidal waves are simultaneously used to modulate the carrier wave
Let V1 ,V2 ,V3 ---- be the modulating voltages that act simultaneously .If Vt is the total
modulating voltage ,then it will be equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the
individual voltages

Vt = √ V12 +V22 +V33+----

Vt / Vc = √ (V12/V2c) +(V22/V2c) +(V33/V2c)+---

mat = √ m2a1 + m2a2 + m2a3 +-------

Thus, the total modulation index is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the
individual modulation indices. Note that the total modulation index must still not exceed unity,
otherwise distortion will result.

Limitations of Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation has the following drawbacks
Low efficiency: Since the maximum power that can be carried by the sidebands for the
distortion less transmission is 33.3%, the efficiency of the amplitude modulation is low

Noise transmission: The main disadvantage of amplitude modulation is that, AM is practically

not free from noise.

Poor audio quality: AM broad casting stations are allotted a bandwidth of only 10 KHz in
order to reduce interference between adjacent broadcasting stations. Since the highest
modulating frequency can only be 5 KHz, it is insufficient to reproduce information
satisfactorily. There for the quality of the AM transmission is poor

AM GENERATION
Basically, there are two types of system where amplitude modulation is done. They are termed
as (i) Low level modulation and (ii) High level modulation. In low level modulation, the
modulation is carried out at a low power level. In high level modulation, the modulation is
done at high power level.

An amplitude modulated carrier can be obtained by passing output of a carrier frequency

oscillator through an amplifier whose gain is varied by the modulating signal. Such an amplifier
is called AM modulator. There are different methods to achieve the amplitude modulation.
These methods can be classified into two groups, namely (a) linear modulation (b) square
law modulation. Collector modulation, base modulation, and emitter modulation come
under linear modulation.

Transistor AM modulator Circuit (Emitter Modulation Circuit)

The figure shows the circuit diagram of simple AM modulator. It is basically a CE amplifier
having a voltage gain of A. The carrier signal is the input to the amplifier. The modulating
signal is applied to the emitter resistance circuit. Hence it is known as emitter modulator
circuits. The carrier Vc is applied to the input of the amplifier and modulating signal Vm is
applied to the emitter resistor circuit. The amplifier circuit amplifies the carrier by a factor of
A, so that output is AVc. Since modulating signal is a part of the biasing circuit, it produces a
low frequency variation in the emitter circuit. This in turn causes variation in A. The result is
that amplitude of the carrier varies in accordance with the strength of the modulating signl.
Consequently, AM is obtained across the load RL. It should be noted that the carrier should
not influence the voltage gain A. Only the modulating signal should do this. To achieve this
objective, carrier should have small magnitude and signal should have large magnitude.

DEMODULATION
Introduction: The transmitting antenna sends the modulated (electromagnetic) waves in all
directions. They travel through the space with a velocity of light and hence there exit a radiation
field. A receiver that is situated along with its receiving antenna in the radiation field receives
the modulated signal. When the modulated signals are picked up by the receiver it is then
necessary to recover the original information from it. In order to have a faithful reproduction
of the original signal several difficulties have to be overcome at the receiver end.
The process of recovering the original modulating signal from a modulated wave is known as
demodulation or detection. The circuits used for detection are called detectors. Basically, the
demodulation is a process of frequency translation that requires a nonlinear device in which
the signal is lying at a higher frequency in the frequency spectrum are converted to a lower
frequency.

AM Detection: The demodulation of an AM involves two basic operations. They are (i)
Rectification of the modulated wave (ii) Elimination of the carrier component of the modulated
wave. The amplitude modulated wave consists of positive and negative halves which are
exactly equal. The average current is zero. The loudspeaker cannot respond to the zero current.
The modulated wave therefore has to be rectified. If the negative half cycles of the AM wave
were eliminated, then the average value of the remaining positive half cycle is not zero. The
removal of the carrier frequency variation is accomplished by a filter circuit. AM detectors are
basically of two types (i) linear detector and (ii) non-linear detector

Linear detector: A linear detector makes use of a linear rectifier. A linear rectifier is a device
that conducts only during the alternate half cycles of the input signal. During the conducting
half cycle the output voltage is proportional to the input voltage. The figure given below shows
the basic AM linear detection circuit. The modulated carrier waves sent out by different
transmitting stations are all received by antenna A at the receiving station. By adjusting the
capacitor C the tank circuit LC can be tuned to any desired station. Then the signals of desired
stations (1) are transferred to tank circuit by the mutual inductance between LA and L . The
modulated input signal (2) is rectified by the diode. The rectified signal (3) is then passed on
to the low pass filter C1R. The capacitor C1 has a low reactance for the carrier frequency. So
the carrier is bypassed through C1. The DC component of the remaining signal (4) cannot pass
through the blocking capacitor C2.It is shunt out through the resistance R. The AF signal which
is of low frequency can easily pass through capacitor C2. The final output (5) can operate a
sound producing device such as loudspeaker or headphone
AM Transmission: If all three components of the AM waves are transmitted in to the
channel, the system is called Double side band full carrier system ( DSB-FC).The transmission
efficiency of this system is very low ,because 2/3 of the power is carried away by the carrier
components .Since side band only carry the useful information ,and they are the mirror image
of one another ,it is not necessary to transmit both side bands. Accordingly, we have to
attenuate or suppress the carrier or any one of the side band with out affecting the
communication process.

DSB-SC (Double side band suppressed carrier systems). In this case carrier component is
suppressed and two side bands are transmitted.

SSB-SC (Single side band suppressed carrier): In this case one side band and carrier is
suppressed and only the remaining side band is transmitted. The total transmission saved is
83% of the total power.

SSB-TC: (Single side band transmitted carrier systems). In this case one side band is
suppressed and other side band and carrier are transmitted.

Single Side band Modulation (SSB/ SSB-SC): We know that, the transmission band width
of a standard AM as well as DSB-SC modulation wave is twice the message frequency. Both
these systems are band width inefficient system. In both these system, one half of the
transmission bandwidth is occupied by USB and other half is occupied by LSB. But
information available in in USB is same as LSB.Hence we need to transmit only one side band
with out any loss of information. Hence it is possible to suppress one side band and carrier
completely. When only one side band is transmitted, the modulation is referred at as single side
band modulation (SSB or SSB-SC). The transmission band width for SSB is Fc+Fm-Fc = Fm
Or Fc-(Fc-Fm) = Fm , which is exactly half of DSB-SC or DSB-FC modulated wave
.
Advantages of SSB modulation.
(1) Reduction in the transmission band width (2) power saving since high power carrier and
one side band are not being transmitted.
Dis advantages of SSB modulation: The main draw back of SSB modulation is that it is
expensive and highly complex to implement.

Methods of Generation for SSB modulated wave

Frequency discrimination method (Filter methods): This method can be used for generating
SSB wave if the message signal satisfies the following conditions

The message should have very low frequency content. The audio signal poses this property ie
telephone signal has the frequency range 300Hz – 3. 4KHz.The frequencies in the range 0 -
300Hz are absent. The highest frequency in the spectrum of message signal (fm) should be
much smaller than carrier frequency.

System Block diagram

This modulator consists of a product modulator, carrier oscillator and a band pass filter
designed to pass desired side band.at the output of the product modulator, we get DSB-SC
modulated wave, which contain 2 side bands. The band pass filter passes only one of these side
bands and produce SSB modulated wave at its output.

Numerical Problems:
(1) The total power of an AM wave is 1200W for 80% modulation. Determine the power
transmitted by the carrier and the power transmitted by each band
(2) The output voltage of an AM wave is 500[ 1+ 0.4Sin 3140t] Sin 6.28x 107t. This
voltage is fed to a load of 600 Ohm. Determine (1) carrier frequency (2) modulating
frequency (3) carrier power
(3) The current in an Antenna before and after modulations are 6A and 7A respectively.
Calculate the modulation index.
(4) An un modulated radio frequency carrier power of 10KW sent a current of 10A through
an antenna on amplitude modulations by a sinusoidal voltage ,the antenna current
increases to 11.6A. Calculate the modulation index ma and the total power transmitted.