Digestive and Body Metabolism

Holy Name University - College of Health Sciences
Department of Radiologic Technology

ANAPHY
First Semester A.Y 2023 - 2024
Mouth
•
Digestive System and Body Metabolism Also called oral cavity
• A mucous membrane-lined
Digestive system; cavity
• Lips (labia)- protects anterior
Ingest food (takes it in)→ digests it opening
(breaks it down) into nutrient molecules→ • Cheeks- protect lateral walls
absorbs the nutrients into blood stream → • Hard palate- forms anterior roof
defecates (excretes) to rid the body of
• Soft palate- form its posterior
indigestible waste
roof
2 Groups of Digestive System • Uvula- flesh finger-like projection
o Alimentary canal of soft palate that dangles from
• performs whole menu of posterior edge of soft palate
digestive function • Vestibule- space between the
• ingest, digests, absorbs, and lips and cheeks externally and
defecates the teeth and gums internally
o Accessory digestive organs • Oral cavity proper- area
• Teeth, tongue, and several large contained by the teeth
digestive glands • Muscular tongue
• Assist digestion in various ways • occupies the floor of the mouth
• have several bony
Organs of the Alimentary Canal attachments two of these are;
Alimentary Canal ✓ hyoid bone
✓ styloid processes of skull
• Also called Gastrointestinal (GI) • Lingual frenulum-
tract or gut • a fold mucous membrane
• A hollow muscular tube that starts • underneath the tongue
from mouth to anus • secures the tongue to the
• Its organs; floor of mouth and limits its
o Mouth posterior movements
o Pharynx
o Esophagus
o Stomach
o Small intestine and Large
intestine
o Anus (terminal opening)
• In dead person alimentary canal is
approximately 9m (30ft) while living
person it is shorter because of
muscle tone
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• Tongue-tied Esophagus
• A condition in children born with
• Also known as gullet
extremely short lingual
• Runs from pharynx through
frenulum
diaphragm to the stomach
• Movement of the tongue is
• About 25 cm (10inch) long
restricted thus leading to
distorted speech • It is essentially a passageway
• This can be corrected surgically that conducts food (by
peristalsis) to the stomach
by cutting the frenulum
• Walls of alimentary canal from
• Palatine tonsils- paired masses of
esophagus to large intestine are
lymphatic tissues at posterior end of
made up of 4 tissue layers/tunics;
oral cavity
1. Mucosa
• Lingual tonsils- cover the base of
• The inner most layer
the tongue just beyond
• A moist mucous membrane that
• When tonsils become inflamed an
lines the hollow cavity or lumen
enlarge, they partially block the
entrance into the throat (pharynx) • Consist primarily of surface
making it difficult to swallow epithelium and small amount of
connective tissue (lamina
Pharynx propria) and scanty smooth
muscle layer
• It is subdivided into; • Epithelium is mostly simple
o Nasopharynx- part of columnar
respiratory passageway 2. Submucosa
o Oropharynx- posterior to the
• Found just beneath the mucosa
oral cavity
• Is soft connective tissue
o Laryngopharynx- continuous
• Containing
with esophagus inferiorly
✓ blood vessels
• The walls of pharynx contain2
✓ nerve endings
skeletal muscle layers;
✓ mucosa-associated
✓ Cells of outer layer run
lymphoid tissue (MALT)
longitudinally
✓ lymphatic vessel
✓ The inner layer (constrictor
3. Muscularis externa
muscles) run around the wall
• A muscle layer
in circular fashion
• Made up of inner circular layer
• Peristalsis
and outer longitudinal layer of
• Alternating contractions of two
smooth muscles
muscles that proper food through
pharynx and into esophagus
ANAPHY
concave medial surface is the
lesser curvature
4. Serosa
✓ Pyloric antrum- narrows inferiorly
• Outermost layer ✓ Pylorus
• Half of a serous membrane pair • the terminal part of stomach
• It is the visceral peritoneum • is continuous with small intestine
Visceral peritoneum through pyloric sphincter or
• Consists of single layer of flat, pyloric valve
serous fluid-producing cells • Stomach varies from 15-25 cm (6-10
• It is continuous with the slippery inch) in length, but its diameter and
parietal peritoneum that lines volume depend on how much food it
abdominopelvic cavity contains
• The stomach can hold up to 4 liters
Mesentery- membrane extension (1 gallon) of food
Peritonitis- a condition when peritoneum is • Rugae- large folds that happened to
infected stomach when it gets empty and
collapses
/ Peritoneal membranes tend to stick • Lesser omentum-
together around infection site that seal off • double layer of peritoneum
and localize many intraperitoneal infections • extends from liver to lesser
2 Intrinsic Nerve Plexuses curvature of stomach
• Greater omentum
1. Submucosal nerve plexus • Another extension of peritoneum
2. Myenteric nerve plexus • Drapes downward and covers
• These networks of nerve fibers are part abdominal organs like lacy apron
of autonomic nervous system and • It is riddled with fat that helps
help regulate the mobility and insulate, cushion and protect
secretory activity of GI tract organs abdominal organs
Stomach • Also has large collections of
lymphoid follicles containing
• Is on the left side of abdominal cavity macrophages and defensive
• Nearly hidden by the liver and cells of immune system
diaphragm • Stomach act as temporary “storage tank”
• Has different regions; for food and a site for food breakdown
✓ Cardial region • The arrangement of layers in muscularis
• Named for its position near heart externa allows the stomach to move food
• Surrounds cardioesopageal along the tract and to chum, mix and
sphincter where food enters the pummel the food, physically breaking it
stomach into smaller fragments
✓ Fundus- expanded part of stomach • Chemical breakdown of proteins begins
lateral to cardial region in stomach
✓ Body • Mucosa of stomach produce protective
• the midportion of stomach layer of bicarbonate rich alkaline mucus
• have greater curvature in that clings to the stomach and protects
convex lateral surface and
ANAPHY
wall from being damaged by acid and
digested enzymes
• Has 3 subdivisions;
• Smooth lining is dotted with millions of
✓ Duodenum
gastric pits which leads to gastric
✓ Jejunum
glands that secretes gastric juice
✓ Ileum
• Intrinsic factor- a substance needed for
absorption of vitamin B12 from small Duodenum- Its 12 finger widths long
intestine Jejunum-
• Chief cells- productive inactive protein- Ileum- contribute 5%, nearly 40% and
digesting enzymes, mostly Pepsinogens almost 60% of the length of small intestine
• Parietal cells Ileocecal valve- place where ileum joins
• Produce corrosive hydrochloric the large intestine
acid (HCI) that makes stomach • The small intestine is able to process
contents acidic and activates only a small amount of food at one
enzymes like conversion of time
pepsinogen to pepsin • Pyloric sphincter
• Mucus neck cells- produce thin acidic • The gatekeeper
mucus with unknown function is different • Controls the movement of chyme
from secreted by mucous cells into small intestine from being
• Enteroendocrine cells- produce local overwhelmed
hormones like gastrin that is important • Some enzymes are produced by
in regulating digestive activities of pancreas that is delivered to duodenum
stomach through pancreatic ducts that
• Most digestive activity occurs in pyloric complete the chemical breakdown of
region foods in small intestine
• Chyme- thick like heavy cream that • Bile
enters small intestine through pyloric • Formed by the liver
sphincter • Enters duodenum through bile
duct
Small Intestine
• Hepatopancreatic ampulla
• It is the body’s major digestive • Joined by pancreatic and bile
organ duct
• It is a muscular tube extending • The “liver-pancreatic
from pyloric sphincter to large enlargement”
intestine • Duodenal papilla- place where bile and
• With its twisted passageways, pancreatic juice travel before entering
usable nutrients are finally duodenum
prepared to enter cells of the • Nearly all nutrient absorption occurs in
body small intestine
• It is the longest section of • Small intestine has three structures;
alimentary tube with length of ✓ Villi
2-4 (7-13 ft.) in a living person • fingerlike projections of mucosa
• It hangs sausage-like coils in • give it velvety appearance and
abdominal cavity suspended by feel much like soft nap of towel
fan-shaped mesentery
ANAPHY
• contains rich capillary bed and ✓ Eliminate these residues
Lacteal (modified lymphatic from the body as feces
capillary bed)
✓ Microvilli • Large intestine have 3
• Tiny projections of plasma subdivisions;
membrane of mucous cells o Cecum
• Give the cell surface a fuzzy o Appendix
appearance or sometimes called o Colon
brush border o Rectum
✓ Circular folds o Anal canal
• Also called Plicae circulares Cecum
• Are deep folds of both mucosa • It is a saclike first part of large
and submucosa layers intestine
• They do not disappear when • Have hanging wormlike
food fills small intestine appendix
compared to rugae Appendix
• They form internal “corkscrew • potential trouble spot
slide” to increase surface area • It is an ideal location for
and force chyme to travel slowly bacteria to accumulate and
so nutrients can be absorbed multiply
efficiently • Appendicitis: inflammation of
• Peyer’s patches appendix
• Local collections of lymphatic Colon- divided into regions;
tissues a. Ascending colon- travels up the
• Found in submucosa increase in right side of abdominal cavity and
number toward end of small makes turn the right colic (hepatic)
intestine flexure to travel across the
• That’s why our residue or b. Transverse colon- turns again at
undigested food contains huge left colic (splenic) flexure and
numbers of bacteria that should continues down the left side as
not enter our bloodstream and c. Descending colon- enter the
must be excreted pelvis where it becomes S-shaped
sigmoid colon
Large Intestine d. Sigmoid colon- continues to
• Is much larger in diameter than rectum and anal canal lie in pelvis
small intestine Anal canal
• But they are shorter in length • It ends at the anus that opens
exteriorly
• About 1.5 m (5ft) long and
• It has 2 valves;
extends from ileocecal valve to
✓ External anal sphincter
anus
• composed of skeletal
• Major functions;
muscle
✓ To dry out the indigestible
• Is voluntary
food residue by absorbing
✓ Internal anal sphincter
water
ANAPHY
• Formed by smooth • Baby has a full set (20 teeth) by
muscle age of 2years
• Is involuntary
• These sphincters act as a purse
strings that open and close the Permanent teeth
anus • Second set of teeth
• No villi are preset in the large • It enlarge and develop roots of
intestine but have tremendous milk teeth and reabsorbed
numbers of goblet cells that • Between 6 and 12 yrs. old they
produce alkaline (bicarbonate- loosen and fall out
rich) mucus • All permanent teeth excluding
• That rich mucus lubricates the third molars will erupt by the end
passage of feces to the end of adolescence
digestive tract • There are 32 permanent teeth
• In large intestine, muscular externa full set
is reduced to three bands of muscle Third molars
cell called tenia coli (ribbons of • Also called wisdom teeth
colon) • Emerge between ages of 17 and
• Haustra 25
• Walls that pucker into small • Wisdom teeth often fail to erupt
pocketlike sacs and sometimes they’re complete
• Made from muscle bands that absent
display some degree of tones
(partially contracted) Impacted Teeth
• When teeth remain embedded in
Accessory Digestive Organs the jawbone
• It can exert pressure and cause
Teeth good deal of pain
• play role in processing food • They usually must be removed
• it masticate or chew teeth
• it tear and grind food, breaking it • Wisdom teeth are most
down into smaller fragments commonly impacted
• By age 21, 2 sets of teeth have been
forms; Classifications of Teeth
(according to shape and function)
✓ Deciduous teeth (baby
teeth or milk teeth)
Incisors • Chisel-shaped
• Adapted for
✓ Permanent teeth
cutting
Deciduous teeth
Canines • Fanglike
• First set of teeth (eyeteeth) • For tearing or
• Also called baby teeth or milk piercing
teeth Premolars
• Begin to erupt around 6 months (bicuspids)
• First teeth to appear are the Molars • Have broad
lower central incisors crowns
ANAPHY
• With rounded • Provides route for blood vessels,
cusps (tips) nerves and other pulp structures
• Best for to enter pulp cavity of tooth
crushing and
grinding
2 Major Regions of Tooth;
✓ Crown
✓ Root
Crown
• Exposed part of the tooth
• Above the gingiva (gum)
• It is covered with enamel
Enamel- ceramic-like substance as
thick as dime that directly bears the
force of chewing
• It is the hardest substance in the
body and is fairly brittle as it is
heavily mineralized with calcium
salts
Root
• Portion of tooth embedded in the
jaw bone
• It is connected with the crown by
a region called neck
• Its outer surface is covered by a
substance called cement that
attaches the tooth to periodontal
Salivary Glands
membrane
• There are 3 pairs of salivary
Periodontal membrane (ligament)
glands that empty their
• Holds the tooth in place in the
secretion into the mouth
bony jaw
• Parotid glands- lie anterior
Dentin
to the ears
• A bonelike material
• Mumps
• Underlies the enamel and forms
- common childhood disease
the bulk of tooth
- an inflammation of parotid
• It surrounds a central pulp cavity
glands
Pulp cavity
• Submandibular glands and
• Contains number of structures
small sublingual glands
(connective tissue, blood vessels
- Empty their secretion
and nerve fibers)
into the floor of the
• Collectively called Pulp mouth through tiny ducts
• It becomes root when it extends
to roots
Root canal
ANAPHY
• Saliva Liver and Gallbladder
- product salivary glands
- a mixture of mucus and Liver
serous fluids - The largest gland in the body
- contains substance such as - Function: produce BILE
lysozyme and antibodies - Located under the diaphragm more to
(IgA) that inhibit bacteria the right side of the body
- it dissolves food chemicals - It overlies and almost completely
so they can be tasted covers the stomach
• Mucus moistens and help to bind - Has four lobes and is suspended from
food together into mass called diaphragm and abdominal wall by
bolus delicate mesentery cord, the falciform
• Bolus- makes chewing and ligament
swallowing easier - Has many critical metabolic and
• Salivary amylase regulatory roles
- In a bicarbonate-rich - Bile that produced by the liver leaves
(alkaline) juice throughs the common hepatic duct
- It begins the process of and enters duodenum through bile
starch digestion in the duct
mouth Bile
Pancreas - A yellow-to-green, watery
• It is soft, pink, triangular gland solution, containing;
✓ Bile salts
• It extend across the abdomen from
✓ Bile pigments (bilirubin: a
spleen to the duodenum
breakdown product of
• It lies posterior to parietal
hemoglobin)
peritoneum
✓ Cholesterol
• Its location is referred to as
✓ Phospholipids
retroperitoneal
✓ Variety of electrolytes
• Only pancreas produces enzymes
- Bile doesn’t contain enzymes,
that break down all categories of
but its bile salts emulsify fats
digestible foods
by physically breaking large fat
• Pancreatic enzymes are secreted molecules into smaller ones
into duodenum in alkaline fluid that Gallbladder
neutralizes acidic chyme coming in - A small, thin-walled green sac
from stomach - It snuggles in a shallow fossa in
• Pancreas also has an endocrine the inferior surface of liver
function; produces hormones - When fatty food enters
insulin and glucagon duodenum, hormonal stimulus
prompts gallbladder to contract
and spurt out stored bile
/When food digestion is not occurring, bile
backs up the cystic duct and enters the
gallbladder to be stored
ANAPHY
Gallstones
- Formed when bile is stored in 2. Propulsion
gallbladder for too long • Food must be propelled from one
- May also formed when too much organ to the next to be processed
water is removed that cholesterol • E.g., Swallowing of food movement
it contains may crystallize that depends largely on propulsive
- Agonizing pain may feel when process called peristalsis
gallbladder contracts (called Peristalsis- is an involuntary and
gallbladder attack) involves alternating waves of
Jaundice contraction and relaxation of
- When tissues become yellow longitudinal muscles
when bile pigments circulate 3. Food breakdown: Mechanical
through the body abnormally breakdown
- Its one cause is blockage of • Mechanical breakdown
ducts physically fragments into smaller
Hepatitis ones
- an inflammation of liver • Increasing surface area and
- often due to viral infection resulting preparing food for further
from drinking contaminated water or degradation
transmitted in blood via transfusion or • Chewing and mixing food in the
contaminated needles mouth by teeth and tongue and
Cirrhosis churning it in the stomach
- A chronic inflammatory condition where • Segmentation
liver is severely damaged and - In small intestine, food
becomes hard and fibrous moves back and forth
- Almost guaranteed when someone across internal wall of
drinks alcoholic beverages in excess organ, mixing it with
for many years digestive juices
- It is common consequence of severe - May also help to propel
hepatitis foodstuffs through small
intestine but more on
Functions of Digestive System mechanical digestion
• Major functions; 4. Food breakdown: Digestion
✓ Digestion • Digestion
✓ Absorption - sequence of steps where
✓ large food molecules are
6 processes of GI Tract; chemically broken down
1. Ingestion by enzymes (protein
- Food must be placed into mouth molecules that act as
before it can be acted on catalysts)
- An active, voluntary process
ANAPHY
• Monosaccharides- building blocks of o Lumen (cavity)
carbohydrates - Area that is actually outside the
o Glucose- the most important and body
refers to blood sugar level - Are controlled so that digestive
o Fructose- most abundant sugar in processes occur efficiently
fruits o Digestive activity is mostly controlled by
o Galactose- found in milk reflexes via the parasympathetic
• Only carbohydrates that digestive system division of the autonomic nervous
digest or breaks down are; system
✓ Sucrose (table sugar) o Sensors (mechanoreceptors,
✓ Lactose (milk sugar) chemoreceptors) are located in walls of
✓ Maltose (malt sugar) alimentary canal organs and respond to
✓ Starch stimuli
• Sucrose, lactose, maltose are o When those receptors are activated,
disaccharides while starch is they trigger reflexes that activate;
polysaccharides a. Glands that secrete digestive juices
• Polysaccharides do not provide into lumen or hormones into blood
any nutrients, but it helps move b. The smooth muscles that mix and
foodstuffs along our GI tract as it propel the food along the tract
provide fiber in our diet
• Proteins are digested by amino Activities occurring in the Mouth,
acids and their product is Pharynx and Esophagus
polypeptides
• Lipids (fats) when digested yield Food Ingestion and Breakdown
two different types of building blocks;
• Mechanical and Digestive
fatty acids and glycerol
(chemical) processing start once food
5. Absorption
has been placed in the mouth
- It is the transport of digestive end
• Salivary amylase begins digestion of
products from lumen to GI tract to blood or
starch, chemically breaking in into
lymph
maltose
- For it to occur, digested foods must first
• Saliva is normally secreted to keep
enter mucosal cells by active or passive
mouth moist but larger amounts are
transport processes
secreted when food enters
- Small intestine: major absorptive site
6. Defecation • Any simple pressure will also
- Is the elimination of indigestible residues stimulate release of saliva
from GI tract via anu in form of feces • Also, emotional stimuli can lead to
release of saliva like having the
o Digestive tract can be viewed as thought of hot fudge sundae
“disassembly line” which food is • All reflexes stated are brought by
carried from one stage of its processing parasympathetic fibers in cranial
to next and nutrients are made available nerves VII and IX
to cells in the body • No food absorption occurs in mouth
while pharynx and esophagus have no
digestive function, they simple provide
passageway
ANAPHY
Food Propulsion- Swallowing and Activities of the Stomach
Peristalsis
• Deglutition (swallowing) Food Breakdown
- Is a complex process that involves
• Secretion of gastric juice is regulated
the coordinated activity of several
by both neural and hormonal factors
structures;
• Presence of food and a rising pH in the
✓ Tongue
stomach stimulate the stomach cells to
✓ Soft palate
release the hormone gastrin. This
✓ Pharynx
gastrin prods gastric glands to produce
✓ Esophagus
more protein digesting enzymes
Deglutition has two major phases;
• 2-3 liters of gastric juice produced by
a. Buccal phase
normal conditioned stomach
- First phase and is voluntary
- Occurs in mouth • Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach
- After food ben chewed and well contents very acidic. Also, dangerous if
mixed with saliva, bolus (food it digest the stomach itself, causing
mass) is forced into pharynx ulcers
- Once food enters pharynx, we • Heart burn
have no control of it and into - Occurs when gastric juice backs
realm activity of reflex activity up into the esophagus that has
b. Pharyngeal-esophageal little mucus protection
- Second phase and is involuntary - Which if untreated will inflamed
- Transports food through pharynx the esophagus (esophagitis) or
and esophagus even ulceration of esophagus
- Controlled by parasympathetic • Hiatal hernia
division of autonomic nervous - A structural abnormality which
system and promotes mobility of superior part of stomach
digestive organs protrudes slightly above
- All routes that the food might diaphragm
take, except the desired route - Gastric juice flows into the
further into the digestive tract, unprotected esophagus and
are blocked off slowly kills it
- Food is moved through the - Treatment could be;
pharynx and then into the ✓ Restricting food intake
esophagus inferiorly by wavelike after dinner
peristaltic contractions of their ✓ Taking antacids
muscular walls—first the ✓ Sleeping with head
longitudinal muscles contract, elevated
and then the circular muscles • Hydrochloric acid is necessary as it
contract activate pepsinogen to pepsin (active
protein-digesting enzyme)
ANAPHY
• Renin -That allows intestinal processing
- second protein-digesting enzyme to catch up
produce by stomach - It takes about 4 hours for
- works primarily on milk protein stomach to empty completely
and converts it into substance after person eats well-balanced
looks like sour milk meal but 6 hours or more if the
- are produced in large amounts in meal has high fat content
infants and can be used to Emetic
make milk curdle into cheese - Center in the brain (medulla)
• As food enters the stomach, its wall - Will be activated if local irritation
begin to stretch with gastric juices being of stomach like bacterial food
secreted. Then, three muscle layers poisoning happens
become active, as they compress and - It causes vomiting or emesis
pummel food. Process is continuously - Emetic center may be activated
mixed with liquid until it reaches a through other pathways like
uniform texture disturbance of equilibrium of
inner ear during boat ride
Food Propulsion • Vomiting is reverse peristalsis occurring
• Peristalsis begins in upper half of in the stomach accompanied by
stomach after food has been well mixed contraction of abdominal muscles and
1. Contractions increase in force as diaphragm
food approaches pyloric valve,
grinding food into chyme.
Activities of the Small Intestine
Pylorus
- holds about 30ml of chyme
Chyme Breakdown and Absorption
- Acts like meter that allows only
• Carbohydrate and protein digestion has
liquids and very small particles to
pass through pyloric sphincter begun but no fats or nucleic acids have
been digested in this point
- Only 3mL or less of chyme is
• Food now takes a wild 3-6 hours journey
squirted into small intestine
through looping coils and twists of small
2. Contractions also closes the valve;
intestine
the rest of chyme (about 27 ml) is
propelled backward into stomach for • Digestion will be complete and nearly all
more mixing (process called food absorption will have occurred once
retropulsion)3. the food reaches the end of small
intestine
• Enterogastric
• Brush border enzymes
- Occurs when duodenum is filled
- Produce by microvilli of small
with chyme and its wall is
intestine cells
stretched
- It breaks down double sugars
- This reflex puts the brakes on”
into simple sugars and complete
gastric activity
protein digestion
- It slows the emptying of stomach
by inhibiting vagus nerve and
tightening pyloric sphincter
ANAPHY
• Intestinal juice Bile
- Relatively enzyme poor - is not an enzyme
- Protective mucus is its important - it acts like a detergent to
intestinal gland secretion emulsify, or mechanically
• Pancreatic juice separate, large fat
- Enzyme-rich globules into thousands of tiny
- Delivered via duct from pancreas ones
as well as bile from liver - also necessary for absorption
- Contains enzymes that; of fats—and the fat-soluble
a. Along with brush border vitamins (K, D, E, and A)
enzymes, complete the • Without bile or pancreatic juice, no fat
digestion of starch digestion or absorption goes on and
(pancreatic amylase) fatty bulky stools are the result
b. Carry about half of protein • Blood-clotting problems may also
digestion (via the action of occur as liver needs fat-soluble vitamin
trypsin, chymotrypsin, K to make thrombin
carboxypeptidase) • Active transport
c. Are totally responsible for fat - Process where most substances
digestion as the pancreas is are absorbed through intestinal
essentially only source of cell plasma membranes
lipases • Fats are absorbed passively by the
d. Digest nucleic acids process of Diffusion
(nucleases) • At the end of the ileum, all that remains
- Pancreatic juice contains rich is some water, indigestible food
supply of bicarbonate ions that materials and large amounts of bacteria.
makes it very basic (pH 8) This debris enter large intestine through
- Pancreatic juice neutralizes ileocecal valve
the acidic chyme coming from
stomach and provide proper Chyme Propulsion
environment for activation • Net effect is that food is moved
Pancreatitis through small intestine in same that
- A rare but extremely serious toothpaste is squeezed from a tube
inflammation of pancreas • Rhythmic segmental movements
- It results from activation produce local constrictions of
pancreatic enzymes in intestine that mix chyme with
pancreatic duct digestive juices and help propel food
- As pancreatic enzymes break through intestine
down all categories of biological
molecules it digest important
tissues that can lead to
nutritional deficiencies
ANAPHY
Activities of Large Intestine • Mass movements
- Long, slow-moving but powerful
Nutrient Breakdown and Absorption contractile waves
• Only few nutrients delivered to large - It move over large areas of colon
intestine, but residue still has 12 to 24 three or four times daily and
hours more to spend there force contents toward the rectum
• Colon itself produces no digestive - They occur during or just after
enzyme but its “resident” bacteria that eating, when food begins to fill
live in its lumen metabolize some the stomach and small intestine
remaining nutrients releasing gas • Bulk or fiber
(methane and hydrogen sulfide) that - Helpful in diet as it increases the
contribute to flatulence and odor of strength of colon contractions
feces - It also softens the stool allowing
• About 500 ml of gas (flatus) is the colon to perform its function
produced each day and much more if more effectively
we eat carbohydrate-rich foods like o Without bulk or fiber, colon narrows
beans and its circular muscles contract
• Bacteria in large intestine also make more powerfully, increasing pressure
some useful vitamins (vitamin K and on its wall
some B vitamins) o Diverticulosis
- Formation of diverticula in which
• Absorption is limited and most of the
mucosa protrudes through colon
remaining water. Thus, feces contains
walls
most undigested food residues,
o Diverticulitis
mucus, millions of bacteria and
- Condition in which diverticula
enough water to allow smooth passage
become inflamed
out from the anus
- Can be life-threatening if
ruptures occur
Propulsion of Food Residue and
Defecation
• Colon begins to contract when food
residue is presented but they are
sluggish or short-lived
• Haustral contractions
- Movements seen in the colon
- Slow segmenting movements
lasting about 1 minute
- Occur every 30 minutes or so
- These movements also mix the
residue that aids in water
absorption
ANAPHY
• Defecation reflex Nutrition and Metabolism
- When feces are forced into
rectum by mass movements and • You are what you eat means that the
its wall is stretched food we eat is converted to our living
- Is a spinal (sacral region) reflex flesh
that causes walls of anal • Most foods are used as metabolic fuels
sphincters to relax and are oxidized and transformed into
- as feces forced into anal canal, adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
messages reach the brain giving • ATP
us time to decide whether - The chemical energy form body
external voluntary sphincters cells need to drive many
should open or be constricted to activities
stop passage feces • Kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)
Diarrhea - Units used to measure energy
- also called watery stools value of food
- result from any condition that - Conscientiously counted by
rushes food residue through dieters
large intestine before that organ NUTRITION
has sufficient time to absorb • Nutrient
water - A substance in food that uses to
/ Prolonged diarrhea may result in promote normal growth,
dehydration and electrolyte imbalance that maintenance, and repair
could be fatal if severe - Divide neatly into 6 categories;
▪ Major nutrients (make up the
Constipation bulk of what we eat);
- when food residue remains in ✓ Carbohydrates
large intestine for extended ✓ Lipids
periods with too much water ✓ Proteins
absorbed and stool becomes ▪ Minor nutrients (required in
hard and difficult to pass very small amounts)
- may result from ✓ Vitamins
✓ lack of fiber in the diet ✓ Minerals
✓ power bowel habits • Water- accounts for about 60% of
(failing to heed the call) volume of the food we eat, also
✓ narcotic pain medication considered to be major nutrient
like hydrocodone • A diet consisting of foods selected from
Stool softeners can help increase water each of five food groups that is grains,
content of material in colon to ease fruits, vegetables, meat and meat
passage during defecation alternatives and milk products
normally guarantees adequate amount
of all needed nutrients
ANAPHY
Dietary Recommendations Dietary Sources of the Major
• Healthy Eating Pyramid by Walter Nutrients
Willet
- Uses traditional (horizontal) Carbohydrates
orientation of food groups • Except for milk sugars (lactose)
- Emphasizes eating whole-grain and small amounts of glycogen
foods and lots of fruits and in meats, all carbs like sugar
vegetables and starches are from plants
- Recommends substituting plant • Sugars come mainly from fruits,
oils for animals fats and sugar cane, and milk
restricting red meat, sweets, and • Polysaccharide starch
starchy foods - Found in grains, legumes
• MyPlate and root vegetable
- Is more recent food guide from • Polysaccharide cellulose
2011 - Is plentiful in most
- Uses different symbol- around vegetables
dinner plate - Not digested but provide fiber
- Issued by US Department of that increases the bulk of
Agriculture (USDA) stool and aids defecation
- It shows food categories in Lipids
healthy proportions in sections of • Most of them are triglycerides
a place setting rather than as (neural fats)
segments of pyramid • Saturated fats are from meat
- Occupying half the plate are and dairy foods and in few plant
fruits and vegetable (more products like coconut
vegetable than fruits) while the • Unsaturated fats are present in
other half shows grains and seeds, nuts, and most vegetable
proteins (more grain than oils
protein) • Major sources of cholesterol;
- A glass represents dairy and fifth ✓ Egg yolks
food group ✓ Meats
• Nutrition advice is constantly in flux ✓ Milk products
and often mired in the self-interest of
food companies Proteins
• Basic dietary principles have not • Animal products contain high-
changed in years; quality proteins (amino acid
“Eat less overall, eat plenty of fruits, polymers)
vegetables, and whole grains, avoid • Complete proteins that meet all
junk food, and exercise regularly” body’s amino acid requirements
for tissue maintenance and
growth;
✓ Egg
✓ Milk
✓ Fish
✓ Most meat proteins
ANAPHY
• Legumes (beans and peas), nuts, Minerals
cereals are also protein rich but • Body also requires adequate
nutritionally incomplete as they are supplies of seven minerals (are
low in one or more essential amino inorganic substances);
acids ✓ Calcium
• Essential amino acids ✓ Phosphorus
- Are eight amino acids that are ✓ Potassium
bodies cannot make but must ✓ Sulfur
obtain from our diet ✓ Sodium
✓ Tryptophan ✓ Chloride
✓ Methionine ✓ Magnesium
✓ Valine • Fats and sugars have no particular
✓ Threonine minerals while cereals and grains
✓ Phenylalanine are poor sources
✓ Leucine • Vegetables, legumes, milk, and
✓ Isoleucine some meats- most mineral rich
✓ Lysine foods
• Strict vegetarians carefully plan their
diets to obtain all essential amino Metabolism
acids and prevent protein
malnutrition Metabolism
• Cereal grains and legumes when • Is a broad term referring to all
eaten together provide all needed chemical reactions that are
amino acids and some are found in necessary to maintain life
diets of all cultures • It involves;
▪ Catabolism- the breakdown of
Vitamins substances to simpler
• Vitamins are organic nutrients of substances
various forms that body requires little ▪ Anabolism- the building of
amount larger molecules or structures
• A balanced diet is best way to from smaller ones
ensure full vitamin complement, ▪ During catabolism, bond energy
particularly because certain vitamins of foods is released and capture
(A , C and E) appear to have to make adenosine triphosphate
anticancer effects (ATP)
• Diets rich in broccoli, cabbage, and ATP- the energy-rich molecule used
brussels sprouts (all good sources to energize all cellular activities,
of vitamins A and C) appear to including catabolic reactions
reduce cancer risk.
• Some also works as coenzymes,
that act with an enzyme to
accomplish a particular type of
catalysis
ANAPHY
Carbohydrate Metabolism
• The cells of the body uses Electron transport chain
carbohydrates as their preferred fuel - Is where the action is for ATP
to produce cellular energy (ATP) production
• Glucose - Hydrogen atoms removed during
- Also known as blood sugar first two metabolic phases are
- Is a major breakdown product of loaded with energy by the
carbohydrate digestion coenzymes to the protein
- Is also major fuel used for carriers that form part of
making ATP in most body cells mitochondrial cristae
- Is broken apart piece by piece membranes
and some chemical energy Oxidative phosphorylation
released when its bonds are - More complicated process of
broken is captured and used to ATP formation
bind phosphate to ADP - Unlike explosive reaction that
molecules to make ATP usually happens when fuels are
• Cellular respiration- oxygen-using burned, relatively small amounts
events of energy are lost as heat (and
• 3 Metabolic Pathways (Cellular light)
Respiration) Hyperglycemia
1. Glycolysis • An excessively high level of glucose
2. Citric acid cycle in the blood
3. Electron transport chain • Some of excess is stored in body
cells (i.e., liver and muscle cells) as
glycogen
Glycolysis
• Too high blood glucose level,
- Takes place in cytosol excesses are converted to fat
- It energizes each glucose Hypoglycemia
molecule so that it can be split - When the blood glucose level is
into to pyruvic acid molecules too low
and yield a small amount of ATP - The liver breaks down stored
in the process glycogen and releases glucose
Citric acid cycle to the blood for cellular use
- Occurs in mitochondria
- Produces virtually all carbon Fat Metabolism
dioxide that results during cell • Liver handles most lipid, or fat,
respiration metabolism that goes on in the body
- It also yields small amount of • Liver cells use some fats to make
ATP by transferring high-energy ATP for their own use;
phosphate groups directly from ▪ Synthesize lipoproteins
▪ Thromboplastin (clotting
phosphorylated substances of
protein)
ADP
▪ Cholesterol
• Fats are used to form myelin
sheaths and fatty cushions around
body organs
ANAPHY
• Stored fats are body’s most • When it is necessary to oxidize
concentrated source of energy amino acids for energy (their amine
• For fat products to be used for ATP groups are removed as ammonia,
synthesis, they must first be broken and the rest of the molecule enters
down to acetic acid the citric acid cycle pathway in the
• Within mitochondria, the acetic acid mitochondria
is then completely oxidized, and • Ammonia that is released is toxic to
CO2, water and ATP are formed body cells especially nerve cells
• When acetoacetic acid or acetone
begin to accumulate in the blood, it The Central Role of the Liver in
can cause blood acidosis or
ketoacidosis Metabolism
• Ketoacidosis
- A common consequence of • Liver’s major role: Manufacturing bile
✓ “no-carbohydrate” diets • Liver cells;
✓ Uncontrolled diabetes ✓ Detoxify drugs and alcohol
mellitus ✓ Degrade hormones
✓ Starvation in which the ✓ Make many substances vital
body is forced to rely to the body as a whole
almost totally on fats to (cholesterol, blood proteins
fuel its energy needs and lipoproteins)
• Cholesterol is never used as cellular • Liver cells play central role in
fuel metabolism as they process nearly
• Excess fats are stored in fat deposits early class of nutrient
like hips, abdomen, breasts and • Hepatic portal circulation
subcutaneous tissues - A unique circulation that brings
nutrient-rich blood draining from
Protein Metabolism digestive viscera directly to the
• Protein make up bulk of cellular liver
structures • Liver is the body’s major metabolic
• Ingested proteins are broken down organ, and its phagocytic cells
to amino acids remove and destroy bacteria that
• Cells remove amino acids from the have managed to get through the
blood and use them to build walls of digestive tract into the blood
proteins, for both their own use
(enzymes membrane, mitotic spindle General Metabolic Functions
proteins, muscle proteins) and for • Liver
export (mucus, hormones and - Important in helping to maintain
others) blood glucose level within normal
• Cells use ATP to actively transport range
amino acids into their interior even - Normale range: 100mg
though in many cases they may glucose/100ml of blood
contain more of those than are in the • Glycogen- large polysaccharide
blood flowing molecules that are stored in the liver
• Amino acids are used to make ATP • Glycogenesis- a process meaning
only when proteins are “glycogen formation”
overabundant and/or when
carbohydrates and fats are not
available
ANAPHY
• Glycogenolysis- “glycogen splitting” - the LDLs are unkindly tagged as
liver cells break down the stored “bad lipoproteins.”
glycogen then liver cells release this • If large amounts of LDLs are
glucose bit by bit to the blood to circulating, the chance that fatty
maintain blood glucose homeostasis substances will be deposited on the
• Gluconeogenesis- “formation of new arterial walls, initiating
sugar” liver make glucose from atherosclerosis, is high
noncarbohydrate substances like fats • High- density lipoproteins (HDLs)
and proteins - Lipoproteins that transport
• Hormones like thyroxine, insulin and cholesterol from the tissue cells
glucagon are important in controlling to the liver for disposal in bile
blood sugar level and in handling - Is considered “good” because
glucose in all body cells the cholesterol is destined to be
• Liver also makes cholesterol and broken down and eliminated
secretes cholesterol’s breakdown from the body
products in bile • Aerobic exercise, a diet low in
• Albumin saturated fats and cholesterol, and
- Most abundant protein in blood abstaining from smoking and
- It holds fluid in the bloodstream drinking coffee all appear to favor a
/ If insufficient albumin is present in blood, desirable HDL/LDL ratio
fluid leaves the bloodstream and
accumulates in tissue spaces causing Body Energy Balance
edema
• Dynamic balance exists between the
• Liver cells synthesize nonessential
body’s energy intake and its energy
amino acids and detoxify ammonia that
output;
combined with carbon dioxide to form
Energy intake= total energy output
urea
(heat+ work+ energy storage)
• Urea is not harmful to the body cells and
is flushed from the body in urine
Energy intake
• Is the energy liberated during food
Cholesterol Metabolism and Transport
oxidation—that is, during the
• Cholesterol is not used as an energy
reactions of glycolysis, the citric acid
fuel
cycle, and the electron transport
• Cholesterol chain
- serves as structural basis of
Energy output
steroid hormones and vitamin D
- Includes the energy we
- is a major building block of immediately lose as heat plus
plasma membranes energy used to do work (driven
- Blood cholesterol; 85% made by by ATP) energy that is stored in
liver and 15% is from diet
form of fat or glycogen
- It is lost from the body when its - Energy storage is important only
is broken down and secreted in during periods of growth a during
bile salts, which eventually leave net fat deposit
body in feces
• Low-density Lipoproteins (LDLs)
- Transport cholesterol and other
lipids to body cells, where they
are used in various ways
ANAPHY
Regulation of Food Intake
• If energy intake and energy output
are balances, body weight remains
stable but if not we either gain or
lose weight
• Hypothalamus releases several
peptides that influence feeding
behavior
• Body temperature and
psychological factors also seems
to play a role in feeding behavior
• Brain receptors include
thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors • Thyroxine
(for glucose, insulin, and others), - Produced by thyroid gland
and receptors that respond to leptin - The most important factor in
and other polypeptide determining a person’s BMR
- Has been dubbed the
Metabolic Rate and Body Heat “metabolic hormone”
Production - More thyroxine, higher oxygen
• Kilocalorie (kcal)- energy value of consumption and ATP use,
food is measured in this unit higher metabolic rate
• 4kcal/gram: carbohydrates and • Most BMR tests determine whether
proteins sufficient thyroxine was being made
• 9kcal/gram: fats
• To determine the caloric value of a Hyperthyroidism
meal, we must know how many o Causes a host of effects due to
grams of each type of foodstuff it excessive metabolic rate it
contains produces
Basal Metabolic Rate o The body catabolizes stored fats
- Amount of heat produced by the and tissues
body per unit of time when it is o Despite increased hunger and
under basal condition food intake, person having this
- Basal conditions; at rest condition often loses weight
- It reflect energy supply a o Bones weaken, body muscles
person’s body needs to perform and heart atrophy
essential life activities like Hypothyroidism
breathing, maintaining heartbeat o Results in slowed metabolism,
Average (70kg) BMR: 60-72 obesity and diminished thought
kcal/hour processes
o Factors influence BMR;
✓ Surface area
✓ Gender
o Small, thin males: higher BMR
o Old age: decrease BMR
ANAPHY
Total Metabolic Rate • To achieve this vasoconstriction of
• Total metabolic rate (TMR) blood vessels of the skin and
o Refers to the total amount of shivering must occur
kilocalories the body must • When skin vasculature constricts,
consume to fuel all ongoing blood temporarily bypasses the skin
activities and is rerouted to deeper more vital
o It is the muscular work that body organs
majorly increases TMR • If restriction of blood deliver to the
o TMR may increase to 15-20 skin is extended, frostbite could
minutes if well-trained athlete happen.
for an instance, exercise • Frostbite
vigorously for several minutes - when the skin cells, chilled by
o Homeostasis is maintained and internal ice crystals and deprived
weight remains constant when of oxygen and nutrients, begin to
total number of kilocalories die
consumed is equal to the TMR - can cause the loss of extremities
o Principle of good weight-loss such as fingers and toes
diet; • Shivering
The total kilocalories needed are - When the core body
calculated on the basis of body temperature (temperature of
size and age. Then, 20% or deep organs) drop to the point
more of the requirements are cut beyond simple constrictions of
from the daily diet skin capillaries can handle
- It is involuntary shuddering
Body Temperature Regulation contractions of voluntary
• ATP is not the only product of cell muscles
catabolism - Is very effective in increasing the
• Most energy released during food body temperature because
oxidation escapes as heat skeletal muscle activity produces
• Body temperature reflects the large amount of heat
balance between heat production • Hypothermia
and heat loss - Extremely low body
• Hypothalamus- body’s thermostat temperature resulting from
• Hypothalamus continuously prolonged exposure to cold
regulates body temperature around - If it happens, the individual’s vital
set point of 37°C, fluctuating within signs (respiratory rate) decrease
the range of 35.6° to 37.8°C (96° to - Person becomes drowsy and
100°F). oddly comfortable even though
• Hypothalamus does this by initiating previously he or she felt
heat-promoting mechanisms or heat extremely cold
loss mechanisms - If uncorrected, coma might occur
and finally death as metabolic
Heat-Promoting Mechanisms processes grind to a stop
• If the temperature of circulating
blood falls, body heat must be Heat Loss Mechanisms
conserved and more heat generated
to restore normal body (blood) • Most heat loss occurs through the
temperature skin via radiation or evaporation
ANAPHY
• When body temperature increases • Fever
above normal range, blood vessels - Is controlled hyperthermia
in skin dilate and capillary beds - It results from infection
become flushed with warm blood somewhere in the body but
thus heat radiates from the skin maybe caused by other
surface conditions (cancer, allergic
• Evaporation of perspiration off the reaction and CNS injuries)
skin happens when external Pyrogens
environment is as hot as the body - A chemical substance that is
and heat cannot be lost by radiation released by injured WBC, act
• If it is humid, evaporation occurs at a directly on hypothalamus
much slower rate and our heat- causing its thermostat to be set
liberating mechanisms don’t work higher temperature
well, leaving us feeling miserable Chills
and irritable - Vasoconstriction causes skin to
• Hyperthermia become cool, and shivering begins
- When normal heat loss to generate heat
processes become ineffective - Is a sure sign that body temperature
- Elevated body temperature, is rising
depresses the activity of o The body temperature is allowed to rise
hypothalamus until it reaches the new setting. Then it
• Heat stroke is maintained at “fever setting” until
- Temperature continues to spiral natural body defense processes or
upward, permanent brain antibiotics reverse the disease process
damage becomes distinct o Fever, by increasing metabolic rate, help
possibility speed various healing processes and
- Can be fatal unless rapid appears to inhibit bacterial growth
corrective measures are taken o Danger of fever is that if body
immediately (immersion in cool thermostat is set too high, body proteins
water and administration of may be denatured (unfolded) and
fluids) permanent brain damage may occur
• Heat exhaustion
- The term used to describe the Developmental Aspects of Digestive System
heat-associated collapse of an
and Metabolism
individual during vigorous
physical activity
- It results from excessive loss of • Very young embryo is flat and pancake-
body fluids (dehydration) shaped
- Is evident by; • Soon it folds to form cylindrical body and
✓ Low blood pressure its internal cavity become cavity of
✓ Rapid heartbeat alimentary canal
✓ Cool • By 5th week, alimentary canal develop
✓ Clammy skin continuous tube-like structure extending
from mouth to anus
• Shortly after, the digestive glands
(salivary glands, liver, and pancreas)
bud out from the mucosa of the
alimentary tube
•
ANAPHY
• Cleft palate/cleft lip defect • Appetite decreases in the elementary
- Most common congenital defects school–aged child and then increases
that interfere with feeding again during the rapid growth of
- But cleft palate is more serious adolescence
that leaves the child unable to • Gastroenteritis
suck properly - Caused when the gastrointestinal
• Tracheoesophageal fistula tract is inflamed due to too spicy
- An abnormal connection between food intake
esophagus and the trachea • Appendicitis
- Esophagus ends in a blind sac and - Inflammation of appendix
does not connect to the stomach - Common in teenagers for some
The baby chokes, drools, and unknown reason
becomes cyanotic during feedings • Middle age and early old age- metabolic
because food is entering the rate decrease by 5-8% in every 10-year
respiratory passageways period
• In this time we gain weight and obesity
Cystic fibrosis (CF) becomes a fact of life
- Primarily affect the lungs • Two distinctly middle-age digestive
- Significantly impairs the activity of problems;
pancreas o Ulcers
- Huge amounts of mucus are o Gallbladder problems
produced that block passages of (inflammation of gallbladder or
involved organs gallstones)
- Blockage of pancreatic duct • Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
prevents pancreatic fluid from - Characterized by alternating bouts
reaching small intestine of diarrhea and constipation
- As a result, fats and fat-soluble - Is becoming much more prevalent
vitamins are not digested or in adults
absorbed, and bulky, fat-laden • During old age;
stools result. ✓ Activity of GI tract declines
- This condition usually handled by ✓ Fewer digestive juices are
administering pancreatic enzymes produced, and peristalsis slows
with meals ✓ Taste and smell becomes less
• Obtaining nutrition is most important acute and periodontal diseases
activity of newborn baby and several often develops
helpful reflexes present at this time • Elders living alone and increasing
• Rooting reflexes physical disability tend to make eating
- Helps infant find the nipple less appealing and nutrition is
(mother’s or bottle) inadequate in many of them
• Sucking reflexes • Diverticulosis- bulging of the colon wall
- Helps infant to hold on to the nipple into the lumen and cancer of GI tract are
and swallow fairly common
• Feeding must be every 3-4 hours for • Cancer of stomach and colon rarely
infant as they have very small stomach show early signs and will spread to
• Peristalsis is rather inefficient at this distant parts of body before individual
time and vomiting is normal seek medical attention
• Age 6 months- teething begins and • A diet high in plant fiber and low in fat
continue until about 2 years old may help to decrease the incidence of
colon cancer
ANAPHY
• Polyps
- Initially benign mucosal tumors
- Polyp formation increases with age,
colonoscopy screening should
begin at the age of 50 and be
repeated every 10 years
• Sensitive fecal occult blood test done
in the stool should be completed
annually

Digestive and Body Metabolism

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Digestive and Body Metabolism

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Holy Name University - College of Health Sciences

Department of Radiologic Technology

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