Science Reviewer

The Reproductive System

Functions of the reproductive system
o A reproductive system is a group of tissues and organs.
o It enables the male and female reproductive cells to join and form new offspring.
o Human males produce SPERM, the male reproductive cells.
o Human females produce EGGS, the female reproductive cells.
o During reproduction, a sperm joins with an egg that usually happens inside a female’s reproductive system.
The Male Reproductive System
o The main function of the Male Reproduction System to produce and transport sperm to the female reproductive system.
Sperm – A mature sperm can join with an egg.
PART FUNCTION
Although semen contains millions of sperm, only one
TESTIS (s); TESTES (p) -Produces sperm and testosterone
sperm joins with an egg.
SCROTUM -External saclike structure that keeps the testes at
PART FUNCTION   a lower temperature (35̊) which is the optimum
HEAD -Contains the DNA and substances that help temperature for the Meiosis to occur
the sperm join with an egg EPIDIDYMIS -Matures and stores the sperm
MIDPIEC -Contains organelles called mitochondria SPERM DUCT -Carries sperm from the epididymis to
E that process food molecules and release the urethra
energy enabling movement of sperm’s tail SEMINAL -Produces seminal fluid which feeds the
VESICLES’ BULBOURETHRAL  sperm and allows them to swim. Sperm and
GLAND AND PROSTATE seminal fluid are collectively called as semen
TAIL -Whips back and forth and moves the sperm GLAND
URETHRA -Allows the passage of either urine or sperm

PENIS -Delivers sperm to the female

reproductive system
The Female Reproductive System
PART FUNCTION  
OVARY -Site of storage and development of oocytes.
OVIDUCT -Duct of transporting oocyte from ovary to uterus; also, site of fertilization if it occurs.
UTERUS -Hollow chamber in which embryo develops.
CERVIX -Lower part of the uterus that opens into the vagina.
VAGINA -Organ of sexual intercourse. Produces lubricating fluids; also, the birth canal

Egg – large and round when mature. In fact, an egg is about 2,000 times larger than a sperm.
o Like sperm, eggs contain DNA.
o An egg is filled with substances that provide it with nourishment.
o Female usually releases only one egg at a time.
o Each oocyte in an ovary is surrounded by follicle cells which releases hormones that help the oocytes develop into eggs.
o Oocytes- immature eggs
o Egg or ovum (ova (p))- mature oocyte
The Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual Cycle - A female usually releases one egg at a time. Because the function of the reproductive system is to produce a new
human, an egg is released only when the uterus is prepared to nourish it.
o The ovaries and uterus go through reproductive-related changes called the MENSTRUAL CYCLE.
o Menstrual cycle is caused by chemical signals called hormones.
o One menstrual cycle is about 28 days long and can be divided into three phases. It is called a cycle because the phases repeat
in the same order and in about the same amount of time.
Phase 1 - The menstrual cycle begins with a process called menstruation. During menstruation, tissue, fluid, and blood cells pass from
the uterus through the vagina and removed from the body. Menstruation usually lasts about five days.
Phase 2 - In the next phase of the menstrual cycle, the tissue lining the uterus thickens. In the ovary, several oocytes begin maturing at
the same time. After about a week, usually only one egg survives. Near the end of this phase, hormones cause an egg to be released
from the ovary in a process called ovulation.
Phase 3
o During phase 3, the tissue that lines the uterus continues to thicken. If sperm are present, the egg might join with a sperm in
a process called fertilization.
o ENDOMETRIUM- the tissue lining the uterus.
o The endometrium provides a fertilized egg with nutrients and oxygen during its early development. If fertilization does not
occur, the endometrium breaks down and the menstrual cycle repeats itself.
Menopause
o When females get older, the reproductive system stops releasing eggs. When this happens, a woman reaches menopause– a
time when the menstrual cycle stops.
o Menopause occurs because a woman’s ovaries produce fewer hormones. There are not enough hormones to cause oocyte
maturation and ovulation.
o Usually happens between the ages of 45 and 55.

Human Growth and Reproduction

STAGES MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS
Infancy -rapid development of the nervous and muscular system
Childhood -abilities to speak, read, write and reason develop
Adolescence -when a person becomes physically able to reproduce
Adulthood -last stage; when growth of the muscular and skeletal system stops
Fertilization - is the fusion of gametes to give rise to a new individual organism or offspring and initiate its development.
Zygote Formation
o A fertilized egg
o Human zygotes contain 46 chromosomes of DNA- 23 from sperm cell and 23 from egg cell.
o Reproductive cells form during meiosis and are haploid cells– they contain half the number of chromosomes of a diploid cell.
o Moves through the fallopian tube to the uterus.
o As it moves toward the uterus, it undergoes mitosis and cell division many times, developing into a ball of cells.
Multiple Births
o Zygote is now a ball of cells with a group of cells on the inside (inner cell mass)
o Inner cell mass develops into baby.
o When one zygote contains two inner cell mass, identical twins develop (always of the same gender and usually look very
similar)
o When more than one egg is released and each is fertilized by different sperm, this results in fraternal twins (can be different
genders)
Development Before Birth
o PREGNANCY- the period of development from fertilized egg to birth
o PLACENTA- organ formed by the outer cells of the zygote and cells from the uterus.
o UMBILICAL CORD- a rope-like structure formed by the outer zygote cells; it attaches the developing offspring to
the placenta.
From Zygote to Embryo
o “From the time the zygote attaches to the uterus until the end of the eight weeks of pregnancy, it is called an EMBRYO.”
o cells divide, grow, and gain unique functions.
o brain, heart, limbs, fingers, and toes start to form.
o embryo can take in more nutrients and oxygen from its mother through the placenta.
o bones and reproductive tissues begin to develop.
o Ears and eyelids can be seen.
o By eight weeks, the embryo is about 2.5 cm long.
From Embryo to Fetus
o “During the time between nine weeks and birth, the developing offspring is called a FETUS.”
o organ systems begin to function, and the fetus continues to grow in size.
o fetus is now able to move its arms and legs.
o heartbeat can be heard with a medical instrument called STETHOSCOPE.
o during the remaining time until birth, the fetus grows rapidly.
o the bones fully develop but are still soft and lungs mature.
o the fetus can respond to sounds from outside the uterus, such as its mother’s voice.
Fetal Health
o “The fetus’s growth and development depend on the food, water, and other nutrients that its mother eats and drinks”
NUTRITION
o Vitamin D, folic acid and zinc are needed for fetal development of bones and the nervous system.
o Protein is needed for making all the new cells as the fetus grows.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
o Mother’s exposure to substances such as chemicals and smoke can harm her fetus.
o Heavy metals such as lead and mercury an also affect its growth and development.
DRUGS AND ALCOHOLS
o When fetus is exposed to alcohol, the baby that develops can be born with fetal alcohol syndrome which is a group of
lifelong problems (growth problems, vision, and hearing problems, and delayed mental development). Drugs such as cocaine
and nicotine in tobacco can also have harmful effects on a developing fetus is a woman uses them during pregnancy.
Birth
o Process in which the fetus leaves its mother’s body and enters the world.
o It requires hormones that causes the changes in the female reproductive system called LABOR that help fetus leave
the uterus.

Labor and Delivery

o Labor begins when hormones that are released by the endocrine system cause muscles in the uterus to contract and a small
structure between the uterus and the vagina(cervix) begins to open.
o As more hormones are released, muscles in the uterus continue to contract faster and more strongly.
o Contractions push a fetus into the vagina and out of the woman’s body.
o After the fetus is delivered, the placenta breaks away from the uterus and exits the woman’s body through the vagina.
Cesarean Section
o Surgical process of delivering the fetus.
o Incision is made in the mother’s abdominal wall then another in the wall of the uterus.
o The baby is delivered through the openings in the uterine and abdominal walls.
o Are often performed to prevent harm to a fetus and its mother.
Infancy
o First two years of a newborn’s life
o Brain continues to develop, teeth form, and bones grow and get harder.
o An infant grows and learns to crawl, sit, walk, and speak.
 o Organ systems continue to develop and mature, and the infant begins to eat solid food.
Childhood
o Period following infancy.
o The brain continues to grow and develop and thinking improves.
o Muscle strength increases, and arms and legs grow longer.
Adolescence
o Following childhood period.
o Both males and females grow taller as muscles and bones continue to grow
o Reproductive system matures in a process called PUBERTY because of hormones.
o In males, the voice deepens, muscles increase in size, and facial, pubic, and underarm hair grow.
o In females, breasts develop, pubic and underarm hair appear, and fatty tissue is added to the buttocks and thighs.
Adulthood and Aging
o Adults will not grow taller, physical changes in the body mass can still occur.
o Aging is the process of changes in the body over time.
o Hair can turn white or gray and stop growing, and the skin wrinkles.
o As humans get older, the sensory system and skeletal system decrease in function.
o Vision and hearing decline, bones become weaker, and the digestive system slows down.
The Nervous System – gathers, process, and responds to information.
Stimuli - from Latin “stimulare”, means “goad, urge.” Is a change in an organism’s environment that causes a response.
Maintaining Homeostasis - Nervous systems help maintain homeostasis, or regulation of internal environments.
For example, the nervous system causing the heart and breathing rates increases for faster reaction time in a certain stimulus and
signals the heart and breathing slow down to restore homeostasis after reaction.
Neurons - nerve cells; the basic functioning units of the nervous system. Help different parts of the body to communicate with each
other.
3 Parts of Neurons
1. DENDRITES- receives information from another neuron or another cell.
2. CELL BODY- processes information.
3. AXON- sends information out to another neuron or cell in the body.
3 Types of a Neurons
1. SENSORY NEURONS – send information about your environment to your brain or spinal cord.
2. MOTOR NEURONS – send information from your brain or spinal cord to tissues and organs in your body.
3. INTERNEURONS – connect sensory and motor neurons, much like a bridge connects two different areas of land.
The Central Nervous System (CNS)
o is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
o it receives, processes, stores, and transfers information.
The Brain
o control center of the body.
o receives information, process it, and sends out a response.
o also stores some information as memories.
Cerebrum
- Part of the brain that controls memory, language and thought.
Cerebellum
- Part of the brain that coordinates voluntary muscle movement and regulates balance and posture.
Brain Stem
- Area of the brain that controls involuntary functions (automatic functions)- breathing, digestion, heart rate and blood
pressure.

The Spinal Cord

- tubelike structure of neurons.
- an information highway, where the neurons in the spinal cord send information back and fort between the brain
and other body parts.
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- has sensory neurons and motor neurons that transmit information between the CNS and the rest of the body.
2 Main Divisions of Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
- Controls skeletal muscles.
- Its neurons communicate between the CNS and skeletal muscles to cause voluntary movements.
2 Main Parts
1. Spinal Nerves –nerves that carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body.
2. Cranial Nerves –nerves that carry information into and out of the brain stem.
Automatic Nervous System
- controls smooth muscles and cardiac muscles.
- it regulates involuntary actions (dilating blood vessels and heartbeat)
2 Subdivisions
1. Sympathetic-activated - when body is in dynamic role or stress (increased heart rate and breathing, dilation of
pupil, sweating)
2. Parasympathetic – maintains body functions and restores the body to normal or released mode.
Nervous System Health - A healthy nervous system is necessary for maintaining homeostasis. The nervous system can be damaged
by infections and diseases. The most common way the nervous system is damaged by PHYSICAL injuries.
Senses
Sensory System - is the part of your nervous system that detects or senses the environment.
Receptors - special structures found in all parts of the sensory neurons that detect stimuli. Different in each of the receptors.
Vision
- Sense of vision lets us see things that are close, such as the words on this slide, and objects that are far away, such as a star in
the night sky.
- The visual system uses photoreceptors in the eye to detect light and create vision.
Parts of the Eye
CORNEA - a thin membrane that protects the eye and changes the direction of the light rays.
IRIS - controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
PUPIL - opening formed by the iris.
LENS - clear structure where the light travels through.
RETINA - is an area at the back of the eye that has two types of cells with photoreceptors.
ROD CELLS – detect shapes and low levels of light; important for night vision.
CONE CELLS – detect color and function best in bright light.
Hearing
- Vibration of matter creates sound waves that travel through air and other substances and are detected by auditory receptors.
- As it travels within the ear, they are amplified, or increased, and move hair cells which send information about the sound
waves to the brain.
- Brain processes information about the loudness and tone of the sound.
Parts of the Ear
THE OUTER EAR - includes the parts of the ear that you can see.
EARDRUM – a thin membrane between the outer and inner ear.
THE MIDDLE EAR - vibrations pass from eardrum to small bones in the middle ear causing its movement which amplifies the
sound waves.
 HAMMER/ MALLEUS
 ANVIL/ INCUS
 STIRRUP/ STAPES
THE INNER EAR - part of the ear that detects sound. Converts sound waves into messages that are sent to the brain.
COCHLEA –filled with fluid that vibrates when reached by the sound waves which causes the hair cells to bend and send messages
to the brain for processing.
The Ear and Balance
SEMICIRCULAR CANALS

 help maintain balance.

 contain fluid and hair cells.
 whenever your move your head, the fluid moves, which moves the hair cells.
 information about the movement of hair cells is sent to the brain that signals the muscles to move your head and
body to maintain balance.

Smell
- Humans have hundreds of different receptors for detecting odors.
- Odors are molecules that are detected by chemoreceptors in our nose.
- Chemoreceptors send messages to the brain and process the information about the odor which will make us feel hungry, or
can trigger a strong memory or feeling.
Taste
- Relies on chemoreceptors that detect chemicals in foods and drinks.
- It sends messages to the brain for processing.
- Chemoreceptors on the tongue are called TASTE BUDS that can detect BITTER, SALTY, SOUR, SWEET and UMAMI
(MSG)-monosodium glutamate.
- MSG is a substance often used in processed foods.
 Taste and smell stimuli are both detected by chemoreceptors. Chemoreceptors detect chemicals in the substance you eat and drink
and in the odors you breathe.
Touch
- Uses special receptors that detect the environment.
- Touch receptors detect temperature, pain and pressure which send messages to the brain for processing.
Inheritance and Variation
What controls traits?
EGOR MENDEL (“Father of Genetics”)
- Mendel concluded that two factors- one from each parent- control each trait.
- He hypothesized that one factor came from the egg cell and one factor came from the sperm cell.
Heredity - Is the passing down of traits from one generation to another.
Chromosomes
- Are threadlike structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells .
- Made of protein and a single molecule of DNA .
- Contain genetic information that controls traits .
- Exist as pairs- one chromosome from each parent.
Gene
- is a section on a chromosome that has genetic information for one trait
- encode for proteins that influence things like the immune system, skin pigmentation, hormone production, and eye
color. 
- is inherited from an offspring’s parents, and they are responsible for features being passed down from one generation
to the next.
Alleles
- different forms of a gene .
- gene variants still code for the same trait (hair color), but they differ in how the trait is expressed (brown vs blonde
hair).
- Genes can have two or more possible alleles. Individual humans have two alleles, or versions, of every gene.
Because humans have two gene variants for each gene, we are known as diploid organisms.
- the greater the number of potential alleles, the more diversity in each heritable trait.
Phenotype
- how genes are expressed in observable characteristics.
Genotype
- two alleles that control the phenotype of a trait.
Symbols for Genotype
- UPPERCASE LETTERS - represent dominant alleles.
- Lowercase letters -represent recessive alleles.
Homozygous
- a genotype of two the same alleles.
Heterozygous
- a genotype of two different alleles.
Modeling Inheritance
- plant breeders and animal breeders use a method for predicting how often traits will appear in offspring that does not
require performing the crosses thousands of times.
2 Models
- Punnett Squares
- Pedigree
can be used to predict and identify traits among genetically related individuals .
Punnett Square - Is a model used to predict possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring.
Pedigree - Shows phenotypes of genetically related family members. Can also help determine genotypes.

Complex Patterns of Inheritance

Incomplete Inheritance
- Happens when the offspring’s phenotype is a combination of the parent’s phenotypes.
- Characterized by blending of the traits producing intermediate phenotypes.
- Neither parent’s phenotype is visible in the offspring’s phenotype.
Codominance
- Happens when both alleles can be observed in a phenotype.
- Both parents’ phenotypes are visible separately in the offspring’s phenotype.
Multiple Alleles
- Human ABO blood type is an example of a trait that is determined by multiple alleles.
- The way these alleles combine results in one of four blood types- A, B, AB, or O.
- A person can inherit only two of these alleles- one from each parent.
Polygenic Inheritance
- Occurs when multiple genes determine the phenotype of a trait.
- Has many possible phenotypes because several genes determine a trait in which many alleles affect the phenotype
even though each gene has only two alleles.
Genes and the Environment
- Genes are not the only factors that can affect phenotypes.
- Organisms’ environment can also affect its phenotype.
DNA and Genetics
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- This chemical substance is present in the nucleus of all cells in all living organisms.
- controls all the chemical changes which take place in cells.
- is a very large molecule made up of a long chain of sub-units (NUCLEOTIDES)
Each nucleotide is made up of:
 a sugar called deoxyribose.
 a phosphate group -PO4   and.
 an organic base.
Ribose - is a sugar, like glucose, but with only five carbon atoms in its molecule.
Deoxyribose - is almost the same but lacks one oxygen atom.
DNA is like a twisted zipper- double helix.
- Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins- used X-rays to study DNA.
- James Watson and Francis Crick- build a model of DNA.
- Erwin Chargaff- discovered chemical information about DNA.
Bases
The most common organic bases
- Adenine (A)
- Thymine (T)
- Cytosine (C)
- Guanine (G)
A molecule of DNA is formed by millions of nucleotides joined together in a long chain.
Replication
The process of copying a DNA molecule to make another DNA molecule.
• Each chain of nucleotides serves as a template for a new, complimentary, strand.
• Helicase – the enzyme complex that separates nucleotide chains of DNA .
• The point of separation is called the replication fork .
• DNA polymerase – enzyme that allows complimentary nucleotides to build the complimentary chains.
• 5 primes to 3 prime direction.
• Replication runs in opposite directions.
Junk DNA – Segments of DNA that are not part of genes.
RNA
• type of nucleic acid that carries the code for making proteins for the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
• Carries amino acids around inside a cell and forms a part of ribosomes.
• Has Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T).
Three Types of RNA
mRNA (messenger RNA)
- carries the code (A, U, C, G) in three letter sequences called codons .
- Codons: code for individual amino acids, starts, or stops.
tRNA (transfer RNA) 
- are RNA molecules that translate mRNA into protein.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
- forms ribosomes, which are essential in protein synthesis.