Excretion and Coordination

Homeostasis is keeping the conditions in the internal environment of the body relatively constant:
- Osmoregulation (maintenance of the water & salt content of the internal environment)
- Level of CO2 in blood
- Blood pH
- Body temperature
Excretion is the process by which waste products of metabolic reactions, toxic materials and substances in
excess of requirements, are removed from the body.

Excretory Product Description of metabolic

Lungs Carbon dioxide, released
during exhalation
Skin Water, salts, urea, excreted
through sweat glands
(sometimes to lower body
temperature)
Kidney Excess water, salts, urea,
excreted through urine
reaction that produces
product
Aerobic respiration
Eating protein, drinking too
much water or taking in too
much sodium
Eating protein, drinking too
much water or taking in too
much sodium

The Urinary System:

The kidney is both a homeostatic organ, controlling the water & salt ion concentration, and
an excretory organ, through concentrating nitrogenous waste in a form that can be
eliminated.
Renal artery provides both kidneys with blood at high pressure, containing urea and salts.
The “cleaned blood” exits through the renal vein.
The urine leaves the kidneys through the ureters, where it is stored in a muscular bag called
the bladder.
The bladder has a tube leading to the outside, called the urethra, which contains 2 ring-
shaped muscles (sphincter muscles).

Osmoregulation:
Control of water content in the body (part of homeostasis)
Kidney removes:
- Urea
- Excess water
- Excess salts
…from the blood as it passes through internal structures of kidney

NEW:
 Excretion in Plants
Plants have 2 types of metabolic reactions: aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Excretion takes place via the stomata on the underside of the leaves.

The Kidney

Cortex contains many tiny blood vessels that branch from the renal artery + filtering units called nephrons.

These filtering units (tubules) then run down through the medulla.

The tubules in medulla eventually join up & lead to the tips of the pyramids, where they empty the urine into the
pelvis, which connects to the ureter, which carries the urine to the bladder.
 Renal vein containing deoxygenated,
purified blood, without/ low levels of
glucose, salt, urea, and water.
The nephron spans through the cortex and the
medulla.

3) In the cortex, filtration of blood occurs.

5)
In the medulla, the loop of Henle and collecting
duct are located. They perform the process of re-
absorption.

1) Arterioles branch off the renal artery and lead to

2) each nephron, where they form a knot of capillaries
1) Renal artery (glomerulus)
containing oxygenated, 7) 2) Made up of capillaries at high blood pressure
impurified blood (because blood coming directly from aorta + capillaries
4) steadily get narrower). The gaps in the walls of the
capillary are very small, so only very small molecules
can be filtered (ultrafiltration).

Glucose Urea
Salt Water

8) Collecting duct 3) Bowman’s capsule which collects the 4 types of

molecules filtered through the glomerulus (form
filtrate).

4) The renal vein then travels around the nephron again

for re-absorption

5) First (proximal) convoluted tubule: Glucose, salt,

6) Loop of Henle urea, water enter. Most of the glucose is selectively re-
absorbed by the renal vein through active transport,
here.

Nephron is adapted for this by having many

mitochondria.

Reabsorption of glucose cannot take place anywhere

else in the nephron as protein gates that facilitate
active transport of glucose are only found in PCT.

6) Only urea, water and salts are passing through the

Loop of Henle. Here, some water and salt is re-
absorbed. Volume re-absorbed depends on levels of
ADH.

7) Second convoluted tubule. Urea, salt, and some

More on the Loop of Henle…
- As filtrate drips through LOH, salts are reabsorbed  lower water
potential in this area of nephron, meaning more concentrated blood.
- This is detected by receptor cells in the hypothalamus (situated above
the pituitary gland), in the brain
water pass through. Some salt gets re-absorbed
8) Collecting duct collects 100% of urea, some salt,
some water, forming urine, and transports it to the
ureter.
From here, it is carried to the bladder, to be stored for
natural removal via urethra.

- These cells cause the pituitary gland to release more ADH, which travels
in the bloodstream to the kidney
Fun Fact!
- Causes collecting duct to become more permeable
- As urine in collecting ducts moves past this same area, water moves out Mammals with longer Loops of Henle can
of urine through walls of collecting duct (osmosis) make more concentrated urine than those
- Once blood becomes less concentrated, hypothalamus detects this and with short loops. This helps them conserve
tells pituitary gland to stop producing ADH. water (useful for desert animals.)
 DIFFICULT
QUESTIONS:
1) Acacia plants produce a chemical that repels ants. Suggest 2 advantages of producing this chemical to the plant. {2}

o Prevent ants from eating the pollen = higher chance of being pollinated
o Prevents ants from eating the plant
o Prevents ants from eating other insects that may be pollinators
o More nectar left for attracting pollinators

2) State 3 differences between eukaryotic & prokaryotic organisms {3}

o Eukaryotic organisms have a nucleus

o They also have mitochondria/ organelles/ chloroplasts
o They also have chromosomes
o They lack plasmids

3) A scientist concludes, after one experiment and using a test tube filled with one species of bacteria, that vitamin C in a
person’s diet will protect them from pathogens. Comment on this conclusion.

o Vitamin C increases ingestion by phagocytes to digest pathogens

o However, the test was only done once = not reliable
o Done in vitro and not in humans
o Needs to test with other bacteria as it may not work on ALL pathogens
o Not done at 37 degrees

4) Explain why the student boils and cools the glucose solution before the yeast is added.

o To kill any other organisms/ bacteria

o Cooled so enzymes do not denature/ yeast not killed

5) Explain why the lips of the sheep with bluetongue turn blue.

o Less blood and oxygen reach the lips

o Narrowing of blood vessels
 The Eye
The eye as a receptor:

Structure Function
Sclera tough white outer coat of the eye, which protects
it from damage
Choroid Located underneath sclera. A dark layer which
contains many pigment cells & blood vessels, stops
light being reflected around inside the eye
Cornea A transparent window which refracts light as it
enters the eye
Iris Coloured ring of tissue situated behind cornea,
which has muscles that control the size of the pupil
Pupil Allows and controls how much light enters the eye,
situated in the middle of the iris
Fun fact: it is black because there is no light
escaping from the inside of the eye.
Lens Transparent disc that can change shape to focus
light onto retina
Retina Found at the back of the eye and contains light
receptor cells (rods), and colour receptor cells
(cone). This is where the light energy is converted
into electrical energy of nerve impulses.
Fovea Area of retina with highest concentration of cones
Optic nerve Sensory neurone which carries impulses between
eye and brain
Ciliary muscle Ring of muscle that contracts and relaxes to
change shape of lens
Suspensory ligaments Connect ciliary muscle to lens
The iris reflex:
Why? To protect the retina from damage due to bright light and protect us from not seeing
objects in dim light.
How?
The iris contains two types of muscles: circular, and radial
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Light intensity (stimulus)  photoreceptors in retina  sensory neurones in optic nerve 
unconscious part of brain  motor neurones in nerve travel to iris  iris muscles (effector)
 change size of pupil (response)

Accommodation & pupil response:

Accommodation? The changes that take place in the eye (the lens) which allow us to see
objects at different distances

How? The lens is made of cells that contain elastic crystalline proteins. This means it can
change shape when the suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight or loose.

The suspensory ligaments are attached to a ring of muscle, called the ciliary muscle.
Why? When focussing on a distant object, rays of light are almost parallel when they
reach cornea.

The cornea refracts the rays, but the lens doesn’t need to refract them more to focus light
on retina = does not need to be convex (i.e. is thin)

However, with close objects, the lens has to be more convex (i.e. fat) to refract the rays
enough to focus on the retina. The lens bulges outwards into a more convex shape.
 The Skin & Thermoregulation
The skin has many functions:
1) Form tough layer able to resist mechanical damage
2) Act as barrier to entry of pathogens
3) Form impermeable surface, preventing water loss
4) Act as sense organ for touch & temp changes
5) Control loss of heat through body surface

Jobs: 1, 2, 3

Jobs: 4, 5
Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism
Maintains body temp at 37 ℃ (optimum for enzyme function, or else they will denature)

How?
Thermoregulatory centre located in hypothalamus region in brain contains receptors
sensitive to blood temperature.
Skin also has temperature receptors & sends nervous impulses to hypothalamus
Hypothalamus responds through sending nerve impulses to effectors in skin = maintains
temp within narrow range of optimum.

When we are hot;

 Evaporation uses
heat energy from
body to convert
liquid water into
Hairs lie flat & allow air water vapour
to circulate over skin &
heat to leave via
radiation

Arteries supplying blood to capillaries get wider (vasodilation) = body

cooled as blood (which carries heat around body) is flowing at a faster rate
through skin’s surface = more heat lost via radiation.

! Mammals & birds are described as

“warm blooded”. A better word for this is
homeothermic, which means we keep
our body temp relatively constant, even
if our surroundings change temperature.

When we are
cold;

i.e. acts as an
insulator which
prevents heat loss
The Nervous System, Synapses & The
Reflex Arc
Stimulus: change in an organism’s surroundings (both internal and external)
 Stimulus Receptor Coordination Effector Response

Response: reaction to that change

The nervous system consists of:

Receptor cells (group of specialized cells) in

sense organs convert a stimulus (such as a
bright light) into an electrical impulse.

Impulses from receptors pass along nerves

containing sensory neurones, until they reach
the brain & spinal cord.
A nerve is a bundle
of neurones Here, the information is processed &
appropriate responses are coordinated,.

The impulse will be passed to a motor neuron

via a relay neurone.

These motor neurones transmit impulses to

the muscles & glands (effectors).

The effectors carry out the response.

This process is rapid due to the adaptations of

the neurones.

The 3 types of neurones:

- Sensory: carry impulses from sense

organs to the CNS (brain or spinal
cord)
- Relay: found inside CNS & connect
sensory & motor neurones.
- Motor: carry impulses from CNS to
effectors
…has cytoplasmic extensions
(dendrons) which form finer
extensions (dendrites). There can be
junctions (synapses) with other
neurones on any part of the cell body.
The length of the axon means that less time is
wasted transferring the impulse from 1 cell to
another
The sheath also has small
uninsulated sections
(nodes), whichExtension
allow for from
the motor neurone cell body much
longer
electrical impulses than other dendrons. This is the fibre
can
jump from onethat carries
node from impulses to the effector organ.
the next, rather than Similar to the top of the cell,
travelling down the entire this area also has dendrites,
axon. This makes the meaning the cell can connect
transmission of impulses to many other neurones =
much faster. receive impulses from them
= forms easy network for
communication.

Made of fatty material

which insulates the axon,
preventing “short circuits”
End of axon divides into many nerve
with other axons
endings, which connect to a special
sort of synapse, called a
neuromuscular junction. Impulses are
carried from the CNS out to the muscle
here.

Has a similar structure to motor neurone, but cell body is located on a side branch of the
fibre, just outside the CNS.

Also, the fibre from the sensory receptor to the cell body is not an axon, but a dendron, while
the fibre from the cell body to the CNS is a short axon.
 Neurones never touch each other. Synapses
They have gaps/junctions between
them (synapses)
When an electrical impulse travels
along the first axon, the nerve endings
of the neurone are triggered into
releasing chemical messengers
(neurotransmitters).
They diffuse across synapses & bind
with receptor molecules on membrane
of second neurone.
Second neurone is stimulated to
generate electrical impulse at
dendrites, which then travels down
second axon.
Transmitters are then destroyed/
broken down by enzymes from the
second neurone (prevents continued
stimulation of second neuron which
would cause repeated impulses to be
sent), the products of which are Transferring information via chemical signals (i.e.
absorbed by first neurone to be re- across synapses) is slower than the electrical
used. impulses (through the axons) because diffusion of
Synapses ensure impulse travels in molecules across the gape takes time.
ONLY ONE DIRECTION (avoids
confusion within nervous system)

The Reflex Arc

- Doesn’t involve the brain as co-ordinator (i.e. doesn’t require conscious thought)
- Automatic, rapid, protective, involuntary response
- Reflex response is quicker than any other type of nervous
response because electrical impulses
have less distance to
3) This triggers an electrical travel = minimizes
impulse which travels across damage to body.
relay neurone & reaches
2) Impulses
another synapse, where
enter CNS
another chemical is released
(spinal cord,
which triggers an electrical
coordinator)
impulse in motor neurone. The
through dorsal
motor neurones emerge from
root. At the end
spinal cord via the ventral root.
of the sensory
neurone is a
synapse which is
where a
chemical is
released to
diffuse across &
reach short relay
neurones.
 4) The impulse travels down the motor
neurone to an effector (muscle), which 1) The flame (stimulus) is
contracts, pulling away from heat. detected by pain receptors in
the skin. These generate
impulses in sensory neurones

Sensory Relay Motor

Stimulus Receptor Effector Response
Reaction Time Practical: Neurone Neurone Neurone
1) Person 1 sits upright on a stool, placing the forearm of their dominant arm on a table, with their hand hanging
over the edge.
2) Person 2 holds a ruler vertically, with the “0 cm” mark being between person 1’s thumb & first finger
3) Person 2 tells person 1 to prepare to catch the ruler, then drops it at a random time
4) Person 1 catches the rules with their thumb & first finger as quickly as possible
5) Person 2 records measurement on ruler that is level with the top of person 1’s thumb
6) Person 1 takes a short rest, repeats test 3 times, takes an average.
7) Calculate reaction time using conversion table found on internet
8) Try with person 2

Dependent variable: reaction time

Independent variable: person having reaction time tested
Control variables: starting distance between thumb & first finger, measure at top of the thumb, control conditions in
room (lighting, noise, distractions), chemicals in body (caffeine)
Sources & Roles Of Hormones
Glands:
E xo crin e G lan d s
Se crete th e ir p ro d u cts th ro u g h tu b e s (d u cts )

…an organ that secretes a substance through the cells’ membrane. The substance then travels somewhere else in
the body, where it carries out its function.

En d o crin e G lan d s Have a good blood supply, since the hormones

they produce need to travel in the blood (blood
H ave n o d u ct. plasma) ASAP.
P ro d u cts (h o rm o n e s) se cre te d in to b lo o d
ve sse ls th at p ass th ro u gh glan d . Once a hormone has been used, it’s destroyed
H o rm o n es o nly a ff e ct "targe t o rg an s", w hich by the liver.
w ill h ave sp e cia l ch e m ical re ce p to rs fo r th a t
p a rti cu lar h o rm o n e.
Define hormones:

…chemical molecules released directly

into the blood to be carried around the
body to activate responses in specific
cells that are found in target organs

The Endocrine System: All glands that produce hormones in

Gland Hormone Role Effect

Adrenal Adrenaline Readies - Breathing rate increases & breaths become deeper = more O2 to
Gland body for respiring cells for energy.
“fight or - Heart beats faster = more blood to muscles = receive more
Targets: flight” glucose + oxygen
Heart response. - Blood diverted away from inessential organs (intestines) & into
Liver muscles
Eyes, etc - In liver, glycogen changed into glucose & released into blood
- Pupil dilates = increased visual sensitivity
- Body hair stands upright = look larger
- Mental awareness increases = faster reactions
Pancrea Insulin Lowers - Insulin causes excess glucose in blood to be converted into
s Glucagon (or raises, glycogen for storage in liver & muscles.
glucagon) - Glucagon causes glycogen to be broken up into glucose
Targets: blood molecules & released into the blood.
Liver glucose
Muscles levels
Testes Testosterone Main sex - Controls development of male secondary sexual characteristics
hormone
in males
Pituitary Follicle Causes FSH stimulates:
ovary to (Master gland) releases many
Stimulating - Egg development
develop hormones that act on other gland to
hormone mature egg control-release
Oestrogen secretion in
of other hormones.
(FSH) cell females
- Sperm production in males
Luteinising Causes
hormone ovary to LH stimulates:
release
(LH) mature egg
- Egg release (ovulation)
cell - Testosterone production
Antidiuretic - Release of progesterone
hormone Controls
(ADH) water ADH:
content of - Increases reabsorption of water from urine in collecting ducts of
blood
kidneys
Ovaries Progesterone Maintains - Regulates menstrual cycle
pregnancy - Maintains uterus lining to cushion fertilized egg & allow it to
develop
Ovaries Oestrogen Main sex - Controls development of female secondary sexual characteristics
hormone - Controls menstrual cycle
in females
Thyroid Thyroxine - Controls body’s metabolic rate (how fast chemical reactions take
place in cells)
Targets:
Heart
Vessels
Muscles,
etc
Diabetes
Type 1: Type 2:

- Pancreas doesn’t produce enough insulin - Body cells stop responding to insulin
- Monitor blood glucose concentration produced by pancreas
- Inject themselves with insulin if blood - Controlled by establishing diet with
glucose rises too much (i.e. after a meal) controlled level of carbs
- Advised to exercise

Major risk factor:

- Obesity

Nervous System Endocrine System

Made Up Of: Nerves, brain, spinal cord Glands

Type of Message: Electrical impulse Chemical hormone

Method of Transmission Nerve cells Bloodstream

Effectors Muscles or glands (act on Target cells in specific tissues if

individual cells, so have a very they have correct receptors (can
localised effect) have widespread effect on
different organs)
Speed of Transmission Very fast Slower

Length of effect Short (until nerve impulses stop) Longer (until hormone is broken
down)

NEW:
Modern Agriculture:
…a managed ecosystem that farmers try to control in order to maximise yield from crop plants &
livestock, through minimizing limiting factors (factors that delay the process of photosynthesis/ plant
growth due to their scarcity)

Factor Controlled How it is controlled Reason for controlling

 Soil ions (nitrates) Adding fertilisers/ grow in
hydroponic culture
Soil structure Ploughing fields to break up
compacted soil; adding manure
to improve drainage/ aeration
Soil pH Adding lime to acidic salts (few
soils are too alkaline to need
treatment)
Carbon dioxide, light & heat Can be controlled in greenhouse;
burning fuels produces heat +
carbon dioxide
Extra mineral ions can be taken
up & used to make proteins
needed for plant growth
Good aeration + drainage =
better uptake of mineral ions &
water
Unsuitable pH may denature =
prevents uptake of mineral ions
Limit rate of photosynthesis &
production of organic substances
needed for growth.

How do “Greenhouses” Increase Range & Yield:

 Transparent walls allow natural light to enter + artificial light gives “longer days” during
winter (increased photosynthesis)
 Short wavelength infrared radiation absorbed + re-radiated as longer wavelength infrared
radiation = radiation can’t escape = heating effect/ or can just be heated = Can also reduce
convection currents = causes cooling = optimum temp for enzymes controlling
photosynthesis
 Heaters using fossil fuels produce CO2 + water vapour. Water vapour maintains moist
atmosphere = reduce water loss through transpiration
 Regular watering
 CO2 levels in greenhouse made 3 times higher than normal air (burn paraffin/ release from
cylinder)
 Use of high-yielding strain of crops (selective breeding/ genetic engineering)
 Pest control + protection from wind & frost

What about Polythene tunnels?

o Large, plastic tunnels that cover crops

o Protect crops from effects of weather (excessive wind, rain, extreme temperatures)
o Increase temperature slightly
o Prevent entry of pests that can damage plants/ spread disease

How do fertilisers increase yield?

… increase amount of key nutrients in soil = plants grow larger, healthier = increased yield

- As plants grow, they take up mineral ions from soil. If field is reused, it must be fertilized to restore
mineral ions, as the soil will quickly become deficient.
- Can be organic (farmyard manure & compost) or chemical (dry granules/ sprayed in liquid form made
of inorganic compounds like potassium nitrate)
- Mainly provide:
o Nitrogen:
 Absorbed in nitrate form
INORGANIC FERTILISERS…
- Can replace all lost ions
- May lead to pollution problems
- Don’t improve soil structure
- Efficient as farmer can pick exactly
what type of fertiliser they need
for their crops

NPK fertilisers:
…contain compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (which help agricultural productivity; plants
grow larger + more rapidly)
- Produced in industrial facilities where different raw materials are processed together to
produce exact fertiliser needed.

1) Nitrogen; main compound = ammonium nitrate

a. Use ammonia to produce nitric acid
b. React with more ammonia to make ammonium nitrate
2) Potassium; potassium chloride & potassium sulphate salts
a. Mined from the ground (can be used directly without further processing)
3) Phosphate: phosphate rock
a. Mined & chemically processed before use, treated with either;
i. Nitric acid  phosphoric acid + calcium nitrate
ii. Phosphoric acid neutralised with ammonia  ammonium phosphate which can
be used in NPK fertiliser, or…
iii. Sulfuric acid  calcium phosphate + calcium sulfate
iv. Usable mixture called single superphosphate, or…
v. Treat with phosphoric acid  triple superphosphate (usable)
 Looking at Ammonium nitrate… (reacting ammonia with nitric acid)
Fertilizer production in industry Fertiliser production in labs
Ammonia used as gas & nitric acid is Use dilute solutions of ammonia + nitric
concentrated. Much more dangerous as acid (makes them safe)
reaction is very EXOTHERMIC. Heat
produced has to be safely removed.
Energy from evaporation provided by We produce crystals using a water bath &
exothermic reaction to form crystals Bunsen burner (requires heat energy)
Chemical produced by continuous process Only produce SMALL amount of
(easily produce 1000 kg) ammonium nitrate in one go (batch
process)

Hydroponics
…method of growing plants without soil.

- Plants grown on water rich in nutrients

- Nutrients are dissolved in water, so roots have easier access to nutrition they need

Benefits:

a) Plants grow faster & grown throughout the year

b) Higher yield + can grow in areas that cannot support crops in soil
c) Beneficial to environment & grown products, because, lessens need for pesticide use
d) Require much less water than soil based agriculture, as water can be reused
e) Doesn’t require too much space + can be done indoors

For example:
Kept in bright light  photosynthesis

Covering around flask prevents algae from growing in

culture solution

Aeration tube used for short periods of time to supply

roots with oxygen for respiration of root cells (active
transport)

Pest Control
Pests: organisms that reduce yield of crop plants/ stock animals though…

- Lowering amount through reducing growth (e.g. damaging leaves = reduced photosynthesis)
- Affect appearance/ quality of crop = unsuitable for sale

How does pest control increase yield?

…helps to:

- Kill insects/ repel animals that damage crops through eating them, or limit their growth through killing
their pollinators, eating their nectar/ pollen
Pesticides:

o Insecticides: kill insects

o Herbicides: kill plants
o Fungicides: kill fungi
o Molluscicides: kill snails & slugs

Advantages Disadvantages
Easily accessible + Pests may develop resistance
cheap
Immediate effect Non-specific: may harm
beneficial organisms =
disrupts ecosystem
Kill entire population of Persistent chemicals:
Biological control: pests bioaccumulation =
accumulate in great
concentrations & harm top
predators (biomagnification)
Need repeated application
May be washed away into
rivers = eutrophication
Methods include
Introducing natural predator E.g. ladybirds used to control aphid population
Introducing herbivore e.g. introducing a moth to control population of cacti
Introduce parasites
Introduce pathogenic microorganism
Introduce sterile males Will mate with females but no offspring are produced.
Use pheromones Natural chemicals produced by insects to attract mates. Used to
attract pests to traps = reduced reproductive potential of
population

o Species introduced to prey on pest species

o Based on predator-prey cycle = don’t completely remove pest; but keep at lower levels

Advantages Disadvantages
Natural- no pollution May eat other organisms instead of pest
No resistance Long period to be effective
Can target specific species Cannot kill entire population, as then it would have
no food = will die out
Long lasting May not adapt to new environment = move out of
area
No repeated application May become a pest itself