2022-2023

FUNDAMENTALS OF VIETNAMESE CULTURE

For internal use only

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LESSON 1. Overview of Vietnam – Nature and Humans .............................................................. 1

1. Vietnam’s geography and history ............................................................................................... 1
2. Vietnamese people ...................................................................................................................... 4
LESSON 2. Vietnamese cultural values and communication styles ............................................. 14
1. Background concepts ................................................................................................................ 14
2. Traditional cultural values ........................................................................................................ 15
3. Vietnamese communication style ............................................................................................. 21
LESSON 3. Manufacturing culture ............................................................................................... 30
1. Sub-regions of Vietnam ............................................................................................................ 30
2. Craft villages of Vietnam .......................................................................................................... 52
LESSON 4. VIETNAMESE CUISINE ......................................................................................... 72
1. Geographical and historical influences ..................................................................................... 72
2. Philosophical influences ........................................................................................................... 73
3. Cooking and eating styles ......................................................................................................... 74
4. Traditional foods ....................................................................................................................... 76
5. Regional cuisine ........................................................................................................................ 77
LESSON 5. Vietnamese house architecture .................................................................................. 81
1. House architecture of the Kinh ethnic majority ........................................................................ 81
2. Houses of some ethnic minorities ............................................................................................. 86
LESSON 6. Beliefs and religions in Vietnam ............................................................................... 91
1. Beliefs ....................................................................................................................................... 91
2. Religions ................................................................................................................................... 99
LESSON 7. Wedding customs in Vietnam ................................................................................. 109
1. Conceptions of marriage ......................................................................................................... 109
2. Traditional steps ...................................................................................................................... 110
3. Marriage of some ethnic minorities ........................................................................................ 113
LESSON 8. Vietnamese funeral customs .................................................................................... 118
1. Beliefs about death rituals....................................................................................................... 118
2. Funerals rituals of the Kinh (the majority group of Vietnamese people) ............................... 119
3. Funeral rituals of minority ethnic groups in Vietnam............................................................. 121
LESSON 9. Vietnamese Tết and festivals ................................................................................... 126
1. Vietnamese Tết ....................................................................................................................... 126
2. Vietnamese festivals ............................................................................................................... 132
LESSON 10. Vietnamese traditional music ................................................................................ 144
1. Ca Trù singing ........................................................................................................................ 144
2. Chèo (or Vietnamese popular theatre) .................................................................................... 148
3. Tuồng (or Vietnamese classical opera) ................................................................................... 153
4. Đờn Ca Tài Tử ........................................................................................................................ 156

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 LESSON 1

OVERVIEW OF VIETNAM – NATURE AND HUMANS

1. VIETNAM’S GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

1.1. Natural Geography

1.1.1. Overview

Viet Nam is located on the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia. It has a long land
border of 4,550 km, bordering China to the North, Laos and Cambodia to the West, and the
Eastern Sea (South China Sea) of Pacific Ocean to the East. On the map, Viet Nam is an S-
shaped strip of land, stretching from 23°23’ to 8°27’ North latitude. The country’s total length is
1,650 km from the northernmost point to the southernmost point. Its width, from the Eastern
coast to the Western border, is about 500 km at the widest part and about 50 km at the narrowest
part.

Viet Nam faces the Eastern Sea to the East and the Gulf of Tháiland to the South and
Southwest. The country has a long coastline of 3,260 km running from Mong Cai in the North to
Ha Tien in the Southwest. Viet Nam’s territorial waters in the Eastern Sea extend to the East and
Southeast, including the continental shelf, islands and archipelagoes. There is a group of around
3,000 islets belonging to Viet Nam in the Tonkin Gulf, including Ha Long Bay, Bai Tu Long
Bay, Cat Hai, Cat Ba and Bach Long Vi Island. Farther in the Eastern Sea are Hoang Sa
Archipelago (Paracel Islands) and Truong Sa Archipelago (Spratly Islands). To the West and the
Southwest, there are groups of islands including Con Son, Phu Quoc and Tho Chu.

1.1.2. Topography

Three quarters of Viet Nam's territory is made up of mountainous and hilly regions.
Except for several deltas and narrow plains you can see from on a map that Vietnam is endowed
with vast expanses ofmountains and forests. Vietnam has four distinctive mountain zones each
having its own unique features. The first zone is the Northeastern zone or Viet Bac - a former
revolutionary base between 1945 and 1954. It stretches from the Red River valley to the Gulf of
Tokin. Apart from having the topical characteristic features of a tropical forest area, the
mountainous area of Viet Bac is crowned with nationally famous sights such as Dong Nhat (First-
Rate Grotto), Dong Nhi (Second-Rate Grotto) and Tam Thanh in Lang Son province; Pac Bo
Grotto and Ba Be Lake in Cao Bang province; Yen Tu mountain, and Tay Con Linh, a mountain
peak 2314 metres above sea level, and Ha Long Bay in Quang Ninh province.

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 The second zone is the Northwestern mountain range running from the northern area on
the Sino-Vietnamese border to the western region in Thanh Hoa, Nghe An and Ha Tinh provinces
on the central coast. This magnificent high mountain range is famous nation-wide for its Sapa
resort town in Lao Cai province. Sapa is perched on a high mountain slope, 1,500 metres above
sea level, and is endowed with a temperate climate all year round and with snow flakes during
winter time. The North-western zone is also famous for the historical site of Dien Bien Phu and
for its Fanxipang mountain peak, 3,143 metres above sea level, which is considered the roof top
to Vietnam.

The third mountain zone is the North Truong Son Range, a long low mountain range
running from the western part of Thanh Hoa province to the Hai Van Pass. The zone is reputed
regionally for its picturesque Phong Nha Grotto and fantastic looking passes such as the Ngang
Pass and the Hai Van (Sea Cloud) Pass. It is also known nationwide for being the location of the
legendary Ho Chi Minh Trail.

The four and last mountain zone is the South Truong Son, a mountain range located in the
western side of provinces situated on the southern end of the central coast. Behind these huge
mountains is located a vast expanse of red soil known locally as Tay Nguyen (the Central
Highlands). The legendary Central Highlands contains numerous mystic accounts of flora and
fauna as well as the lives of the people of several different ethnic minority groups. The central
highlands is proud of its idyllic mountain resort town of Da Lat, the most famous resort in
Vietnam. Forests and forest land accounts for 50 per cent of Viet Nam's total land area. These
forests are home to many kinds of plants and animals not found elsewhere in Southeast Asia or in
many other parts of the world. The most valuable timber plants include lat hoa (chkrasia), dinh
(markhamia), lim (ironwood), sen (madhuca pasquieri) and tau (tonkinensis), to cite just a few.
Besides valuable timber Viet Nam's forests are also home to many other valuable forest products
much sought after in overseas outlets. They include stick lac, cinnamon, pine resin, anise and
tung oil.ect...

Vietnam has several famous national packs such as Cuc Phuong, Ba Vi, the Cat Ba, Cat
Tien and Con Dao as well as the submerged forests in the southernmost province of Minh Hai.
These national parks are regarded as the preservation of tropical wildlife and a natural genetic
preserve. Beneath the forests and forest land are valuable mineral deposits most of which remain
untapped. They include gold in province of Cao Bang, Hoa Binh, Quangnam - Danang; precious
stones in the provinces of Nghe An and Lao Cai, zinc and silver in Tuyen Quang province
antimony in the provinces of Quang Ninh and Bac Thái. Particularly Vietnam has large deposits
of oil and gas in both the continental shelf and inland areas.

Vietnam has two major deltas. They are the Red River delta in the northern part and the
Mekong River delta in the south. The Red River delta, locally known as the northern delta is
15,000 square kilometres in area. It is comprised, from time immemorial, of deposits of alluvium
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carried in from two major rivers: the Red River and the Thái Binh River. The basin of the two
rivers was the location for the settlement of the Viet people. Sine then the wet rice civilisation has
been established.

The Mekong River delta more commonly known as the northern delta is 36,000 km2 in
area. This is a fertile arable area endowed with favourable climatic conditions, hence it is the
biggest rice growing area in Vietnam.

Vietnam is criss-crossed by thousands of large and small rivers. There is a river mouth on
every 20 kilometres of coastline. However, the river that run through Vietnam are generally small
and short. The major rivers like the Red River and the Mekong River has only their lower section
running through Vietnam.

1.1.3. Climate

Viet Nam is located in the tropical zone. Its climate is characterized by high temperature
and humidity all year round. The Northern part, under the impact of the Chinese mainland, has
more or less mainland climate. In addition, the
Eastern Sea greatly affects the country’s tropical
monsoon climate. As the monsoon climate does
not spread evenly, there are different regions with
different climates all over the Vietnamese
territory. Viet Nam’s climate changes by seasons
and by regions from the lowland to the highland,
from North to South and from East to West.
Given the strong influence of the Northeast
monsoon, the average temperature in Viet Nam is
lower than that of many other Asian countries of
the same latitude.

There are two major climate regions in Viet Nam: (1) Northern Viet Nam (from Hai Van
Pass northwards) has a highly humid tropical monsoon climate with four distinguishable seasons
(spring, summer, autumn and winter) and is influenced by the Northeast and Southeast monsoon.
(2) Southern Viet Nam (from Hai Van Pass southwards) has a rather moderate tropical climate
given the weak influence of monsoon and is characterized by dry and rainy seasons and warm
weather all year round.

In addition, given its topographical structure, Viet Nam also has some sub-climate regions
including temperate climate regions, such as Sa Pa (Lao Cai Province) and Da Lat (Lam Dong
Province), and mainland climate regions, such as Lai Chau and Son La, all of which are ideal
places for tourism.
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 The average temperature in Viet Nam varies between 21°C and 27°C and gradually
increases from the North to the South. In the summer, the average temperature is 25°C (Hanoi
23°C, Hue 25°C, Ho Chi Minh City 26°C). In the winter, the temperature in the North reaches the
lowest in December and January. In Northern mountainous regions like Sa Pa, Tam Dao and
Hoang Lien Son, the temperature sometimes reaches 0°C with snow.

Viet Nam has a considerable amount of solar radiation with the number of sunny hours
varying between 1,400 and 3,000 per year. The annual average rainfall stands between 1,500 mm
and 2,000 mm. Air humidity is around 80%. Given the influence of monsoon and complex
topography, Viet Nam is prone to natural disasters like typhoons, floods and droughts.

2. VIETNAMESE PEOPLE

Among Vietnam ethnic community, Kinh ethnic group keep an important role in the
national development. Accounting for 86.2% of Vietnam population with unique characteristics,
the Kinh are worth to represent whole Vietnam country.

The Kinh ethnic group, the Kinh or the Vietnamese was formed in a geographic region
that is nowadays North Vietnam and South China. This is the main ethnic group in the country,
accounting for 86.2% of Vietnam population and officially known as Kinh people to distinguish
from the other ethnic minorities in Vietnam. Kinh people allocate along whole Vietnam and some
other countries, yet the majority is in deltas and urban areas through the country. The main
language belongs to Viet - Muong language group.

2.1. Myth

According to legend of Vietnamese people, the ancestor of the Vietnamese was Kinh
Duong Vuong, whose tomb nowadays still retains in An Lu village, Thuan Thanh, Bac Ninh.

1st King giving birth to our country - Kinh Duong Vuong was Yan Emperor Shen Nong’s
fourth-born grandchild - god looks after agriculture in the heaven. Kinh Duong Vuong became
the King in circa Nham Tuat (more than 2000 years B.C). He got married Dragon King's
daughter – King of Dongting Lake and a son was born named Sung Lam. After King Duong
Vuong died, Sung Lam ascended his father’s throne, preclaimed his name Lac Long Quan. Once,
in his journey across the country, Lac Long Quan incidentally saw Au Co in Lang Xuong Cave.
He married her and picked her up to Nghia Linh Mountain. No longer after, Au Co got pregnant
and gave birth to a bundle. After 7 days, the bundle expanded into 100 eggs, each egg hatched a
son. 100 sons promptly grew up all handsome, healthy, and intelligent. This can be regarded as
the ancestors of the Bach Viet people. When their children had grown up, Lac Long Quan said to
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Au Co: “I am the Dragon King of the Sea, and you are the God of the Mountain. It is hard for us
to stay together. I now will bring 50 sons to the sea; you will bring the rest to the mountain. We
will share in the leading of our people. If either of us gets into danger, we will call out each
other”. Lac Long Quan then led 50 sons into the sea, ceding the throne to the eldest son. He took
his name Hung Vuong.

Vietnamese people in Van Lang period - Source: Image from bachkhoatrithuc.vn

Hung Vuong ascended the throne, named the country Van Lang with its capital in Phong
Chau (Bach Hac, Phu Tho), divided the country into 15 departments, namely Van Lang (Bach
Hac, Phu Tho), Chau Dien (Shanxi), Phuc Loc (Shanxi), Tan Hung (Hung Hoa - Tuyen Quang),
Vu Dinh (Thái Nguyen - Cao Bang), Vu Ninh (Bac Ninh), Luc Hai (Lang Son), Ninh Hai (Quang
Yen), Yangquan (Hai Duong), Giao Chi (Ha Noi, Hung Yen, Nam Dinh, Ninh Binh), Cuu Chan
(Thanh Hoa), Hoai Hoan (Nghe An), Cuu Duc (Ha Tinh), Viet Thuong (Quang Binh - Quang
Tri), Binh Van ( ? ). Hung Vuong instituted the Hung Dynasty, and he is regarded as the real
founder of Vietnamese nation and of the first Vietnamese Dynasty. All following Kings were
called Hung Vuong. There are 18 Hung Kings as well. Kings called respectively literature
officials Lac Hau, martial officials Lac Tuong, King's sons Quan Lang, King’s daughters My
Nuong, small agencies Bo Chinh.

Van Lang State of Hung Kings was the first embryonic State of Vietnam, and retained a
simple form. Although newly formed, it gathered people's hearts. From an emotion of community
led to a sense of community, all reflected the compatriot. They were beginning to understand the
relationship between nature and human, the power of community in irrigation, exchange products
and fighting to preserve the village and the country.

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 Hung Dynasty had many legends circulated in folk. They always reflected the solidarity
of the Vietnamese ethnic community. Apart from legends of Phu Dong Thien Vuong - Thanh
Giong and Son Tinh - Thuy Tinh, there is also “the Banh Chung – Banh Day”, “the
Watermelon”, “Chu Dong Tu”, “the oath stone Pillar”...

Ancient Vietnamese people - Source: Image from diendankienthuc.net

18th King Hung Vuong had no son; therefore, he abdicated his throne to Nguyen Tuan,
i.e. Tan Vien, his son-in-law. At that instant, around 258 B.C, Thuc Phan, Hung King’s
grandchild and Tay Vu tribe’s Lac Tuong brought his troops to war. It led to Hung – Thuc war.
Tan Vien then advised the king to abdicate Thuc Phan. Thuc appreciated Tan Vien, then
constructed two stone pillars on top of Nghia Linh Mountain and vowed to protect the country
and worship the Hung Kings. Then he proclaimed himself King An Duong Vuong with the
capital at Co Loa Citadel (Dong Anh, Hanoi), and renamed his newly acquired State from Van
Lang to Au Lac.

Fifty years later, Trieu Da (Zhao Tuo) a Chinese general, defeated King An Duong
Vuong, conquered the kingdom and formed the new nation. They called it Nam Viet. Many
scholars andVietnamese people considered this to be the end of historical legend and the true
beginning of modern Vietnamese history. Then the next 100 or so years saw much conflict
between King Trieu Da (Zhao Tou) and the Han emperors of China. Finally, in 111 B.C., Nam
Viet was conquered and incorporated into the Chinese empire.

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2.2. Origin

Results of latest studies and consideration of the Vietnamese’s formation in the formation
of other nations in the region indicate that the origin of Vietnam people is ancient Malays strain.

Vietnam people, the Vietnamese or sometimes Kinh people in the shortness are generic
terms to refer all people living in Vietnam territory. Based on results of recent studies and
considering the formation of Vietnamese people in the formation of other nations in the region, it
can be said that all the people of Vietnam have the same origin, which is ancient Malays strain.
The process of Vietnamese people formation can be divided into three phases:

In the period of mid-Stone Age (about 10,000 years ago), a part of Great Asian strain
living in Tibetan areas migrated to the southeast to the region nowadays called Indochina. Here,
part of the Great Asian strain in the combination with part of the Great Australian strain results
the presence of the ancient Malays strain. Then the ancient Malays strain from Indochina
gradually had spread Yangtze River to the north, India to the west, islands of Indonesia to the
south, and Philippines to the east.

People in Hanoi Old Quarter - Source: Image from Wikimedia Commons

At the end of the Neolithic, early Bronze Age (about 5,000 years ago), the ancient Malays
strain had an frequent exposure with the Great Asian strain from the north in the region nowadays
called the North of Vietnam and the south of China (from Yangtze River coming down), leading
the formation of a new strain, South Asia.

After that period, the South Asian strain was divided into a series of people that
Vietnamese and Chinese writings called Bach Viet. Initially, they communicated each other with

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some their own languages, such as Mon - Khmer, Viet - Muong, Tay - Thái, Meo - Dao...Time
after time, this splitting process continued to form ethnic groups and languages seen today.
Meanwhile, the South of Vietnam, along the Truong Son mountain range was still the residence
of the ancient Malays strain. Over the time they gradually changed to Austronesian strain. It can
be said that they are ancestors of the Vietnamese people today.

Life of Vietnamese people in the past - Source: Image from giaoduc.net.vn

54 ethnic groups living in Vietnam could be divided into 8 groups according to language
as follows: Viet – Muong Group with 4 ethnicities, Tay – Thái Group with 8 ethnicities, Mon -
Khmer Group with 21 ethnicities, Mong – Dao Group with 3 ethnicities, Kadai Group with 4
ethnicities, Austronesian Group with 5 ethnicities, Han Group with 3 ethnicities, and Tibetan
Group with 6 ethnicities.

The Vietnamese or Kinh ethnic group was formed in a geographic region that is now
northern Vietnam and southern China. This is the main ethnic group in the country, accounting
for 86.2% of Vietnamese population and officially known as Kinh people to distinguish from the
other ethnic minorities in Vietnam. Kinh people allocate along whole Vietnam and some other
countries, yet majority is in deltas and urban areas in the country. The main language using in
Vietnam belongs to Viet - Muong language group.

2.3. Population Density and Distribution

Geographers are, of course, also interested in where people are located. Vietnam has one
of the highest overall densities in Southeast Asia. It also has an extremely unequal distribution of
its population. There are two main areas of high densities in Vietnam. One is the Red River Delta
region in the north and the other is the Mekong River Delta region in the south. The coastal areas
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also tend to have much higher densities than the uplands and interior parts of the country. The
high density areas roughly correlate with areas of intensive wet-rice cultivation and the low
density areas roughly correlate with areas where swidden was traditionally practiced.

Population Density Map

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 It is also important to note that, before 1975, most of the people living in the Central
Highlands of Vietnam were members of various minority groups. More than 80% of the people
of Vietnam are known as the Kinh, or ethnic Vietnamese. In the Central and Northern uplands the
Kinh were largely absent, however, and most of the people were members of other ethnic groups.
We can note that much of the rationale for encouraging migration into this area was to increase
the proportion of Kinh in the Central Highlands for political purposes. Some of the groups that
had lived in the Central Highlands for centuries were the Ede, Rong, Sedang, Tai, and Giarai.

Overseas Vietnamese

Overseas Vietnamese can be generally divided into four distinct categories that rarely
interact with each other. The first category consists of people who have been living in territories
outside of Vietnam prior to 1975; they usually reside in neighboring countries, such
as Cambodia, Laos, and China. These people are not usually considered "Việt Kiều" by people
residing in Vietnam. During French colonialism, some Vietnamese also migrated to France and
some French-speaking areas, such asQuébec. The second category, consisting of the vast majority
of overseas Vietnamese, are former South Vietnamese those who fled Vietnam as refugees, after
the end of the Vietnam War, along with their descendants. They usually reside in industrialized
countries such as those in North America, theEuropean Union, Hong
Kong,Guangdong, Fujian and Australia. The third category consists of Vietnamese working and
studying in the former Soviet bloc who opted to stay there after the Soviet collapse. This group is
found mainly in theEuropean Union and the Russian Federation. The last category consists of
recent economic migrants who work in regional Asian countries such as Taiwan and Japan. They
also include Vietnamese brides who married men from Taiwan andSouth Korea through marriage
agencies. These brides usually follow their husbands to live in those countries. In Taiwan,
Vietnamese economic migrants count about half of overseas Vietnamese there, and the brides
cover the rest. There is much social tensions, controversy and criticism about the latter group in
Vietnam, saying them being "blinded by money" of their foreign husbandsm, and many are
beaten.[26] Recently a new group of Vietnamese have been emerging. These naturally-born
Vietnamese who attended high school and college overseas (international student), are called by
natives as "du học sinh"; they stay in those countries and work and live as permanent residents.

Vietnamese People within the Country

According to the population and housing Census in 2009, the Kinh population in Vietnam
retained about 73,594,427 persons, accounting for 85.7% of whole national population, residing
in all 63 provinces and cities. Kinh people mainly concentrates in Ho Chi Minh City (6,699,124
persons),Hanoi (6,370,244 persons), Thanh Hoa (2,801,321 persons), Nghe An (2,489,952
persons), Dong Nai (2,311,315 persons), An Giang (2,029,888 persons).

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 The Kinh people is the main ethnic group in Vietnam, yet in some northern mountainous
provinces, such as in Lao Cai, Hoa Binh, Son La, Lang Son, Ha Giang, Dien Bien, Lai Chau,
Bac Kan, Cao Bang…, the group is an ethnic minority.

2.4. Economy

Rice cultivation in submerged fields is the main economic activity of Kinh people. Wet
rice civilization was born out of thousands of generations and reached a certain level. Compared
with other ethnic groups, the Kinh people’s farming reached a higher level of productivity.
People also erected dykes and dug canals which help in the growing of wet rice, gardening, and
sericulture. Apart from agriculture, the Kinh knew how to raise cattle and poultry. In addition,
pottery production has been very developed for a long time. Currently, in the market economy
and international economic integration, fields of industry and services are also heavily invested.

2.5. Culture

Traditionally, Kinh people through thousands of generations lived together in a harmony

under the village. Many villages were gathered into a commune. There exist some their own rules
in the villages and communes each that everyone must implement. Villages of the
ancient Vietnamese people are usually surrounded by bamboo groves. In which, the communal
house is a place for meeting and conducting common ritual ceremonies on worshiping Village
Deity, who was considered as a village’s guardian deity.

Ancient Kinh people enjoy the habits of chewing betel, smoking water pipes and
cigarettes, drinking tea, and eating ordinary rice.

The husband is traditionally considered the head of the family. Children take the family
name of their father. The eldest son is often assigned to the most responsibility for the worship of
dead parents and grandparents. Additionally, each family lineage maintains a temple for their
forefathers and the head of the family lineage handles all common affairs here.

Also, monogamy is observed during marriage. Homosexual relationships are not currently
accepted by government in Vietnam. After the wedding party, the bride normally goes to live
with her husband’s family. Especially, Kinh people attach much importance to fidelity and
virtues of the bride.

The Kinh have still maintained a rich collection of literature which includes old tales, folk
ballads, and proverbs…The written literature takes many forms such as poems, writings, books,
and edicts. Additionally, music, sculpture, painting, dance, and oratorio are also the owner of
time-honored history. Right from ancient times, the Kinh knew how to escape influences of
Chinese culture. They created “chu Nom” (Nom letters) to replace the kanji and “chu Quoc ngu”
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(national language) appearing later which are widely used today. Beside physical values, the
Kinh in particular and Vietnam people in general also demonstrate precious values on the
spirituality, such as ancestor worship, death anniversaries and unique festivals. In addition, there
is an appearance of popular religions such as Buddhism, Roman Catholic, Caodaism.

2.6. Customs

In general, among all ethnic groups in Vietnam, Kinh people’s clothes and adornment
seem to be the most modern and modest. Among all kinds of symbolic clothing, “ao dai”
(Vietnam traditional long dress), whose basic design is of a long dress with slits on either side, is
well-known to be the most representative of the country. Its graceful and serene image has
become the status for Vietnamese women, being loved by not only the Vietnamese but also
foreigners over the world. Nevertheless, formerly Kinh people used to dress rather differently
compared with nowadays. Men used to wear a long gown with slits on side either and a turban,
meanwhile women worn “ao tu than” (four-panel traditional dress) with four slits divided equally
on its lower section.

In recent years, with the influence of Western and Eastern fashion trend, the Kinh
normally wear jeans and other casual clothes that are easily found in almost every modern
country.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What are the important features of the nature of Vietnam in terms of position, climate and
topography? What are special features of different regions considering their advantages
and disadvantages?
2. How are natural resources safely exploited to protect their reserve?
3. What are the outstanding environmental factors facing Vietnam nowadays? What are the
causes and solutions?
4. What are the values implied in the myth of Vietnamese people?
5. What are the important characteristics of different groups of Vietnamese inside the
country and overseas?
6. How have Vietnamese economy, culture and customs changed overtime? Predict their
future trend.

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 REFERENCES

[1] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/vietnam/enviro.htm

[2] http://www.vietnam-ustrade.org/index.php?f=news&do=detail&id=37&lang=english

[3] http://vietnamconsulateinhouston.org/en/general-information/natural-condition

[4] http://vietnamembassy-usa.org/vietnam/geography

[5] http://www.vietnamemb.se/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=68&Ite
mid=62

[6] http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Vietnam/sub5_9c/entry-3406.html

[7] http://cgge.aag.org/PopulationandNaturalResources1e/CS_Vietnam_Sep10/CS_Vietnam_
Sep107.html

[8] http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/overseas_vietnamese

[9] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-people/early-history-legend-vietnamese-people

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 LESSON 2
VIETNAMESE CULTURAL VALUES
AND COMMUNICATION STYLE

1. BACKGROUND CONCEPTS

Collectivism – Vietnam is a collectivist society in which the needs of the group are often
placed over the individual. Community concerns will almost always come before business or
individual needs. Family in particular plays an important role in Vietnamese society. Close ties
between extended families and communities can have a major influence on individual behavior
and oftentimes there are multiple generations living under one roof.
Confucianism –Based on the teachings of the early Chinese philosopher Confucius in the
6th century BC, Confucian teachings emphasize the importance of relationships, responsibility
and obligation. This philosophy is still a vital component of Vietnamese society and is prevalent
in Vietnamese business culture in conserving the harmony of the collective good.
Face – “one’s public self-image”.The idea of saving face is an important concept in
Vietnamese society. The Vietnamese will do anything to prevent loss of face, even if it means to
avoid confrontation or telling others what they want to hear rather than dealing with immediate
issues. Criticizing someone in public and not staying true to promises are possible ways that may
cause a loss of face.
High-context culture – Vietnam is a high-context culture where the primary purpose of
communication is to form and develop relationships. Information lies in the context and need not
be verbalized. The talk goes around the point

[Source: Munter, M. (1993).“Cross-cultural communication for managers”. Business Horizons]

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2. TRADITIONAL CULTURAL VALUES

Vietnamese culture emphasizes the importance of family cohesiveness and social

harmony. Its core values are harmony, allegiance to the family, yearning for a good reputation,
love of learning, and respect for other people

2.1. Harmony

The concept of harmony is based largely on the teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism

and Taoism. Total harmony is achieved by creating harmony within oneself and one's family, as
well as in the outer world of humanity and nature. To produce harmony, an individual must
observe moderation and avoid extremes. Moderation is practiced in verbal communication, daily
life activities, consumption of food and drink and in social interaction. These measures are
undertaken to ensure physical safety and to adhere to the moral imperative to keep one's dignity
unimpaired.

2.2. Allegiance to the family

The most important factor in the value system of the Vietnamese is, no doubt, the family.
The family is the center of the Vietnamese common man's preoccupation and the backbone of
Vietnamese society. By virtue of the principle of collective and mutual responsibility, each
individual strives to be the pride of his family.

Misconduct of an individual is blamed not only on himself, but also on his parents,
siblings, relatives, and ancestors. Likewise, any success or fame achieved by an individual brings
honor and pride to all members of his family. The Vietnamese child is taught from early
childhood to readily forget himself for the sake of his family's welfare and harmony. Central to
the concept of family is the obligation of filial piety which is considered the most essential of all
virtues in Vietnamese society. The child is expected to be grateful to his parents for the debt of
birth, rearing and education. He is taught to think of his parents and ancestors first, even at his
own expense, to make sacrifices for his parents' sake, to love and care for them in their old age.
The Vietnamese man who lacks filial piety is looked down upon and ostracized not only by his
own family but also by the community.

The profound love for and attachment to the family is extended to the physical setting in
which the family is located: the native village. The dearest wish of the Vietnamese common man
is, as a proverb puts it, to die in his own native village and amidst his own folk "as a leaf which
leaves the branch to fall down on the ground at the foot of the tree" (lárụngvềcội). The native
village is not only the place where he was born and brought up and where his parents and family
15
live but also a place where his ancestors are buried. Many Vietnamese, especially people in the
rural areas, never move out of their native villages or provinces. This deep attachment to the
native village explains the lack of horizontal mobility in Vietnamese society.

2.3. Concept of "good reputation"

The value that the Vietnamese placed on the concept of "good reputation" cannot be
underestimated. To the Vietnamese, a good reputation is better than any material possession in
this world. By securing a good reputation for himself, a man can command respect and
admiration from his fellow countrymen. A rich and powerful person with a bad reputation is
looked down upon, while a poor man with a good reputation is respected. It is believed that the
best thing that a man can leave behind once he has departed from this world and by which he will
be remembered is a good reputation. "After death, a tiger leaves behind his skin, a man his
reputation," (hổchếtđể da, người ta chếtđểtiếng) says a proverb. The desire to have a good
reputation, not only in his life time but also after death, betrays the deep aspiration of the
Vietnamese to survive the disintegration of his corporeal frame after death in the memory of his
progeny and community.

A man with a bad reputation will be disclaimed by his fellow countrymen and become a
disgrace to his family. He will lose face, which is a terrible thing in an immobile society where
almost everybody knows everybody else in the community. To acquire a good reputation, a man
must avoid all words and actions which damage his dignity and honor. There are three ways by
which he can acquire a good reputation: either by heroic deeds; by intellectual achievements; or
by moral virtues. Leading a virtuous life is the easiest and surest path to a good reputation for
there are few opportunities in our everyday life to be heroic and few people are endowed with
exceptional intellectual qualities. The virtues most cultivated are the sense of honor, honesty,
righteousness, modesty, generosity, and disdain for material gains, virtues most extolled by the
Confucian doctrine. In view of the strong solidarity of the Vietnamese family, it is not surprising
that the Vietnamese strives for a good reputation not only for himself but also for his parents and
children

2.4. Love of learning

The Vietnamese common man seems to have a great love for knowledge and learning. He
seems to have particular respect and admiration for learned people. Like the virtuous man, the
learned man enjoys great prestige in Vietnamese society. Often, they are one and the same man.
The Vietnamese conceives that knowledge and virtues are but the two complementary aspects of
the ideal man.
16
 People associated with knowledge and learning (scholars, writers and teachers) have
always been highly respected, not only by the students but also by parents and people from all
walks of life.

Learning is considered more valuable than wealth and material success. Rich people who
are not educated are often looked down upon by other people and they themselves feel inferior to
learned people who are poor. In the traditional social system, the scholar ranked first, before the
farmer, artisan, and tradesman. Even nowadays, the learned man is held in high esteem and
respect. The love of learning does not spring from purely disinterested motives. The lure of
prestige and the prospect of improved social status are among the strongest incentives to the
pursuit of knowledge. Education represents the essential stepping stones to the social ladder and
to good job opportunities. It is the prime force of vertical mobility in Vietnamese society

2.5. Concept of “respect”

The Vietnamese common man is expected to show respect to people who are senior to
him in age, status, or position. At home, he should show respect to his parents, older siblings, and
older relatives. This is expressed by obedience in words and action. Respect is part of the concept
of filial piety.

Outside the family, respect should be paid to elderly people, teachers, clergymen,
supervisors and employers, and people in high positions. Learned and virtuous people enjoy
special respect and admiration. But respect is not a one-way behavior. The Vietnamese common
man also expects other people who show respect to him, by virtue of his age, status, or position.
Special respect is gained by leading a virtuous life, by accomplishing certain heroic deeds or by
achieving a high degree of intellectuality.

Respect is expressed by specific behaviors and linguistic devices inherent in the

Vietnamese language. It is one of the essential factors in the value system of the Vietnamese
people

********************

17
 FURTHER READING

Vietnamese Traditional Family Values

Traditional values of Vietnamese lifestyle were deeply affected by Confucian ethics.

During a thousand years the Chinese invaded and maintained control of Vietnam, Vietnamese
culture was permeated by their Confucian philosophical beliefs. In order to achieve human
perfection, one had to follow the established codes of behavior of Confucianism which included
reverence for ancestors and respect for elders...The importance was not upon the individual's
accomplishments but upon his duty to family and society.

The Vietnamese household traditionally followed the extended multi-generational pattern.

The parents, their sons and their wives, their children, and unmarried siblings usually constituted
a Vietnamese household. In this structure, frequent contacts were maintained, and this constant
closeness to family was emphasized from childhood and continued to be important to Vietnamese
throughout their lifetime.

Most Vietnamese placed more emphasis on their roles, privileges and obligations within
this group than on their own individual desires. In this extended family, the most important
expectation was respect for the elders. The family decisions were made by the parents and
grandparents. The traditional Vietnamese worshipped ancestors as a source of their lives,
fortunes, and civilization. The spirits were honored on various holidays and the anniversary of
their death.

For centuries in Vietnam, traditional family values were accomplished by the fulfillment
of traditional roles: the role of man and woman as parents. Vietnamese valued their traditional
ideal of male superiority. Since the highest status in Vietnamese families was given to the man
(father), he had absolute authority in the household. His position as provider for the family was
unchallenged. Because he provided the main source of income for the household, he was never
expected to work in the kitchen or to cook. After work he returned home and relaxed. As a head
of household he had the final decision in all matters, although he might consult his wife or
children. The father, however, had the duty to exercise restraint and wisdom in running his family
in order to deserve his respected position. Having a boy in family was a "must" because the eldest
son would assume the duties of his father when he died. A family which had no son to continue
the process was superstitiously thought to have disappeared forever.

In a patriarchal society, Vietnamese woman had limited rights and took a secondary place
in family. Women were brought up according to a strict discipline, and have been traditionally
less educated than men. They usually did not enter the job market outside the home. "Girls from
birth were at a disadvantage" (con gáisinhrađãthiệtthòi). Daughter was not considered necessary
in heritage. Vietnamese traditional viewpoint was "If you have a son, you can say you have a
18
descendent. But you cannot say so even if you have ten daughters" (nhấtnamviếthữu,
thậpnữviếtvô).

After marriage, woman became housewife and mother. She was expected to be dependent
upon her husband, budget his income for the household, take care of children and even
grandchildren, perform all household tasks. Divorce was legal but not common. A wife could be
unhappy in her marriage; but rather than accept divorce, the family encouraged her to sacrifice
and to endure the difficulties of the marriage for the sake of her children.

Parental role in family was to define the law. Obedience and respect were the traditional
virtues which Vietnamese children were taught to exhibit in the family. Discipline and physical
punishment were acceptable remedies for disobedience in the Vietnamese tradition. "Harsh
discipline and beatings do not constitute abuse of a child, but its reverse: loving care, concern and
attention" (thươngchoroichovọt, ghétchongọtchobùi). When parents grew old, children were
expected to take care of them to compensate for the gift of birth and upbringing. The elderly
(parents) were supported by married or unmarried children until they die.

Boys and girls were not free to do what they want. Girls were under strict supervision.
Virginity was cherished. Pregnancy out of wedlock was uncommon, and it was a grave disgrace
to the family. For their children's marriage, parents generally made decision because they could
judge better.

Vietnamese parents had a high regard for education. It was considered a way for family
advancement. Parents encouraged their children to study and excel in their education. Vietnamese
placed a higher value on education than on material success.

In brief, depending upon the family for financial support, requesting permissions for
expenditures, and having parents make decisions for them characterized the traditional
Vietnamese child.

Vietnamese Social Relationships

The desire to achieve harmony between the self and the non-self remains an essential
preoccupation of the Vietnamese in interpersonal relations outside the family group. The basic
principles underlying family relationships is extended to the relationships between members of
wider social groups.

The concept of society as an extension of the family is evident in the transposition into
social usage of a language originally intended for domestic life. Vietnamese uses more than a

19
score of kinship terms as personal pronouns. The choice of the appropriate word depends on the
relative age, social status, gender, degree of acquaintance, respect, and affection between
speakers and hearers who are not related to each other by blood or marriage.

In Vietnamese society, the predominant sentiment in the relation between members of a

social group is respect. This is particularly evident in the attitude towards older people. Respect
and consideration for old age no doubt derive from the obligation of filial piety that requires
young people to respect and love their parents and parent-like members of the family.
Vietnamese also recognize that a long life is a sign of kindness and regard on the part of the deity
for virtuous people, and that the elders are the carriers of tradition and the embodiment of
knowledge and wisdom. Old people enjoy high respect in Vietnamese society, irrespective of
wealth, education, or social position. This respect is expressed in both attitude and behavior,
particularly in the use of special terms of address and stylistic devices. Unlike Western societies
that put a premium on youth, Vietnamese society is proud of its old members. Age is an asset, not
a liability.

Teachers, even though they are young, enjoy great respect and prestige in Vietnamese
society. In Vietnam the student-teacher relationship retains much of the quality of a son's respect
for his father's wisdom and of father's concern for his son's welfare. The respect that students
show to the teachers is also evident in linguistic behavior. The terms of address that students use
in speaking to their teachers are the same as those they use in speaking to their parents.

Respect is expressed in the form of courtesy and in the effort to spare others from the
humiliation of losing face. Face is extremely important for the Vietnamese. The individual who
loses face will have to endure public ridicule and derision in the midst of his community.
Furthermore, the family shares any social disgrace incurred by the individual.

Linguistic devices are one of the many ways that allow the Vietnamese speaker to save
face and at the same time allow others to save face. Depreciatory terms are applied to oneself and
complimentary terms are used for others. The practice of "beating about the bush" to avoid
answering a request in the negative, and the tendency of the Vietnamese student to say yes to
questions asked by his teacher stem from this preoccupation with saving face.

(Adapt from Vietnam Culture)

20
3. VIETNAMESE COMMUNICATION STYLE

3.1. Language

The Vietnamese language is spoken throughout the country, although some of the ethnic
minorities do not speak it widely. There are slight differences between the northern, central and
southern dialects with regard to certain words and pronunciations. The differences are usually not
of such magnitude as to make communication a problem. They just mean that it is easy to tell
which part of the country a Vietnamese comes from.

Vietnamese is a tonal language and the meaning of the word alters depending on the
inflection used when it is spoken. There are six distinctive tones, five of which are indicated by a
diacritic placed over or under the vowel to show different ways of pronunciation.The even tone
has no markings and is said in the middle range of the voice.

The changes in tones also create the changes in meaning. For example, the word “ma”
with an even tone has the meaning of “ghost”; “ma” pronounced with a raising tone means
“mother”; “ma” with its falling tone means “that” or “which”; “ma” with its questioning tone
means “tomb”; “ma” with its falling then raising tone means “horse”, and “ma” with its weighing
tone means “rice seedling”.

TONE VIETNAMESE ACCENT MARK WORD MEANING

WORD

Even Ma Ghost

Raising Má ‫׳‬ Mother

Falling Mà ` That or Which

Questioning mả ? Tomb

Falling then raising Mã ˜ Horse

Weighing mạ • Rice seedling

21
3.2. Verbal communication

Vietnamese are taught at a very young age to adhere to the cultural practice of harmony
and to be modest and reserved in both speech and mannerism. They are encouraged to think
deeply before they speak. It is believed that useless and excessive verbal expressions can have
dire consequences and create discord and animosity. Hasty words and slips of tongue are
considered to be as detrimental as hasty actions and bad deeds.

In verbal communication, Vietnamese people highly value formality, respect and

interpersonal harmony. In seeking to prevent conflicts in relationships, Vietnamese often prefer
to speak about sensitive subjects indirectly. Asking questions or disagreeing with an older or an
authoritative speaker is like challenging the senior person's status. Therefore, Vietnamese
probably don’t express their disagreement. A direct “no” is rarely given. Instead, they often keep
silent or reply indirectly. They appear to answer “yes” (dạ) to all questions. However, this yes
may be a polite way of saying “Yes, I am listening”,not necessarily show their understanding and
agreement.If the topic is unpleasant, people are more likely to change the subject or avoid
discussing an issue altogether.

Modesty and humility are emphasized in the culture of the Vietnamese and deeply
ingrained into their natural behavior. In conversation, Vietnamese display great modesty towards
their abilities and work. It is not acceptable to boast about one’s past achievements or
capabilities. When being praised for something, a Vietnamese often declines to accept praise by
humbly claiming that he does not warrant such esteem. Speaking in a loud tone with excessive
gestures is considered rude, especially when done by Vietnamese women.

Respect is the cornerstone of interpersonal relationships in Vietnamese society. Proper

usage of language is considered a way to convey respect and create harmonious relationships
with others. According to folklore, all Vietnamese are related to each other and this belief is
reinforced by their language. Every form of address is based on a family relationship, such as an
uncle, aunt or little sister. Since society as a whole is viewed as an extended family, Vietnamese
use many kinship phrases to greet strangers and non–relatives. For example, the pronoun con,
meaning child, is used when speaking to an older person to convey respect and honor, the cultural
significance of social cohesiveness. The following is an illustration of the usage of two common
pronouns.

22
English Vietnamese
Literary Meaning
Pronoun Equivalence

Con Child: when speaking to an elderly or authority

Em Younger sibling: when speaking with an older peer

I
Tôi Self: when speaking to your peer

Tao Self: used to express superiority over another person in quarrels

Cô "Miss": used when speaking to a young lady in general

Em "Miss" or "Girl": when speaking to someone younger than you

"Mister" or "Brother": when speaking to a young man or a man

Anh
older than you

You Chị "Miss" or "Mrs.": in formal address

"Mister" or "gentleman" or "husband": when speaking to a man or

Ông
older man

Bà "Miss" and "lady": when speaking to an older woman

Māy "You": informal use or to express contempt

Traditionally, Vietnamese people list their family name first, then their middle name, with
their first (given) name listed as last. To address people formally and respectfully, they use Mr. or
Ms. or a title like “Anh” or “Chị” plus the first name. Professional people may be called by their
title, for instance, “Mr. Director”, “Mrs. Vice-Director” or “Doctor”.

"Thưa" (meaning please) is added in front of an address form to show respect.

23
3.3. Nonverbal communication

Respect is also expressed by nonverbal behavior. A Vietnamese student who sits quietly
and listens attentively to the teacher wants to express respect to his teacher. It is also out of
respect that the Vietnamese student avoids eye contact with the teacher when speaking or being
spoken to. In Vietnamese culture, looking into somebody’s eyes, especially when this person is of
a higher status (in age or in social or family hierarchy) or of a different gender, usually means a
challenge or an expression of deep passion. The proper respectful behavior is to avoid eye contact
in talking to a person who is senior or the opposite sex.

It should be noted that for certain feelings, Vietnamese culture prefers non-verbal
communicationwhile many Western cultures are more inclined to use verbal expressions. For
casual and informal circumstances, feelings of thankfulness or apology are not expressed by
verbal expression such as “Thank you” or “I’m sorry” but by silence or a smile. It is not
customary for older persons, parents and authoritative figures to thank to subordinates for a small
service, such as closing the window or passing the books around. A smile will suffice. When a
person pays a compliment to another person, a "thank you" is not expected in return. In
Vietnamese culture, a verbal expression of thanks in this case amounts to a lack of modesty from
the person who receives the compliment. Instead, the recipient will acknowledge it with a smile.
If a verbal response is necessary, one would deny the compliment, saying that one does not
deserve it. A smile is also a proper response to scolding or harsh words that one does not harbor
any ill feelings toward the interlocutor or that one sincerely acknowledges the mistake or fault
committed. It is used as an expression of apology for a minor offense, for example for being tardy
to class. It is an expression of embarrassment which follows blunders or a request to reveal
personal information. For example, when asked about the death of a family member, it is not
uncommon for a Vietnamese person to respond to the question with a smile as a sign of being
embarrassed for having to reveal such personal information. The smile is used instead of a ready
yes to avoid appearing over-enthusiastic. It seems that the Vietnamese smile can be used to show
all sorts of emotions, from happiness to anger or even grief.

Strong emotions are shared only with family or close friends. Anger, for example,is
believed to display one’sweakness. Allowing it to surface is considered poor manners and is not
the hallmark of a well-educated person. Anger directed at someone is taken as a direct criticism
and should be avoided at all costs. Humor, however, is freely expressed. Vietnamese are witty
and enjoy using their language to make a play on words.

Traditionally, the Vietnamese do not shake hands but clasp their hands together above
waist level and bow slightly as a sign of acknowledgement. It is still used in pagodas or by older
people but business greetings are often done in the Western way now. A formal handshake
between men may be exchanged, with a nod and slight bow of the head. If the person is a figure
of authority, a high official or someone who deserves respect, two hands are used together when
24
shaking hands or exchanging name cards. The Vietnamese do not touch people of the opposite
sex so men and women do not shake hands and will nod and smile to each other instead. A
handshake may be seen where the Vietnamese woman is quite westernized and accepts it as a
Western practice.

If Vietnamese are greeting people in a group, whether in a family home or business

meeting, they greet each person, including young children. All actions are communicated gently.
It is not appropriate to throw your hand into someone else’s and pump it vigorously! Even the
action of serving someone a cup of tea will be done very carefully so that the cup does not clatter
onto the tabletop.

A handshake or the traditional slight bow with hands together is appropriate when
Vietnamese take leave of someone. It is also polite to say something such as “Best regards to
your family” or “Good luck to you” as a parting shot.

The followings are examples of common everyday gestures.

Non–verbal Gesture Meaning in Vietnamese Culture

Nodding Greeting, affirmative reply, agreement

Bowing Greeting, great respect

Showing respect to people senior in age or status or of opposite

Avoiding eye contact
sex

Not decent, especially when directed at people of the opposite

Winking
sex

Agreement, embarrassment, disbelief, mild disagreement,

Smiling
appreciation, apology

Friendly greeting between men (but not the elderly), not

customary between women or between a man and a woman;
Shaking hands
acceptable between a Vietnamese woman and a non–
Vietnamese man

Offensive to adults; threatening to children

Gesture of beckoning with

25
index finger

Holding hands with or putting

an arm over the shoulder of a Friendly gesture, no sexual connotation
person of the same sex

Crossing arms Sign of respect

Putting one or both hands in the

pockets or on the hips while Arrogance, lack of respect
talking

Patting a person's back,

especially those senior in age or Disrespectful
status

Pointing to other people while

Disrespectful
talking

Whistling at performers Displeasure

Putting one's feet on a table or

Rude
sitting on a desk while talking

Gift giving is important in Vietnam because of the significance of interpersonal

relationships in Vietnamese culture.It is common for people to exchange small gifts on certain
occasions such as anniversary, Tet holiday… to express their respect, appreciation or
gratitude.Gifts are not wrapped in black paper because this color is unlucky and associated with
funerals in Vietnam. Gifts that symbolize cutting such as scissors, knives and other sharp objects
are avoided because they mean the breakup of the relationship.When offering a gift, the
Vietnamese will usually speak lightly about it. Even though it is an expensive gift, they may
pretend it is of no great monetary value, since boasting is often criticized. Upon receipt of a gift,
the Vietnamese often give profuse thanks but do not open the gift in front of the giver. They
accept it, place it aside and open it later.

26
 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How has Vietnamese traditional cultural values changed in recent years?

2. How might those changes affect the Vietnamese families?

3. What are the communication problems that may occur when Vietnamese interact with people
from other cultures?

4. What conversation tips would you give to someone who is visiting Vietnam?

5. In Vietnamese conversations, what topics are rude to discuss? Why are they rude? What do
people enjoy talking about?

CULTURAL PROJECT: EXPLORING VIETNAMESE CULTURE

This is a group project aimed at investigating the manifestation of Vietnamese traditional

values in different aspects of life, especially incommunication style.

From what you have learnt and read about Vietnamese cultural values and communication
style, each group compiles a material providing detailed information about Vietnamese
communication in a particular setting. Give advice on how to avoid misunderstandings and to
create positive impressions on Vietnamese communicating partners. Use your knowledge of
Vietnamese culture to explain why you give such tips. This material is supposed to be used by
foreign travelers, holiday makers, students, business people, new immigrants, ...

The following are suggested topics for group projects. Each group selects ONE topic from
the list. If you are interested in a topic which is not provided in the list, you must consult the
course instructor.

Report the results of your project to the class in a group presentation and submit the hard
copy of the material after the day of presentation

27
Suggested topics:

 Use of Vietnamese address forms in family and social relationships

 Vietnamese conversation (introduction, conversational topics, turn-taking,

interruption, opening and ending conversation, accompanying nonverbal
behaviors, …)

 Visit to a Vietnamese home

 Communication in educational settings

 Communication at the workplace

 Communication in public places

 Vietnamese gift etiquette

Requirements for group presentations

 Richness and accuracy of knowledge are highly evaluated

 Creativity in the way of presenting the project is encouraged

 Use visual aids (e.g. videos, pictures, …) or physical demonstration (role-play,

mini drama, action …) for illustration

 Prepare hand-outs, design follow-up activities/exercises for the audience

 Raise DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

 Be prepared to answer any questions from the audience

28
 REFERENCES

[1] Ellis, C. (1998)“Culture shock! Vietnam – A Guide to Customs and Etiquette”, Times
Book International

[2] Munter, M. (1993). “Cross-cultural communication for managers”, Business Horizons

[3] Asian Culture Brief: Vietnam - http://www.ntac.hawaii.edu/products/briefs/

[4] http://www.vietnam-culture.com/articles-86-6/Communicating-with-Vietnamese.aspx

[5] http://www.vietnam-culture.com/articles-18-6/The-Vietnamese-Value-System.aspx

[6] http://www.asian-recipe.com/vietnam/vn-information/vietnamese-culture.html

[7] https://www.communicaid.com/country/vietnam/

[8] http://www.vietventures.com/Vietnam/viet_culture.asp

[9] http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/vietnam.html

[10] http://www.adoptvietnam.org/

29
 LESSON 3

MANUFACTURING CULTURE

1. SUB-REGIONS OF VIETNAM

1.1. Northwest

Northwest Vietnam is one of important sub-regions of Vietnam. This region plays a

crucial role in Vietnam defense and security. Northwest Vietnam is always characterized by
untouched beauty of landscapes and local people.

Possessing the roof of Vietnam - Hoang Lien Mountains soaring skyward, Northwest
Vietnam has its long shadows concealing some best-kept secrets of Vietnam. Landscapes in the
mountainous area are described as gathering in a rich palette, which providing some of the most
spectacular scenery in Vietnam. Northwest Vietnam is also the residence of hill tribes who are in
elaborate costumes. Cultures of ethnic minority groups in this region are diverse and contribute
greatly to Vietnamese culture. Although being one of disadvantageous regions in Vietnam in
term of geography, Northwest Vietnam attracts people from everywhere to come and discover.
Seemingly, the mountainous area brings something mysterious, which appeal curiosity of both
domestic and international tourists. Striking scenery and a series of challenges in this region are
looking for your explorations and experiences.

Geography

Northwest is the
mountainous area in the northwest of
Vietnam. The region has borders
with Laos and China. Northwest is
also commonly known as North
northwestern Vietnam, and one of 3
natural geographical sub-regions of
North Vietnam. Northwestern
geography in Vietnam is
characterized by rugged terrain with
high mountains running from
northwest to southeast. Hoang Lien Son Mountain Range, the roof of Vietnam has a length of
30
180 km, width of 30 km, with a number of mounts at the height from 2800m to 3000m. Typical
rivers in this region are Da River and Ma River which contribute greatly to generating hydraulic
power in North Vietnam in particular and all Vietnam in general. Major topography in this region
is limestone plateau stretching from the PhongTho to ThanhHoa. The plateau can be also
subdivided into plateaus of Ta Phin, Moc Chau, and Na San; and basins of Nghia Lo and
MuongThanh.

Northwest mainly consists of medium and alpine mountains. This area has the most
fragmented, dangerous and highest terrain in Vietnam. Popular northern midland and
mountainous terrain types are high mountain ranges, deep valleys or gorges area, and limestone
plateaus with an average altitude. Belonging to this area, Hoang Lien Son range is worth the
highest and most voluminous mountain with many peaks over 2500m height, of which Fansipan
is the tallest one (with 3143m). Northwestern nature is quite diverse with many sub-region with
characteristic topography, soil, climate, and hydrology. The weather in the Northwest is clearly
characterized by continental climate with extreme weather phenomenon. Daytime temperature
range is quite large. Many places have all 4 seasons in a day such as Moc Chau plateau.
According to geographers, the Northwest Vietnam is not only rich in natural unearthed resources
such as land, forests, vegetation, flora and fauna system, but also wealthy in unexplored fossil
resources, especially in rugged remote areas.

People

People living in Northwestern

Vietnam belong to ethnic minority groups
such as H ‘Mong, Dao, Thái, Muong, Tay
etc. H ‘Mong and Dao people reside
everywhere in Northwestern region,
especially in Sapa (Lao Cai) and Yen Bai.
HoaBinh is residence of Muong and Thái
groups. Among those groups, Thái group
accounts for the largest number of
population in this region. In general, living
area in the northwest of Vietnam is divided into three sub-regions: low valleys where Muong and
Thái groups live, mountainsides where tribes Khomu, Mang, Khang, Xinhmun reside, and groups
of H ‘Mong and Dao live in high hills. Muong ethnic people live majorly in the south of
Northwest. However, the population density in this region is different, which defines differences
in culture and customs of these ethnic minority groups.

31
 Economy

Northwest is the region having

favorable conditions to develop wet rice
cultivation. Thus, characteristic of economic
activity in valleys is terraced paddy fields with
a complex technical system of delta region,
associated with the cultivation of wet rice
fields, and irrigation systems. In addition,
residents also conduct activities of animal
husbandry, handicraft production, hunting,
farming, fishing, and gathering forest products.
However, along with working on the fields, residents living in valleys also join the cultivation
and exploitation of resources in forests which are quite diverse and abundant, enriching material
and spiritual life of local people. For residents in the mountainsides (mostly Mon-Khmer), their
economic activity is mainly operated on low upland fields. Their farming history started many
years ago, but due to the historical situation, they had to turn to economic activity of upland
fields. Although they have little experience on cultivation methods, they mostly burn, dig holes,
sow seeds, which brings low productivity, and results in nomadic phenomenon.

1.2. Red River Delta

Red River Delta is a large land limited by lower stream of Red River in Northern
Vietnam. This region consists of 11 provinces with many wonderful landscapes and seascapes.
Economy in this region is developed compared with other regions in Vietnam.

Red River Delta has a tremendous potential and many advantages superior to other
economic areas. It has favorable position for the economic – social development. Hanoi, the
capital ofVietnam as well as the political, economic, cultural center is situated in Red River
Delta, which makes the region an important strategic area in politics, economy, society, defense,
security and foreign affairs of the country. Red River Delta serves as the gateway in the north of
Vietnam with modern transportation systems such as networks of road, river, sea, air, and rail.
Important ports are also situated in this region, for example, Hai Phong Harbor and Noi Bai
International Airport. They are connecting links between the Red River Delta and other economic
regions in the country, and expanding exchanges with countries in the region and in the world.

32
Geography

Red River Delta is a vast region located around Red River basin in Northern Vietnam.
Red River Delta provinces include VinhPhuc, Hanoi, BacNinh, Ha Nam, Hung Yen, Hai Duong,
Hai Phong, Thái Binh, Nam Dinh, NinhBinh, QuangNinh. Unlike Mekong River Delta, there are
only two provinces in Red River Delta, Thái Binh and Hung Yen having no mountains, so this
area is called Red River Delta. The whole area is 23,336 km2, representing 7.1% of the country
area. Geography in Red River Delta is characterized by flat topography with dense rivers and
streams, which creates favorable conditions to develop transportation and infrastructure systems
in this region. The typical climate of this region is dry season (from October to April) also known
as winter. In spring, it is drizzling and light rainy. This part of Vietnam owns a large amount of
natural resources that contribute greatly to the development of Vietnam industry. To the east of
this region is the South China Sea, so Red River Delta has a long coastline with beautiful beaches
and favorable places to develop fishery industry.

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 People

Population in Red River Delta accounts for 22.7% of Vietnam population. Most of them
are Kinh people. A small number of population is Muong ethnic minority group living in Ba Vi
(Hanoi) and NhoQuan (NinhBinh). Red River Delta has a dense population, which provides an
abundant labor force with high skill and experiences on producing. The native population of this
region is not Vietnamese; they are Mon-Khmer and Tay-Thái people. During the period of
migration and production, the two groups combined to form ancient Vietnamese people. Here is
the most ancient colony in Vietnam. People living in this region have good experiences on
producing handicrafts such as silk, pottery, and wooden furniture; some typical traditional
handicraft villages are Van Phuc Silk Village, Bat Trang Pottery Village, and Dong Ky Wooden
Handicraft, etc.

Economy

First, in Red River Delta

Vietnam, the regional biodiversity is
characterized by topography of delta,
midland and mountains. Such rich
ecological zones are basic conditions for
the comprehensive development of
agricultural-forestry-fishery production.
Thus, Red River Delta is dubbed the
second “granary” of Vietnam after
Mekong River Delta. It makes an
important contribution to ensuring food
security and agricultural exports. In this
area, there are many mineral resources
Hai Phong port with large reserves such as 98% of coal,
40% of kaolin, and 25% of limestone in
the total reserves of the country. In the period of open-door economy, the economic development
in Red River Delta is increasingly improved. Haiphong is a potential province with a dynamic
development. Here, the industry of aquaculture is developed significantly, especially offshore
fishing. In recent years, the economic structure is shifting from decrease in agriculture, increase
in husbandry, fisheries, industrial plants and food plants.

34
1.3. Northeast

Northeast Vietnam is the territory in the north of the Red River Delta. The northeast is
one of three natural geographical sub-regions of Northern Vietnam (Northwest, Northeast and the
Red River Delta) with beautiful landscapes and seascapes.

Northeast Vietnam is one of the most advantageous regions in Vietnam. This part plays an
essential role in the development of the whole country. This region has advantages of both
geography and economy. In this region, most of population is Kinh people, and a number of
ethnic minority groups, which creates diversity in culture, customs, and lifestyle. Owning many
wonderful landscapes and seascapes with various cultural identities, Northeast Vietnam appeals a
large number of tourists and investors annually.

Geography

Terrain
in Northeast is
portrayed by
mountains in
hills. Northeast
Vietnam is
conterminous to
Red River Delta,
Northwest, East
Sea and China.
This is an
advantageous
position in
improving
economic
Mau Son Mountain in Lang Son - Source: Image from Panoramio
exchange
between regions
and with the neighboring, China. Geography of Northeast Vietnam is characterized by complex
topography. In the west, there are high mountain chains stretching from northwest to southeast,
especially Hoang Lien Son Mountain Range with over 3000-meter Fansipan Mount that is the
boundary between Northwest and Northwest in Northern Vietnam. This region is situated in
tropical climate, but is influenced by northeast monsoon and differentiation in climate, which
forms diversity in ecology with various fauna and flora systems. In addition, this region possesses
a large amount of fossils and natural resources, especially coal and metals.
35
 People

Market in Ha Giang - Source: Image from Wikimedia Commons

Population in Northeast Vietnam is about over 13 million of people, accounting for about
15% ofVietnam population. The population growth rate of this region is high, but the rate has
signals of decrease in recent years. The living standard of people in this region is higher than that
of the entire country and other regions. Northeast Vietnam has the most diverse ethnic structure
in Vietnam with 40 ethnic groups living together. Ethnic minority groups reside in certain places
where there are favorable conditions to conduct policy of the government, organized their lives
going with practiced customs. From the charm of Tay girls, the flexibility of H ‘Mong women to
the refinement of Dao and Cao Lan people, all have created a colorful cultural space in Northeast
Vietnam in particular and in North Vietnam in general.

36
 Economy

Uong Bi Thermal Power Plant in QuangNinh - Source: Image from lisemco.com.vn

In recent year, economy in Northeast Vietnam is having positive changes. With the
advantage of natural resources and conditional position, the region can develop a comprehensive
economy. The advantages create favorable conditions to develop agriculture, forestry with stable
tropical ecological system. Owning rich sources of fossils and metals, the region also can develop
mining industry and processing minerals industry such as coal, iron, lead, zinc, tin, bauxite,
apatite, and pyrite, and building stone, thermal development in Uong Bi. From 1991 to 1994,
GDP growth rate of this region reached about 5.9%. Since 1994, the figure mounted 6.7%. The
rate of commodities and products is still low in both quality and quantity. Yet, there are products
accounting for great proportion as tea, coal, and paper. Services and trade in this region are
relative developing in big cities.

37
1.4. North Central Coast

North Central Coast is one of key economic regions in Vietnam. It is adjacent to Red
River Delta in the north, People's Democratic Republic of Laos in the west, South Central Coast
in the south, and South China Sea in the east.

North Central Coast is the northern part of Central Vietnam with the geographical area
from the south of Tam Diep Mountain Range to the north of Hai Van Pass. North Central is one
of seven economic regions assigned to plan socio-economic overall by the Government. This
region consists of six provinces: ThanhHoa, NgheAn, Ha Tinh, QuangBinh, Quang Tri,
ThuaThien-Hue.

Geography

Majestic Truong Son Mountain Range (Annamite Range) - Source: Image from
Wikimedia Commons

North Central Coast region in Vietnam is adjacent to North and Central key economic
region on the North - South transport axis of the railway; many motorways in east - west
direction (7, 8, 9, and 29) connect Laos with South China Sea. In addition, the region retains an
convenient transportation system of airports (Vinh, Dong Hoi, Phu Bai), ports (Nghi Son, Cua
Lo, Cua Hoi, VungAnh, Son Duong, CuaGianh, Nhat Le, Cua Viet, Thuan An, Chan May...), and

38
high ways which lead to an important tourism center of the country (PhongNha - Ke
Bang, Hue Ancient Capital…) and promote economic exchanges among Vietnam, Laos, Tháiland
and Myanmar.

Vietnam North Central Coast territory stretches and narrow corridor with Truong Son and
Laos to the west, and South China Sea (Gulf of Tonkin) to the east. Additionally, midland,
mountainous region and offshore islands smoothly running along its territory form a rich and
diverse economic structure. Complex terrain, severe and fluctuant weather should be rationally
exploited. Many deep-water ports and estuaries are favorable to establish large and small ports
serving exchanges of goods among provinces in the region as well as with the domestic and
international areas.

As a result, of monsoon blowing in northeast direction and carrying the steam from the
ocean, the region is affected of cold and rainy weather in the winter. This is a different feature
compared with the dry weather in the North. Meanwhile, in the summer, the southwest monsoon
(also known as Laotian wind) brings hot-dry weather. The temperature at this time can be up to
40oC while the humidity is quite low.

People

Ethnic people in NgheAn - Source: Image from nghean.gov.vn

39
 North Central Coast is home to 25 different ethnic groups (Thái, Muong, Tay, H'mong,
Bru-Van Kieu) living in Truong Son. Yet there exists an unevenly distribution from east to west.
Accordingly, Kinh people mainly live in the eastern coastal plain.

Economy

Nghi Son Cement Factory - Source: Image from sdcc.com.vn

Industry

Vietnam North Central industry owns many precious minerals, especially limestone;
therefore, it facilitates to develop the mining exploitation and building materials. This is the most
important sector of the region. Besides, the region also develops some other industry sectors,
such as wood processing industry, mechanics, textiles, food processing. Some key provinces have
a variety of industries: ThanhHoa, Vinh, and Hue at small and medium scales. Infrastructure,
technology, and machinery are also improved in order to supply fuel and energy. ThanhHoa
currently retains the biggest industrial production value.

Agriculture

Mountainous region: There are many advantages for livestock with the number of
700,000 buffalos (accounting for one quarter of the country) and cattle up to 1.1 million ones
40
(accounting for one quarter of the country). This region is also favorable for the cultivation of
perennial industrial crops and has formed industrial-growing areas, such as coffee, tea (NgheAn),
rubber (QuangBinh), pepper (QuangBinh)....

Coastal plains: It is mainly sandy soil here (not suitable planting rice) which is suitable for
annual industrial crops: tobacco, peanut...The region also specializes industrial-growing areas and
rice intensification. However, food per capita is quite low: just about 348 kg / person.

1.5. South Central Coast

Vietnam South Central Coast is a long and narrow land. This region was formed in a long
history. Here is the land of wonderful landscapes and seascapes, contributing to the development
of Vietnam economy, especially in tourism.

Vietnam South Central Coast is the southern part of Central Vietnam. This region consists
of eight provinces with an area of over 44,000km2, accounting for 13.4% the whole area of
Vietnam, and a total population of over 8 million, representing about 10% of Vietnam population.
Vietnam South Central Coast is one of the most advantageous regions in Vietnam having a great
tourism potential. Economy in this region is relatively developed with strengths of both natural
and social conditions. South Central Vietnam attracts both domestic and international tourists not
just by its marvelous seascapes, but also a various traditions in the harmonic combination with
Vietnamese culture.

Geography

Plain area in Quang Ngai - Source: Image from Flickr

41
 The narrow South Central Vietnam territory is located in the eastern area of southern
Truong Son Mountain Range. The northern part of the region is limited by Bach Ma Mountain –
a natural boundary between North Central Coast and South Central Coast. To the south of the
region is the Southeast Vietnam. The seaward horizontal mountain chains split the region into
narrow coastal plains, creating a series of spectacular peninsulas and bays with beautiful beaches.
Climate in South Central Coast is characterized by rainy season and dry season. Autumn and
winter are rainy season, while summer is featured by Foehn phenomenon. As being located near
the sea, there is a great potential for the region to develop fisheries and aquaculture. Major
minerals in this region are building materials, especially sand for producing glass in KhanhHoa,
Bong Mieu gold in Quang Nam, and oil in arctic continental shelf in the South Central of
Vietnam. The forest area comprises over 1.77 million hectares. The covering proportion of forest
is 38.9%, 97% of which is wood forest with many rare and precious woods, birds and mammals.
The area of delta is narrow with sandy soil. The most fertile plain in this region is TuyHoa Delta
in Phu Yen. South Central Coast region has a convenient economic geographical location. It is
situated in the axis of roads, railways, air and sea. It is near Ho Chi Minh City and the key
economic triangle of the Southeast Vietnam. Also, it is the gateway of Central Highlands and the
inter-Asian route to international maritime routes.

People

Xtieng group in South Central Vietnam - Source: Image from socongthuong.bp.gov.vn

31.6% of population in South Central Coast resides in cities and towns. More than 50% of
urban population in this region lives in Da Nang, KhanhHoa and BinhThuan, while over a half of
42
rural population lives in Quang Nam, BinhDinh and Quang Ngai. The average population growth
ranged about 1.22% during the period of 2000-2007. The fastest population growth rate is
recorded in Da Nang with 1.95%, followed by Quang Nam, Quang Ngai and BinhDinh with the
slowest rate of around 1%. Meanwhile, the figure of four other provinces averaged between
1.26% (in KhanhHoa Province) and 1.59% (in NinhThuan Province). Ethnically, the population
of South Central Coast is dominated by Vietnamese people (or Kinh group). Besides, some ethnic
minorities residing in this region are the Cham with the most proportion. Cham people shelter
mostly in lowlands near Phan Rang, BinhThuan, and BinhDinh. Other minorities such as Xtieng,
Ma, and Ede live mostly in the mountainous area in the west. People in this region are
industrious, economical, and eager to learn, which provides Vietnam labor market a high-
qualified workforce.

Economy

Oil exploration in South Central Coast - Source: Image from dddn.com.vn

Vietnam economy in South Central Coast has been an agricultural economy. This can be
a thumbnail image of Vietnam economy. The region has the same features in the historical
development of the country such as wet rice agriculture, processing industry, handicrafts,
forestry, fishery, mining, and tourism. However, the level of technique, living standard is still low
compared with other regions in Vietnam. Undergoing 20 years of innovation, the economy of
South Central Coast has gained significant steps towards the development of socialist-oriented
market economy with various types of services and commodities. Up until now, agriculture is
43
still an important economic sector in this area. By 2005, the production value of agriculture
accounted for a large proportion of over 30% of South Central Coast’s GDP. Facts have shown
that agriculture continues to be a major producing sector, directly serving living condition of the
major population in South Central Coast. Husbandry in the region is developed in small scale,
mainly in household scale. Fishery, aquaculture and seafood processing industry are well-
developed industries. In recent years, exports of seafood products increase significantly.

1.6. Central Highland

Being known as a highly mountainous region, Central Highland Vietnam has not many
favorable conditions to develop economics; nonetheless, the land has its own strengths in culture
and tourism that cannot find in other places of the country.

Central Highlands, also known as Tay Nguyen, is a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic region
in Vietnam. With the ancient architecture of spilt houses, the space of Gong culture and
traditional festivals, the land has attracting a great number of tourists visiting each year to admire
the beauty of the unique culture. However, local people here are still facing with some troubles to
develop economics and society because of the unfavorable geography in Central Highland
Vietnam.

Geography

Highland area in Da K’Nang Commune, Dam Rong District, Lam Dong Province -
Source:Image from Wikimedia Commons
44
 The Central Highlands of Vietnam consists of five provinces, which are Kon Tum, Gia
Lai, Dak Lak, DakNong and Lam Dong (arranged from the north to the south). The natural area
of the Highlands is 54, 474 square kilometers accounting for 16.8% the total area of the whole
country. The Central Highlands combined with the South Central Coast to form the South Central
region of Vietnam. The land shares border with Quang Nam province in the north; Quang Ngai,
BinhDinh, Phu Yen, KhanhHoa, NinhThuan, and BinhThuan in the east; BinhPhuoc and the
south of Dong Nai in the south; Attapeu province (Lao) and Ratanakiriva and Mondulkiri
(Cambodia) in the west. In fact, the Central Highlands is not the only one plateau. It includes a
series of adjacent plateaus, in details, Kon Tum (500m); KonPlong, Kon Ha Nung and Play Ku
(800m); M’Drak (500m); Buon Ma Thuot (500m); Mo Nong (800-1000m); Lam Vien (1500m)
and Di Linh (900-1000m). The Central Highlands can be divided into three types of climate sub-
regions, which are North Highlands (Kon Tum, Gia Lai), Central Highlands ( Dak Lak and
DakNong), and South Highlands (Lam Dong).

In addition, the Central Highlands has many forests with biological diversity and large
potential for tourism. The climate is divided into two seasons, rainy season from May to October
and dry season from November to April. March and April are the hottest and driest time in a year.
Due to the effects of altitude, the climate in plateaus in height of 400-500m is relatively cool and
rainy, on the other hand, the weather in over 1000m plateaus is cool all year round as temperate
regions.

People

E De group in Central Highlands - Source: Image from baodaklak.vn

45
 According to General Statistics Office in 2012, the Central Highlands Vietnam
population is 5379, 6 with the population density are 99 people per one kilometer. The population
in ethnic groups is often unstable because of flows of free immigration. The region is really a
multi-ethnic and multi-cultural area where 47 ethnic groups (Ba Na, Gia Rai, E De, Co Ho …)
live in harmony with each other. Vietnamese people often call these groups as ethnic minority
groups or “Thuong people” (people who live in the highlands or mountainous regions). Living
standards and education of people here is not as high as other regions because of the difficulty in
transportation, geography and economics. The Central Highland’s people are described as having
vitality. They are also quite kind, honest and hospitable.

Economy

Coffee harvest in Buon Ma Thuot - Source: Image from baodaklak.vn

With the features of basaltic soils (about 2 million hectares of fertile basalt, accounted for
60% of the whole country) at an altitude of 500 - 600m, the Central Highlands takes advantage of
growing industrial crops, for example, coffee, cocoa, pepper, cashew, and rubber. Coffee is the
most important industrial crop in the region with some famous brands like Trung Nguyen coffee
and Buon Ma Thuot coffee. Besides, the Highlands is also the second largest rubber plantation.
Thanks to a diverse system of waterfalls, the hydropower resources here are quite large and being
used more and more efficiently. Some hydropower plants were constructed includes Da Nhim
(160, 000 KW) on Da Nhim river, Dray H’inh (12, 000 KW) on Serepok river, and Yaly (700,
000 KW). In addtion, the Central Highlands is rich in bauxite reserves as well. According to a
46
data of the former Soviet Union, the bauxite reserves in Central Highlands are approximately 8
billion tons. On November 1, 2007, the Vietnam Prime Minister signed a decision to research,
exploit and process bauxite in a period of 2007 – 2015. Apart from these above strengths, the
Central Highland Vietnam economy is not as developed as the other regions. The lack of highly
skilled labor, the poor infrastructure, and the mountainous terrain is some problems which restrict
the economic development of this land.

1.7. Mekong River Delta

Being known as one of two parts in the Southern Vietnam, with a geographical position at
the end of Indochina Peninsula, Mekong River Delta is an important transport hub to promote
exchanges between Vietnam and other countries on the Peninsula.

Mekong Delta has prominently natural features which are rarely seen in the world. The
nature is not only the strength but also the disadvantage of the region. With a system of fertile
soil and dense rivers and canals, the Mekong Delta has a good condition for developing
agriculture and fishery industry. Besides, the land has been undergone many thunderstorms each
year. Nonetheless, the Mekong Delta continues seeking solutions overcoming difficulties and
taking advantage of the favorable conditions to develop tourism, culture, economics and society.

Geography

U Minh Forest in Southern Plain Area of Vietnam - Source: Image from Wikimedia Commons
47
 Mekong Delta is also known as the Southwest of Vietnam. This region consists of 13
provinces including Long An, Tien Giang, Ben Tre, Vinh Long, TraVinh, Can Tho, SocTrang,
Bac Lieu, Ca Mau, KienGiang, An Giang, Dong Thap, and HauGiang. The natural area of the
region is 39,734 square kilometer accounting for 12.2% of the whole country. The land shares
border with Cambodia in the north, the Gulf of Tháiland in the southwest, and the East Sea in the
southeast. Located at the end of the Indochina Peninsula and being adjacent to the southern key
economic zone, the land has a close and important two-way relationship. In other words, Mekong
Delta geography has created favorable conditions to promote exchanging co-operation with other
countries on the peninsula.

The Mekong Delta was formed from the alluvial sediments and slowly added through the
eras of sea level changes. Having experienced from many stages, it gradually formed sand dunes
along the coast. The topography of the area is relatively flat with the average height is from 3 to 5
meters above the sea level. Besides, the humid tropical climate with equatorial features can be
clearly seen in this land. The annual average temperature is 24 – 27°C and the annual average
temperature range is 2-30°C. This area has two distinct seasons, in details, rainy season lasts from
May to October; dry season is from December to April.

People

Friendly Southwesterners - Source: Image from hiephoiduabentre.com.vn

According to the statistics of Vietnam General Statistics Office in 2012, the Mekong
Delta population is 17390 with the population density of 429 people per one square kilometer.
48
This is a land of many ethnic groups, which mostly are Kinh (90%), Khmer (6%), Chinese (6%)
and Cham. These groups live in harmony to help each other and develop all aspects of life
including economics, culture, society, etc... People in this place are very honest, hospitable and
warm-hearted. They also appreciate the solidarity, cooperation and mutual assistance. To these
people, helping each other to overcome difficulty is the most important thing in their emotional
life.

Economy

Mekong Delta fishery industry - Source: Image from nld.com.vn by Thot Not

The Mekong Delta economy has some advantages, especially in the field of rice
agriculture and fruit growing. This place is famous for having the largest granary in Vietnam. In
recent time, agriculture has been developed in the direction of commodity production, crop
diversification, livestock associated with processing. Besides, fishery is also strength of the
Mekong Delta. Nowadays, fishery has grown sharply in both production and export. Output value
of the fishing industry accounts for 42 – 45% the total value of the fishing industry and 37- 42%
the export of the country. In terms of industry, the land has mainly developed in food processing
industry with more than 20% of the industrial value added of the region. Other developing
industries include textiles, garments, construction materials, and chemicals. In aspects of service,
the Mekong Delta has great potential for tourism development. Some highlighted tourism
destinations in this land arePhuQuoc Island, Cai Be floating market, Long An museums, etc. In
49
the project of establishing key economic zone approved by Vietnam Prime Minister on April 16,
2009, 4 provinces including Can Tho, An Giang, KienGiang, and Ca Mau formed a key
economic zone in the Mekong Delta. According to the project, this economic zone will be the
largest one in the country in fields of rice production, fishing, and seafood processing, which will
contributes a large part in exporting agricultural and fishery products. In addition, the region has
an important role in transfer biotechnology, technical services and so on.

1.8. Southeast

Located in the southern Vietnam, Southeast Vietnam has lots of strengths in terms of
geography, transportation, and labor forces to develop economics, culture, society and tourism.

The Southeast is situated in a special position which plays an important role in socio-
economic development, transportation, and national security. The land also has favorable
conditions to develop industries, services, tourism and become a leader in the industrialization
and modernization, especially the development of high technology industry, electronic industry,
and telecommunication services and so on.

Geography

Vam Sat Ecological Tourist Zone in Ba RiaVung Tau - Source: Image from Wikimedia Commons

50
 The Southeast of Vietnam consists of 6 provinces including Ho Chi Minh City, TayNinh,
BinhPhuoc, Binh Duong, Ba Ria – Vung Tau and Dong Nai. The natural area of this land is 23,
605 square kilometer, which accounts for 7.1 % the total area of Vietnam. This is a new land in
the developing history of the country. The west and southwest of the region share a border with
the Mekong Delta, which has a great potential for agriculture and also the largest granary in
Vietnam. The Southeast also borders with the South China Sea in the east and southeast having
rich marine resources and favorable conditions for the construction of seaports. In addition, the
northwest shares border with Cambodia, which contains TayNinh border gate to promote
widespread exchanges with Cambodia, Tháiland, Laos and Myanmar. With these favorable
conditions in the Southeast Vietnam geography, this region becomes an important transport hub
not only for the south provinces of the country but also for foreign countries. Besides, belonging
to the southern climate, the region has features of equatorial climate with high temperature and
virtually no changes in a year. Especially, it has the profound seasonal differentiation consistent
with the operation of the monsoon.

People

According to General Statistics Office in 2012, the Southeast Vietnam population is

15192 with the population density of 644 people per one square kilometer. The flows of
immigrants from other places make this land have the highest population growth rate in the
country. In terms of demographic, Kinh people account for the majority of the population.
Besides, the Southeast also has many different ethnic minority groups, specifically, over 36
groups including Tay, Cham, Muong, Dao, Mnong, Thái, Nung, Khmer, and so on. Because of
the dynamic economic development, the region has attracted large brain resources including
highly skilled workers, engineers, scientist and entrepreneurs. Besides, the characters of people
here are quite different from other regions. They are more generous and sociable and not like the
binding. In business, they have adventurous spirit, strive, creative and agility with new things.

Economy

Business center in Ho Chi Minh City

Source: Image from property-report.com

51
 The Southeast Vietnam economy has the most significant development compared with
other regions. This land has been always the country’s leading area in terms of export, FDI, GDP
as well as other economic factors. In 1998, Ho Chi Minh City, Binh Duong, Ba Ria – Vung Tau
and Dong Nai were listed in the key economic zones by Vietnam Government. These four places
are called the Key Economic Quadrangle of the South East. In some later years, TayNinh was
also added in this area. Although this zone accounts a small area section of area in the whole
country, its contribution is quite large and always a crucial factor promoting economic and social
growth of the whole country.

Being recognized as an important transport hub of other provinces and countries is a great
condition for the Southeast to develop economics and co-operation. Besides, a great deal of
educational, scientific and technological institutions, economic centers, industrial zones, and
developing urban systems are located here. These features are favorable conditions for promoting
services and industries in this land. And what’s more, the Southeast has advantages in industrial
plants (rubber, coffee, tea, cashew, mulberry, peanuts, soybeans, rush, cane, and fruit trees with
the high economic value) and aquaculture, livestock and fishing.

2. CRAFT VIILAGES OF VIETNAM

2.1. Overview of craft villages

For a long time, craft villages have been important for the agricultural development in
Vietnam. The first villages where the population at least seasonally pursued a craft were already
found in the 11th century, particularly in the area of Hanoi. A wide variety of goods were
manufactured ranging from food and everyday products to skillfully designed silk and religious
articles. Products were directly sold at local markets or via retailers distributed to the capital or
even abroad. From their beginning craft villages were closely interwoven with the economic
network. In the communist era they remained to be a main pillar of the Vietnamese economy.
Since the introduction of the economic reform policy workforce and production volume of craft
villages are continuously growing.

In the Red River Delta, handicraft villages were often found in certain separated areas or
clusters that were linked to the capital via rivers and the extensive canal system. The production
of goods took often place in the time between two rice crops, i.e. when the farmers had time for
another business. Thus, the development of craft villages was closely related to the cultivation of
rice and the associated highly developed irrigation system.

52
 In the course of the agricultural collectivisation in the 50s, private sector activities were
restricted and craft villages were converted into cooperatives. However, the subsequent onset of
lack of raw materials hampered the production in the villages. The sale was now under state
control and the goods were mainly exported to Eastern European communist countries.

With the introduction of the economic reform policy in 1986, the production and
distribution of goods was no longer state-controlled and due to the fall of the Berlin Wall the
markets in Eastern Europe were no longer available. The people in the craft villages faced the
challenge of re-organising their networks and, where appropriate, adjusting their production to
modern marked demands. New markets were made accessible and some craft villages changed
their production completely, e.g. to recycled products.

Many of the craft villages are still organized in clusters that are economically intertwined.
Often, specific production steps are allocated to individual villages, so that the villages rather
cooperate than compete.

2.2. Vietnamese Ceramics and Pottery

Vietnam is famous for its splendid blue de Hué porcelain. The most beautiful pieces often
have a pearl with a flaming tail persued by a dragon, the symbol of the emperor. Like China,
Vietnam has a long history of producing great ceramics. Susan Brownmiller wrote in the New
York Times, Bat Trang is "an entire village of narrow mud lanes, artisan workshops, treadle
heels, and small cross-draft kilns. Moistened pats of charcoal, straw and manure, used for fuel,
were drying in rows on brick walls. Women stoically mixed and stirred vast of wet clay with their
feet."

53
 Bat Trang Ceramic Village (Hanoi) is very old. According to historical documents,
products from this village were well known as far back as the 15th century. There are many
villages throughout the country that produce ceramics. Some of these villages include Phu Lang
in BacNinh Province, HuongCanh in VinhPhuc Province, Lo Chum in ThanhHoa Province,
Thanh Ha in Hoi An (Quang Nam Province), and Bien Hoa in Dong Nai Province.

Vietnamese ceramic is now well known in both the domestic and international markets.
Traditional products include kitchen items and trays. The flower-patterned bowls of Bat Trang
have been exported to Sweden, the cucumber pots to Russia, and the teapots to France. and
porcelain items have been produced in Vietnam for a long time. Ceramic and porcelain products
glazed by traditional methods into beautiful art are well known in Bat Trang, Dong Trieu, Thanh
Ha and Haiphong.

Ancient Vietnamese Ceramics and Pottery

In prehistoric times, most of the designs on the surface of the ceramics were created with
sticks while the products were still wet. All of the pottery products from this era had useful
applications for household duties and cooking. Most of the pottery products from the Bronze Age
were formed on turn tables and had diverse styles. As well as cooking utensils, there were also
artistic ceramics and products for tool production. The diverse products were decorated with
carved images and covered by a different colored layer of an enamel-like substance. The
adornment of pottery products from this period was performed using bronze tools.

Iron Age pottery products developed in all regions of the country. These products were
produced at low temperatures using somewhat rudimentary techniques. The form and
ornamentation of the Iron Age pottery products was quite unique to this period. This craft
developed from traditional experience, and from the influence of the Chinese. Architectural
pottery, including bricks and tiles, also originated during this time and small simple statues of
animals, such as pigs and oxen, were introduced.

In his piece "A Historical Overview of Vietnamese Ceramics," Phan Cam Thuong wrote:
"Ceramic making first appeared in Viet Nam during the country’s primitive stages of
development when people gave up their wild existence to live in settled communities, and began
inventing new tools and household goods. Artifacts found in archaeological sites dating back as
far as the middle of the Stone Age, approximately ten thousand years ago, have been discovered
at Bac Son. In the Neolithic Era, when the techniques for making stone objects had reached a
high level of sophistication, ceramic products of period also began to take on an artistic character.
They were no longer rudimentary jars for containing water or pots for cooking. HoaLoc ceramic
products in particular are endowed with rhythmic designs showing original geometric thinking.
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 "The invention of pottery probably started from observation of the effect of fire on the
surface of the earth. Primitive people must have noticed that on places over which fires had
passed, the earth became very hard. They began to dig holes, which were baked and turned into
containers for harvested rice or water. All the shapes of ceramic products likewise came into
existence in the same natural way. Ancient rice bowl and dishes for instance are shaped like
cupped hands the form we make with our hands to hold spring water. Jars and bottles used as
containers have the same shape as fruits.

"Knitted and woven products such as baskets and bamboo cages also influenced the shape
of early ceramic products. Ancient jars were made by plastering knitted objects with clay before
putting them into a kiln. At high temperatures, the knitted cage would burn, leaving on the
ceramic jars its traces, which became small decorative motifs. Many ancient ceramic products of
the Stone Age in Viet Nam bear such traces of decorative motifs. This is one possible explanation
as to how the decoration on the outer surface of pottery was invented. Ceramic objects decorated
with rhythmic design came into existence after the emergence of the potter’s wheel.

Today we can accurately reconstruct the process of shaping and decoration employed in
each of the three stage of ceramic art of the Bronze Age: Phung Nguyen (4,000 years ago), Dong
Dau (3,300 years ago) and Go Mun (3,000 years ago). The processes involved in making ceramic
of this period are similar to those still used in the Vietnamese countryside today. The techniques
used to decorate ceramic objects of the three above-mentioned stages became the early models
for decorative motifs used on the bronze objects of the Dong Son period. Sa Huynh and Dong
Son ceramic in period of the Iron Age reached a remarkably high level of technical
sophistication, even as precious bronze objects were beginning to come into common use. We
must also add that the tools used during this period were primarily made of iron whereas the
household goods were often ceramic and instruments made of bronze. Sa Huynh ceramic objects,
characterized by their thickness, were generally made in the South of serve as tombs or as
containers for possessions of the dead. The interaction between the shaping of bronze objects and
that of ceramic is obvious; many of the ancient ceramics have the same shape as the bronze
objects and vice versa.

Vietnamese Ceramics and Pottery from the Period of Chinese Domination

In his piece "A Historical Overview of Vietnamese Ceramics," Phan Cam Thuong wrote:
"During the ten centuries of Chinese domination and continual struggles for independence, the
Vietnamese went on producing ceramics according to their traditional methods, while trying to
learn and adapt techniques of the Chinese version of the craft.

"Ceramics excavated from Chinese tombs give evidence of the above statement. These
include objects brought by Han from China, those produced by the Vietnamese, and those made
by the latter according the specifications their Chinese patrons. Ceramics found in Chinese tombs
55
from the areas stretching from QuangNinh, Hai Duong to Bac Ninh have common shapes of the
time: vessel-shaped bowls, tall cups with large mouths, tall vases called dam xoe with slender
necks, large mid-sections and bell-shaped bases and terracotta house models in the architectural
design of the tudai dong duong (dwelling of four generations living together).

"It is obvious that bronze objects aesthetically influenced most of these ceramics; the
geometric decoration and relief motifs of the ceramic products of the period closely resemble
those of bronze objects. Thanks to the high level of technical sophistication and the use of the
potter’s wheel, the products were thick-walled (0.5 cm), having solid bodies with a high
proportion of silicate and covered with a thin yellow or white glaze.

Ceramic artifacts of the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries have also been excavated; many of
these were made in the style of Tam Thái (three colors) ceramics, which flourished under the
Tang Dynasty. They are covered with a transparent green glaze which accumulates in places into
small lumps forming different patterns, a technique known as the "dripping spectrum" an
inelegant name connected with a product considered so precious.

Vietnamese Ceramics and Pottery in the Early Imperial Era

After more than ten centuries of Chinese domination, the Ly and Tran dynasties saw the
reestablishment of national independence. During this period, pottery experienced splendid
achievements in quality and diversity through large-scale production. Basic elements, including
the form, decorations, and colored enamel, were employed t o create beautiful products. The
painted decorations were simple, but incredibly attractive. Unique carving characteristics
developed and various kinds of enamel were applied.

In "A Historical Overview of Vietnamese Ceramics," Phan Cam Thuong wrote:

"Vietnamese ceramics underwent an extraordinarily creative period during the Ly Dynasty
(1010-1225). Craftsmen of this period undoubtedly drew inspiration from the ancient tradition of
Vietnamese ceramics as well as from that of the Tang Dynasty’s Tam Thái ceramics and the
Celadon porcelain tradition of the Song from China. The jade glazed ceramics of the Ly Dynasty
were famous all over the Southeast and East Asian region and were prized for their beauty as far
away as the Middle East. Many of the ceramics products of this period were slender in shape and
covered with an emerald glaze. The glaze was produced in different shades: pale grayish green,
yellow green. Light green, violet green, etc. Decorative motifs covered by the glaze remained
distinct and could still be clearly seen. There were also while and black, and iron-brown glazed
ceramics, all very pleasing to the eye. All of the ceramics were imbued with the same aesthetic,
which underlined other artistic areas such as architecture and sculpture under the Ly Dynasty.

"Alongside the traditional ceramic centers of the Ly period in ThanhHoa and those of the
Tran Dynasty (1226-1400) in the Thang Long (now Hanoi), others were later developed in Quang
56
Yen and Nam Dinh. According to historical documents, mandarins of this period such as Hua
VinhKieu, Dao Tien Tri and LuuPhongTu, who served as ambassadors to China, studied Chinese
techniques of pottery making, bringing them back to Viet Nam. They taught the art to villagers in
Bat Trang (Hanoi), Tho Ha (BacGiang) and Phu Lang (Bac Ninh province). Bat Trang Village
specialized in gom sac trang (white ceramics), Tho Ha in gom sac do (red ceramics) and Phu
Lang gom sac vang (yellow ceramics). The white ceramics with blue motifs produced at the time
differ very little from one made in Bat Trang Village today. The red pottery of Tho Ha, which
was terracotta, consisted mainly of large jars and glazed coffins used in the traditional re-burying
of bones of a dead body three years after the initial burial (alt for bones). While the yellow or
greenish-yellow "eel skin" pottery is still produced in great quantity in Phu Lang, Tho Ha Village
ceased producing it a century ago.

"Terracotta products came into existence earlier than other kinds of ceramics and have
continually developed throughout Viet Nam’s history, though only those of the period between
the Dinh (967-980), Ly (1009-1225) and Tran (1225-1400) Dynasties reached heights of artistic
excellence. Bricks were produced for paving house foundations, constructing walls and miniature
towers, tiles for covering roofs, phoenix or dragon-shaped architectural decoration, and incense
burners. Binh Son Tower (VinhPhuc), 14 m high, dating back to the Tran Dynasty, is a perfect
terracotta construction down to the smallest details; nothing like it has been built since.

"Just as glazed ceramics were representative of the Ly period, so iron-brown pottery was
of the Tran. There are two kind of latter: white background with brown motifs and brown
background with white. Ceramics during the Tran period were large and simple in shape: artifacts
from this period have a strong and majestic appearance, which conveys the militant spirit of the
Tran Dynasty. At the end of the Tran period there also appeared gomhoa lam (white- blue glazed
ceramics) and other, which used glazed of various colors between the established jade green and
the blue-white glazes or between the brown and the blue-white glazes. Not until the Posterior Le
(1427-1527) did white-blue glazed ceramics reach their full development.

Vietnamese Ceramics and Pottery in the Late Imperial Era

Since the 15th century, ceramic started to bear white enamel with blue designs and
fabrication techniques improved. Nowadays, some localities are still specialized in producing
ceramics, including BacNinh Province, ThanhHoa Province, Nam Dinh Province, and Hanoi.

Phan Cam Thuong wrote: ""Based on the traditional techniques of making white-blue and
iron-brown glazed ceramics, Dang Huyen Thong, a pottery collector and famous craftsman of the
Mac period (1527-1598), created a new kind of ceramics decorated with geometric designs and
motifs in relief. The power and solemnity evoked by the designs of Dang Huyen Thong’s new
57
pottery expressed the turmoil of the 17th and 18th centuries: ceramic art together with other
handicraft developed alongside the changing village and urban centers in the context of a country
divided by an internal war which lasted for two hundred years.

"After transferring its capital to Hue, the Nguyen Dynasty (1802-1945) also paid attention
to the ceramic craft for the service of the court and daily life. New centers of porcelain and
ceramic production such as MongCai and Dong Nai began to emerge alongside long-established
old centers and kilns. The porcelain trade under Qing Dynasty in China and the Nguyen in Viet
Nam prospered. Many courtiers of Asia Minor and Central Asian imported Vietnamese ceramics.

"Nowadays modern ceramics are based on traditional techniques of ceramics making

which have operated for hundreds of years. What on the past was a glorious craft requiring great
skill is today another developing branch of industry. Beside the ancient centers, which are still
operating and continue using traditional methods, many new and old communities have begun
using imported techniques, such as casting, the use of chemical glazes, and firing in gas or
electric kilns. The shapes and decorations of many products now follow international aesthetic
tastes. Traditional ceramics, however, retain their own value, an ancient tree amidst an industrial
forest.

Bat Trang Markets Its 1,000-Year-Old Ceramic

Associated Press reported from Bat Trang: "Nguyen Trong Hung smoothes his weathered
hands over a 1.5-metre-tall porcelain vase spinning hypnotically on a potter's wheel. Years of
practice make his movements look effortless as he creates a flawless work based on traditions
passed down through generations. Bat Trang, a village on the Red River just outside Hanoi, has
been producing ceramics and pottery for 1,000 years and is known throughout Vietnam for its
quality and innovative wares.

"And, with communist Vietnam opening its doors to a market economy, artisans like
Hung, who were once forced by the government to work for pennies, are now fledgling
entrepreneurs dreaming that their village will someday rival France's famed Limoges porcelain
region. "All of the ceramic craftsmen in this village are very proud of the craft we inherited 1,000
years ago from our ancestors," says Hung, who began learning the trade at age five. "We hope
with this project, more people in the world would know about Bat Trang ceramics and that would
help to raise the sale of our products to a new height."

"Hung's family and 26 others from the village of 400 ceramics producers have joined a
pilot project - the Bat Trang Porcelain and Ceramics Association - that began promoting their
wares in November. They hope that with some expertise from the Mekong Private Sector
58
Development Facility - which is managed by a branch of the World Bank and which has pledged
$150,000 over two years for a Web site, a trading center and improved marketing - they can
begin selling directly to department stores abroad.

In 2003 "the village, which employs an estimated 30,000 people, exported about $23
million US worth of ceramics. It's a number that project head Len Cordiner hopes to double over
the next three years. "I think it's ambitious, but it's very doable," Cordiner says. "To become a
household name will take 10 or 20 years, but we may - at least I'm hoping - do reasonably well in
the wholesale and retail trade." There are hundreds of craft villages scattered across Vietnam with
skilled artisans making everything from rattan and wrought iron furniture to silks and
lacquerware. But Bat Trang is special.

"Its history traces back to a site outside the ancient capital of Hoa Lu in northern Vietnam
where pottery artisans once gathered. In 1010, the craftsmen moved with the capital to Hanoi,
and relics of Bat Trang pottery and ceramics have been unearthed at the site of an ancient citadel
there - evidence that even Vietnam's royal families used wares created by the villagers' ancestors.
Bat Trang products have been found in shipwrecks across Southeast Asia and exhibited in
museums worldwide. Foreign experts were surprised to find that some of Bat Trang's ancient
techniques were more modern and sophisticated than expected, similar to relics found in Japan
and China, says Duong TrungQuoc, a Vietnamese historian. "The cultural value of the product is
its economic strength," he says. "It helps the foreigners understand Vietnam, and the quality of
the product will help them to believe in other products made by Vietnam."

"While still making each item by hand - right down to the intricate scenes and patterns
etched on the porcelain - some families are innovating. Three years ago, Hung switched from a
coal-fired kiln to one powered by natural gas. It's 50 percent more expensive, but his pieces are
more evenly heated and there is no more messy coal dust or time lost hauling in fuel. Only 30
percent of his output is exported now, but Hung's family earns about $6,370 annually, far above
the national average of about $420 a year and a big change from the poverty and hardship of two
decades ago. After the Vietnam War ended in 1975, the communists forced Bat Trang's villagers
to produce bowls and plates that Hung says paid only pennies for a day's work, enough to buy
just over three pounds of rice. It was when Vietnam started opening up the economy and
promoting private businesses that the village began making money. Today ceramic-filled shops
line both sides of the street leading into the village and a large outdoor market booms near the
river.

"Cordiner hopes to eventually begin tours to Bat Trang and to create a similar niche like
Les Artisans d'Angkor has done in Siem Reap, Cambodia, where craftsmen make lucrative, high-
quality souvenirs. "We're leveraging the history of the town and the history of ceramic
production, which are closely tied," he says. "It's visible, tangible evidence of history."

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2.3. Bronze casting

Bronze casting is a longstanding craft of the Vietnamese and of particular notoriety in

Hue. Long ago the best bronze casters of Vietnam were grouped together into the city ward of
Phuong Duc.

The highly regarded craft guild lies along the southern bank of the Perfume River, between the
Da Vienbridge and Long Tho, about three kilometers southwest of the city center.
During the Nguyen Dynasty the area was a bustling workplace responsible for providing essential
goods to the south of Vietnam during the reign of the last imperial family. Included in the bronze
provisions were weapons, Buddhist alters and offering sets, and daily utensils. Commonly
referred to as the Cast Ward, Phuong Duc consists of five hamlets; GiangDinh, Giang Tien,
KinhNhon, Ban Bo, and Truong Dong. Of these, KinhNhon and Ban Bo are the two largest and
most reputed bronze casting villages.

According to local history, the father of the craft was Nguyen Van Luong. He came from
the northern province of BacNinh. Settling in Hue, he endowed down his detailed knowledge of
this historically important craft to his children and grandchildren. Today you can find the
eleventh and twelfth generations of the Nguyen family continuing the tradition. Presently the
guild operates sixty-one casting furnaces and employs roughly one hundred and fifty craftsmen.
Commonly sought after products range from household appliances such as flower vases, pots,
and pans; to religious funereal accessories such as urns, statues, caskets and bells.
The excellent artisans of this well established guild have historically contributed to the Imperial
city’s bronze masterpieces like the Dai Hong Mon at the Thien Mu Pagoda, and the famous Nine
Cannons of Hue in front of the Hue City Royal Citadel. The Nine Bronze Urns in Dai Noi are
considered to be a priceless work of art with one hundred and sixty-two relief patterns. These are
just a few of the the striking achievements of Vietnam’s bronze casting of two centuries ago.
Other more recent achievements include the casting and tuning of a giant bell and the restoration
of an ancient drum. Both Vietnamese artists and art troupes from ThuaThien-Hue Province, Ho
Chi Minh City and Hanoi are among those who gathered to celebrate the memorable event which
opened with a program of traditional music and dancers backed by the rhythmic echo of drums.
The Nguyen family, like the other bronze-casting families in the Cast Ward, keep their formulas,
casting techniques and traditional methods a closely held family secret. In general it can be said
that the best bronze casts consist of approximately seventy percent bronze, ten percent zinc, ten
percent tin, and eight percent lead. Each forging procedure is specially crafted for a particular
characteristic and is generally the same for other bronze-casting locations in Vietnam. However
the important difference is in design and technique which is a genuine test of skill.
Bronze products made in the Cast Ward of Hue are popular in Vietnamese traditional and
religious ceremonies, and have become increasingly popular with foreign visitors. It can be said
in Vietnam the families of Bronze Artisans reflect the forging of modernity with an ancient
tradition through their skilled craftsmanship and eye for detailed beauty.
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PhuocKieu village (Quang Nam)

Just 15km from the ancient town of Hoi An is the PhuocKieu bronze casting village, with
its long history and wonderful crafts, located in Dien Phuong Commune, Dien Ban District in
Quang Nam province.

Hundreds of years ago, a bronze caster named Duong Khong Lo travelled from Lang Son
in northern Viet Nam to settle in Quang Nam. Word of his fine products soon spread throughout
the Central Highlands region. Today, descendants of Khong Lo are famous artisans in the village.

The popular bronze castings of PhuocKieu include bells, gongs, gong-like musical
instruments, incense burners, lamp holders, ancient vases and other bronze instruments normally
used in festivals, ceremonies and in daily life.

In the period of the Nguyen kings, who reigned from 1802 to 1945, PhuocKieu artisans
were invited to the imperial capital of Hue to cast coins, interior decorations and household
appliances.

PhuocKieu artisans were the pride of the village when they cast the massive Gia Tri bell,
which weighs 432kg and has a diameter of 1.12m and a height of 90cm, in 2004. They also cast
an enormous bell that weighs 1.8 tonnes and has a diameter of 1.3m.

For centuries, gongs made in Dien Ban have been prized by highland ethnic minority
peoples like the Xe Dang, Cotu and Gia Rai. Bells cast in PhuocKieu's furnaces can also be found
in pagodas throughout Viet Nam.

Furthermore, thanks to the villagers' sophisticated bronze casting skills, the sounds of
gongs from PhuocKieu are heard at many cultural festivals throughout the nation.

Village craftsmen

Duong QuocThuan, who inherited skills and experiences from his father, is now one of
the village's best gong craftsmen. Thuan shared the three steps to casting bronze: making a mold,
boiling the copper and casting it into the molds.

First, artisans make the insides and outsides of the molds. The outside mold, which can be
used some 40 times, is made from clay and rice husks. The inside cast, which can be used only
once, is made from heavy soil and rice husks, and is engraved with patterns and letters.

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 The next two steps, boiling and casting, are the most crucial, because they decide the
quality of the sounds the finished instruments will give off.

"I make gongs from my heart. I dare not say that I am a good artisan, but making a set of
gongs that ethnic minority people will accept is a success in itself," said Thuan.

"To make a gong, your soul must be free," he added.

According to Thuan, to make a set of gongs is not difficult. The most difficult thing is
correcting the gong's sounds so that they are suitable for the specific ethnic group they are made
for, i.e. the effervescent sounds of the Ede gongs, the profound and lyrical sounds of the Bahnar
and Gia Rai gongs and the unhurried and composed sounds of the Koho.

"To cast a gong successfully, you must have an innate musical aptitude and you must take
many fact-finding trips," Thuan confided.

Thuan, who has travelled all over the Central Highlands to learn dances and play the
gongs of the Ede, Bahnar and Cotu peoples, made two sets of gongs (each set includes 18 gongs)
under the piano's musical notes for a French national.

With a passion for his ancestors' craft, Thuan passed on his knowledge and passion to his
sons Duong Ngoc Chi and Duong Quoc Tu.

"The impressive sounds of the mountains and forests are absorbed into the blood of the
people in the Central Highlands, and the flames of passion for our ancestors' craft runs deep in
the blood of PhuocKieu descendants," Thuan said.

According to craftsman Duong Ngoc San, mixing metals to make bronze products was
also a key experience of the village. This process was very important because it affected the
sound quality of the gongs and bells. Therefore, PhuocKieu's products made sounds like no
where else.

"To develop this craft village, we are ready to hand down our trade secrets to our
offspring," San said.

During the economic crisis, the trade village was seriously threatened, but thanks to the
craftsmen's hearts and the help of local officials, with a policy to develop the craft village and
closely connect it to tourism in Quang Nam Province, PhuocKieu is now recovering.

Duong Van Ca, deputy chairman of the Dien Phuong Commune People's Committee,
said, "At present, there are 23 households casting bronze products, of which three specialise in

62
gongs. PhuocKieu's products have been sold on the domestic market and abroad, in Quang Tri,
ThuaThien Hue and NinhThuan, as well as in Laos and Cambodia".

The local officials also built temples for the forefathers of PhuocKieu villagers and
popularisedPhuocKieu gongs through cultural and tourism festivals.

Tran Uc, manager of Dien Ban District's Department of Industry and Trade, said that a
plan to exploit tourism by the river road through PhuocKieu village had been put in motion so
that tourists could see craftsmen cast traditional bronze products and buy them.

The Gong Culture of the Central Highlands has been recognised by UNESCO as a
Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. This opened up the prospects of
developing bronze casting villages to preserve gong cultures across the nation.

"This is a chance and an encouragement to attract craftsmen to make gongs. Besides, I

hope that when usage demand increases, craft villages will train more young artisans. In my
opinion, conserving and developing gong casting villages will pave the way in preserving and
developing gong culture," said Thuan. VNS

2.4. Silk weaving

During the colonial era, the textile industry was preponderant in former HàTây Province
to the west of the capital: it accounted for 20,000 artisans out of a total of 54,000 in the Delta.
They were to be found in 37 villages specialized in cotton fabrics and their by-products and 25 of
silk spinners or producers of silk fabrics (Gourou 1936). These villages were grouped into two
clusters not far from HàNôi, seat of political power until the 19th century and the biggest market
for the consumption of luxury goods:

- Near HàDông was the silk cluster composed of seven villages all with La in their name
(La Phu, La Khê, La Nôi, La Duong, La Ca, Dông La, Y La) and 3 with Mô. The other villages
were located to the north and south of this major textile centre.

- The cluster around the shores of the great West Lake: where five villages were
specialized in silk gauze in the 17-18th centuries. Division of labour is particularly noticeable in
the silk industry, where the production process entails several different stages. Each stage is
carried out by a different village within a network: growing mulberry trees and breeding
silkworms, reeling off the silkworm’s cocoon, spinning silk, weaving and dyeing. Many weaving
villages were unable to breed silkworms, because their land was not suitable for growing
mulberry trees. Only villages located on the alluvial banks of the Day River (unprotected by the

63
dykes) or on the shores of the great West Lake engaged in this activity. In addition, each weaving
village specialized in one of the many different varieties of silk – organza, brocade, taffeta, velvet
or raw silk.

During the colonial era, two kinds of industry coexisted: a purely familial industry,
traditional, making rough material, belts, the strings for simple tops for women, and a
modernized industry, often employing a salaried workforce and producing finer materials,
sometimes indistinguishable from Chinese or European ones. Birthplace of silk weaving in
HàDông, Van Phuc is atypical among most of the Delta’s craft capitalist-style production
systems, regular employees and the mechanization of production (200 Jacquard looms imported
from Lyon).

These workshops were more prosperous than purely familial and traditional enterprises.
Van Phuc, in keeping with La Khê, its neighbour, was home to a large number of famous
artisans. Its export markets spread to Asia, then during the colonial era to France. The weavers
were specialized in a single kind of silk: that designed for the working classes and coarsely
woven, more precious cloths such as lint satins or brocaded gâmdesigned for the Imperial Court
and for rich traders. There was a large variety in qualities of silk, each being the speciality of one
village (NguyênThuaHy 2002). These villages have developed according to fluctuations in the
market and in fashions. Western travellers and missionaries who crossed this region up until the
19th century never tired of praising the quality of HàNoi silk. When French colonization occurred
in the 19th century, coarser materials suffered from the competition of cotton fabrics imported
from France.

Today silk making has almost disappeared from HàTây. The collectivist interlude killed
off this activity following the suppression of luxury markets, a ban on silkworm production and
the reorganization of artisans into co-operatives. Weavers therefore had to switch to the
production of low-quality cotton fabrics on wider looms in co-operatives controlled by the State
to supply the country at war. Attempts to restart the activity after DôiMoi have been
unsuccessful, owing to the competition from Chinese products, the use of silk threads mixed with
synthetic fibres and the absence of quality control.

Of the twelve villages in the HàDông silk cluster, Van Phuc is the only one to have
maintained the craft despite the upheavals of history. A few talented artisans from La Khê have
unsuccessfully tried to rekindle the craft within a co-operative. La Noi, La Duong and Y La
produce mediocre cotton fabrics for the domestic market, while La Phu has specialized in knitted
garments. These cotton fabric and knitted garment-producing villages are also organized into
clusters, but they answer to industrial commodity chains in China or in the south of Vietnam.

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2.5. Wood sculpture/ carving

Sơn Đồng village (Hanoi)

This village has hundreds years history of making wood sculptures

Located next to 32 road, the center of the capital about 15km, Son Dong commune,
HoaiDuc, Hanoi is known for its famous wood products, fine art and carved lacquer. Here, people
could hear the sound of carve and cut around the village.

So far, the class descendants of wood Son Dong village no longer remember the origin of
the craft, only that the product of villages have been identified from hundreds of years. A
hundred years, the village of Dong Son not only talented in the paint, carve, create the Buddha
statues thousand arms, thousand eyes, the Thien (Good) statue, the Ac(Evil) statue, the Arhat
statues, eight pole palanquin.. known throughout the country, but from the ancient times, the Son
Dong know each other always prompt professional respect given to their ancestors: painting,
pagoda sculpture - has created a job for Son Dong village know how artists have talented hands,
the King KhaiDinh's prizes, French were awarded the artist.

From the land of King Hung to the The best cave in the North of Vietnam - Huong
pagoda, anywhere in the country, we also see the worship statue by the Son Dong craftsman. A
very special with village workers in the wood that even though there is no sign on the statue but
the Son Dong people can easily recognize the product were done by your village people
manipulate. They look so proud that you have a good job to be crystallized in the hands home
workers that others village want to learn are also difficult to follow and also "in heart" to hold
round of prestige for the ancestor profession.

The pilgrim as well as respect for this quality of "uniqueness" of products that the Son
Dong village that want visited the wood village... What is the trick that makes the product of Son
Dong village is love, create credibility with customers, while the country has so many
professionals as well as villages such as Dong Son worshiping? The question of who is doing
missionary work, keep industry of the village explained very rustic and simple: "Many
generations now, the only wood carving village always thought, one thing is to know, to
understand the sentence : “ know everything is to know nothing”.

The consideration of Son Dong village artisans for products of their village is also
manifested in behavior, communicating daily trading. Everyone in this land, from the elderly men
in village to the baby 2 to 3 years, future generations of wood village, also called wood products
very successful arranged clear order of precedence, while shipments to customers have a red
cloth covering statues. Generations remain loyal to the natural paint materials used to the painting
statues, which must be manually processing workers in the village are confident ... The small jobs
65
that full respect implies that become thought in the each villager wood. For the respect that many
people far away to visit the village and respect for feelings, special favor with Dong Son people,
who make these products are everywhere aspire for worship. Hundred years old definition
remains...

Buddha goods can only carved jack wooden, because the concept, which is wood "sacred"
- very appropriate for making worshiping things. Moreover, jackfruit wood characteristics
flexible, soft, durable, less cracking, easy to trim. Wood transport that removed rubbish wood,
only use core to carve. Single measurement instrument in the hands of the workers are gauge wire
and a "Tam rule ". Head and face of statue was always processed first. Carve outline the cap (if
any) and the forehead, nose, lips, ears, etc. ... Ear of Buddha large and flowing, to the set a
reasonable balance in the distance from the hairline (the 2 side of head) to chin, maybe ear
touched the shoulder.

Gilded painting technique is also wonderful as the art of lacquer. After each stage must be
grinding statue by the stone and water. Paint then grind away, then paint on ..., so never saw the
flat surface and stretch then use a paint layer (called Cam Thep paint) cover. For Cam Thep paint
be almost dry (touch by hand feel sticky) then silver paste or gold paste (silver, gold depending
on customers). Therefore, each statue by artist Dong Son remake brings a different look. These
parallel sentences, horizontal board that horse, large crane, all shone bright yellow, purple, pink
in the sun soon. Every product here is both harmony, has portrayed its own dynamic
characteristics, requires financial resources both human mind here.

La Xuyên village (Wood carving village in Nam Định)

La Xuyen Village at 70 km from Hanoi, is famous for wood carving from ancient. It has a
rich history of thousands of years with dozens of skilled workers who participated in building
palaces, temples for feudal dynasties. NinhHuu Hung, the first founder in setting up hamlet,
imparting to local native, was the famous craftsman in both of Dinh – Le dynasty using at an
important function.

Traditional carpentry in La Xuyen which the pinnacle is the carving art almost reached
perfectly. These local carpenters had been not only in Eastern but also in Western country to
make a lot of villages’ beauty. Their huge productions are the architectural works with widen
spaces and heighten the height of antique dome. Plentiful and common productions such as
incense-table, hammock, sindora wood bed, tea chest… all showed high level technique.

Till now, a part of traditional craft village has remained in communal house. The talented
carpenters contributed their minds, skilled hands into a huge architectural works. These artisans
really infused a vital spirit into the carving and relief works throughout the time.

66
 Nowadays, La Xuyen is just a small village of Yen Ninh commune, Y Yen district, but
this craft village is still alive throughout the time and become more and more famous. With the
tradition of a long-standing craft village, La Xuyen has been contributing to bring fame to
motherland.

2.6. Future of craft villages

Nation's craft villages in need of renewal

According to statistics from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, there are
about 3,500 craft villages across the country providing employment to about 12 million people,
which account for 30 per cent of the rural population.

However, despite the big numbers the country's craft villages are suffering from a lack of
management and planning, a shortage of human resources and difficulties in building brand
recognition in comparison with neighbouring countries in the region.

Recent conferences have put the spotlight on the issue, with experts calling for the need to
diversify Vietnamese handicraft designs and fine art products in order to stay competitive in
tough times and contribute more to tourism development.

Viet Nam News spoke to some of them.

LuuDuy Dan, chairman of the Viet Nam Craft Villages' Association

Viet Nam currently has about 3,355 traditional craft and trade villages, half of which have
been recognised officially by municipal or provincial authorities nationwide. The craft villages,
many of which are centuries old, play important roles in forming and preserving local cultural
values and boosting the economy.

When Viet Nam began integrating into the international economy a few decades ago,
production in craft villages developed strongly, meeting demand for domestic decoration,
construction and restoration of historic religious sites, cultural events and export.

However, since 2009, craft villages have experienced difficult times due to the domestic
and global economic slowdown. High inventories and a decline in sales of 30-40 per cent,
together with long-lasting problems in the sector, made survival hard for many craft villages.

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 The Government has turned its attention to the sector by introducing a number of policies.
For example, in 2006, a policy was issued encouraging the development of industries – including
craft in rural areas – implementing a job training programme in rural areas.

Last year, the Government also approved new conservation and development measures.
However, they have not worked as effectively as expected.

Villages are facing a mountain of problems, including financial shortages, outdated

technology, untrained labourers and environmental pollution.

About 80 per cent of craft enterprises have difficulties accessing preferential loans despite
Governmental support policies introduced in 2007 designed to make this possible.

Capital is the most important factor in reviving production, updating technology, solving
environmental problems and attracting employees.

Many young people in craft villages are no longer interested in inheriting businesses and
continuing the craft making tradition because of the low income. They have taken on other work
or moved to urban areas to seek jobs.

However, I believe that they will start to return if the craft sector is given some proper
investment. Relevant parties including producers, policymakers, trade promoters and trainers
have yet to co-operate closely to solve the problems.

If a village loses it traditional craft, the link among its members can be lost, making the
community weaker and more vulnerable to outside risks. This can be seen in many cases when
farmers who lost their land had to leave home in search of new work and the connection between
family members became less secure.

The craft sector should be able to offer a good livelihood and preserve the culture of local
people. However, combined efforts are needed to improve infrastructure, the environment and
public awareness of the issues.

Bui Van Vuong, Director of the Centre for Handicraft Design in Ha Noi, and an expert on
traditional culture and handicraft villages

Currently, we have many traditional craft villages operating at a major-scale level,

including Dong Ky Wood Carving village, Bat Trang Ceramic village and many others in the
south. However, in general, most of our traditional villages are operating at the household level.
They are widely dispersed and some rely on outdated technology.

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 For those that operate under the household-model, the heads often do not have the
knowledge required to find output markets, as they have not been trained in management.

We have studied Viet Nam's handicraft villages and estimate that there are at least 40
major categories of craft trades nationwide, and each category has from two to hundreds of crafts.
However, is it true that we do not have many handicraft products that are well-known abroad and
can be recognised as a trademark unique to Vietnamese culture and tradition.

Our craft villages currently have some top-notch craftsmen, many of whom are still quite
young. There is a lot of potential to make handicraft products more appealing and diverse in
design.

Currently, the focus has been on craftsmen making products to compete in competitions. I
feel that this is akin to training cockerels to fight – it requires a lot of effort for such a short-term
task. Many do not focus enough on varying their designs with long-term ambitions.

For example, we can have hundreds of different designs for a simple rattan tray. What we
are seeing now is that households have a rattan (wicker or bamboo) tray that is identical to the
ones in neighbouring households.

I've been talking about the need to have designers specifically for trade villages. We need
to have people on-the-ground who know and are trained properly on design. All of these factors
are needed to create a brand for handicraft products.

Dong Ky is just a name. It's not recognised as a brand automatically. As we all know, it
takes a long process to create this but residents and craftsmen in each village have to understand
the essence of a brand and how their handicraft products can differentiate.

For a craft village, a brand has to be built up from the tradition.

We need relevant policies to gather and encourage those who come up with new ideas.
These are called creative design centres. Otherwise, our craft villages will continue to suffer from
a shortage of designers, managers and marketing people.

Truong Minh Tien, deputy head of the Ha Noi Department of Sports, Culture and
Tourism

From a tourism perspective, the city has nearly 1,300 trade villages and many are quite
well-known, and have enough potential to take advantage of this. A few has succeeded in doing
so, such as Bat Trang ceramic village, Van Phuc silk village and the bamboo weaving businesses
in Chuong My.

69
 We believe the process of developing craft village tourism in a sustainable way has to
meet certain requirements.

The trade village has to have unique characteristics and a proper development plan. it
must have transportation links, an effective infrastructure, a showroom and places to introduce
products and trade to the tourists, among other criteria.

The trade village must also meet environmental and production targets. Residents should
be encouraged to take part in introducing the traditional elements of the village to visitors. We
already have sufficient policies in place to support trade villages, and many local authorities have
good ideas of how to develop tourism there.

It goes without saying that artisans want to develop tourism so that they have the capacity
to maintain the values of traditional villages. We need to improve in areas such as transportation
systems, even things such as parking spaces and reception areas. When tourists visit the
households they need to have proper information

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Briefly explain the conditions of 8 sub-regions of Vietnam in terms of geography,.

2. What make Red River Delta and Mekong River Delta important in the economy of the
country?

3. Explain the outstanding economic situation of Kinh people in sub-regions of Vietnam?

4. Explain the outstanding economic situation of ethnic minorities in sub-regions of Vietnam?

5. What are some of the famous traditional craft villages and their products throughout the
history?

6. Discussion difficulties facing traditional craft villages and the reasons?

7. What are the future trend of traditional craft villages?

70
 REFERENCES

[1] http://www.vietnam-briefing.com/news/vietnams-regions-key-economic-zones.html/

[2] http://vietnamnews.vn/print/231393/nations-craft-villages-in-need-of-renewal.htm

[3] http://www.inhand-vietnam.com/en/craft-villages.html

[4] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/northwest-vietnam-introduction

[5] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/central-highland-vietnam-introduction

[6] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/vietnam-south-central-coast-introduction

[7] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/southeast-vietnam-introduction

[8] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/mekong-river-delta-introduction

[9] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/northeast-vietnam-introduction

[10] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/red-river-delta-introduction

[11] http://www.alotrip.com/about-vietnam-overview/north-central-coast-introduction

71
 LESSON 4

VIETNAMESE CUISINE

1. GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL INFLUENCES

Vietnam is a long, narrow country on the lower portion of the Asian mainland, bordered
by China, Cambodia, Laos and the Gulf of Tháiland. The country's geography has proven to be
an important factor in shaping its cuisine and food production over the years.

Rice, the staple of the Vietnamese diet, is grown throughout the country but particularly
in the Red River delta in the north and Mekong River delta in the south since the climatic
conditions of these two areas are most favourable for the crop. In fact, Vietnamese people often
say that their country resembles a bamboo pole with a basket of rice at each end. Although three-
quarters of the land in Vietnam is hilly or mountainous, the long seacoast and many inland
waterways provide fish and other aquatic species that are staples in the Vietnamese diet.

Geography has also influenced on the flavours of specialties of each region. Northern
dishes are less flavourful than those found in the south or the middle portion of the country as its
climate does not support the availability of various ingredients. In central Vietnam,fresh
produceis abundant and the cuisine is characterized by its propensity to use extreme spices and to
serve up colourful food that is reminiscent of the region's past as the seat of royalty. A traditional
meal in central Vietnam involves several complex dishes in very small portions. Finally,southern
cooking style has been most heavily influenced by Thái way in which the dishes are sweet or
spicy in taste because this region has a favourable climate for a wide range of spices. Immigrants
from the Cambodian border have also helped to define the style and flavour of southern
Vietnamese cooking. This part of the country is also where the vestiges of French colonial
cooking are most apparent.

History plays an integral role in the development and fusion of Vietnamese food with
other cultures.The Chinese who dominated Vietnam for 1,000 years taught Vietnamese people
cooking techniques such as stir frying and deep frying, as well as the use of chopsticks. In the
south, neighboring Laos, Cambodia, and Tháiland introduced such ingredients as Cambodian-
style egg noodles, some spices, and coconut milk. When the French colonized Vietnam (1858–
1954), they introduced foods such as baguettes (French bread), pâté, coffee with cream, milk,
butter, custards, and cakes.

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2. PHILOSOPHICAL INFLUENCES

Five element correspondence

Vietnamese cuisine is influenced by the Asian principle of five elements. Many

Vietnamese dishes include five fundamental senses (ngũ vị): spicy (metal), sour (wood), bitter
(fire), salty (water) and sweet (Earth), corresponding to: five organs (ngũ tạng): gall bladder,
small intestine, large intestine, stomach, and urinary bladder.

Vietnamese dishes also include five types of nutrients (ngũ chất): powder, water or liquid,
mineral elements, protein and fat. Vietnamese cooks try to have five colours (ngũ sắc): white
(metal), green (wood), yellow (Earth), red (fire) and black (water) in their dishes.

Dishes in Vietnam appeal to gastronomers’ via five senses (năm giác quan): food
arrangement attracts eyes, sounds come from crisp ingredients, five spices are detected on the
tongue, aromatic ingredients coming mainly from herbs stimulate the nose, and some meals,
especially finger food, can be perceived by touching.

Correspondence Elements

Wood Fire Earth Metal Water

Spices (ngũ vị) Sour Bitter Sweet Spicy Salty

Organs (ngũ tạng) Gall bladder Small Stomach Large Urinary

intestine intestine bladder

Colors (ngũ sắc) Green Red Yellow White Black

Senses (ngũ giác) Visual Taste Touch Smell Sound

Nutrients (ngũ chất) Carbohydrates Fat Protein Minerals Water

Yin yang balance

The principle of yin and yang is applied in Vietnamese cooking in a way that provides a
beneficial balance for the body. While contrasting texture and flavors are important, the principle
primarily concerns the "heating" and "cooling" properties of ingredients. Certain dishes are

73
served in their respective seasons to provide contrasts in temperature and spiciness of the food
and environment.Some examples are:

Duck meat, considered "cool", is served during the hot summer with ginger fishsauce,
which is "warm".

Chicken, which is "warm", are servedwith the lemon leaves, which is “cold”.

Seafoods ranging from "cool" to "cold" are suitable to use with ginger ("warm").

Spicy foods ("hot") are typically balanced with sourness, which is considered "cool".

Balut (hột vịt lộn), meaning "upside-down egg" ("cold"), must be combined with
Vietnamesemint (rau răm) ("hot").

3. COOKING AND EATING STYLES

Traditional Vietnamese cooking is greatly admired for its fresh ingredients, minimal use
of dairy and oil, complementary textures, and reliance on herbs and vegetables. With the balance
between fresh herbs and meats and a selective use of spices to reach a fine taste, Vietnamese food
is considered one of the healthiest foods worldwide.

The Vietnamese cook their food in a variety of ways. Some common Vietnamese cooking
techniques include:

Rán, chiên - fried dishes

Chiên nước mắm - fried then tossed with fish sauce

Chiên bột - battered then deep-fried

Rang - dry-fried dishes without oil

Áp chảo - pan-fried then sautéed

Xào - stir fry

Xào tỏi - stir fried with garlic

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 Xào sả ớt - stir fried with lemongrass and chili pepper

Nhồi thịt - stuffed with minced meat before cooking

Sốt chua ngọt - fried with sweet and sour sauce

Kho - stew, braised dishes

Hầm/ninh - stewing

Rim - simmering

Luộc - boiling with water, usually fresh vegetables and meat

Chần - blanch

Hấp - steaming

Hấp sả - steamed with lemongrass

Hấp Hồng Kông or hấp xì dầu - "Hong Kong" style steamed dish (i.e.: with scallion,
ginger and soy sauce)

Om chuối đậu - cooked with young banana and tofu

Nướng - grilled dishes

Nướng xiên - skewering

Nướng ống tre - cooked in bamboo tubes over fire

Nướng mỡ hành - grilled then topped with melted lard, peanuts, and chopped green
onions

Quay - roasting

Nhúng dấm - cooked in a vinegar-based hot pot, some variations include vinegar and
coconut water-based hot pot

Cuốn - any dish featuring rice paper wraps with bún and fresh herbs

There are some characteristics in the Vietnamese way of eating:

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 Healthy eating: Vietnamese people believe cooking the food with Yin Yang balance is
healthy. For example, the salty food which belongs to Yang is often served with the sour and
sweet one which belongs to Yin.

Free eating: In each Vietnamese family meal, everyone has one’s own bowl, and dishes
are put in the middle of the dining table. Therefore, each one can eat whatever they want, and
they do not need to eat what they dislike. Moreover, they can eat very little or very much
depending on their digestion.

Community eating: Vietnamese people have the habit of eating together. In the middle of
the dining table are placed rice, soup and fish sauce so that they can be shared to everyone. The
food like pork, beef or chickenis sliced into small pieces so that everyone can take them easily.
People also pick up food for each other as an action of care. Vietnamese people like talking with
each other while eating.

Polite eating: It is also customary for the younger to ask/wait for the elderly to eat first. In
the mealtime, people should be thoughtful in how much to eat and how to sit. “Ăn trông nồi, ngồi
trông hướng” is a Vietnamese saying which implies this habit. Also, eating too fast or too slow,
too much or too littleis considered impolite. If you eat too fast, you are so rude; in contrast, you
make the others wait for you. If you eat too much, you are so greedy; while eating too littlemay
show that the meal is not good enough. When you are invited for a meal, you should enjoy the
food to express your thankfulness and respect to the host, but you should leave a bit in dishes to
express that you are not greedy or dying of hunger. There is a Vietnamese saying: “Ăn hết bị
đòn, ăn còn mất vợ”. It means that in the meal, you should eat all dishes but not the last piece of
the dish.

4. TRADITIONAL FOODS

Foods in daily meal

A typical meal for the average Vietnamese family would include:

Large bowl/pot/cooker of steamed white rice

Raw, pickled, steamed, or fresh vegetables

Fish/seafood, meat, tofu (grilled, boiled, steamed, stewed or stir-fried with vegetables)

Canh (a clear broth with vegetables and often meat or seafood) or other soup

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 Prepared fish sauce for dipping, to which garlic, pepper, chili, ginger, or lime juice are
sometimes added to vary the taste

Sauces and condiments depending on the main dishes, such as pure fish sauce, ginger fish
sauce, tamarind fish sauce, soy sauce, muối tiêu chanh (salt and pepper with lime juice) or muối
ớt (chili and salt)

Fresh fruits or desserts

Food on special occasions

Feast (cỗ, tiệc) is served in significant eventsof families or villages such as weddings,
funerals, and festivals.Some common foods served in a feast in the northern Vietnam are:cơm
(rice), bóng(dried pig skin), miến (cellophane noodles), măng (bamboo shoot), mọc (meatball),
chim or gà tần (stewed bird or chicken), giò (Vietnamese sausage), gà or vịt luộc (boiled chicken
or duck), nộm (Vietnamese salad) and mónxào (stir-fried dishes).Other variations are found in the
central and southern Vietnam.

Tet is Vietnamese national holiday which marks the beginning of the Lunar New Year
and is time for family reunion. Nothing is more synonymous with Tết than Bánh Chưng, a
square-shaped cake made with glutinous rice, mung beans, and pork. Wrapped in banana leaves,
Bánh Chưng is boiled for a day, resulting in a soft and sticky rice cake. Bánh Chưng is often
served with pickles including green papaya, chile peppers, carrots, and leeks. Other common
foods on Tet are nem (spring roll), canh măng (dried bamboo shoot soup), gà luộc (boiled
chicken), cá chép kho riềng (carp stewed with galangal), xôi gấc (steamed momordica glutinous
rice), chè kho (soft green bean cake).

5. REGIONAL CUISINE

The mainstreamculinary traditions in all three regions of Vietnam share some

fundamental features:

Presence of herbs and vegetables: Herbs and vegetables are essential to many Vietnamese
dishes and are sometimes abundantly used.

Variety and harmony of textures: Crispyand softy, watery and crunchy, delicate and
rough.

Broths or soup-based dishes are common in all three regions.

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 Presentation: The condiments accompanying Vietnamese meals are usually colorful and
arranged in eye-pleasing manners.

While sharing some key features, Vietnamese culinary tradition differs from region to
region.

In northern Vietnam, a colder climate limits the production and availability of spices. As a
result, the foods here are often less spicy than those in other regions.Black pepper is used in place
of chilis as the most popular ingredient to produce spicy flavors. In general, northern Vietnamese
cuisine is not bold in any particular taste — sweet, salty, spicy, bitter, or sour. Most northern
Vietnamese foods feature light and balanced flavors that result from subtle combinations of many
different flavoring ingredients. Fish sauce, soy sauce, prawn sauce, and limes are among the main
flavoring ingredients. Famous Vietnamese dishes that originate from the North includephở (rice
noodle soup), bún thang (“ladder” soft noodle soup),bún chả (rice noodle with grilled marinated
pork), bánh cuốn (rolled rice pancake), món ốc (snail dish), chả cá Lã Vọng (La Vong grilled fish
pies), lợn quay Lạng Sơn (Lang Son roasted pork), bánh tôm Hồ Tây (Ho Tay fried shrimp cake),
cốm (grilled green rice).

The abundance of spices produced by central Vietnam’s mountainous terrain makes this
region’s cuisine notable for its spicy food, which sets it apart from the two other regions of
Vietnam. Hue, the capital of the last dynasty of Vietnam, is notable for its highly decorative and
colorful food, reflecting the influence of ancient Vietnamese royal cuisine. The region’s cuisine is
also well-known for its sophisticated meals consisting of many complex dishes served in small
portions. Chili peppers and shrimp sauces are among the frequently used ingredients. Some
famous dishes in central Vietnam are bánh bèo (bloating cake), bún bògiò heo (beef and pork soft
noodle soup), cơm hến (mussel cooked rice), cao lầu Hội An (Hoi An vermicelli), mỳ Quảng
(Quang soft noodle soup), bánh tráng cuốn thịt heo (dry pancake rolled with pork), cơm gà (fried
rice with chicken).

The warm weather and fertile soil of southern Vietnam create an ideal condition for
growing a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and livestock. As a result, foods in southern Vietnam
are often vibrant and flavorful, with liberal uses of garlic, shallots, and fresh herbs. Sugar is
added to food more than in other regions. The preference for sweetness in southern Vietnam can
also be seen through the widespread use of coconut milk in southern Vietnamese cuisine. Vast
shorelines make seafood a natural staple for people in this region. Some special foods in the south
of Vietnam are: xôi chiên phồng (bloating fried sticky rice), lẩu mắm (mixed vegetable and meat
hot pot), cá kho tộ (dry-boiled catfish), cua rang muối (fried-salted crabs).

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 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How have geography and history influenced Vietnamese cuisine?

2. What is Yin-Yang philosophy behind Vietnamese cuisine?

3. How is the principle of five elements applied in Vietnamese cuisine?

4. Why is Vietnamese food considered to be healthy?

5. How is the community spirit expressed in Vietnamese way of eating?

6. What are the differences in the cuisine of the three regions of Vietnam?

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

 Foods of minority ethnic groups

 Street food

 Proverbs related to eating

 How to make some traditional dishes

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 REFERENCES

[1] Dodd, J., Lewis, M. & Emmons, R. (2003). The Rough Guide to Vietnam. Rough Guides

[2] Tran, Diana My. The Vietnamese Cookbook . Sterling, VA: Capital Books, 2000.

[3] Trang, Corinne (1999). Authentic Vietnamese Cooking: Food from a Family Table. New
York: Simon & Schuster.

[4] Trieu Thi Choi, Marcel Isaak, Heinz Von Holzen (2005). Authentic Recipes from Vietnam.
Tuttle Publishing

[5] http://vietnamfoodtour.com

[6] http://www.foodbycountry.com/Spain-to-Zimbabwe-Cumulative-
Index/Vietnam.html#ixzz3umWQ1tMq

[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_cuisine#Cooking_techniques

[8] http://www.vietnamtourism.com/en/index.php/about/items/2211

[9] http://www.vietnam-beauty.com/food-a-drink/166-vietnamese-cuisine.html

[10] http://www.vietnamesefood.com.vn/vietnamese-food/traditional-vietnamese-food/traditional-
vietnamese-family-meals-bua-an-truyen-thong-viet-nam.html

[11] http://www.asian-recipe.com/cuisine-evolution/history-of-vietnamese-food.html

[12] http://southeastasianfood.about.com/od/foodfromvietnam/a/vietnamculture.htm

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 LESSON 5
VIETNAMESE HOUSE ARCHITECTURE
Architecture is a vital piece of culture. In the Universal Declaration on Cultural
Diversity, UNESCO cited “culture should be regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual, material,
intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group”. These distinctive features can be
tangible and they are obviously shown in the constructed legacy, which has constantly assumed a
noteworthy part in affirming ethnic character. Typical traditional architecture of each country and
each ethnic group mirrors cultural contrasts in scientific and aesthetic thinking, in layout and
spatial features, in the use of particular tools and construction materials…The Vietnamese
traditional house is regarded as an excellent example.

1. HOUSE ARCHITECTURE OF THE KINH ETHNIC MAJORITY

1.1. The concept of traditional house

For thousands of years, the house has been considered a place of shelter as well as a zone
for preservation of native Vietnamese cultural and spiritual activity style.

The folk dream of “high house with wide door” not only reflects the desire for a
prosperous life, but also shows an experience drawn through the process of dealing with natural
conditions.

The "high" notion of the house consists of two elements. Firstly, the floor must be higher
than the ground for coping up with flooding, humidity and insect. House floors are constantly
heightened in the areas where
floods frequently happen. The
second “high” factor of the house
requires the roof to be higher than
the floor or the ground to create a
wide, well-aired space inside
against the heat. In addition, high
roofs create steep slope which
helps good drainage after heavy
rain. In windy coastal areas,
however, people have to make
low roofs to avoid storms.
Traditional Vietnamese House
[Source: Image from
81
http://datvanghanoi.vn/]
 Although the house must be high, the door needs to be wide instead. Doors should not be
built high in order to prevent slanting sun or splashing rain. Besides, big bamboo blinds are often
put in front of house doors to discourage thermal radiation directly from the sun or splashing
from the yard outside. Similarly, to avoid sunshine, create a shading perimeter around the house,
and prevent rain drop from causing rotten wooden pillars, people make the lower end of the roof
quite far away from the verandah. Doors must be necessarily wide to catch cool wind and stay
away from the heat. Nevertheless, to avoid toxic, strong wind as well as ensure the privacy of the
house, experienced residents do not line up doors and gates (while the main door is normally in
the middle, the gate often inclines toward the left).

1.2. Housing orientation and land selection

The second experience to deal with natural environment is to decide the orientation of the
house and the land to locate the house. In that way, Vietnamese people try to make best use of the
environment’s power in order to stabilize their livelihood to live in harmony with the
environment.

In terms of house orientation, the South (or Southeast) is the optimal choice. As Vietnam
lies near the sea and in a hot and humid tropical area, a house built in South or Southeast
orientation is best to welcome cool wind from the South in summer and avoid heat from the
West, storm from the East, as well as cold wind in winter from the North. Houses with many
doors take the Southern door as the main door.

Owing to its specific cooking function, the kitchen is often orientated west, placed left
(the East), isolated and perpendicular to the main house. Kitchens in west orientation prevent
frequent wind from the south and east sea; vice versa, the wind would blow the fire into burning
the house.

On the other hand, simply selecting orientation for the house is not enough to achieve
harmony between the dwelling and the environment. Different surrounding terrains of the house
would result in different effects of heat; wind…Therefore, the selected site of the house is also a
matter of concern to be in proper relation with the outlying watercourse, pond and lake,
mountains and hills, and trees…Consequently, originated from agricultural culture tradition, the
fengshui career (phong thủy; “wind and water”) was formed to select sites for building houses,
tombs….The career rises from subtle demand through the peasants’ settlement and rich labour
experience.

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 Fengshui concerns the interactions between Heaven (thiên), Earth (địa), and Human
beings (nhân), between the positive and the negative (Yin-Yang), and the five basic elements
(ngũ hành) of the Universe: Water (thủy), Fire (hỏa), Wood (mộc), Metal (kim), Earth (thổ).

“Feng” and “shui” are the two most important elements, which create the microclimate
for a house. “Feng” means wind and is under the positive; either no wind or too much wind is not
good; mountains, hills or big trees can make the wind change its direction; therefore, fengshui
practitioners must master wind directions and be experienced to use screens to drive wind
directions as their wishes. “Shui” is water and under the negative; the watercourse in front of a
house would create its ecological balance. Neither stagnant nor excessive flowing water is
favorable, only slowly flowing water (Yin and Yang harmony) is best.

Since the development of the good economy, Vietnamese people have also taken great
care in the location which is near to a market facilitating trade and other exchanges; near ways of
communication: Nhất cận thị, nhị cận giang. Fast-growing cities are normally located near the
sea, river and convenient for traffic. Southern villages and new residential areas now gather along
land or sea axis instead of traditional countryside organization. Besides, due to Vietnamese
community spirit, surrounding neighbors is another important consideration. Nhất cận thị, nhị
cận lân, tam cận giang, tứ cận lộ, ngộ cận điền.

1.3. Architectural forms

Regarding architectural forms, the Vietnamese house mirrors the nation’s cultural
tradition characteristics.

Vietnamese people have the tradition of hospitality. That’s the reason why the main
compartment of the house is always used for receiving guests. The ancestor worship tradition is
reflected in the arrangement that the shrine is placed in the middle of the main compartment in
one-storey houses or in a quiet and higher storey in multi-storey houses. Besides is the practice of
valuing the Left (the East): the kitchen is placed east; if a citadel has two southern gates, the main
gate is the left one; if the house owner’s parents passed away, altars for the parents (closer to the
owner) would be placed in the left and which for the grandparents would be in the right.

83
 Vietnamese housing
layout likewise complies
with the principle of valuing
odd number in agricultural
culture. A dwelling house
often has three or five
compartments; staircases for
entering the house often have
three steps; temple gates have
three doors; big architectures
often have three buildings.

1.4. Methods of construction

Traditional Vietnamese
houses are built in a very dynamic and
flexible way.

The dynamic and flexibility are

first reflected in the frame structure. The
supporting framework is constituted by
the combination of beams, ties, plates,
columns, studs jointed together in a three
dimensional space to resist the lateral and
gravity loads. The frame system then is
surrounded by wooden walls or walls of
uncoated bricks with bended upward layers of mortar in-between the bricks, which play a
protective role. Lastly, the whole house reclines on the floor foundation with a system of stone
bases supporting the columns.

84
 All members of a house framework are held
together by mortise-and-tenon joints. The joint is
made in accordance with the Yin-yang principle in
which the tenon – the prominent end of a member
is inserted into its mortise – the hole cut with the
same shape and dimension of the corresponding
member. This mortise-and-tenon joint technique,
which is applied for every traditional wood
furniture, creates firmly secured but very dynamic
and flexible attachment. The members can be
easily dismantled in the opposite process for
moving or replacing.

1.5. Building materials

Vietnamese folk houses can be made from a wide selection of readily available local
materials such as wood, bamboo and soil, depending on the resources available to each family.
That is a cost-saving way that helps to achieve an ecologically balanced living environment.

Columns, beams and ties of the house framework are usually made of wood from xoan
and jack-fruit trees, soak bamboo; which are self-cultivated. Walls are constituted from local
materials; namely laterite walls in Son Tay area, “spicy” (unfired clay) brick walls in Nam Dinh,
Ninh Binh… The roof is covered with tiles which can be self-produced in villages or districts
with readily available clay and furnace fuel. Houses of the poor; whereas, is roofed with thatch or
leaves. Nowadays people add cement as a construction material to enhance waterproofness of the
house.

Due to the transformation of Vietnamese economy and society, as well as cultural

exchanges with other countries in the world, should dwelling houses of the Kinh people have
witnessed a lot of considerable changes.

The most commonly used construction materials nowadays are bricks and concrete
instead of traditional nature friendly materials. By the influence of Western architecture, houses
grow in height with multi storeys and less surrounding natural space. Glasses are widely used in
houses to catch light. Aluminium doors, European soundproof doors are more prevalent than
traditional wooden ones. Nevertheless, most modern roofs retain the traditional sloped down or
curved style and still made with tiles because of its superior heat resistance and durability. A part
of urban residents nowadays live in apartments instead of owning a house.

85
2. HOUSES OF SOME ETHNIC MINORITIES

2.1. The stilt of the Thái ethnic group

The Thái are found concentrated in the Northwestern part of Vietnam. Their houses are built on
stilts, located on the
A stilt of the Black Thái
slopes of hills, in the
[Source: Image from Vietnam National North-South direction
Village Forethnic Culture And Tourism website] and include two types:

Stilts of the
Black Thái often
consist of three or five
compartments, with six
rows of columns
planted into the earth
and up to a depth of 1 –
1.5 metres. At the point
where both gables
adjoin on the roof is the
Khâu cút in the form
of letter X. The Khâu cút, which reflects the religious belief of the Thái, is an indication of the
wealth and social status of the house owner.

There are three kinds of Khâu cút: the Khâu cút consisting of two interlaced bamboo
bars indicates that the house owner is a widow or widower, is orphaned, or is a slave; whereas,
the Khâu cút made of two wooden
bars in the form of buffalo’s horns
belongs to the house of a
commoner; on the other hand,
stilts of wealthy owners
(aristocratic descents or local
officials) are highlighted with the
Khâu cút in carved lotus flower
motifs and coloured with lime or
charcoal. In the Black Thái stilts,
only house owners and shamans
are allowed to enter the ancestor
worshipping place.
[“Khâu cút “

Source: Image from 86

https://dotchuoinon.com]
 A stilt of the White Thái features two flat roofs with a clear intersection angle and in front
or surrounding wooden railings. The gables on the roofs have no Khâu cút. Unlike the Black
Thái, everyone of the White Thái group can enter the worshipping place.

A stilt of the
White Thái

[Source:
Image from
Vietnam National
Village Forethnic
Culture And
Tourism website]

Houses of both the Thái groups have two staircases, one for men leading to the right side
of the house and the other for women leading to the left side. The interior wooded walls divide
the house into small compartments; family members sleep in the back compartments, while
guests stay in the front ones.

2.2. The Rông house of the Bahnar ethnic group

The Bahnar, with a population of 14,000 people, is the third biggest ethnic group
in the Central Highlands, who mainly live in Gia Lai and Kontum. The location for a new Bahnar
village needs to be ensured of great defence and adequacy of cultivable land.

The most crucial

architecture, which is located at the centre
of the village, is the Rông house. This
unique architecture is a community cultural
venue for the Bahnar minorities. It is not
just a place to show solidarity, community
attachment, harmony with natural
environment, but also a place to protect
village members against wild animals and
harsh weather.
[Source: Image from Radio the
Voice of Vietnam – VOV World Service 87
website]
 Each hamlet of the Ba Na owns a Rông house made of precious sindora and iron
wood. Although there are no collar beams, the house’s strength and solidity is still enhanced by
pillars tied to each other by rattan strips and creepers. A normal Rông house of 12m in height,
12m in length and 8m in width can accommodate 80 to 100 people. In some hamlets, people even
build the public house as high as 18m to show off their strength and wealth.

Rông houses are often quite similar in shape and architecture with large front
corridors and hammer-shaped, 20m thick thatched roofs rising high in the sky as a symbol of
human’s power over nature. A lot of round straight wood beams which are tens of metres in
length are set crosswise inside the roof to support its heaviness and assist the house against strong
winds in the storm season. The distance from the ground to the house floor is above 2m. There is
a pair of staircases including a 7-step one for men in the left and another 9-step staircase for
women in the right; not counting central staircases reserved for senior people during community
rituals.

As a place for village patriarchs to discuss important issues of the community and
teach young people about their traditions and culture, the Rông house is also like a museum of
the people sacred items. In the life of the Bahnar minorities, this architectural work of art is
undoubtedly the place, confidence and pride of the whole hamlet.

2.3. The long stilt house of the Ê-đê ethnic group

The Ê-đê is the second biggest ethnic group in the Central Highlands with the
population of 150,000 persons. The traditional long stilt house which is always oriented
northward is the symbol of the people’s matriarchy. As the common accommodation of
generations of a clan, the house is always lengthened by one compartment when one female
family member gets married. There is a saying that the Ê-đê house is as long as the travelling
distance of a gong sound (the sound can be barely heard at one end of the house when a gong
struck at the other end).

Source: Image from

RADIO THE VOICE OF
VIETNAM - VOV WORLD
SERVICE website

88
 The Ê-đê house is made of bamboo and timber and roofed with thatch. From afar, it looks
like a ship and the length is measured by the number of horizontal beams corresponding to a
couple of columns. The house space which consists of dozens of compartments is divided into
two main portions: right behind the main door is the Gah, which is used for receiving guests,
ancestors worshipping, family gathering, displaying valuable items and as a sleeping place for
single men. The other one is called Ok, where there is the common kitchen and sleeping
compartments for couples and single daughters. When sleeping, the Ê-đê has the custom of
turning their head eastward and the legs westward. Consequently, the compartments are arranged
in East-West or North-South direction with the following order: first is the compartment for the
house owner couple and their youngest single daughter; next comes the youngest daughter’s
compartment when getting married; the followed compartments are reserved for elder daughters
and their husbands; and the last one is used for guests.

Dozen images of animals such

as elephants, crabs and fish are carved
inside the Ê-đê house, which show off
the wealth of the house owner. Hand
carved staircases are other highlights
of the Ê-đê house and divided into the
front stair for men and the back one
for women. The female staircase is
carved with images of female breasts
and a crescent while the male staircase
is almost plain.

Hand carved staircases

[Source: Image from kenh14.vn]

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How is the wish of living in harmony with the natural environment realized in Vietnamese
housing construction?
2. What culture beliefs and values are manifested in Vietnamese housing layout?
3. In what ways do Vietnamese methods of building houses show the dynamic and flexibility?
4. Discuss featuring characteristics in housing of some typical Vietnamese ethnic groups.

89
 REFERENCES

[1] Anh, L. (2013). Traditional long house of the Ede. Colorful Vietnam-Vietnam’s 54 ethnic
groups. Retrieved on December 18th, 2015 from Radio The Voice of Vietnam – VOV World
Service Website. URL: http://vovworld.vn/en-US/Colorful-VietnamVietnams-54-ethnic-
groups/Traditional-long-house-of-the-Ede/204156.vov

[2] Đức, N. V. (2015). The Vietnamese traditional house. Vietnam Cultural Window: A guide to
Vietnamese Culture. Hanoi: Thế Giới publishers.

[3] Đang, N. B., Phương, N. V., & Vân, T. H. (2013). Traditional Vietnamese architecture,
Hanoi: Thế Giới publishers.

[4] Kiến trúc truyền thống nhà nông thôn đồng bằng Bắc bộ. (2013). Retrieved on December
18th, 2015 from “Báo điện tử của báo Nông thôn Ngày nay” Website. URL:
http://danviet.vn/que-nha/kien-truc-truyen-thong-nha-nong-thon-dong-bang-bac-bo-
160115.html

[5] Nhuần, Đ. T., Phương, D. Q., & Dương, Đ. T. (2014). Giá trị văn hóa truyền thống của dân
tộc Thái ở Tây Bắc phục vụ cho mục đích phát triển du lịch cộng đồng. Ho Chi Minh city
university of education Journal of Science, 60, pp.192-193.

[6] Thêm, T. N. (1999). Cơ sở văn hóa Việt Nam. Ho Chi Minh city: Viet Nam Education
Publishing House, pp.215-225.

[7] Traditional house architecture of Vietnam. (2012). Retrieved on December 18th, 2015 from
IGrandtour Corporation Website. URL: http://vietnamarchitecture.org/2890/traditional-
house-architecture-of-vietnam/

[8] Tuan, T. (2014). Rong house of the Ba Na. Colorful Vietnam-Vietnam’s 54 ethnic groups.
Retrieved on December 18th, 2015 from Radio The Voice of Vietnam – VOV World Service
Website. URL: http://vovworld.vn/en-US/Colorful-VietnamVietnams-54-ethnic-
groups/Rong-house-of-the-Ba-Na/285232.vov

90
 LESSON 6

BELIEFS AND RELIGIONS IN VIETNAM

1. BELIEFS

1.1. Beliefs of Vietnamese people or Kinh people

1.1.1. Ancestor worship

The presence of the dead, the behaviour of the living, and an influence on the future – the
many generations of the Vietnamese family.

Ancestor worship was introduced into Vietnam by the Chinese during their long
occupation of the country that began more than 1000 years before the birth of Christ. Since then,
it has been fully absorbed into the Vietnamese consciousness and, with Confucianism, underpins
the country’s religion and social fabric.

Ancestor worship is not

only the adhesive that binds the
Vietnamese together, but also
one of the most difficult
concepts for people from
Anglo-Saxon or European
origins to understand. It has
been said that the Vietnamese
believe in the dead, while the
Occidentals believe only in
death.

The altar
(Source: Internet)

91
How do Vietnamese people worship their ancestors?

The practice of ancestor worship is relatively straightforward. Nearly every house, office,
and business in Vietnam has a small altar which is used to commune with ancestors. Incense
sticks are burned frequently. Offerings are made – fruit, sweets, and gifts. The latter items are
paper replicas of dollar notes (‘ghost money’), motorbikes, cars, houses and so on. After worship,
the paper gifts are burnt so that the spirits of the gifts can ascend to heaven for the ancestors to
use.

In the past, the income from a plot of land was used to maintain the altar and arrange the
rituals, but this tradition has now faded away. However, the custom that the eldest son will
arrange the ceremonial and inherit the family house upon the death of his parents is still generally
observed.

Another traditional element is the placing of wooden tablets on the altar for each of the
ancestors over recent generations. This is less rigorously observed today, and tablets are often
replaced by photographs. Some pagodas house commemorative tablets for ancestors on behalf of
regular worshipers.

When do Vietnamese people worship their ancestors?

Worshiping takes place regularly on particular days, such as festivals, new and full moon
days, the death day of the ancestor, and so on. On important occasions, such as moving house,
starting a new business or the birth of a child, and whenever a member of the family needs
guidance or a favour, the ancestors are consulted.

A proliferation of small fires of burning paper in the streets of towns and cities means that
it is a festival or moon day. One paper fire is likely to be an event affecting a single family.

Why do Vietnamese people worship their ancestors?

For the Vietnamese, ancestor worship is not related to ghosts, spiritualism or even the
supernatural in the Western sense. It is not even a ‘belief’ in the sense that it is open to question
by the ‘believers’. The Vietnamese accept as a fact that their ancestors continue to live in another
realm, and that it is the duty of the living to meet their needs. In return, the ancestors give advice
and bring good fortune.

Devotees of Buddhism believe in previous existences, and seek to correct previous bad
deeds to reach enlightenment. Ancestor worship is fundamentally different. For the Vietnamese,
death, and the ritual and practice of ancestor worship, constitutes the transfer of power from the
tangible life to the intangible. Existence is a continuum stretching through birth, a life spent in

92
tangible form on Earth, followed by death and a spirit existence in another realm for a further two
or three generations.

Who are the heroic ancestors?

By virtue of their worthy deeds, heroic ancestors, such as Tran Hung Dao and the Trung
sisters, continue to exist and be worshipped in temples for many generations beyond the two or
three of ordinary folk. Their rectitude is a model to guide the behavior of the living.

What about ‘bad’ ancestors?

All ancestors are worthy of respect and reverence, regardless of their behavior as living
beings. However, the misdeeds of a wicked family ancestor will be visited upon his or her
children and grandchildren in the form of bad luck. This is a powerful influence upon the
behavior of the living, influencing them to behave well and do good deeds in the present, thereby
endowing their living and unborn children with good luck in the future.

How does ancestor worship affect daily life in Vietnam?

The effect of ancestor worship upon Vietnamese society is profound. There are three main
concepts:

1.Regarding life as a small part of an infinitely greater whole embracing the entire race

2.A belief that the past and present exist simultaneously

3.A certitude that each individual’s behavior in life has a direct impact upon the quality of
the lives of his or her children and grandchildren

Taken together, these convictions extend the concept of the family far beyond the sense in
which the term is used in the West. A Vietnamese person is never ‘alone’ – his or her ‘family’ is
always present.

What is the future of ancestor worship in Vietnam?

Whether ancestor worship will continue to be strong as the influence of scientific

rationalism and social change accelerates, is an open question. In the past, the majority of
individual family members lived within close geographical proximity. The turmoil in the years
before and after the defeat of the US forces led to an exodus of hundreds of thousands of
Vietnamese people.

93
 More recently, economic migration and travel to far countries to study or work have
created a growing Diaspora. Only time will determine whether the strength of the beliefs that
have sustained the Vietnamese family unit over many centuries and created a unique national
community will withstand the pressures of globalisation and expanding modern technology.

1.1.2. Prosperous Beliefs

Prosperous Beliefs (Tín ngưỡng phồn thực): In the past, in order to maintain and develop
the life, Vietnamese people had to rely on the agriculture (rice planting), the people were born
and grown up. Prosperous beliefs are manifested by two ways: the cult of male and female sex
organs and the cult of copulating act. It is different from India, which only worships the male sex
organ.

You can see many statues in My Son

Sanctuary which show the cult of male and female sex
organs or there is a festival which is on 6th January
in Dong Ky (Bac Ninh), people procession male and female
sex organs then burn them and give cinders to people in the
village for the luck.

The Lingar

(Source: the Internet)

The cult of copulating act is shown in kettledrum which was found in Dao Thinh Village-
Yen Bai Province.

94
 The cult of copulating act

(Source: Internet)

1.1.3. The Mother Goddess worship

Đạo Mẫu refers to the worship of the Mẫu, the Mother Goddess and the various mother
goddesses, constituting a central feature of Vietnamese folk religion. The worship of female
goddesses by the Vietnamese dates back to prehistory. It is possible that the concept of a Mother
Goddess came to encompass the different spirits of nature as one only spirit manifesting itself in
a variety of forms. Along history, various human heroines, emerged as protectors or healers, were
deified as other manifestations of the Mother Goddess.

The Mother Goddess Worship

(Source: Internet)

As a distinct movement
with its own priesthood (made
of shamans capable of merging
the material and the spiritual
world), temples, and rituals,
95
Đạo Mẫu was promoted since the 1970s in North Vietnam and then in the newly unified
country. In the pantheon of Đạo Mẫu, the Jade Emperor (Ngọc Hoàng) is viewed as the supreme,
originating god, but he is regarded as abstract and rarely worshipped. The supreme goddess is
Thánh Mẫu Liễu Hạnh. The pantheon of the religion includes many other gods, both male and
female.

1.1.4. Village Deity worship

Many villages have a communal house or a temple to worship the Village Deity. The
custom of worshiping the Village Deity is a unique feature of Vietnamese villages, particularly in
The Northern and Central Vietnam. The Village Deity worshiped in the village’s temple and
communal house can be a god or an outstanding figure that rendered great service such as the
forefather of a traditional handicraft or a national hero who greatly contributed to the cause of
national building and fighting foreign invaders, who protects and guides the whole village (the
Vietnamese always honour the people who rendered distinguished services for villagers or
national heroes who were born or died in the village to be their Thanh hoang).

The whole nation worships the very first kings, sharing the common ancestors' death
anniversary (the Ritual of Hung Temple). Particularly, the worship of Tu Bat Tu, or the Four
Immortal Gods, namely, God
Tan Vien (preventing
flooding), God Giong
(resisting and defeating
foreign invaders), God Chu
Dong Tu (together with his
wife growing out of poverty to
consistently build his fortune)
and Goddess Lieu Hanh
(heavenly princess who left
Heaven for the earth in the
yearning for happiness) has
been regarded as extremely
beautiful national values.

Village Deity Worship

(Source: Internet)

96
1.2. Beliefs of some ethnic minorities

1.2.1. Tay ethnic group

Tay ethnic group attaches great importance to ancestor worship which aims to educate
decensedants to pay tribute to their forefathers and preserve the family tradition. Ancestral altars
are placed with great solemnity in a central location of the house. On the 1st day and the 15th day
of the lunar month, an announcing cult is performed with fruits and wine to show respect to the
dead forefathers. As it is considered a holy and solemn place, women especially daughter-in-law
and strangers are exhibited to come closer to the alters. Such a custom is also practiced to invite
the late forefather to witness big events in Tay families such as: new house celebration, wedding
ceremony, birth-giving and funeral. In Tay household, each girl-in-law has their own room and
village midwife. “The more girls-in-law with babies, the more alters of village midwife”

Tay ethnic group hold the same belief as Kinh people’s about Kitchen God who also
considered as Protection God for Tay people and their animals. The Kitchen God place of
worship tends to be simply decorated with just a bamboo tube covered by red paper for incense
offering. Tay people also pray this God either on their big events or for how to get rid of their bad
lucks such as sickness, disease of cattle or theft. Annually, offerings of food and incense are
made to this God on the last day of the twelfth lunar month, which marks his return to Heaven to
give his New Year's report to the Jade Emperor. Due to living in cold weather in the mountains
and availability of firewood nearby, Tay ethnic group never turn off the fire in kitchen all year
round. It is conceived that they may experience bad lucks when living in a house without
kitchen’s fire.

1.2.2. Nung ethnic group

The Nung mainly worship their ancestors. The altar is put in the house, and is nicely
decorated. In the center of the altar is a monument (phung slan) written in Chinese that records
the origin of a family. In addition, the Nung also worship the land God, the Buddhist Goddess of
Mercy, Midwife, door’s ghost (phi hang chan), etc. They hold worshipping rituals when there is
natural disaster, or disease plague. In contrast to the Tay, the Nung celebrate the birthday, not the
anniversary of an individual’s death.

Nung ethnic lives mainly on rice cultivation. They have belief systems related to long-
term survival of agriculture, must mention the rituals ensure the growth of the rice plant.
Previously, only people often produce a crop. Apart from the festival, the field is plowed breaks,
sowing in late March, beginning in May, then transplanted.

On first implantation opening plots transplants, people do away red, black, chicken (or
duck), report placed on the altar, and pray for ancestors and gods to bless harvests.
97
 For difficulty to grow crops such as onions, garlic and certain vegetables, the people are
the taboo. They said that the death of any person shall have affect the life, the growth of crops
(onions, garlic, etc), so those who have just come funerals to abstain for at least three days in the
garden is planted with herbs above. Previously, when rice, corn on upland, ethnic as well as
raspberries, meat, wine sacrificial incense in cultivation, god bless bridge grain, corn are
sprouting, birds avoid vandalism. Seeds sown not all, not roasted, burn, etc fear has sown seeds
on Princess died.

Conception fellow rice, maize are souls, often receiving human behavior. The treat of
rice, corn, the wheat, corn would lush; opposite maize will suffer, barren, wither when people
have the attitude, cruel act.

Nung ethnic phenomenon interested in continuous rain and thunder celebrate the season
are a call to the soul of rice, rice mother, earth mother woke up after a temporary period of winter
sleep dry, cold. Now thunder up the sacred hour, people pray for good weather, good harvest with
different rituals. Now there is thundering up the seeds now come along, flashes wake. At that
time, in the family, the old tea kettle, pour water, incense invited ancestors

1.2.3. Sandiu ethnic group

Usually three incense bowls are put on the altar to worship ancestors, the shaman and the
Kitchen God. If the host is not initiated, there will be only two incense bowls. An incense bowl is
also put on the altar but at a lower level to worship the dead. In addition, the Sandiu also worship
earth spirits at joss houses and the village’s tutelary god at shrines

1.2.4. H’mong ethnic group

There are many sacred places in the house that are reserved specifically for worshiping,
such as a place for ancestors, for house spirits, door spirit, and kitchen spirit. Those men who are
traditional healers or ritual specialists have altars to worship the founders of their profession,
there are many rituals during which the strangers are forbidden to walk into the Hmong’s houses
and villages. After worshiping a spirit to pray for someone, a good-luck charm is worn

1.2.5. Dao ethnic group

Dao religious beliefs include traditional practices and agricultural rituals mixed with
elements of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. Ban vuong is considered the earliest ancestor
of the Dao people, so he is worshiped together with the ancestors of the family. In Dao tradition,
all grown-up men must pass an initiation rite, cap sac, which expresses the traits of Taoism and
the ancient rituals

98
2. RELIGIONS

2.1. Confucianism

Confucianism can be considered as a social philosophy than just a normal religion. It has
no church, no clergy and no bible as well. It advocates a code of social behavior that man ought
to live in harmony with society and attain happiness in his individual life.

Confucianism was introduced into Vietnam early

during the Chinese rule and has maintained its influence
since that time. In 1072, there was a temple dedicated to
Confucius and his leading 72 disciples. Located in Hanoi,
this temple was called the Temple of Literature. If one of
you has ever been Saigon, you can see at the Botanical
Gardens a temple dedicated to Confucius called the Temple
of Souvenirs. This is the site of Confucius' birthday
celebration which is solemnly honored each year.

Confucius
(Source: Internet)
What is Confucianism?

As a major emphasis in its ethical system, Confucianism regulates relations between

people. If there is improper conduct of these relations, it will cause disorders in the social group
and therefore, throw man out of harmony with the universe. The cosmic world (heaven and earth)
are in harmony and man's aim is to achieve a similar one. Vietnamese Confucianism, though
without a strong formalized organization, still vitally affects nearly all ethnic Vietnamese. This is
part of the cultural environment where the child is born.

The influence of Confucianism in Vietnam

The profound impact of Confucianism remains strong in Vietnam. Social order is defined
by its principle as well as the rituals, deference and obedience.

99
 Confucianism gave Vietnam a highly organized hierarchical society. Yet, while
encouraging the improvement of the individual, it did also appeal his positive relationship with
the community. In this sense, Confucianism is anti-individualistic.

According to Confucianism, death does not mean the annihilation of man. Confucianists
believe that, the spirit which wanders in space as an exile should be brought back to the family
altar and be worshiped. Besides, filial reverence is the primary duty of all Confucianists. That the
reason why, on all solemn occasions, the ancestral spirit is invoked and offered liquors, flowers
and fruit, accompanied with prayers and incense.

Confucianism is vividly seen throughout Vietnam in the Festival of the Arrival of Spring,
the Mid-Autumn Festival, the Children's Festival and the Festival of Tet.

Tet is the festival of renewal and rebirth, or meditation and hope. With fireworks, ringing
bells, beating tom-toms, toys and food, Tet is a big occasion in Vietnam. Many folk visit the
pagodas to worship, burn joss-sticks and sandalwood incense, with flowers, food and liquors
placed also on the family altars.

The other worship occasions involve the worship of the land. Such ceremonies include the
festival of the beginning of plowing, the rice festival, the harvest festival and the festival of the
first fruits. In spite of drought, war, foods… the Vietnamese farmer never seems to lose faith in
the land as he plows, plants, harrows, weeds and irrigates it. To express his thankfulness for such
response, the land is given honor in seasonal festivals which expressing their hopes and efforts of
the past and for the future. Such worship of the land has tended to create in the Vietnamese
peasant an almost fanatical attachment to his birthplace which nourished him during his life. It is
the combination of worship of the land and ancestor veneration that creates the sight of
numberless graves being scattered throughout the farming areas of Vietnam.

Besides, Confucianism has exercised a powerful influence in the formation of Vietnamese

society where family is the basic unity. Thus, the three fundamental principles which govern
Vietnamese women are the obedience to father until married, the obedience to husband while
married, the obedience to eldest son when husband is dead

However, the value of Confucianism as a moderating influence upon social behavior is

being rapidly superseded by the flexibility and openness in a developing society.

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2.2. Buddhism

In theory there are three main religions in Vietnam: Taoism, Confucianism and
Buddhism; but in fact there is “triple religion”, which is an amalgamation of these three
doctrines, each of which represents a particular aspect of the whole. And now Buddhism still is
main religion in Vietnam.

Buddhism spread first from China to Vietnam's Red River Delta region in approximately
the second century A.D., and then from India to the southern Mekong Delta area at some time
between the third and the sixth centuries. The Chinese version, Mahayana Buddhism, became the
faith of most Vietnamese, whereas the Indian version, Theravada (or Hinayana) Buddhism, was
confined mostly to the southern delta region.

The doctrinal distinction

between the two consists of their
differing views of Gautama Buddha:
the Mahayana school teaches that
Gautama was only one of many
"enlightened ones" manifesting the
fundamental divine power of the
universe; the Theravada school teaches
that Gautama was the one-and-only
enlightened one and the great teacher,
but that he was not divine. The
Mahayana sect holds further that
laypersons can attain nirvana, whereas
the Theravada school believes that only
Buddha ordained monks and nuns can do so.

(Source: Internet)

In the 13 century, during the Tran dynasty (1225-1400), the first 3 Kings Trần Thái Tôn,
Trần Thánh Tông, Trần Nhân Tông and many high-ranking mandarins and royal members were
Zen Buddhists. Among them King Trần Nhân Tông was the most prominent, being the founder
of Trúc Lâm Yên Tử Zen School after his retirement from the throne in 1299. The essence of
Truc Lam Yen Tu Zen school is to “live the dharma” and Trần Nhân Tông’s life is the illustrated
example. Trần Nhân Tông’s Truc Lam Yen Tu Zen School marked the beginning and foundation
of Vietnamese Buddhism, which is exemplified by the tenet, “Dharma applied to worldly life,”
all of the characteristics of which are outlined in the verse Cư Trần Lạc Đạo. In this interpretation
of Buddhism, practicing Buddhism is not limited to ritual activities, worship, and meditation, but

101
right within daily activities. There is no need to search for enlightenment and peace anywhere
outside of self and of the environment one lives in.

Vietnamese Buddhism continues to hold

this supremacy in our own time. It is therefore
easy to understand how great an influence the
Buddha has had on the Vietnamese mind, and
the generous contribution it has made to the
moral and spiritual training of a people whose
gentleness and simple outlook on life
predisposed them to accept the «Religion of
Compassion.»

Trần Nhân Tông

(Source: Internet)

2.3. Taoism

Tam Giao, which includes Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, plays the key role in
Vietnamese religion. “Tao” means “path” or “way” that turns Taoists’ thoughts to health,
longevity, immortality and spontaneity.

The origin of Taoism

Taoism is believed to be founded by Lao Tseu (Lao Tu), a Chinese contemporary of

Confucius in about 500 B.C. The ideas and doctrines of his religion are explained in his book
entitled Dao Duc Kinh (The Book of Morality).

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 He did spend his life on searching for a
way that would avoid the constant feudal warfare
and conflicts that disrupted society during his
lifetime. Taoism, therefore, is the natural mode of
behavior that encourages one to live purely and
simply. It relies on harmony between Man, Nature
and a Universal Order. Such a harmony would
promote good will, personal integrity. The ritual of
Taoism in Vietnam today consists of religion-
magical features, divining, worship of the spirits
of nature, and so forth

Lao Tseu (Lão Tử)

(Source: Internet)

Yin-Yang symbol

The Yin Yang is a common theme in Taoism, with black representing yin and white
representing yang. The symbol was derived from astronomical observations which recorded the
shadow of the sun throughout a full year. The two swirling shapes inside the symbol give the
impression of change - the only constant factor in the universe. Hence, another idea states that,
Yin - the dark side- represents the breath that formed the earth or symbolizes for the feminine
which is soft, cool, calm, introspective, and healing… In contrast, Yang - the bright side-
symbolizes the breath that formed the heavens and associate with the masculine: hard, hot,
energetic, moving, and sometimes aggressive. However, since nothing in nature is purely black or
purely white, the symbol includes a small black spot in the white swirl, and a corresponding
white spot in the black swirl.

The implications of Yin and Yang

The Yin Yang symbol reflects the inescapably intertwined

duality of all things in nature. No quality is independent of its
opposite, nor pure. This principle applies to all elements of
existence – from nature to a particular individual. Social
disturbance, natural disasters, personal illness, unsettled family
relationships and so on are the results of an imbalance between
the forces of Yin and Yang.

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A comparison between Taoism and other beliefs

The congruity of Taoism and Confucianism is obvious. Confucianism is a means of

regulating behavior without a spiritual dimension while Taoism grant people precepts that mostly
go without spirituality and mysticism. Like some aspects of Buddhism, Taoism seems to have
overtones of pessimism and a negative attitude toward attempts to change drastically the life
patterns.

Vietnam and Taoism

Prior to the Communist domination, many Vietnamese tended to accept all the three
religious beliefs, Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism, without conflict concerns. Taoism aims
to adjust the nature, and has its evidence in the daily life circle of ethnic Vietnamese whether they
are city-dwellers or peasants on rice paddy fields. Through our country, you can see so many
images of the Gods of Taoism to be worshipped in temples and pagodas. Most families use their
altar to worship the ‘Kitchen God’- one of Taoist deities that monitor the families’ behaviors.
Coming to Vietnam, you may be puzzled by a small mirrored octagonal disc, with the Yin Yang
and other symbols, fixed above the door of most houses and small shops. According to the
Vietnamese people, it plays an important role unbarring wandering spirits or ghosts.

2.4. Christianity

Christianity enters Vietnam

Christianity was introduced to
Vietnam in the 16th century by missionaries
from Europe’s main Catholic evangelist
countries, France, Spain and Portugal. One of
the early arrivals was Alexandre de Rhodes, a
French Jesuit who greatly impressed the Trinh
lords who ruled the north at that time, thus
easing the way for permanent missions in
Hanoi, Danang and Hoi An.

Jesus
(Sourcce: Internet)

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Expulsion from Vietnam

As the creator of the Romanized written form of the Vietnamese language, Alexandre de
Rhodes could justifiably be considered as one of the founding fathers of modern Vietnam.
However, his reward was expulsion along with all the other Christians when the Trinh lords
decided that Christianity in the form of Catholicism was subverting the beliefs that kept them in
power. Apart from its later use in the Catholic Church in Vietnam, his script was ignored until the
20th century.

However, de Rhodes continued to proselytize through the Society des Mission Estrangers,
a French evangelical organization he helped to create, seeking converts throughout Indochina. In
the following years, Catholicism was re-established in Vietnam and grew rapidly.

Oppression under Minh Mang

By the beginning of the 19th century, there were many thousands of Catholics in
Vietnam. Catholicism’s relationship with Vietnam’s rulers was uneasy: the kings were wary of its
doctrine of equality in the eyes of God, a belief that directly challenged the feudal Confucian
system that legitimated their control. Under King Ming Mang, a strict Confucian, suspicion
turned to oppression. Churches were razed, and Vietnamese and foreign devotees refusing to
renounce their faith were executed.

Enter the French

Minh Mang’s excesses, although much exaggerated, gave the French the excuse they
were looking for to invade, and Catholicism was reinstated. The Catholic Church flourished
under the colonialists’ patronage, opening missions, schools and hospitals all over the country,
and becoming Vietnam’s largest landowner. Vietnamese Catholics were favoured above their
compatriots and became an educated elite.

An exodus to the south

By the 1950s, with the communists governing in the north, over half a million Catholics
crossed the demilitarized zone to settle in the south, then controlled by the Saigon regime led by
President Ngo Dinh Diem, a Catholic. Those that remained in the north were allowed to continue
to practice their faith, but under tight control.

The post-war years

After reunification, the communists placed restrictions on the Catholic Church and
imprisoned several of its leaders who had actively opposed the new government. Since then,

105
controls have relaxed and relationships between Vietnam and the Vatican have become cordial.
However, a papal visit to the second-largest Catholic population in Southeast Asia is still some
way off.

The Protestant faith

Protestantism was mainly introduced by the Americans in the south in the form of militant
evangelism, and now claims approximately half a million adherents. Many of these are in the
ethnic groups of the Central Highlands. In recent years, there has been considerable unrest in the
area. American ‘Gospel’ organizations frequently issue ‘reports’ alleging human rights abuse and
denial of religious freedom. Putting aside the issue of differing perceptions between the US and
Asia about what constitutes ‘human rights’, a trawl of the Internet soon reveals that the aim of
many such groups are more political than religious.

The buildings
From a visitor’s point of view,
many Catholic churches are well worth
a visit. The Gothic edifices of Ho Chi
Minh City, Hanoi, Hue and Da Lat are
replicas of European cathedrals, and
often built of imported materials. They
have attractive features, but the home-
grown products are of greater interest
to the travelers.

Church
(Source: Internet)
The famous ‘Stone Church’

In particular, the ‘Stone Church’ of Phat Diem in the north, the bell tower of which was
immortalized by Graham Greene in ‘The Quiet American’, is a highly satisfying blend of
Christianity and the orient. The lifetime achievement of a Vietnamese cleric, Father Tran Luc, it
is an architectural gem combining what looks like a Vietnamese temple at first sight with

106
Christian symbolism and statuary. The interior is stunning – a 75m roof supported by huge
ironwood pillars and a magnificent altarpiece.

Unusual churches

Many of the churches in the Central Highlands also combine Western and Eastern styles
and some have highly unusual features, reflecting the area’s strong animist tradition.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1. What are major beliefs of Vietnamese people (or Kinh people)?

2. How many main religions are there in Vietnam nowadays?
3. According to the Buddhist, how can people get rid of sufferings? What is the Buddhist’s
philosophy?
4. Who go to church, pagoda, and temple? Why?
5. On what aspects of life does the Confucianism have effects?
6. What is the meaning of the symbol Yin- Yang?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the role of religions in the society?
2. What do you think about superstition?
3. Can followers of different religions live peacefully together? Why or why not?

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

 The development and changes of Buddhism and Christianity in Vietnam
 Practices of religions in Vietnam

107
 REFERENCES

[1] http://vietnamconsulateinhouston.org/en/general-information/religion-and-belief
[2] http://www.vietnam.co.za/index.php/vietnam/vietnamese-culture/history-of-beliefs-and-
religions
[3] http://simonlovesvietnam.blogspot.com/2009/08/vietnamese-beliefs-and-religions.html
[4] http://vietnamtourism.com.vn/news/en/detail/169/3394/
[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion#.C4.90.E1.BA.A1o_M.E1.BA.A
Bu
[6] http://songoaivu.bacgiang.gov.vn/vi/node/6422
[7] http://www.vtctravel.net/en/Vietnam-Culture/vietnam-ethnic.php
[8] http://nungpeople.info/agricultural-beliefs-of-nung-ethnic-in-Thái-nguyen/
[9] http://www.vietnam-beauty.com/vietnamese-culture/vietnam-religion/17-vietnam-
religion/106-taoism-a-part-of-the-tam-giao-three-religions-of-vietnam.html
[10] http://www.vietnam-beauty.com/vietnamese-culture/vietnam-religion/17-vietnam-
religion/21-buddhism-.html

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 LESSON 7

WEDDING CUSTOMS IN VIETNAM

1. CONCEPTIONS OF MARRIAGE

Traditional Vietnamese wedding is a beauty in Vietnam traditional culture. It shows

Vietnamese conception about marriage and family: Family is one of the most important things in
their life, they must have the responsibility to protect and preserve. It also shows the tradition of
respecting ancestor and parents. Wedding is the mark of the link between two people and
families. It may have many difficulties in the future, but they have to hand in hand overcome
difficulties in life.

Marriage is regarded as being permanent and brides are expected to be virgins when they
get married. Couples have traditionally been expected to marry within their village and class with
marriage to cousins or within the extended families being frowned upon. Couples have
traditionally been expected to live with the husband’s parents until they could afford a place of
their own. In the old days the bride was usually several years older than the groom. The reasoning
went that an older woman was stronger and more able to perform farming chores. An ugly
woman who could work was often considered a better catch than a beautiful one who couldn't
work.

Men have traditionally married between 20 and 30 years of age, and women between 18
and 25 years. When Vietnamese marry, the woman doesn’t change her family names. So, within
a family you will see different last names. But the children will carry the father's last name.
Monogamy is expected to be observed during marriage—at least among the wife anyway. The
family of the groom approves the marriage and organizes the wedding for him. After the wedding
party, the bride goes to live with her husband's family. The Kinh attach much importance to
fidelity and the virtues of the bride.

Factors to be seriously considered when choosing a marital partner in Vietnam are the
social status of the families and the astrological-mystical affinities of the marriage partners. The
uniformity of the mixture of various religious concepts in Vietnam—except among tribal
peoples—tends to give a uniformity to marriage arrangements, ceremonies, feasts, dowry, etc.
Because the individual is less important than the family, it is expected that the family will have a
major voice in the selection of wives and husbands of their children. This is often done through a
"go-between" (male or female) to save "face" in case it is deemed best to break off bargaining.

109
Another major factor in the choosing of marriage partners is consulting of horoscopes. This is
often done by a Buddhist monk who practices the art.

Pamela LaBorde, MD of Ethnomed wrote: "Marriage in Vietnam in the 1950s and earlier
was very different than today and in the U.S. Previously marriage was influenced by Buddhist
theology and Confucian philosophy. Vietnamese believed that fate in marriage, as well as wealth
and position, were preordained, though choice could play some role in activating a positive or
negative fate. Traditionally, children lived with their parents until marriage, and then the couple
moved to the husband's father's household. The extended family arranged marriage, but
individuals were usually consulted on the choice of their mate. The typical engagement lasted six
months, with little contact between the bride and groom prior to the marriage. Traditionally the
marriage was at one of the couples' homes. Women kept their maiden names legally but used
their husband's name formally.

2. TRADITIONAL STEPS

2.1. Proposing

Dạm Ngõ in traditional Vietnamese wedding is the day that groom’s family comes to
bride’s family to ask the permission for the couple’s love. Before, the groom family have to ask
the fortuneteller for the good day to do the Dạm Ngõ ceremony. This is a ceremony to formalize
the marriage of two families. Through this ceremony the families can know more about each
other. The offerings of the Dạm Ngõ day simply is betel and areca. On this day, two families
discuss the procedures for engagement ceremony and wedding. After this day, the girl is
considered as having husband.

(Source: Internet)
110
2.2. Engagement

Normally, both bride and groom or their parents go to the fortuneteller to see what date
and time is best for them. They strongly believe in this date and time so the groom's family and
relatives must come on time. Some days before the wedding, they will visit the bride and her
family with round lacquered boxes known as betrothal presents. It composes of areca nuts and
betel leaves, tea, cake, fruits, wines and other delicacies which covered with red cloth and carried
by unmarried girls or boys.

(Source:Internet)

2.3. Wedding

On the wedding day, the groom's family and relatives go to the bride's house bringing a
lot of gifts wrapped in red papers. These gifts are similar to those of the engagement: betel leaves
and areca nuts, wines, fruits, cakes, tea ... The persons hold these trays are also carefully chosen,
usually they are happily married couples. Ladies and women are all dressed in Ao Dai. Men
could be in their suits or men traditional Ao Dai. The troop is usually led by a couple that is most
wealthy and successful among the relatives, this means to wish the to-be-wed couples a blessing
life together in the future.

The groom's family would stop in front of the bride's house. The leading couple should
enter the house first with a tray with wine. They would invite the bride's parents to take a sip. By
accepting the toast, the bride's family agrees for the groom’s family to enter their house. The
firework is immediately fired to greet the groom's family.

The groom's family would introduce themselves and ask permission for their son to marry
his bride. The master of the ceremony (usually a respected person among the bride's relatives)

111
instructs the bride's parents to present their daughter. The bride then follows her parents out. She
will wear red traditional wedding ao dai, followed by her bride maids. The couple should pray
before the altar ask their ancestors for permission for their marriage, then express their gratitude
to both groom’s and bride’s parents for
raising and protecting them.

Then, they bow their head to

each other to show their gratitude and
respect toward their soon-to-be husband
or wife. The master of the ceremony
would gave the wedding couple advices
on starting a new family. Their parents
would take turn to share their
experience and give blessing. After
that, the groom and the bride exchange
their wedding rings and receive the gifts
from their parents such as golden
bracelets, ear rings, necklace... The ceremony is ended with a round applause.

After the wedding ceremony is over, there will be a party at the groom's house. Some
traditional Vietnamese wedding party is celebrated at their houses (usually in country-side); other
is celebrated in the restaurant. This day is the culmination of desires, day dreams, hopes and
anxieties. There is a band to play music during their meal. Some guests are free to sing related
wedding songs on the stage to luck the bride and the groom. In the middle of the party, the couple
goes to each table to get wishes, congratulations as well as money.

Today, a lot of Vietnamese couples have their wedding ceremony done in Temples or
Churches which is very much similar to American and Western style, including exchanging vows
and wedding rings. However, they still maintain Vietnamese traditional ceremony in the bride's
home before heading to temples or churches.

2.4. Revisiting

The day after their wedding, the couple must go to the bride’s home. This is interpreted as
a sign of piety on the part of the bride and also to prove to everyone that she had satisfied the
groom.

After their marriage, the couple usually stay together with the groom’s parents. Even if
they want to live elsewhere for independence sake, they must wait until their first child is born.
112
Even after having left their maternal houses, both have the duty to care for their parents of both
families.

The deep social changes in the past few decades, together with the progress of civilization
have brought profound changes to the traditional rites in Vietnam including the wedding rites.
However, until now the main rites in the traditional wedding procedures still hold, such as the
“meeting-at-the-gate”, betrothal, wedding, revisit to the bride’s family. But, in general, all these
rites have been much simplified or diluted under the influence of modern culture.-

3. MARRIAGE OF SOME ETHNIC MINORITIES

3.1. H’mông group

The bride, once she is introduced in the wedding ritual and walks through her husband’s
family’s doorway, is said to completely belong to the husband’s family line. Husbands and wives
are very affectionate, and are always side by side; they go to the market, work in the terrace, and
visit relatives, etc, together

(Source: Internet)

3.2. Thái group

In the past, the Thái respected the selling and buying of marriage and the son-in-law’s
staying with the girl’s family. To marry a husband, the girl’s family needs to take two basic steps:

Up marriage (dong khun) – means the introduction and bringing of the son-in-law to live
with the girl’s family, which is a step to test his personality and hard work. The Black Thái
113
women generally adopt the custom of wearing their hair in as bun or chignon immediately after
this first wedding ceremony. The son-in-law will stay at his wife’s home for 8 to 12 years
Down marriage (dong long) – the bringing of the couple and their family.

(Source: Internet)

3.3. Tay – Nung group

Young Nung men and women are free to date and to love. While dating, they often give
gifts to each other. A young man may give his girl a shoulder pole, a basket for storing cotton
(hap li), a basket for storing thread (com lot). In return, a girl may give her young man a shirt and
an embroidered bag. It is the parents, however, who decide if a couple can marry each other.
They need to see if the two families are of the same social rank, and if the fates of the two
children match together. The bride’s family often demands gifts or meat, rice, wine, and some
money. The more the gifts are, the higher the girl’s value is said to be. Marriage has to go
through many steps, and the most important one is the ceremony to bring the bride to the groom’s
family. After the wedding, the wife still stays with her own family until she is about to give birth,
then she will move to her husband’s house

Young Tay men and women are free to love and to date each other. However, the decision
to become husband and wife depends on their parents and whether their fates match each other’s
suitably. That’s why in the marriage proceedings, the groom’s family asks for the bride’s fortune
to be read and then brings it home to compare it to the fortune of their son. After the wedding, the
wife stays with her parents until she is pregnant. It is only before giving birth that the wife goes
to her husband’s family to live

114
3.4. Cham group

Cham women take the initiative in marriages. The couple lives with the wife’s family, and
children are named after the family name of the mother. Wedding gifts are prepared by the
bride’s family. Monogamy is a principle of all marriages

(Source: Internet)

3.5. Khmer group

Parents arrange their children's marriage; though the young couple are involved in the
discussion. Marriage has to go through 3
steps: match-making, proposing and
engagement, and finally the wedding,
which is celebrated at the bride's house.
When all of this is done, the groom has
to stay with the bride's family for some
period. After couple of years, or when
they have children, the young couple will
live on their own, but still reside with the
wife's family.

(Source: Internet)

115
 COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

Put these events in the correct order

 Then they bow their head to each other
 The couple and their parents say thank to their guests
 The groom’s family and relatives go to the bride’s house bringing a lot of gifts
 The bride then follows her parents out.
 The newly wedded couples then leave for their honey moon
 The bride’s parents take a sip of wine
 The groom’s family would ask permission for their son to marry his bride
 Parents would take turn to share their experience and give blessing
 The groom’s family would stop in the front of the bride’s house
 The couple would kneel down and pray, asking their ancestors’ permission to be married

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the modern trend of wedding today?
2. Which do you prefer: to make your wedding simple or organize a big party?

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

 Compare and contrast wedding customs in the past and nowadays in Vietnam
 Wedding customs of ethnic minorities.

116
 REFERENCES

[1] http://www.vietnam-beauty.com/vietnamese-culture/festivals-and-ceremonies/15-festivals-
and-ceremonies/156-vietnamese-wedding-ceremony.html

[2] http://vietnam-culture.blogspot.com/2011/09/khmer-ethnic-group.html

[3] http://moongardenhomestay.com/en/cttc113a103/traditional-vietnamese-wedding.html

[4] http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Vietnam/sub5_9c/entry-3387.html

[5] http://modernasianbride.com/the-modern-vietnamese-wedding-traditions

[6] http://vietnamlawmagazine.vn/traditional-wedding-customs-of-vietnam-4326.html

117
 LESSON 8

VIETNAMESE FUNERAL CUSTOMS

1. BELIEFS ABOUT DEATH RITUALS

In Vietnamese culture, religion dictates some of the rituals in the dying and bereavement
process. Catholic funerals follow the rituals of the church, but most funerals are Buddist since a
majority of the population follow that or related religions.

The Vietnamese strongly believe that they should be at home at the end of life with family
members around them. It is considered to be a bad misfortune to die away from home and bad
luck to carry a corpse home. Many people are carried to the hospital if they are sick, but if it
becomes evident that they will die, they are rushed home with all possible haste so that their
demise may be made there.

For most of Vietnamese people, death is not the end but is the final stage of one life to be
transformed into another. Accordingly, death rituals serve as tools for humankind to transform
death from a defeat of life to a stepping stone to another, perhaps a better place. However, one
may choose to interpret death rituals. In one sense, death rituals provide the bereaved with a final
chance to fulfill their filial obligation to the deceased since filial responsibilities are weighed
heavily in the Vietnamese culture. In other senses, death rituals constitute a dramatization of a
worldly event, death, in the presence of and in reference to the sacred.

In Vietnam, arranging a proper funeral for a loved one is one of the most filial things a
person can do and care for the dead after the funeral is also given a high priority. If the dead are
not properly honored, it is widely believed that they may cause trouble for neglient family
members. A series of rituals elevates the dead to the status of an ancestor. Ancestors are invited
to visit the family for certain festivals and informed of events regarding the living. To the
bereaved, the image of the deceased as part of this world is still fresh in their minds and recedes
itself into another world only gradually. Vietnamese people believe that leaving the deceased in
company of the ancestors creates a sense of continuity, a feeling that the deceased is actually
going somewhere to be among other loved ones.

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2. FUNERAL RITUALS OF THE KINH (THE MAJORITY GROUP OF VIETNAMESE
PEOPLE)

In the past, a funeral ceremony followed a specific ritual including lễ phục hồi, lễ mộc
dục, lễ phạn hàm, lễ khâm liệm nhập quan, lễ thiết linh, lễ thành phục and lễ an táng. Nowadays,
mourning ceremonies follow simplified rituals which consist of covering and putting the dead
body into the coffin (nhập quan), the funeral procession (an táng) and the burial of the coffin into
the grave.

Lễ phục hồi

The bereaved place a chopstick between the teeth of the deceased and place the dead body
on a mat on the floor in an effort to "bring it back to life". The next rite in this tradition is for the
eldest son or daughter to take a shirt the deceased has worn in life and to wave it in the air and
call upon the soul of the dead to return to the body.

Lễ mộc dục

The dead body is cleaned and dressed carefully so that it looks presentable. the body is
generally placed on a bed under a mosquito net. In some areas, a bunch of bananas are placed on
the stomach of the dead person with the hope of distracting the devil from devouring the dead
person’s intestines. Sometimes a knife is placed on the stomach as a weapon against the devil.

Lễ phạn hàm

A chopstick is laid between the teeth and a pinch of rice and three coins were dropped in
the mouth. Money, gold and rice are placed in the mouth of the dead to indicate that the deceased
has left this world without want or hunger.

Lễ khâm liệm nhập quan

The body is laid on a grass mat on the ground to be wrapped with strips of white cloth
and a white silk shroud. Then it is placed in the coffin (nhập quan). It is wedged in the coffin
with reed branches, paper, and other objects.

Lễ thiết linh

An altar is set up in the room as a small memorial with a picture of the deceased along
with flowers and burning incense. The family members then gather in front of the altar and make
offerings of food for the dead person’s soul. Normally, there are three bowls of rice, three cups of
tea, and a few other special dishes. In the north of Vietnam, it may be different, one bowl of rice,

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one cup of water, a boiled egg, and a bundle of joss sticks planted in a bowl of uncooked rice and
surrounded by lightened candles. This ceremony is supposed to be repeated three times a day
during the entire mourning period.

Lễ thành phục

This is the ceremony of distribution of the mourning garb which is carried out by monks
or the eldest son of the deceased. In the north, a trio of musicians is hired to play traditional
funeral music. The deceased person’s sons, daughters, and daughters-in-law have to wear coarse
gauze turbans and tunics, and hats made of straw or of dry banana fiber. The deceased person’s
grandchildren and relatives also had to wear mourning turbans. Family members wear white
headbands and each of the deceased’s daughters wears a white muslin veil covering most of her
body.The mourning garb is made of a very low grade white gauze and looks as if it may fall off
of the person wearing it.

Lễ an táng

The date and time for the funeral procession (lễ an táng or lễ đưa tang) must be carefully
selected. A Buddhist monk leads the procession. He is usually followed by a group of old ladies
carrying long pieces of cloth above their heads. Banner carriers move alongside of them reciting
prayers and holding up their banners written about the deceased, for all to read. Next comes the
altarwith a picture of the deceased, two peanut oil lamps, candlesticks, incense burners, and
flowers. Finally, the huge ten-foot high hearse painted with many dragons and other figures is
used to carry the body of the deceased.After the hearse, the family, led by the eldest son,
relatives, usually walking. Traditionally, the procession walks on foot behind the coffin.

Relatives, friends, descendants and acquaintances take part in the funeral procession to
accompany the dead along the way to the burial ground. Votive papers were dropped along the
way. At the grave site,the body is lowered into the ground. Incense is burned and respects are
paid to other relatives who have passed away and are buried in the same cemetery. This can help
the family to say goodbye to the loved one and as it helps them see that the deceased is in the
company of other ancestors who have passed away. When the coffin is buried, the eldest son, the
monk, or funeral attendants throw a symbolic handful of dirt into the grave and then pass on their
respects to the rest of the family.

After the funeral, regular ceremonies are held for the dead person such as lễ tạ mộ, lễ
chung thất, lễ tốt khốc, lễ trừ phục.
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Lễ tạ mộ

The family visits the tomb again after three days of mourning, This ceremony is also held
especially on the death anniversary, the lunar New Year (Tet) and often on the 1st and 15th days
of each lunar month.

Lễ chung thất

After 49 days, the family stop bringing rice for the dead to the altar.

Lễ tốt khốc

After 100 days, the family celebrates lễ tốt khốc, or the end of the tears.

Lễ trừ phục

After two or three years, the ceremony to end thme mourning is held.

3. FUNERAL RITUALS OF MINORITY ETHNIC GROUPS IN VIETNAM

Minority ethnic groups have different practices for organizing funerals, sometimes
extremely complex.

The Thái people

Thái is the third largest group among 54 ethnic groups in Vietnam. They mostly live in
the northwest mountains and even until now, and have kept many of their traditional practices,
such as cremation. To Thái people, death is not the end, but the beginning of another life in
“muong troi” (mường trời).

The body of the deceased is wrapped with brocade and carried to a grave by a group of
men. People in the family will often lay down on the road as the symbol of a bridge while the
carriers step over them. According to tradition, branches of banyan tree must be used for
cremation, however people have also started using wood of the chinaberry tree.

Wine will be poured down after the fire to help separate the remaining bones. The bones
will be put in an urn before being placed inside the grave. The “ma khô”tradition of Thái ethnic
minority is held thirteen days after the funeral. All “ma khô” ceremony must have cẩu vá, objects
that symbolise the deceased. Thái people put certain items inside the cẩu vá, three corn cakes, an
egg, a cup of wine and a bamboo tube to call for the soul.
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The H’mong people

The H'Mong people in Ha Giang Province are known for their “ma khô” tradition, in
which the family hold a celebration one year after the death of the deceased to lead the soul out of
the house to heaven. If they do not hold this ceremony, the spirit may stay and cause troubles to
the family. “Cẩu vá”of the H'Mong is made of straw, to look like a coffin. They place on it sticky
rice, wine and bamboo tube.

The Jarai people

The Jarai (also Gia Rai, or Gia-rai) is an ethnic group based primarily in Vietnam's
Central Highlands. They are the largest of the upland ethnic groups of the Central Highlands
known as Degar or Montagnards.

Traditional Jarai tombs are little huts in which are placed the possessions of the deceased
and some offerings. Around the tomb are placed wooden pillars which are topped by crude
carvings, some of which represent spiritual guardians.

The burial ceremony is extremely expensive and usually entails the sacrifice of water
buffalos and cows. If the family of the deceased cannot afford the ceremony, it can be held up for
several years.

After a number of years, the tombs are abandoned. This final ceremony of the
abandonment of the tomb marks the point where death becomes final and the deceased’s spirit is
released, thus releasing a widow for remarriage for instance.

The Ede people

The Ede do not observe the custom of worshipping ancestors. If a person dies, his/her
relatives will hold a funeral ritual from one to three years later to say farewell to the dead. Ede
people believe that if a funeral ceremony has not yet been held, the soul of the dead hovers
around the village and the family. So they bring rice to the tomb to feed the dead through a
bamboo pipe connected with the coffin. After the ritual is held, the relationship between the
living and the dead is terminated forever, so that the soul of the dead can join the other ancestors.

To hold a funeral rite, relatives of the dead must prepare rice, meat, wine, and other
offerings and then invite villagers to the event. Even a month before, family members carve
statues and built a tomb, which will have a roof and be surrounded by statues made from wood or
buffaloes’ horns. During the funeral rite, the livings offer animals and worship the gods, and send
off offerings to the dead. There are music, singing, and dancing performances. The living gives
offerings to the dead by perforating them. For example, a perforated small jar or papoose is

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thought to be used by the dead in another world because the Ede believe that the world of the
living and the world of the dead are opposed.

After holding the funeral rites, the living feel they have fulfilled their obligations to the
dead, who is believed to be reincarnated into a new life. That’s why the funeral is treated like a
festival. According to Ede belief, the sooner the funeral rites are held, the earlier the soul of the
dead will be reincarnated into a new-born baby and return to our life.

The Cham people

For the Hindu Cham people of the coast of central Vietnam, descendants of the ancient
Champa kingdom, the funeral is an elaborate ritual that begins when the deceased draws a last
breath. The corpse is given water through the mouth, washed, shrouded, and served a ritual meal.
A carefully selected tree is cut and used for the coffin, which is taken to the cremation ground on
a richly decorated bier. There, both bier and coffin are placed on a funeral pyre.

Later, some bones are removed and placed in a small box for reburial. Descendants of the
same ancestral grandmother rebury their dead together in their common cemetery on an
auspicious date. The remains of five to ten members of the same lineage may be interred in the
same ceremony. Today, some Cham communities are Muslim with their own distinctive funeral
rites.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1. What do the following words and numbers refer to?

votive papers grass mat hut 100

white cloth muong troi 49 3

2. Why are rice and coin put into the mouth of the dead person?

3. What did the dead person’s relatives wear on the mourning day?

4. When did the family of the dead person stop their mourning?

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5. Match the ritual with its main activity.

Funeral rituals Activities

The dead body is put into the coffin.

Lễ ngám hàm
A pinch of rice and three coins are dropped in
the mouth of the dead person.
Lễ đưa tang
The family stops bringing the rice for the dead
Lễ khâm liệm
to the altar.
Lễ nhập quan
Relatives, friends and descendants take part in
the funeral procession.
Lễ chung thất
The dead body is enveloped with white cloth.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between the funeral today and that in the past?
2. Should we maintain the old habits of funeral ceremony?

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

 Some taboos related to funeral customs in Vietnam
 Funeral customs of some minorities in Vietnam

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 REFERENCES

[1] Dodd, J., Lewis, M. & Emmons, R. (2003). The Rough Guide to Vietnam. Rough Guides
[2] Nguyen Van Huy & Laurel Kendall (2003). Vietnam: Journeys of Body, Mind, and Spirit.
American Museum of Natural History and Vietnam Museum of Ethnology
[3] Vietnam National Administration of Tourism (2005). Vietnam Tourist Guidebook. The
Cultural Information Publishing House
[4] http://www.vietnam-culture.com/anak-ede-ethnic-group.aspx
[5] http://dulich.dantri.com.vn/du-lich/le-cung-ma-kho-cua-nguoi-mong-1396274007.htm
[6] http://vovworld.vn/en-us/Colorful-VietnamVietnams-54-ethnic-groups/Rituals-in-an-Ede-
persons-life/215022.vov
[7] http://www.vietnamtourism.com.vn/news/vn/detail/340/21272/
[8] https://ethnomed.org/clinical/end-of-life/death-in-viet
[9] http://www.vanhoaviet.info/mourning.htm
[10] http://www.offroadvietnam.com/vietnam-info/customs-and-rites/funerals
[11] http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/vietnam/journeys-of-life-and-death
[12] http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/art-entertainment/99405/funeral-customs-of-Thái-
ethnic-minority.html

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 LESSON 9

VIETNAMESE TẾT AND FESTIVALS

1. VIETNAMESE TẾT

1.1. Tết festivals of Kinh people

“Tết” is the phonetic derivation of “Tiết”, a Sino-Vietnamese term which means “the
beginning of a meteorological period of the year”. Vietnamese Tết festivals are distributed by the
time of the year; there are many Tết throughout the year such as Tết Nguyên Đán (Lunar New
Year), Mid-Autumn Tết, Cold Food Tết, etc…

The most important national holiday and festival in Vietnam is Tết Nguyên Đán – Lunar
New Year (“Nguyên” = “First”, “Đán” = “Morning”). It is also called as Tết ta to differentiate
from the Western New Year; or Tết cả (Big Tết) to distinguish from another Tết. The Vietnamese
Lunar New Year takes place from the first day of the first lunar month (around late January or
early February) through at least the third day. It can be divided into three periods, known as Tất
Niên (Before New Year's Eve), Giao Thừa (New Year's Eve), and Tân Niên (the New Year),
representing the preparation before Tết, the eve of Tết, and the days of and following Tết,
respectively. For the Vietnamese people, Tết is like a combination of Christmas, Western New
Year, Easter, American Thanksgiving, and everyone’s birthday. It is a festival of communion,
purification and renewal.

The most typical cultural characteristics of the Vietnamese Lunar New Year or Tết is the
community spirit. From one week leading up to Tết, the general atmosphere is in the bustle of Tết
markets where people go shopping all kinds of food, clothes, decorations for Tết or simply “play
Tết” – take part in various games and other community activites. Tết market is a measure of the
community’s prosperity during the year. Members of the same family or neighbourhoods also
group together to make “CHùng cake”; sit by the great boiling pot keeping watch on the fire and
telling stories about Tết of past years.

Tết is the only occasion in the year with a full reunion of family members, ancestors and
household gods. All members of the family – grandparents, parents, brothers and sisters, uncles
and aunts gather together to “eat Tết” under the same roof. People visit the grave sites of their
deceased families, perform a ritual at home with symbolic gifts for the dead in the form of food,
flowers, and incense to invite the spirits of their ancestors to join them in celebration. They also
do not fail to pay homage to their household gods. The community spirit is as well shown in

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“mừng tuổi” (happy new age) tradition with the notion that everyone similarly would turn into a
new age when Tết comes.

Considered as the beginning of the New Year, Tết carries with it the connotation of
rebirth that Easter has in the West. That’s why it’s customary for Vietnamese people to carefully
clean and decorate their home, settle old debts and disputes before the beginning of Tết; whereas
every deed during the three days of Tết should be well-intentioned and finely realized, as it
symbolizes and forecasts actions during the coming twelve months. Normally each host family
would choose a person among family members, neighbourhoods or friends who is believed to
carry good luck to be the first person to enter the house. This tradition is called “xông đất”, “xông
nhà” or “đạp đất”. During Tết, one would avoid from getting irritated or using bad language.
Sweeping during Tết is a taboo or xui (unlucky), since it symbolizes sweeping the luck away. It is
also taboo for anyone who experienced a recent loss of a family member to visit anyone else
during Tết. The connotation of renewal is also expressed through inaugurating ceremonies: the
inauguration of the seals for civil servants, the inauguration of the pen-brush for scholars and
students and the inauguration of the shop for traders.

Beside Tết Nguyên Đán, throughout the year, Vietnamese people also celebrate Tết Hàn
Thực, Tết Thanh Minh, Tết Đoan Ngọ, Tết Trung Nguyên (Xá tội vong nhân), Tết Trung Thu,
Tết Táo Quân….

Tết Hàn Tết Thanh Minh

Thực (Cold Food Tết) falls (Serene Sky Tết), on the
on the 3rd day of the 3rd 5th day of the 3rd lunar
lunar month when people month, is an occasion for
make offerings of bánh trôi people to visit and tidy
and bánh chay (rice flour the grave sites of
doughnuts stuffed with relatives: they clear all
bean paste or lumps of weeds, replace the
brown sugar) to their plantings around or even
ancestors. repaint the graves.
[Source: Image from
http://www.tapchimeovat.com/]

Tết Đoan Ngọ, also

called as “Exterminating pest
Day”, takes place on the 5th
day of the 5th lunar month. As
this is among the hot season
when various diseases develop,
it’s customary to get up early,

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bath, eat sour fruit and sticky-rice wine (to kill pest in human’s body).

[Source: Image from http://news.zing.vn]

On the 15th day of the 7th lunar month happens Tết Trung Nguyên, or Xá tội vong nhân, a
festival of the wandering souls of the forgotten dead. People release birds into the sky, fishes into
water; and make ritual offerings to the lost souls.

Tết Trung Thu (Mid-Autumn Festival), held on the 15th day of the 8th lunar month, marks
the fullest moon day of the year. Vietnamese people celebrate Mid-Autumn as a joyful children’s
festival characterized by the sound of drums, lion dances and the twinkle of star-shaped lanterns.

Tết Táo Quân (Kitchen Gods or Household Gods) is on the 23rd day of the 12th lunar
month which customarily signal the end of a year. Families offer sacrifices for the Gods to use on
their journey to return to Heaven to report on the family's behavior in the past year to the Jade
Emperor.

Vietnamese Tết festivals, starting with Tết Nguyên Đán and ending with Tết Táo Quân,
forms a closed cycle of a full year.

1.2. Some Tết festivals of ethnic minorities

For thousands of years, Vietnamese ethnic groups have lived in different physical
environments, received different cultural influences, and experienced different levels of
development. As a result, each ethnic group celebrates their Tết in their own way which
represents their distinctive cultural features.

1.2.1. Tết of Hmong group

The H’Mong ethnic group, also known as the Mong, mostly lives in North-East and -West
provinces such as Ha Giang, Lao Cai, Lai Chau and Son La. The Mong’s New Year or Tết is
celebrated from the beginning of the 12th lunar month and usually lasts for one month. On the
New Year’s Eve, a full table of food is dedicated to the family’s ancestors; then people have a big
meal with wine and wait for the first rooster sound on the first day as the signal of the New Year
start. Just like bánh chưng to the Kinh people , bánh dày, symbolic of the sun and moon, is an
indispensable delicacy in Hmong New Year meals and will be used to treat the guests together
with rượu ngô (corn wine).

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 An interesting custom is that from midnight until the end of the first Lunar New Year’s
Day, men take over all the household chores for the women to enjoy spring strolls. Pieces of
paper are stuck onto Hmong everyday working tools which are put neatly next to their altars as a
way to give thanks to the tools helping them with the field work during the year.

Pieces of paper are stuck onto Hmong everyday working tools

[Source: Image from baomoi.com]
Tết among Hmong people is full of Sócial activities, particularly traditional games such
as ném pao (ball throwing), quay cù (humming top playing), thổi khèn (pan flute playing)…

129
 1.2.2. Tết of Tày group

The Tày people sTày mostly in the northern mountainous provinces, making up a
relatively large population among Vietnamese ethnic minorities. They celebrate the New Year
from the 28th day of the 12th lunar month and the festivities linger until the end of the first Lunar
New Year month.

Before the beginning of the festivities, shamans are traditionally summoned to people’s
homes to perform rituals. All homes are shut around 11:00 pm on New Year’s Eve, and similarly
to the Kinh’s custom, Tày people would also hesitate about the first person to enter the home in
the first morning of the New Year. On that morning, it is the tradition that family members go to
a spring to bathe and pick up 12 small pebbles which symbolize the 12 traditional zodiac signs to
bring home and toss them to pray for health and bumper crops.

The most exciting activity during the New Year occasion of the Tày ethnic group is the
lion dance. From noon of the first day of the New Year, the communal lion dance troupe begins
to visit every household, which is believed to bring good luck to the family for the whole year.

Source: Image from RADIO

THE VOICE OF VIETNAM -
VOV WORLD SERVICE
website

1.2.3. Tết of Thái group

Thái people consider the 25th day of the final lunar month as the mark of a hard-working
year. They would start cleaning and decorating the homes, go to local markets to shop for Tết.
Two sugarcane trees are compulsory to bring home from the markets and bound in two side
edges of the altar, which is symbolically regarded as a stick connecting heaven and earth, guiding
the ancestors back for Tết.

In the last early morning of the old year, men and women prepare New Year welcoming
food; and at night people sit altogether around the cooking fire to wait for the New Year’s turning

130
moment. The night is marked by drums and gongs performance in cheerful melodies. At the very
first time of the New Year, villagers go to the brook to take some water; drink and wash face by
the water with the tradition belief that this practice would bring health and luck to the whole
family for the rest of the year. This must be done before 1 o’clock.

1.2.4. Tết of Khmer group

Among ethnic groups in the southern area, the Khmer, most of whom practice Theravada
Buddhism (Phật giáo nguyên thủy), celebrate the New Year during the middle of April. The New
Year festival, called “Chon Cho-nan Tho-may”, is the Khmers’ biggest festival of the year.

Buddha
worshipping
ritual

[Source: Image
from
phatgiao.org.vn]

Khmer people prepare for the Tết by cleaning and decorating houses, gathering fruits and
makings cakes as offerings to Lord Buddha and treats for guests on New Year’s Day. On New
Year’s Eve, men and women in traditional costumes: xà rông and áo tầm vông come to the
Buddhist pagoda with offerings for
the New Year ceremony. The
Buddha worshipping ritual is
practiced again in the first morning
of the New Year and then people
share good wishes and
congratulations. Festivities during
the Tết holiday include various
games such as chess, martial arts,
kite flying…Different traditional
dances – the distinctive feature of
Khmer culture, cannot be forgotten.
A Khmer traditional dance
[Source: Image from www.linkedin.com]
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2. VIETNAMESE FESTIVALS

2.1. Overview of traditional festivals

While Vietnamese Tết is distributed by time of the year, Vietnamese festivals is a

spatially distributed system. Under the influence of agricultural culture tradition, Vietnamese
festivals are often linked to the growing cycle of plants and crops. In spring and autumn – the two
growing seasons, when the transplanted paddy plants are waiting for proper weather and the
farmers have less work, consecutive festivals take place everywhere. Each region holds its own
festivals which reflect Vietnamese people’s hope for new bumper crop and for prosperity.

2.1.1. Procedures of traditional festivals

Festivals consist of two sections: ceremonial rituals and festive activities.

In the ceremony, people are aimed to show their thanksgiving and pray the Protector
Spirits for a better life. Based on this purpose and on the structure of the cultural system, one can
distinguish three types of festivals:

- Festivals relate to the connection between life and natural environment such as the Tứ
Pháp Festival to call for rain (Hùng Yen province), the Co Tu's New Rice Harvesting Festival
(Quang Nam province), the “Ngo” Boat Contest (part of the Moon worshipping ceremony of the
Khmer group in Sóc Trang, Hau Giang province), the Buffalo Slaughtering Festival of the
Bahnar group…

- Festivals link life relationship to Sócial environment, which honor national heroes who
build or defend the country, namely the Cổ Loa Festival (Đông Anh district, Hanoi), the Đống Đa
Festival (Đống Đa district, Hanoi), the Gióng festivals (Sóc Sơn and Gia Lâm district, Hanoi), the
Hùng Temple Festival (Phu Tho province)…

- Festivals identify community life (religious and cultural festivals), for example: the Yên
Tử Pagoda Festival (Quang Ninh province), the Hương Pagoda Festival (Mỹ Đức district,
Hanoi), the Bắc Lệ Temple Festival in Lang Son province (dedicated to Đức Mẫu Thượng Ngàn,
the Lady Genius ruling over the forests), the Phủ Giầy Festival in Nam Dinh province (dedicated
to Princess Liễu Hạnh – the Mother of the Nation)…

The official rites to be performed in

the first part of the festivals, which are
defined by the Royal Court of the feudal
dynasties, are quite similarly applied
throughout the country: when and how to

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present incense sticks, to offer wine, offer tea or offer salty food… Nevertheless, each region still
carries other distinguishing rites.

After ceremonial rituals, various kinds of entertainments and games take place during
festivity. In terms of origin, the majority of these games date from spiritual aspirations of the
agricultural population.

Concerning the desire for rain, there are games to create explosions simulating thunder in
spring festivals to remind the God to give rain such as firecrackers hurling, firecrackers setting…
Yearning for dryness, people take part in kite flying contests in summer festivals praying for
wind and sunshine for flood receding. With regard to fertility aspiration, players compete in
“cồn” ball throwing, loach catching in jars, scrambling for the flag… On the other hand, the want
to practice agility, resourcefulness, ingenuity is reflected in the contests of rice cooking,
simultaneously child caring and rice cooking, simultaneously boat riding and rice cooking;
chicken boiling¸ duck catching, weaving, “cà kheo” racing… The will to improve health and
fighting competence; whereas, is embodied in wrestling, cockfighting, buffalo fighting, tiger
hunting or running competitions.

2.1.2. Meaning of traditional festivals

Through the performance of particular rites and participation in various competitions and
entertainment games, Vietnamese people regard festivals as the time to voice their aspirations for
a happy and prosperous life. In commemoration of natural heroes who form new lands, protect
the country against foreign invaders or legendary characters who influence the nature life, the
people show the nation’s fine tradition of “remembering the source while drinking water”.

Festivals are occasions when communities gathers to honor the Gods of each commune,
each village, each local region or even the whole nation. Hence, this is a solemn group activity
that represents the strength of each community and brings joy, hope for every and each of the
human being. Everyone has to follow the same rituals in a specific festival ceremony, which
strengthens empathy of the whole community and makes each individual be more closely
attached to the community.

Festivals resemble cultural museums where preserve spiritual and material cultural values.
All are mirrored in different rites, numerous types of games, or even in rich performance of folk
arts. Festivals turn out to be a form of education under which fine traditional ethical values are
handed from generation to generation in a unique way of linking spiritual characters in
competitions and entertainment games.

Both Vietnamese Tết and festivals are lissome mix of the divinity (ceremonies) and the
earthly life (Tết, festivity). In comparison, while Vietnamese Tết are inclined to materialness
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(Eating), festivals tend to spiritualness (Playing) (“ăn Tết” but “chơi Hội”). Tết are close (limited
to family member joining); vice versa, festivals are open (attract everyone). Tết uphold
hierarchical relationship among members of a family; whereas, festivals maintain democratic
relationship (equality) among individuals of a community. Tết are distributed by time; on the
other hand, festivals are spatially distributed. These two axes - vertical and horizontal – combine
and constitute yin-yang harmony life throughout thousands of Vietnamese generations.

2.2. Some typical festivals in Vietnam

2.2.1. GIÓNG festival at Phù Đổng and Sóc temples

Gióng festivals at Phù Đổng and Sóc temples are celebrated annually in outlying districts
of Hanoi, the capital of Viet Nam. They are to honor the legendary hero, Gióng Saint, one of the
four immortals of Vietnamese folk beliefs, who is praised for defending the country against Ân
invaders, and worship him as the patron god of the harvest, national peace and family prosperity.

The festival at Phù Đổng temple, which features the reinaction of Gióng’s troop fighting
against the enermies, takes place from the sixth to the twelfth day of the fourth lunar month in the
village of the saint’s birth (Phù Đổng Commune, Gia Lam District, Ha Noi).

Saint Giong’s house procession

[Source: Image from Vietnam National Administration of Tourism website]
The festival begins on the 6th day of the month with the “sacred water” procession from
the well at Mẫu (Mother) Temple, where is dedicated to Gióng’s mother, to Thượng (Upper)
Temple - dedicated to Gióng Genius in order to clean the weapons of Gióng’s troop and pray for
good weather and a bumper crop.

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 In the procession from Ha (Lower) Temple from Thượng Temple on the 7th day, people
carry offerings of steamed rice and salted eggplant – the food Gióng ate before the battle. The 8th
day is reserved for a rehearsal of the main activities of the festival which happen on the 9th day.

The main day of

the festival is marked by
the procession of the
Command Flag from Mẫu
Temple to sacrifice to
Saint Gióng in Thượng
Temple. Later on, the
simulated battle between
Gióng’s troop and Ân
invaders officially occur.
Young men are casted to
play the roles of Masters
(Ông Hiệu): Flag Master,
Drum Master, Gong Master, Army Master and Children’s Master – the generals of Saint Gióng’s
troop, while 28 girls aged 9 to 13 act as the enemy generals. The Flag Master’s dancing
movements together with drum and gong sounds symbolize the development of the battle, and
paper butterflies released from the flag typically scatter the invaders.

On the last three days are ceremonies to review the battle, clean the weapons and offer
thanks to Saint Gióng. “Chèo” is also performed to celebrate the victory.

Another typical Gióng Festival lasts from the sixth to the eighth day of the first lunar
month every year at Sóc Temple (Phu Linh Commune, Sóc Son District, Ha Noi), where mark
Saint Gióng’s last stopover before flying to heaven. At the beginning, the Saint is invited to
participate in the festival through the bathing ritual of his statue. Then come the ceremonies of
offering bamboo flowers and paper elephants and horses to Saint Gióng.

During the festival, there are other traditional games such as Chinese chess, human chess,
cock fighting... and art performances of villagers as traditional opera (cheo), love duet (quan ho).

As cited in the book “World Heritage in Vietnam” by the Vietnam National

Administration of Tourism, the Gióng Festival is regarded as “a living museum of folk beliefs
and performing arts”. The festival covers numerous treasured cultural values of Vietnamese
particularly and of the human being in general, which show off humanity’s creativeness in
expressing the longing for peaceful and prosperous life. This resulted in the official recognition
of UNESCO to Gióng Festival at Phù Đổng and Sóc Temple as the Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Humanity on November 16th, 2010.
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 2.2.2. Worship of Hùng Kings in Phu Tho province

Hùng Temple is located on Nghia Linh Mountain, Hy Cuong Commune, Viet Tri city,
Phu Tho province, where there is the annual national festival to worship Hùng Kings – the first
descendants and mythological founders of Vietnam. The Hùng Temple Festival is usually held
from the eighth to the eleventh of the third lunar month.

The official worshipping ceremony takes place on the 10th day – the national Ancestral
Anniversary day. The offerings in the ceremony are carefully prepared including Sacrifice of
Three Animals (ox, pig, goat), CHùng cake, Day cake, and a colorful tray of sticky rice. After a
drumbeat, dignitaries perform the rituals such as incense burning, offerings presenting, testament
reading, praying under the control of the ceremonial master. This was followed by the elders of
the villages around the Hùng Temple and lastly come residents and visitors to offer incense.

After ceremonial rituals is the festivity. A highlight of this part is the procession contest
among the surrounding villages. Each procession consists of three consecutive carriages. In the
first carriage, there are flowers, incense, lamp, betel and areca, water, tea and wine. The second
one places incense tables and ancestral tablets of the Spirits. The last one contains Chưng cakes,
Dày cakes and a boiled pig head.

Procession in
Hùng Kings
Festival

[Source: Image
from Viet Nam
National
Administration
of Tourism
website]

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 An important and unique ritual that is performed in the Hùng Kings Festival is “Xoan”
singing. This kind of folk art is said to have appeared in the Hùng Kings period and widely
spread in Phu Tho residential areas. Around the foot of Hùng mountain, a lot of people take part
in various traditional folk games such as seesaw, wrestling, cock fighting, human chess…

Xoan singing in Hùng Kings Temple Festival

[Source: Image from Magazine of the Cultural Heritage Asssociation of Vietnam website]

With the belief that all Vietnamese people have the same origin of “Dragon’s children and
Fairy’s grand children” and the philosophy of “When drinking water, remember its source”,
Hùng Kings Temple Festival is considered a sacred trip back in time to the origin of the
Vietnamese nation. It embodies the people’s love and pride of their ancestor land. The Festival
was the UNESCO’s first recognition of an ancestral worship ritual as an Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity (December 6th, 2012).

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 2.2.3. “Lồng Tồng” festival of Tày group

The “Lồng Tồng” festival, which means “going to the field” festival”, is the biggest
annual festival among Tày ethnic group community. The festival usually lasts from the 3rd to the
end of the first lunar month as the time for the Tày people to report their achievements
throughout the past year to the Agriculture Genius (Thần Nông) and pray the genie for a new year
with good weather, productive animals, fruitful trees and good health.

The festival comprises two parts: the ceremony and the festivity.

Early on the first day of the festivals, all households – young and old Tày getting dressed
up carry trays of offerings to the communal house where the Agriculture Genius and other
ancestors who reclaimed agricultural land, build and protect the region are worshipped. The
offerings, including steamed glutinous rice, rice wine, a boiled rooster, round and square
glutinous rice cakes, and popcorn,
symbolize the labour fruit of
industrious people, express the
harmony between heaven and earth
and show the people’s gratitude to
the genies and ancestors for
protecting and giving them
abundant harvest and good life. In
the “Lồng Tồng” festival, an
excellent famer with highly
productive field would be chosen
to plough the first furrow on the
most favourable plot of field.

After the first furrow ritual,

all villagers participate in a Còn
throwing game. Young boys and
girls throw the Còn, a cloth ball with
colorful laces, through a ring on top
of the Neu tree, a high pole installed
in the center of the communal yard.
The festival is also an occasion for
young people to send each other
heartfelt messages. They wear
traditional customs, eagerly
138
engaging in group games, dancing, performing “lượn, then” songs throughout the day and night,
not to mention to the lion dance, which is believed to bring good fortune and drive bad luck away
from the people.

2.2.4. “Buffalo Slaughtering” festival

“Buffalo Slaughtering”
festivals are held in most
ethnic groups in the Central
Highlands with some
differences in purpose:

(1) Those organized

after the harvest and at the
beginning of a new
agricultural season in order
to celebrate a bumper crop
and welcome a new one.

(2) Those designed

in commemoration of an important victory or a sister relationship between villages.

(3) Those held to chase away evil spirits and show thanks to God to protect a community
against epidemics or cure illness of a person.

(4)Those linked to a funeral or a marriage.

Correspondingly, these differences in purpose bring about variety in the scale of

organization: whether by a family, by a village, combined by a family and the village or jointly
by several villages.

Although differing in time,

purpose and organization, “Buffalo
Slaughtering” festivals in Tây
Nguyên Highland share some
common points. A strong buffalo,
which is the symbol of prosperity
and power of the community, would
first be tied to a distinguished tree

139
planted in the middle of the communal yard (the Gingga of the Jarai, the Kapok tree of the
Bahnar or the Ê-đê). The village head and/ or village elders would first representatively offer
prayers to the Gods. Later on, the crowd surrounding the buffalo and the tree, young and old,
boys and girls eagerly join dancing and singing with the accompaniment of the gongs. Following
this is the slaughtering of the buffalo by young men armed with swords and shields. Then the
buffalo is cut up and distributed in equal shares to the villagers.

COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the most typical cultural characteristics of Tết Nguyên Đán? Describe expressions of
the characteristics in Tết.
2. How is the sense of purification and renewal applied in Tết Nguyên Đán?

3. Match each Vietnamese Tết with its corresponding date and activities

Name of Tết Date Activities

Tết Hàn Thực 15th day of the 7th lunar month eating sour fruit, sticky-rice wine

Tết Đoan Ngọ 5th day of the 3rd lunar month Lion dancing, star-shaped lanterns
lighting

Tết Trung 23rd day of the 12th lunar month offering sacrifices for the Kitchen Gods
Nguyên

Tết Thanh Minh 3rd day of the 3rd lunar month Bird and fish releasing, ritual offerings
making to the lost souls.

Tết Táo Quân 15th day of the 8th lunar month visiting and tidying the grave sites of
relatives

Tết Trung Thu 5th day of the 5th lunar month making offerings of bánh trôi and bánh
chay

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4. Fill in the blank with NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS to summarize outstanding features
in Tết of ethnic groups

A/. Tết of Hmong group

Tết of the Hmong people lasts for (1) _______________.

Special food and drink: bánh dày and (2) _______________

On the first day of Lunar New Year, men do (3) _______________ for the women.

(4) _______________ are stuck on working tools to thank them for helping with the field work.

B./ Tết of Tày group

Tày people celebrate Tet from (5) _______________ of the 12th lunar month to

(6) _______________ of the 1st lunar New Year month.

Before the beginning of the festivities, (7) _______________ are invited to households to
perform rituals.

Each family would choose a person who is believed to carry good luck to be the first one to (8)
_______________.

People bathe at (9) _______________ and toss 12 small pebbles symbolizing 12

(10) _______________ to pray for good health and harvest.

The troupe of (11) _______________ would visit each household as a wish for good luck to the
family the whole New Year.

C/. Tết of Thái group

Tết of the Thái ethnic minority starts from (12) _______________ of the final lunar month.

Two (13) _______________ regarding as a stick connecting (14) _______________ are

imperatively bound in two side edges of the home altar guiding the ancestors back for Tết.

The New Year’s Eve is marked by cheerful melodies of (15) _______________ performance.

141
It is customary to drink and (16) _______________ taken from the village brook during the very
first hour of the New Year for good health and luck.

D/. Tết of Khmer group

“Chon Cho-nan Tho-may” – The New Year festival of the Khmer group is under the influence of
the (17) _______________ belief.

In the New Year occasion, Khmer people clean and decorate houses, prepare

(18) _______________ as offerings to Lord Buddha and treats for guests.

On New Year’s Eve, people in traditional costumes carry the offerings to the

(19) _______________ for the ceremony.

The performance of (20) _______________ is an indispensible part in the festivity.

5. How can Vietnamese traditional festivals be classified?

6. What Vietnamese desire is expressed in various types of festive games and competitions?

7. Discuss the relationship between Vietnamese Tết and festivals?

8. Which cultural value is attached to Gióng festivals and Hùng Temple Festival?

Have you been in any Vietnamese festival?

SUGGESTED QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

 Cultural differences between Tết Nguyên Đán and Western New Year celebration.

 New Year festivals of ethnic minorities in Vietnam.

142
 REFERENCES

[1] Anh, N. (2015). Tày people welcome Tet. Colorful Vietnam-Vietnam’s 54 ethnic groups.
Retrieved on December 18th, 2015 from Radio The Voice of Vietnam – VOV World
Service Website. URL: http://vovworld.vn/en-US/Colorful-VietnamVietnams-54-ethnic-
groups/Tày-people-welcome-Tet/311122.vov

[2] Nhut, M. (2012). Những lễ hội tiêu biểu của các vùng, miền ở nước ta. Retrieved on
November 21th, 2015 from the Southern Department of Vietnam Ministry of Culture,
Sports and Tourism Website. URL: http://vhttdlkv3.gov.vn/Le-hoi/NHùng-le-hoi-tieu-bieu-
cua-cac-vung-mien-o-nuoc-ta.2093.detail.aspx

[3] Quynh, D.P. (2008). Traditional Festivals in Việt Nam. Hanoi: Thế Giới Publishers.

[4] Tet of ethnic groups in Northwest Vietnam. Retrieved on November 21th, 2015 from South
Pacific Travel Website. URL: http://southpacifictravel.com.vn/tet-of-ethnic-groups-in-
northwest-vietnam/

[5] Thêm, T.N. (1999). Cơ sở văn hóa Việt Nam. Ho Chi Minh city: Viet Nam Education
Publishing House, pp.150-154.

[6] Tuoi Tre News (2015). How Vietnam’s ethnic minorities celebrate Lunar New Year.
Retrieved on November 21th, 2015 from Tuoi Tre News Website. URL:
http://tuoitrenews.vn/lifestyle/26018/how-vietnams-ethnic-minorities-celebrate-tet

[7] Tourist Information Technology Centre, Vietnam National Administration of Tourism

(2014). Viet Nam Tourist Guidebook. Hanoi: VNA Publishing House, pp.66-68.

[8] Tourist Information Technology Centre, Vietnam National Administration of Tourism

(2013). World Heritage in Viet Nam. Hanoi: Youth Publishing House, pp.132-140.

[9] VOVworld (2015). Long tong festival of the Tày in Lang Son. Colorful Vietnam-
Vietnam’s 54 ethnic groups. Retrieved on December 18th, 2015 from Radio The Voice of
Vietnam – VOV World Service Website. URL: http://vovworld.vn/en-US/Colorful-
VietnamVietnams-54-ethnic-groups/Long-tong-festival-of-the-Tày-in-Lang-
Son/314730.vov

[10] Vuong, T.Q. et al. (1998). Cơ sở văn hóa Việt Nam. Hanoi: Viet Nam Education Publishing
House, pp.102-104.

143
 LESSON 10

VIETNAMESE TRADITIONAL MUSIC

Since ancient times, Vietnamese have had a strong inclination for music. Numerous forms
of melodies and lyrics have been created and retained to express people’s deepest emotions,
encourage themselves while working and fighting and educate their children in good traditions.
They include lullabies, children’s songs, ritual songs, festivity songs, various work songs,
courtship songs, riddle songs, melodies, and poem narration. There are also songs and music for
groups, as well as for traditional theatre. Some Vietnamese musical genres have been proudly
recognized as Intangible World Heritage by UNESCO such as Ca Trù Singing, Quan Họ, Xoan
Singing, Đờn Ca Tài Tử, Nhã Nhạc, Gongs in the Central-highlands.

1. CA TRÙ SINGING

1.1. Formation and development

Ca Trù may be considered as the art of singing poems. This genre of music was originally
called Ả đào which dated back to the 11th century, in Ly Dynasty. According to “Việt sử tiêu án”
by scholar Ngo Thi Si, a female singer (Ca nương) named Đào Thị was rewarded by King Ly
Thái To thanks to her decent voice. To express their admiration to Đào Thị, people then called
female singers as Đào nương or Ả đào. The artists often lived accordingly to family line, with
different family lines living in particular villages or hamlets. Several family lines grouped to form
“music guilds” known as giáo phường. Each Giáo phường was headed by a leader referred to as
trùm to manage all activities of the music guild.

In the 15th century under Le

Dynasty, Ả đào was named Ca Trù
according to the awarding rule of the
performance. For each performance, the
singer would be awarded with singing
cards called Trù which then would be used
for changing into cash correspondingly. At
the same time, Ca Trù took shape fully and
became very popular with the creation of
đàn đáy (three-stringed lute) and a system
of music rules by Dinh Le, a Ha Tinh man.

Ca Trù singing
[Source: Image from Vietnamese 144
Cultural Tours website]
 By the late of 20th century, Ca Trù was introduced to the world with impressive
performances by artisan Quach Thi Ho (1909-2001) and then presented at various well known
universities all over the world by many foreign musicians. Undergoing more than 900 years of
development, it has spread over 14 provinces and cities including North and Central North
provinces and Ho Chi Minh city in the South of Vietnam. Ca Trù singing is inscribed by
UNESCO in 2009 on the List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding.

1.2. Art characteristics

Ca Trù is unique with its particular art performing spaces, performance elements and
distinct style of poetry.

1.2.1. Performance spaces

Ca Trù has 5 performing spaces: at communal houses (hát cửa đình - worship singing); at
royal palaces (hát cung đình or hát chúc hỗ); in private houses (hát nhà to); at contests (hát thi);
and at theatres and singing clubs (hát ca quán).

One of the most popular Ca Trù forms – hát cửa đình, is performed in village's communal
house and temples during national and local festivals for worshiping gods with strict regulations
and very formal singing rituals.

Hát cửa đình

[Source: Image from

http://thethaovanhoa.vn/]

145
 Hát cung đình, as its name suggests, takes place at royal palaces to offer rituals or
congratulate royal members’ longevity. The performance, with dancing as an essential part,
includes the participation of many singers and instrumentalists selected from different localities
and organized into teams.

Hát nhà to - singing at individual residences for entertainment, on the other hand,
required only one female singer, one instrumentalist and some praise drummers.

Hát thi (competitive singing) aiming to recognize and rank the artists’ skills and talents,
therefore includes many qualification rounds and variety of awards such as money, silk, tasty tea
or a formal feast for successful candidates.

Hát ca quán (singing at theatres and clubs): since the first half of the 20th century with
the influence of Western culture, it step by step lost the important position in Vietnam folk
cultural environment.

1.2.2. Members of Ca Trù performance

Ca Trù performance comprises at least three people:

- A female singer (called

Đào nương or Ca nương) both
sings and plays the clappers
(known as phách. The singer
must sing in a high register by
using her belly to push her
breath up through her body to
sing each word. The set of
clappers, meanwhile, creates
strong or weak, low or high
sounds.

Phách

[Source: Image from

Vietnam Pictorial]

146
 - A male instrumentalist (called kép) plays the đàn đáy
(three-stringed lute). He should fully understand the singer to
coordinate best with her in the performance. In the past, the person
may be the singer’s father, brother or husband.

“Kép” plays the “đàn đáy”

Source: Image from Vietnam Association of Craft Village website]

- The third main

character called quan viên, who
beats the praise drum (trống
chầu), should be someone who
is knowledgeable about poetry
and Ca Trù music. The rhythms
the drummer plays mark the end
and beginning of different
sections and music phrases or
particular drumming patterns
are used to show appreciation of
the music and the performers.

trống chầu
[Source: Image from Communist Party of Vietnam Online Newspaper]

1.2.3. Poetry in Ca Trù

Poetry is undoubtedly a vital part of Ca Trù. Ca Trù lyrics are written in various
Vietnamese traditional poetic styles such as six-eight-word distich meter, seven-seven-six-eight
word meter... From Ca Trù, a unique poetry was created and has been popular for centuries. It is

147
referred as Hát nói (recital melody) which takes up a splendid position in the Nom scripts
literature of the nation.

Recital melody differentiates itself from others by its tight regulation on song structure
and poetic meter. A recital melody often consists of 11 sentences, may be less or more. One
sentence has from 4 to 20 words but the last sentence always has 6 words.

1.3. Cultural values

Ca Trù singing is a sophisticated combination among poetry, melodies, distinctive

instruments and artists. It is difficult to fully appreciate all the beauty and value of this
performance art without understanding thoroughly the content and art of words in the songs as
well as the harmony between the performers and the accompanying instruments. Prof. Dr. Yves
Defrance, Chairman of the French Ethnology Association wrote “If we compare separately each
musical element in Ca Trù with some other traditional music genres in the world, we will see that
these elements are not so special. Nevertheless when all of these elements in Ca Trù are
combined in performance, they make Ca Trù so unique and it becomes an outstanding musical
phenomenon in the world.” With the richness of history, the depth of art and the distinct
characteristics, Ca Trù has confirmed its special meaning in the musical treasures of Viet Nam as
well as the world.

2. CHÈO (OR VIETNAMESE POPULAR THEATRE)

Chèo is a Vietnamese theatrical art form that originated in the Northern countryside. It is
regarded as a genre of stage performance of the festivals featuring the combination of polyphonic
and polysemous language use and lyrical and narrative metaphor style. If Chinese traditional
theatre is exemplified by Beijing opera and Japanese theatre by No dramas, then traditional
Vietnamese theatre is best represented by Chèo.

2.1. Formation and development

According to Assoc. Ha Van Cau, Chèo stage was founded by Ms. Pham Thi Tran, a
talented dancer and singer under Dinh dynasty in the 10th century at the capital of Hoa Lu

148
(Ninhbinh) and then spread widely over the North Delta. It derived from folk music and dance,
especially trò nhại – simple mimetic skits. These skits showed for ordinary people as well as
royal members. Over time, Vietnamese people developed Chèo’s short stories based on these
skits into longer, united plays. A significant event contributing to Chèo’s development was the
Vietnamese capture of a Mongolian soldier in the 14th century. Originally being an actor, the
soldier introduced Chinese opera to Vietnam. This influenced Chèo which previously only
involved speaking and sometimes rhythmic reciting of folk poems to turn into kịch hát (sung
drama).

In the 15th century,

due to the impact of Confucian, Chèo
was not allowed to perform in royal
palaces. It therefore returned to the
farmers with scripts from Nom
stories. By the 18th century, Chèo had
been flourishing in rural Vietnam;
kept on growing and reached its peak
in the late 19th century. A number of
well-known plays namely Quan Âm
Thị Kính, Lưu Bình - Dương Lễ, Kim
Nham, Trương Viên appeared at this
stage.

Chèo Quan Âm Thị Kính

[Source: Image from vietinfo.eu]

Influenced by tuồng, chèo exploited some other stories such as Tống Trân, Phạm Tải or
the Chinese one “Hán Sở tranh hùng”. In the early 20th century, Chèo was brought on urban
stage to become civilized Chèo. There were some news plays in light of fairy tales or Nom
stories, specifically Tô Thị, Nhị Đô Mai.

2.2. Chèo contents

Unlike tuồng, which praises the epic deeds of the aristocracy individuals, chèo portrays
the life of ordinary rural people. It voices the farmers’ desire for a peaceful life in the midst of an
unjust feudal society. Many of the plays demonstrate the harsh lives of the women who are
willing to sacrifice themselves for others.

149
 Chèo exemplifies a yearning for happiness and an equal society. The good always win
the evil; the kind-hearted and gentle students are inevitably successful; and the dedicated wife is
definitely reunited with her husband.

Chèo’s ethical messages mirror the benevolence of Buddhism and the virtues of
Confucianism, including the latter’s emphasis on the harmony in society relationships: between
step mothers and step children; between mothers-in-law and daughters-in-law or between friends.

2.3. Dramatic characteristics

The characters in chèo are often conventional, standardized and stereotyped. Their
personalities and psychology do not change during the play. The supporting characters are so
interchangeable among the plays that most of these parts have no names. They are scholars,
wealthy men, prime ministers, buffoons… However, over time, some of the characters such as
Thiệt Thê, Thị Kính, Thị Mầu, Súy Vân escaped from convention and became a character with
particular identities.

A significant feature of Chèo is satire (trào lộng). This characteristics is expressed

through two types of characters. The main type is the clown, including hề mồi (dancing without a
stick) and hề gậy (dancing with a stick). The other type may show up in various roles, such as
fortune teller, drunken man or village chief. Through free ridicule of the vices of a feudal society,
they amuse audience, especially in sad stories.

Another typical characteristics of Chèo, which is consistently associated with

satire, is romance. Chèo is romantic in the way that it expresses people’s emotions and personal
feelings as well as reflect the common concerns of humanity: love (expressed by character Thị
Mầu, Châu Long), friendship (represented by Lưu Bình and Dương Lễ), and sympathy (found in
play Quan Âm Thị Kính).

2.4. Dramatic techniques

Chèo is an art form which incorporates folk dancing, folk singing, folk music and speech.
It is a form of storytelling by stage, which takes the stage and the actors as means of
communication with the public, and can be impromptu performances.

This genre of theatrical art is rich in narration. Unlike European narratives which
concentrate on a dramatic event in the life of a character, stories of the main character in Chèo

150
develop through numerous scenes and activities during his or her lives. Chèo’s narrative method
is based on conventions and stylization. These characteristics determine Chèo’s language which
involve the use of Hán poetry lines, classic incidents or six-eight folk verses.

Chèo does not have the fixed structure of five-act plays as in European theatre. Otherwise,
the artists habitually improvise (invent the words in the play) during their performance. The play
therefore is extended or shortened depending on the artists’ inspiration or the audience’s demand.
When singing, artists must pronounce their lines clearly (this makes the difference from tuồng).
Unlike European opera in which a singer have to memorise and perform aris following the
conductor’s directions, Chèo artists are free to modify melodies and lyrics to portray character’s
emotions. The number of Chèo melodies is estimated to be more than 200.

The minimum accompaniment for Chèo singing is two string instruments, the nguyệt and
nhị, and a flute. Percussion, especially the drum set, is used to add excitement. The old saying
“There’s no chèo without a drum” demonstrates the significance of drums in a chèo performance.

String instruments and flute in Chèo

[Source: Image from Radio Việt Nam website]

151
 Percussion, especially the drum set, is used to add excitement
[Source: Image from Radio Việt Nam website]

2.5. Chèo popular villages

As a strong representative of Vietnamese wet rice growing civilization within a culture

reliant on villages, Tháibinh is one of Vietnam’s Chèo cradles. Of many Chèo Troupes (chiếng
chèo) in Tháibinh, Khuốc Village is a famous one. The village has contributed many talented
artists to professional chèo theatre companies including Vietname Chèo Theatre Company. It
accounts for 50 out of 155 Tháibinh Chèo artists nationwide. In many families of Khuốc
villagers, three or even four generations perform together. Chèo skills are continually passed
down from generation to generation. Besides, an active Chèo club is also a way that Khuốc
Village preserve their chèo tradition.

Another successful chèo village troupe is Thiết Trụ Village in Hung Yen province. The
audience always fills the performance space hours before the troupe shows. All members of the
Triết Trụ chèo troupe are volunteers who may work in the rice field, in markets or district offices
by day. The development of the troupe relies on community support: villagers donate time and
money to build stages, invest performance costumes…This way of mobilizing community
support has set a good example of reviving and flourishing chèo in rural residences.

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3. TUỒNG (OR VIETNAMESE CLASSICAL OPERA)

As the two forms of traditional Vietnamese theatre, while chèo is a folk art, tuồng is
considered to be a court art. This genre of art is also named hát bội or hát bộ. Hát bội is the older
term which means “a theatrical genre with many roles” (hát = “sung drama” + bội = “many
roles”); whereas hát bộ signifies “a theatrical genre based on gestures”. Accordingly tuồng can
be understood with two meanings: 1. Musical drama (classical opera) and 2. A play in general.

3.1. Formation and development

Similar to the case of chèo, trò nhại or simple mimetic skits which appeared in the 10th
century is regarded as the first derivation of tuồng. Tuồng later gradually took shape during the
11th century with the institutionalization of the theatre through the roles of clown characters under
the reign of King Lê Long Đĩnh and then the appearance of professional actors in Ly Dynasty.
Since 1285, tuồng started to be influenced by Chinese opera, which were introduced by a
captured Mongolian soldier who used to be an actor. Despite the slowdown in the 15th century
due to Le kings’ discrimination against actors, tuồng turned into prosperity under the Nguyen
Lords during the country division between 16th and 18th century. Its golden age was in the 19th
century Nguyen dynasty with the building of Hue royal stages and maintaining of royal troupes
thanks to theatrical passion of King Minh Mạng and Tự Đức.

French colonialism since the late of 19th century resulted in tuồng renovations to meet
newly westernized taste. Almost every aspect featured in tuồng (plot, acting, stages, sets,
lighting) was affected by other up-to-date art form such as Western dramaturgy, Vietnamese
spoken theatre, renovated theatre (cải lương). This broke its ancient dramatic values before the
formation of new strong value. The later periods from Ho Chi Minh age to the birth and growth
of the market economy up until now have witnessed the government and tuồng artists’ efforts to
preserve traditions yet also modernize the art genre. It was first introduced to the world in a Paris
fair in 1885 and then was widely welcomed and recognized when performed at different
countries namely Spain or Singapore.

3.2. Tuồng contents

In comparison with chèo which describes ordinary rural life, tuồng emphasis is on the
upper class.

Tuồng content during the very first periods was like a mirror of what 17th century French
plays showed, both of which highlighted loyalty, justice, righteousness of royal hero samples

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motivated by all-consuming love or hatred and caught between will and duty. Favorite were: Sơn
hậu, Hộ sanh đàn, Tam nữ đồ vương,

Tuồng – [Source: Image from Văn hiến Việt Nam Online Magazine]

The 19th century saw the beginning of tuồng đồ, which is closer to comedy. It looks into
the vices of the privileged and ridicules questionable truthfulness of the authority (as in Nghêu,
Sò, Ốc, Hến – the Clam, the Oyster, the Snail, and the Mussel).

During the Vietnamese wars against French and American armies, tuồng plays, on the
other hand, embodied the patriotic struggle. Some examples are: Đường về Lam Sơn (The way
back to Lam Son), Tiếng gọi non sông (The call of the country), Đề Thám (the hero against
French).

3.3. Dramatic characteristics

Vietnamese tuồng art form is rich in stylization. According to Song Bân - a

southern scholar “Like Beijing opera, tuồng is full of conventions. An actor has but to hold a
whip to show he is riding a horse or grip his stomach to indicate mental anguish. Make-up is also
symbolic. Sympathetic or venerable characters such as the emperor, his loyal subjects, and
faithful spouses have pale faces, eyes slanting upwards, noble bearings, and measured gestures.
Warriors have faces daubed with black, white, and vermilion; their beards bristle with
belligerence. Traitors have pasty faces, scanty beards, shifty looks, and suspicious manner. Since
actors perform on an essentially bare stage, their skill creates the scenery in their viewers’
imaginations.”

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 Tuồng make-up and custom
[Source: Image from http://cucnghethuatbieudien.gov.vn/]

The already known plot develops without a break until the end and it is not compulsory to
describe dramatic situations. Actors’ gestures are emphasized by não bạt (cymbals) and bộ trống
(drum set) whereas silent scenes are filled with mellow sound effects (from sáo – flutes in all
lengths; nhị - two-stringed violins; đàn tranh – sixteens-stringed zithers) to signify inexpressible
intense emotion. The orchestra then achieves its peak during fierce combat scenes. Three most
important instruments for tuồng are trống, kèn, nhị (drum set, clarinet, two-stringed violins).

drum set clarinet two-stringed violins

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4. ĐỜN CA TÀI TỬ

Art of Đờn Ca Tài Tử in the South of Vietnam (also known as Đờn Ca Tài Tử) is a typical
Vietnamese folk art form which is attached to the life of Mekong Delta land and river residents. It
voices the people’s internal sentiments and good mortal virtues.

4.1. Formation and development

Đờn Ca Tài Tử derived from Hue royal music in the late 19th century when three Central
royal musicians moved to the South under Cần Vương movement. Originally an art form created
for entertainment among a small community, it then attracted more different groups of audience
and was adapted gradually to suit Southern culture. Since then Đờn Ca Tài Tử became an
indispensable spiritual cultural activity in local events such as festivals, death anniversaries,
weddings, birthdays…

From the beginning of 20th century, Đờn Ca Tài Tử has been regarded to be a common
music movement throughout the South of Vietnam. According to statistics in 2011, there are
more than 29,000 practitioners of Đờn Ca Tài Tử in 21 Southern provinces and cities. Among the
greatest Đờn Ca Tài Tử musicians are Mr. Nguyễn Quang Đại, Mr. Lê Tài Khí or Mr. Cao Văn
Lầu (composer of the most famous Đờn Ca Tài Tử song – Dạ cổ hoài lang).

On December 5th, 2013, the Art of Đờn Ca Tài Tử was officially recognized by UNESCO
as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity based on these criteria: Its prosperous development
is thanks to the common contribution of 21 provinces and cities in Southern Vietnam. Đờn Ca
Tài Tử is a part of Southern people’s identity, transmitted from generation to generation and
ensured its succession.

4.2. Art characteristics

Đờn Ca Tài Tử melodies is the combination of cultural influences inherited from

ceremonial music (nhạc lễ), classical theatre and folk song (hát bội). They are under consecutive
improvisation from 20 principal songs (bài Tổ) and 72 classical songs (bài nhạc cổ).

Đờn Ca Tài Tử is played on a variety of instruments, including:

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moon-shaped lute (đờn kìm) two-stringed fiddle (đờn cò) pear-shaped lute (tỳ bà)

16-string zither (đờn tranh) monochord (bầu)

percussion (song lang/song loan) bamboo flute (sáo) Ghi ta phím lõm

Đờn Ca Tài Tử instruments

[Source: Image from hngphsa.blogspot.com]

Đờn Ca Tài Tử practitioners involve: (thầy Đờn) who master all of the classical melodies
and are highly skillful at playing and teaching various instruments; lyric masters (thầy Tuồng)
who are knowledgeable and experienced at composing new song texts; singing masters (thầy Ca)
who own and train skillful vocal techniques and ornamentation; instrumentalists (danh cầm) and
singers (danh ca).

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 Đờn Ca Tài Tử artists often perform in group, club or family rather than individually. The
audience can join in the performance, make comments or create new song texts.

Đờn Ca Tài Tử artists

[Source: Image from

http://festivaldoncatai
tuquocgia.baclieu.gov
.vn/]

The typical Southern art form is passed between generations through two methods. The
traditional way is called oral transmission including training through the use of fingers and the
use of mouth (truyền ngón, truyền khẩu). Based on imitation, musicians teach directly to club or
family members. The second method integrates these tradition way of oral transmission into
syllabus and lectures to use at local and national schools of art and culture.

4.3. Outstanding values

Originated in miscellaneous cultural tradition of Vietnam Central and Southern regions,

Đờn Ca Tài Tử consistently takes an important position in social and cultural life of Vietnamese
people. It is a valuable cultural heritage that mixes the influences of royal music and folk music,
as well as exchanges with Chinese, Khmer and Western culture.

There is strong connection among Đờn Ca Tài Tử practitioners with respect, love and
mutual inquisitiveness, not only in artistic activity but also to open up cultural behavior in view
of good mortal virtues. This leads to great contribution of Đờn Ca Tài Tử to the beauty of the
community.

Otherwise, as a vital part in social event rituals in the Southern of Vietnam, Đờn Ca Tài
Tử shares the preservation of cultural practices and customs associated in such community
events; thus additionally promotes local tourism.

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 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Discuss featuring characteristics of Ca Trù singing.

2. What are the similarities and differences between the performance arts of Chèo and Tuồng?
3. In your opinion, what makes Đờn Ca Tài Tử an outstanding art of performance?
4. Do you think Vietnamese traditional music and art performance are losing their standing in the
modern society? What is your opinion of safeguarding these arts?

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

 Xoan singing

 Quan Họ Bac Ninh folk songs

 Nhã Nhạc – Vietnamese court music

 The Water Puppet

 The space of Gong Culture in Central Highlands of Vietnam

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 REFERENCES

[1] NLH (2013). Châu Á: Việt Nam – Đờn ca tài tử Nam Bộ (2013). Di sản thế giới.
Retrieved on November 20th, 2015, from Vietnamese website of World Heritage. URL:
http://disanthegioi.info/ArticleDetail.aspx?articleid=60971&sitepageid=276
[2] Ngoc, H., & Borton, L. (2014). Cheo – Popular Theatre. Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers.
[3] Ngoc, H., & Borton, L. (2008). Nghe thuat tuong Viet Nam –Vietnamese classical opera.
Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers.
[4] Vietnamese Institute for Musicology, Hanoi, Vietnam. (2008). Ca trù singing (Viet Nam)
- Urgent Safeguarding List – 2009 Film [VIDEO]. Retrieved on November 20th, 2015,
from UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage website. URL:
http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/USL/ca-tru-singing-00309
[5] Vietnam National Administration of Tourism. Tourism Information Technology Centre.
(2013). World Heritage in Vietnam. Hanoi: Youth Publishing House, pp.157-164; 178-
180.

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