LESSON 1: URINARY SYSTEM

4th QUARTER | ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2

• Kidney Structure
OUTLINE o An adult kidney is about 12 cm (5 in) long and 6 cm
I. Functions (2.5 in) wide
II. Organs of the Urinary System
III. Fluid, Electrolyte and acid-base balance o Renal Hilum
IV. Developmental Aspect of the Urinary System § A medial indentation where several structures
V. Interrelation with other Organ System enter or exit the kidney (ureters, renal blood
vessels, and nerves)
FUNCTIONS o An adrenal gland sits atop the kidney

• Dispose of waste products in urine

o Nitrogenous wastes
o Toxins
o Drugs
o Excess Ions
• Kidney’s regulatory functions include:
o Production of renin to maintain blood pressure
o Production of erythropoietin to stimulate RBC
production
o Conversion of Vitamin D to its active form
o Three Protective Layers enclose the kidney
Just a recap from lecture 9 1. Fibrous Capsule encloses each kidney
where kidney produces renin 2. Perirenal Fat Capsule surrounds the kidney
and where the mineralocorticoid and cushions against blows
producing layer of the adrenal 3. Renal Fascia is the most superficial layer that
cortex of the adrenal gland anchors the kidney and adrenal gland to
(found at the top of kidneys) surrounding structures
influence the secretion of
aldosterone to target the kidney
tubules to increase its
absorption of Sodium ions and
water thereby increasing blood
pressure and volume

This is one of the connection

among the endocrine,
cardiovascular and urinary
systems. o Three Regions revealed in a longitudinal section
1. Renal Cortex – outer region
2. Renal Medulla – deeper region
ORGANS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM § Renal (medullary) Pyramids – triangular
regions of tissue in the medulla
KIDNEYS
§ Renal Columns – extensions of cortex-
• Location and Structure like material that separates the pyramids
o The kidneys are situated against the dorsal body wall 3. Renal Pelvis – medial region that is flat, funnel-
in a retroperitoneal position (behind the parietal shaped tube
peritoneum) § Calyces form cup-shaped “drains” that
o The kidneys are situated at the level of T12 to L3 enclose the renal pyramids
vertebrae § Calyces collect urine and send it to the
renal pelvis, onto the ureter, and to the
o The right kidney is slightly lower than the left (because
urinary bladder for storage
of the position of the liver)

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Figure 14.3 shows the regions of the kidney: cortex, medulla which includes • Renal Corpuscle consists of:
the renal pyramid and renal columns, and the renal pelvis which includes the 1. Glomerulus, a knot of capillaries made of podocytes
calyces. The fibrous capsule that protects the kidney is also shown. § Podocytes make up the inner (visceral) layer of the
• Blood supply glomerular capsule
o One-quarter of the total blood supply of the body passes o Foot Processes cling to the glomerulus
thru the kidneys each minute o Filtration Slits create a porous membrane
(ideal for filtration)
• Renal Artery
o Provides each kidney with arterial blood supply
o Divides into segmental arteries à interlobar arteries à
arcuate arteries à cortical radiate arteries
• Venous Blood Flow
o Cortical radiate veins à arcuate veins à interlobar
veins à renal vein
o There are no segmental veins
o Renal Vein returns blood to the inferior vena cava

2. Glomerular (Bowman’s) Capsule is a cup-shaped

structure that surrounds the glomerulus
§ First part of the renal tubule

• Renal Tubule
§ Extends from glomerular capsule and ends when it
empties into the collecting duct
§ From the glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule, the
subdivision of the renal tubule are:
1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
Figure 14.3 shows the blood vessels associated with the kidneys. Renal
2. Nephron Loop (Loop of Henle)
artery divides to segmental arteries to arcuate artery and cortical radiate
3. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
artery (see green arrow). On the other hand, for veins, deoxygenated blood
flows from the cortical radiate veins to arcuate veins to interlobar veins and
renal vein (see orange arrow).
NEPHRONS
• Structural and functional units of the kidneys
• Each kidney contains over a million nephrons
• Each nephron consists of two main structures
1. Renal Corpuscle
2. Renal Tubule

Figure 14.3 shows the nephron found in the kidney. Focus on the location of
the glomerulus, which is a part of the corpuscle.

Figure 14.7 shows the subdivisions of the renal tubule in the nephron. PCT
is proximal to the glomerulus while DCT is distal to it.

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 • Cortical Nephrons
o Located entirely in the cortex
o Include most nephrons
• Juxtamedullary Nephrons
o Found at the cortex-medulla junction
o Nephron loops dips deep into the medulla
o Collecting Ducts collect urine from both types of
nephrons (either cortical or juxtamedullary), thru the
renal pyramids, to the calyces, and then to the renal
pelvis

Figure 14.8 shows the peritubular capillaries and how it weaves through the
tubules of the nephron, it is adapted for absorption of water and solutes (this
is important during urine formation)
URINE FORMATION AND CHARACTERISTICS
• Urine Formation is the result of three processes
Figure 14.d shows a cortical nephron (green circle) and a juxtamedullary
nephron (orange circle)
• Two capillary beds associated with each nephron
1. Glomerulus
§ Fed and drained by arterioles
o Afferent Arteriole – arises from a cortical
radiate artery and feeds the glomerulus
o Efferent Arteriole – receives blood that
has passed thru the glomerulus
§ Specialized for filtration
§ High Pressure forces fluid and solutes out of
blood and into the glomerular capsule

Figure 14.9 shows a summary of the events that occur in each of the major
renal processes
Figure 14.8 shows the glomerulus and the afferent arteriole which arises from
the cortical radiate artery and the efferent arteriole which receives blood that
has passed the glomerulus (see pink arrow)
2. Peritubular Capillary Bed
§ Arise from the efferent arteriole of the
glomerulus
§ Low-pressure, porous capillaries
§ Adapted for absorption instead of filtration
§ Cling close to the renal tubule to receive solutes
and water from tubule cells
§ Drain into the interlobar veins
1. Glomerular Filtration
§ The glomerulus is a filter
§ Filtration is a nonselective passive process
o Water and solutes smaller than proteins
are forced thru glomerular capillary walls
o Proteins and blood cells are normally too
large to pass thru the filtration membrane
o Once in the capsule, fluid is called filtrate
o Filtrate leaves via the renal tubule
§ Filtrate will be formed as long as systemic blood
pressure is normal
o if arterial blood pressure is too low, filtrate
formation stops because glomerular
pressure will be too low to form filtrate.
2. Tubular Reabsorption
§ The Peritubular Capillaries reabsorb useful
substances from the renal tubule cells, such as:
o Water
o Glucose
o Amino acids
o Ions
§ Some reabsorption is passive; most is active
(with use of ATP)
§ Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal
convoluted tubule.

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 • Urine Characteristics
o Clear and pale to deep yellow in color
o Yellow Color is normal and due to the pigment
urochrome (from the destruction of hemoglobin, done
by liver) and solutes
§ Dilute Urine is a pale, straw color
o Sterile at the time of formation
o Slightly aromatic, but smells like ammonia with time
o Slightly acidic (pH of 6)
o Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035
• Solutes normally found in urine
o Sodium and potassium ions
o Urea, uric acid, creatinine
o Ammonia
Aside from the reabsorption that occurs in the proximal tubule, other o Bicarbonate ions
substances are also reabsorbed such as salts even urea (that should be • Solutes NOT normally found in urine
excreted) this is to ensure high solute concentration so that water will follow o Glucose
back through osmosis. To simply put it, the body would want to conserve as o Blood proteins
much water as it could (especially if you drink less water) before it really goes o RBCs
as a component of urine. o Hemoglobin
Figure 14.10 shows a juxtamedullary nephron (found at cortex-medulla o WBCs (pus)
junction) where tubular reabsorption is occurring in the proximal tubule (see o Bile
pink circle).
3. Tubular Secretion
§ Reabsorption in reverse
§ Some materials move from the blood of the
peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules to
be eliminated in filtrate
o Hydrogen and potassium ions
o Creatinine (produced by muscles from
the breakdown of creatine. Remember in
muscular system one of the sources of
ATP is by getting the phosphate group in
Creatine phosphate and attaching it to
Adenosine Diphosphate to become ATP.)
§ Secretion is important for:
o Getting rid of substances not ready in the
filtrate
o Removing drugs and excess ions URETERS
o Maintaining acid-base balance of blood
§ Materials left in the renal tubule move toward • Slender tubes 25-30 cm (10-12 inches) attaching the
the ureter. kidney to the urinary bladder
o Continuous with the renal pelvis
• Nitrogenous Wastes o Enter the posterior aspect of the urinary bladder
o Nitrogenous waste products are poorly reabsorbed, if o Run behind the peritoneum
at all • Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport
o Tend to remain in the filtrate and are excreted from the
body in the urine
§ Urea – end product of protein breakdown
§ Uric Acid – results from nucleic acid metabolism
§ Creatinine – associated with creatine
metabolism in muscles
• In 24 hours, about 1.0 to 1.8 liters of urine are produced.
• Urine and Filtrate are different
o Filtrate contains everything that blood plasma does
(except protein)
o Urine is what remains after the filtrate has lost most of
its water, nutrients, and necessary ions thru
reabsorption
o Urine contains nitrogenous wastes and substances
that are not needed Figure 14.1 shows the location of the ureters

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 URINARY BLADDER • Length
o In females: 3 to 4 cm (1.5 inches long)
• Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac situated posterior to the o In males: 20 cm (8 inches long)
pubic symphysis
• Stores urine temporarily • Location
• Trigone – triangular region of the urinary bladder based on o Females – anterior to the vaginal opening
three opening o Males – travels through the prostate and penis
o Two opening from the ureters (ureteral orifices) § Prostatic urethra
o One opening to the urethra (internal urethral orifice) § Membranous urethra
• In males, the prostate surrounds the neck of the urinary § Spongy urethra
bladder

Figure 14.12 shows the prostatic urethra (passes to the prostate),

membranous urethra, and the spongy urethra (includes the bulbar and penile
Figure 14.11 shows the parts of a urinary bladder. Specifically shown here is urethra as depicted in this figure)
the trigone which is based on the 2 ureteral orifice (opening from ureters) and
the urethral orifice which opens to the urethra.
• Wall of the urinary bladder
o Three layers of smooth muscle collectively called the
detrusor muscle
o Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
o Walls are thick and folded in an empty urinary bladder
o Urinary bladder can expand significantly without
increasing internal pressure.
• Capacity of the Urinary Bladder
o A moderately full bladder is about 5 inches long and
holds about 500 ml of urine
o Capable of holding twice that amount of urine Figure 14.13 shows the location of the female urethra in relation to the other
structures such as the clitoris and vaginal opening.
URETHRA MICTURITION
• Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder
• Voiding, or emptying of the urinary bladder
to the outside of the body by peristalsis
• Two sphincters control the release of urine, the internal
• Function
urethral sphincter and external urethral sphincter
o Females – carries only urine
• Bladder collects urine to 200 ml
o Males – carries urine and sperm
• Stretch receptors transmit impulses to the sacral region of
• Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters the spinal cord
1. Internal urethral sphincter • Impulses travel back to the bladder via the pelvic
o Involuntary and made of smooth muscle splanchnic nerves to cause bladder contraction.
2. External urethral sphincter • When contractions become stronger, urine is forced past
o Voluntary and made of skeletal muscle the involuntary internal sphincter into the upper urethra
• Urge to void is felt
• The external sphincter is voluntarily controlled, so
micturition can usually be delayed.

Figure 14.11 shows the external and internal urethral sphincter of the urethra.

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 FLUID, ELECTROLYTE AND ACID-BASE o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents excessive
BALANCE water loss in the urine and increases water
reabsorption
• Blood composition depends on three factors o ADH targets the kidney’s collecting ducts
1. Diet
2. Cellular Metabolism MAINTAINING ELECTROLYTE BALANCE
3. Urine Output
• Kidneys have four roles in maintaining blood • Electrolytes are charged particles (ions) that conduct
composition electrical current in an aqueous solution
1. Excreting nitrogen-containing wastes (previously • Sodium, potassium, and calcium ions are electrolytes.
discussed) • Small changes in electrolyte concentrations cause water to
2. Maintaining water balance of the blood move from one fluid compartment to another
3. Maintaining electrolyte balance of the blood • A second hormone, aldosterone, helps regulate blood
4. Ensuring proper blood pH composition and blood volume by acting on the kidney
o For each sodium ion reabsorbed, a chloride follows,
MAINTAINING WATER BALANCE OF THE BLOOD and a potassium ion is secreted into the filtrate
• Normal amount of water in the human body o Water follows salt: when sodium is reabsorbed,
o Young adult females = 50% water follows it passively back into the blood (Due to
o Young adult males = 60% osmosis-movement of water from area of lower to
o Babies = 75% higher solute concentration.)
o The elderly = 45%
• Water is necessary for many body functions, and levels
must be maintained
• Water occupies three main fluid compartments
1. Intracellular fluid (ICF)
o Fluid inside cells
o Accounts for two-thirds of body fluid
2. Extracellular fluid (ECF)
o Fluids outside cells; includes blood plasma,
interstitial fluid (IF), lymph, and transcellular
fluid
3. Plasma (blood) is ECF, but accounts for 3L of total
body water.
o Links external and internal environments.
• Regulation of water intake and output
o Water intake must equal water output if the body is to
remain properly hydrated
o Sources for water intake
§ Ingested food and fluids
§ Water produced from metabolic processes
(10%)
o Thirst mechanism is the driving force for water
intake
• Thirst mechanism Just recap from lecture 9 this figure shows how the renin-angiotensin system
o Osmoreceptors are sensitive cells in the works due to a drop in blood pressure and blood volume
hypothalamus that become more active in reaction to Renin released from the kidney acts on angiotensinogen from the liver to
small changes in plasma solute concentration produce angiotensin I. ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) from lungs acts
o When activated, the thirst center in the hypothalamus in angiotensin II (also causes vasoconstriction) which acts on the adrenal
is notified gland to stimulate aldosterone. This hormone causes reabsorption of salt and
o A dry mouth due to decreased saliva also promotes water (Water follows due to osmosis.)
the thirst mechanism
o Both reinforce the drive to drink • Renin-angiotensin mechanism
• Sources of water output o Most important trigger for aldosterone release
o Lungs (insensible since we cannot sense the water o Mediated by the juxtaglomerular (JG) apparatus of
leaving*) the renal tubules
§ Water vapor (gaseous phase of water) is picked o When cells of the JG apparatus are stimulated by low
up from the organs of the respiratory system blood pressure, the enzyme renin is released into
due to exhaled air passing over the moist linings blood
of the respiratory organs. Together with carbon o Renin catalyzes reactions that produce angiotensin II
dioxide, water vapor is excreted. o Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and
o Perspiration aldosterone release
o Feces o Result is increase in blood volume and blood
o Urine pressure
• Hormones are primarily responsible for reabsorption of
water and electrolytes by the kidneys

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 MAINTAINING ACID-BASE BALANCE OF THE • With age, filtration rate decreases and tubule cells become
BLOOD less efficient at concentrating urine, leading to urgency,
frequency, and incontinence.
• Blood pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45 to maintain • In men, urinary retention is another common problem
homeostasis • Problems associated with aging
o Alkalosis – pH above 7.45 o Urgency – feeling that it is necessary to void
o Acidosis – pH below 7.35 o Frequency – frequent voiding of small amounts of
o Physiological acidosis – pH between 7.0 and 7.35 urine
• Kidneys play greatest role in maintaining acid-base o Nocturia – need to get up during the night to urinate
balance o Incontinence – loss of control
• Other acid-base controlling systems o Urinary retention – inability to completely empty the
o Blood buffers bladder; common in males, often the result of
o Respiration hypertrophy of the prostate gland
• Molecules react to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen
ion (H+) concentrations INTERRELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER ORGAN
o Bind to H+ when pH drops SYSTEMS
o Release H+ when pH rises
• Three major chemical buffer systems
1. Bicarbonate buffer system
2. Phosphate buffer system
3. Protein buffer system
• Respiratory mechanisms
o Respiratory rate can rise and fall depending on
changing blood pH to retain CO2 (decreasing the
blood pH; CO2 can react with water forming carbonic
acid*) or remove CO2 (increasing blood pH)
§ *this specifically occurs when carbon dioxide
leaving a cell enters the RBC and within,
together with water forms carbonic acid
• Renal mechanisms
o When blood pH rises:
§ Bicarbonate ions are excreted
§ Hydrogen ions are retained by kidney tubules Figure 14.14 shows the interrelationship of the urinary system to other organ
o When blood pH falls: systems. Aside from removing wastes products coming from other organs, the
§ Bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed urinary system is also responsible for maintaining water, electrolyte and acid-
§ Hydrogen ions are secreted base balance in the body/blood. This image is also available in page 560 of
o Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0 the book.

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF THE

URINARY SYSTEM
• The kidneys begin to develop in the first few weeks of
embryonic life and are expecting urine by the third month
of fetal life
• Common congenital abnormalities include polycystic
kidney (cluster of cysts forms in the kidney) and
hypospadias (opening of the urethra is at the underside
of the penis instead of at the tip)
• Common urinary system problems in children and young
to middle-aged adults include infections caused by fecal
microorganisms, microorganism causing sexually
transmitted infections, and streptococcus
• Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter does not start
until age of 18 months
• Complete nighttime control may not occur until the child is
4 years old
• Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the only common
problems before old age
o Escherichia coli (E. coli), a bacterium, accounts for
80 percent of UTIs
• Renal failure is an uncommon but serious problem in
which the kidneys are unable to concentrate urine, and
dialysis must be done to maintain chemical homeostasis of
blood.

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