BASIC SHIPHANDLING ELEMENTS

I. Engines
II. Propeller
III. Auxiliary engines
Iv. Rudder
V. MOORING LINES
VI. Anchors

To understand ship handling, we must first look at all the

forces that affect a ship.
Controllable: Uncontrollable

• Engines ** Wind
• Rudder **Current
• Lines ** Shallows water effect
• Anchor
• Tugs
• Auxiliary Propulsion

I.ENGINES
Using propulsion forces, ships are able to maneuver themselves in the water. Initially while there were limited number
of ship propulsion systems, in the present era there are several innovative ones with which a vessel can be fitted
with. Some of the various types of propulsion systems used in ships can be enumerated as;
1. Diesel engine 4. Diesel-electric engine
2. Gas turbine engine 5. Azipod engines
3. Steam turbine engines 6. Gas fuel or Tri Fuel Propulsion
1. Diesel Engine: Diesel propulsion system is the most commonly used marine propulsion system converting
mechanical energy from heat forces. Diesel propulsion systems are mainly used in almost all types of vessels along
with small boats and recreational vessels.
➢ 2-stroke as well as 4-stroke engines are used in the marine industry,
➢ Speed – high speed, medium speed, slow speed (60-150rpm)
2. Gas turbine engine: Not preferred for commercial ships but used for naval ships. In case of naval ships, the gas
turbine propulsion system aids in faster movement of the ships which is necessary in case of the ship coming under
attack.
3. Steam turbine engines: Steam turbine propulsion involves the usage of coal or other steam-generating fuels to
propel the vessel. Steam turbine maritime propulsion system was highly utilised between the late 19th and the early
20th century. Nonreversible.
4. Diesel-electric engine: The system uses a combination of a generator operated by electricity attached to a diesel
motor. The technology has been in use since the early 1900s. In today’s times, submarines and merchant ships
incorporate the diesel-electric propulsion system to propel themselves. Nonreversible engine.
5. Azipod engine: Azipod turns in all directions (360 degrees) by a rudder, providing thrust in any direct. It is operated
by electric drive motor in a submerged pod outside the ship hull. Azipod marine ship propulsion is a combination of
both steering and propulsion systems. ions, not possible for conventional systems. Great maneuverability , low fuel
consumption, low emission
II.PROPELLER
A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to propel the ship by using the power generated and
transmitted by the main engine of the ship. The transmitted power is converted from rotational motion to generate a
thrust which imparts momentum to the water, resulting in a force that acts on the ship and pushes it forward. They
are alloys of nickel, aluminum and bronze which are 10~15 % lighter than other materials and have higher strength. 2
to 9 blades can be used but most commonly are 3,4, 5 blades propellers.
1. Fix pitch propeller (FPP): The blades in fixed pitch propeller are permanently attached to the hub. The fixed pitch
type propellers are casted and the position of the blades and hence the position of the pitch is permanently fixed and
cannot be changed during the operation. They are normally made from copper alloy. To increase or reduce speed,
the rpm of the propeller is increased or reduced. The manufacturing, installation and operational costs are lower than
controlled pitch propeller (CPP) type. However, the maneuverability of FPP is also not as good as CPP. Four to five
blades are generally used.
** Pitch of a propeller can be defined as the displacement that a propeller makes for every full revolution of 360 ̊.
2. Controllable pitch propeller (CPP): The blades of propeller can be altered around its axis and set whatever pitch is
required through full ahead or full astern. This can be achieved by hydraulic pistons. This may be either pneumatic or
electronic. Thurts (speed) controlled by changing the rotate angle of the propeller blade. RPM is constant

Propeller rotation causes a“side force” (paddle effect)

Side force (paddle effet) is a lateral force caused by propeller rotation.A typical right-handed, or clockwise-rotating
propeller, tends to rotate the stern to starboard when moving forwards. As well, the opposite occurs when going
astern, as the stern tends to rotate to port.

3. Twin screws propeller: This type of propellers can be either FPP or CPP. Fixed pitch twin screws usually turn
outward when going ahead (starboard one is right handed and the port one left handed). This is the most efficient
maneuverability. On the other hand, ships are rarely fitted with inwards turning propellers because this is said to give
better speed and steering but maneuverability is poor.
4. Bow and stern thrusters
Hull-mounted, transverse propeller used to develop lateral thrust when pier side. Normally found on ships that require
high manouvering ability (tugs,dredger).
A bow thruster or stern thruster is a transversal propulsion device built into, or mounted to, either the bow or stern, of
a ship or boat, to make it more maneuverable. Powered by electric motors
Bow thrusters make docking easier, since they allow the captain to turn the vessel to port or starboard side, without
using the main propulsion mechanism.
A stern thruster is of the same principle, fitted at the stern. Large ships might have multiple bow thrusters and stern
thrusters.
** 1 shp = 0.74 kW and
100 shp = 1 ton
IV. RUDDER

Rudder effectiveness is dependent on flow velocity over the rudder surface. “Bare steerageway” is the minimum
speed at which a rudder is still effective. This is generally 2 to 3 knots for most ships. Rudder angles must be
reversed for astern operation.
1. Un-balanced rudder: These rudders have their stocks attached at the forward most point of their span. Unlike
balanced rudders, the rudder stock runs along the chord length of the rudder. The reason is simple. In this case, the
torque required to turn the rudder is way higher than what is required for a corresponding balanced rudder.
2. Balanced rudder: A spade rudder is basically a rudder plate that is fixed to the rudder stock only at the top of the
rudder. In other words, the rudder stock (or the axis of the rudder) doesn’t run down along the span of the rudder.
3. Semi-balanced rudder: These rudders have their stocks attached at the forward most point of their span. Unlike
balanced rudders, the rudder stock runs along the chord length of the rudder. The reason is simple. In this case, the
torque required to turn the rudder is way higher than what is required for a corresponding balanced rudder
4. Becker type (Flap) rudder: A spade-type rudder with flap. The Becker-type rudder has a moving flap on the trailing
edge. When the rudder moves, a mechanical linkage diverts the flap to a higher angle to maximize the sideways
thrust. Either 45 deg or 65 deg maximum rudder angles can be specified for bigger and faster rudders.
5. Schilling rudder: There is no flap, but the trailing edge is formed in a fishtail shape that accelerates the flow and
recovers the lift over the aft section of the rudder. It can improve both course keeping and vessel control
characteristics by operating angles up to 70° port and starboard,
Mariner schilling type and Ocean schilling type
6. Kort Nozzle type rudder: Commonly fitted for tugs, small bots, fishing vessels, research vessel, supply vessels,
etc.
7. Azimuth Z- drive rudder + propeller: It is a configuration of marine propellers placed in pods that can be rotated to
any horizontal angle (azimuth), making a rudder unnecessary. It can be rotated 360 degree its own axis like azipod
types. These give ships better maneuverability. Used for tugs, fishing vessels, dredgers and some special ships.
Mechanically operated.
SCHOTTEL Rudder + propeller
The principal characteristics of the SRP derive from the combination of propulsion and azimuth steering. There is
consequently no need for a rudder, and the engine power is optimally converted into thrust. The 360° rotation of the
Rudder propeller means that the full input power is available for maneuvering
Water – Jet system
Water-jet system: A waterjet generates propulsive thrust from the reaction created when water is forced in a rearward
direction. A good example of this is a fire hose. The discharge of a high velocity jet stream generates a reaction force
in the opposite direction, which is transferred through the body of the jet unit to the craft’s hull, propelling it forward .
Ferry, catamaran type ships are fitted with.
V. MOORING LINES
Lines are used next to a pier to control ship positioning.
General terms:
Breast line: limits lateral motion
Spring line: limits fore/aft motion
Each line has a specific name, indicating location, direction, and purpose
Lines are numbered, fore to aft, based on location on the ship.
• Stand by your lines
• Take up the slack on ……. line
• Tight up ….. line
• Slack …….. line
• Ease ……. line
• Take ……… line to the windlass
Single up : Take in all mooring lines except for one standing part at each station.
Let go / let go all lines: The line should be slacked with this order than dockhands could cast it off.
Cast off line: Remove last line
Pivot Point
Imaginary point on the ship’s centerline about which the ship pivots. This is the point around which the ship appears
to be turning for an observer standing on board the ship.
Pivot point location is not constant and depends on external factors such as use of tugs, bow thrusters, ship speed,
wind, tide, ship motion ahead or astern.
The pressure of the water that acts on the bow or at the stern brings about a shift in the position of the Pivot point. In
this situation no forces are involved and the ship has a pivot point coinciding with its centre of gravity approximately
amidships.
Vessel Making Headway:
Two forces now come into play. The forward momentum of the ship and longitudinal resistance to the forward
momentum created by the water ahead of the ship. These two forces must ultimately strike a balance and the pivot
point moves forward. It can be assumed that at a steady speed the pivot point will be approximately a 1/4 of the
ship's length from forward when vessel making headway.
Vessel Making Sternway
The situation is now totally reversed. The momentum of sternway must balance longitudinal resistance this time
created by the water astern of the ship. The pivot point now moves aft and establishes itself approximately a 1/4 of
the ship's length from the stern
➢ The proportion of L to B (L/B), ship design and trim can affect the pivot point position.
➢ If two vessel have same length , the ship which has a larger breadth (width) can not easily maneuvers
compared to other but can turns with much smaller tactical diameter.
➢ A smaller turning radius can be attained if the pivot point is shifted more forward closer to the bow.
Application 1:
Example of a ship of 160 metres. It is stopped in the water and two tugs are secured fore and aft on long lines
through centre leads. If the tugs apply the same bollard pull of say 15 tonnes (t) each. It is to a position 80m fore
and aft of the pivot point. Thus two equal turning levers and moments of 80m x 15t (1200tm) are created resulting in
even lateral motion and no rate of turn.
Application 3:
Example of a ship of 160 metres. The efficiency of the tugs will change totally when by contrast the ship makes
sternway. Now the pivot point has moved aft to a position 40m from the stern. The forward tug Is working on an
excellent turning lever of 120m x 15t (1800tm) whilst the after tug has lost its efficiency to a reduced turning lever of
40m x 15t (600tm). This now results in a swing of the bow to port
TURNING CIRCLE OF VESSEL
SHIP MANUEVERING CHARACTERISTICS
Factors affecting Turning Circle of Ship
1. Structural design and length
The longer the ship generally, the greater the turning circle. The type of rudder and the resulting steering effect will
decide the final diameter, with the clearance between rudder and hull having a major influence. The smaller the
clearance between rudder and hull the more effective the turning action
2.Trim
The trim of a vessel will influence the size of the turning circle in such a way that it will decrease if the vessel is
trimmed by the head. However, vessels normally trim by the stern for better steerage and improved headway.
3.Listed over
If a vessel is carrying a list, it can be expected to make a larger turning circle when turning towards the list, and vice-
versa.
4. Rudder effect
The probably the most significant factor affecting the turning circle is the rudder angle. The optimum is one which will
cause maximum turning effect without causing excessive drag. If a small rudder angle is employed, a large turning
circle will result, with little loss of speed. However, when a large rudder angle is employed, then, although a tighter
turning circle may be experienced, this will be accompanied by a loss of speed.
5.Turning direction of propeller
Validated for single propeller. Rotation of propeller can affect turning circle. Paddle effect will drive the ship turning
circle.
WIND
Acts on the sail area of the ship
➢ Exposed superstructure
➢ Hull structure
30kts of wind = 1kts of current

Vessel stopped (Even keel)

Large area of superstructure and funnel offers a considerable cross section to wind.
Freeboard area is also improtant to calculate the wind affect.
The center of effort of the wind (W) and pivot point (P) are quite close each other. Therefore, not create a big turning
lever upon the ship.
Vessel making headway (Even keel)
The center of effort of the wind (W) remains same position but pivot point (P) moves forward (1/4 L).
This creates totally different turning lever –quite small-(WP), depending on the wind force, the ship bow swing into
the windward gradually and stern swings into the leeward.
At lower speeds the pivot point shifts even further forward, thereby improving the wind’s turning lever and effect.
Vessel making sternway (Even keel)
The center of effort of the wind (W) remains same position but pivot point (P) moves aft (1/4 L).
This creates substantial turning lever, depending on the wind force, the ship bow swing into the windward but stern
seeks wind.

Vessel making head way (Trim by stern)

The center of effort of the wind (W) moves to forward because of the increase in freeboard. Pivot point (P) moves
forward (1/4 L).
W and P will be very close to each other.
This will not create a substential turning lever and the ship bow will not run up into the wind or lay across the wind.

Vessel making sternway (Trim by stern)

The center of effort of the wind (W) moves to forward because of the increase in freeboard. Pivot point (P) moves aft
(1/4 L).
The turning lever (WP) is consequently increased and the ship bow will immediatelly want to go leeward direction.
When berthing with strong cross wind or attemting stop in narrow channel, it is best to plan well ahead since astern
can prove very difficult to hold in vessel position.

Calculation
For calculating the force of wind upon ship, do not forget that the wind force varies as the square of the wind speed.
Small increase wind speed means that large increase in wind force.
In practically, 1 m/sec = 2 nm/hrs is considered.
An approximate wind force can be calculated;

F = ( V² / 18000 ) x total windage area (m²)

F= wind force (tonnes); V= wind speed (mtr/second)

18000: constant

CURRENT
Due to density of water, current will effect the ship strongly.
Practically, 1 knot current will effect the ship almost 30 knots wind force (1 knt current force = 30 knots wind force)
Following conditions can affect the current force;
➢ Draft and depth of water
 ➢ Ship bow configuration
➢ Velocity of current
➢ Under keel clearance
The draft and depth of water are important factor when calculating the force of current.
The single greatest influence upon the magnitude of the current force is under keel clearance (UKC)
This is due to the blocking effect of the vessel as the UKC is reduced. Thus, the current cannot flow under the vessel.
This provide pressures occurred on ship bottom.
With the depth to draft ratio of 1 the current force is three times stronger than with the depth to draft ratio 3.
It is usually requested by the pilot to keep UKC minimum 10% more than vessel’s draft in order to do safe
maneuvering.
Current from ahead:
A good steering lever and positive control over the ship can be provided.
Ship speed over the ground (SOG) will decrease.

Current from astern:

A good steering lever and positive control over the ship can not be provided and most unsatisfactory situation will be
occurred.
Ship speed over the ground (SOG) will increase.
** It can be very difficult to keep control of a ship with following current
SHALLOW WATER AFFECT
Shallow water is practically known as when the UKC distance will be equal or less than half of the vessel draft. (UKC
≤ ½ Draft )
Shallow water can create two effects;
➢ Squat
➢ Bank effect
Shallows water affect indicators
Vessel draft increases depending on vessel speed.
Vessel speed reduces slowly.
Propeller and main engine loads will increase.
Trim by head will increase gradually.
Effectiveness of rudder and propeller will reduce.
Turning circle will increase.
Stopping distance of ship will increase.
Squat
Squat will be occurred when UKC distance will be equal or less than half of the vessel draft.
When the vessel sailing in shallow waters, the water which would normally pass under the ship is severely restricted.
In the first case, the water being forced under the bow at a higher speed than normal and creates low pressure. This
let the vessel to loss of buoyancy.
Then, the building of water ahead of the ship increases longitudinal resistance. Thus, pivot point (PP) moves towards
to the stern.
When the pp moves aft, steering lever is reduced.
The ship will “squat (sinkage) by the bow” which in turn makes the problem even worse.
Bow sinkage can be seen up to 2-3 mtr depend on the ship size.
In squat, sinkage can be seen not only on the bow (forward) of the ship but also amidships and stern as well.
Trim is also important factor for squat. Therefore, most of pilot may refuse to handle certain ship if the ship has a trim
by head and may even request a small trim by the stern.
Squat effect will vary with the square of the ship speed or water flow.
Squat of the vessel may produce bigger waves on the forward. Accordingly wave trough can be occurred at
amidships of vessel. Wave crest can be seem at aft of the vessel. When the vessel continue sail in shallow water, the
buoyancy of hull is affected negatively because of wave fluctuating. This effect increases the more sinking of vessel
due to acceleration of water velocity (which produce low pressure) under the keel.

Factors affecting squat

*The speed of the vessel over sea.
*Type of bow. This influences the bow wave produced and the distribution of pressure.
*Position of the longitudinal center of buoyancy (LCB):
➢ If the LCB is aft of amidships, 'squat' by the stern should be expected.
➢ If the LCB is forward of amidships, 'squat' by the head should be expected.
*Depth to draft ratio (H/D)
* Block coefficient (Cb= V/LxBxD)
* Acceleration of vessel
* Displacement of vessel

Evidence of squat
The indication that a vessel is experiencing squat will show from the steering being affected. Waves from the ship’s
movement will probably increase. Some vibration may also occur with a decrease in speed and a reduced rpm.
Block coefficient (Cb) is the volume (V) divided by the LWL x BWL x D. If you draw a box around the submerged part
of the ship, it is the ratio of the box volume occupied by the ship. It gives a sense of how much of the block defined by
the LWL, beam (B) & draft (D) is filled by the hull. Full forms such as oil tankers will have a high Cb where fine
shapes such as sailboats will have a low Cb.
Large size ships such as bulk carriers and tankers have bigger block coefficiency. Therefore, there would be more
squat. Generally, Cb will be 0.80 or more for these type of vessels.
On the other hand, vessel such as container or passenger ship have relatively smaller block coefficiency. Therefore,
squat effect will be partly less than other ships. Generally, Cb will be less than 0.80 for these type of vessel.
Precautions for squat:
Excessive speed is the main contributing factor under such circumstance for squat effect. Therefore, before entering
shallow waters vessel should sail with safe speed and will not continue to sail with very high speed.
Reducing ship speed relatively is essential point to minimize squat effect.
While sailing in shallow waters; in order to overcome squat effect, ship speed will be increasing gradually. Example;
dead slow ahead will increase to slow ahead instead directly ordering full ahead.
Always keep in mind that “Squat effect will vary with the square of the ship speed or water flow”.

Bank effect
Bank effect caused by the restricted flow of water on the bank's side.
When the ship is making headway, velocity of water to the nearest bank increases and pressure reduces
Positive pressure area builds up forward of the ship, whilst stern of the ship flows of water down and this creates a
low pressure area.
Bank effect occurs in narrow channels near proximities
of banks. There is a tendency for the bow of a ship to be
pushed away from the bank, called bow cushion. The
ship moves bodily towards the bank, which appears at
the stern, called bank suction
As a result, a thrust is set up towards bank. Since PP have moved on the forward, suction force on the stern will be
stronger than cushion force on the bow. Therefore, stern will be moving faster.
Bank effect depends on many parameters such as bank shape, water depth, ship-bank distance, ship properties,
ship speed and propeller action.
To overcome bank effect;
➢ Keep the vessel in safe speed
➢ A vessel approaching to the bank will have to apply helm to the bank direction and reduce speed to prevent
the deviation from the course.
➢ If necessary, rudder effectiveness should be increased by ordering strong rudder commend such as hard
over.
➢ If necessary, kick ahead should be applied to enhance ruder effectiveness.
➢ Echo sounder should be kept switch on.
➢ Momentary depth should be monitored continuously.

Interaction
Interaction can be seen while the vessel sailing in narrow channel and reciprocally encounter, overtaking or passing
other vessel.
While passing each other:
When two ship reciprocally encounter, not to work over the starboard side of the channel too early or too far. As the
two bows approach each other, the combined bow pressure provide to turn away from each other. If the ship gets so
close to channel, bank effect might be occurred and unexpected deviation can be expected.
When two ship nearly abeam of each other, combined low pressure or suction area exists between them. The bow
of two ship will also begin to smell the low pressure area astern of the other.
In the last stage, two sterns pass each other, they are drawn together by the low pressure area between them. This
has a tendency to realign the ship with the channel. These effects are not always very noticeable, because the ships
often pass through the pressure zone fairly quickly.

While overtaking:
As ship A approaches the stern of ship B, its bow pressure zone will put pressure on the rudder of ship B.
The overtaking ship A will also feel low pressure area astern of B and exhibit a tendency to turn in towards the stern
of the other.
When two ship abeam of each other, strong pressure zone will occur on the bows and low pressure zone in the
sterns.These combine strong turning lever which is trying to swing the bows away from each other.Due to turning
force on the bows, considerable suction will be occurred on the sterns. In this situation, both ship slow down and
continue with safe speed to reduce the suction. ship. Ship B pushed along by the pressure zone of the overtaking
ship
As the overtaking vessel passing the other, ship B is influenced by two forces. Bank effect and low pressure area on
the bow.This can combine as a very strong turning force and require corrective action. The rudder of ship A
adversely affected with positive pressure. This cause ship A to turn unexpectedly across the path of overtaken
vessel. Ship B shall order some starboard rudder.
While passing the moored ship :
As the vessel passing moored ship, the bow of the passing vessel push the stern of moored vessel towards to pier.
Meantime, the bow of the moored ship moves to the sea side and cause to tighten of bow lines.
As the vessel passing comes abeam of the moored vessel, pressure zone will occur on the bows and low pressure
zone in the sterns. Thus, bows will push and sterns will suck each other. In this position, moored vessel commence
to move astern slowly. Bow lines and stern spring lines will be tight.
As the vessel complete passing the moored vessel, stern of passing vessel suck the bow of the moored vessel.In this
position, moored vessel commence to move ahead slowly. Stern lines and forward spring lines will be tight.
While passing the anchored ship :
As the vessel passing an anchored vessel, stern of anchored vessel moves toward the stern of passing ship.This is
due to low pressure area arise the stern of passing ship. To overcome this effect, passing ship shall keep away from
the anchored vessel and keep in safe speed.
To overcome interaction;
➢ In reciprocally approaching each other-Prior to the maneuvering, each ship remains in the center of the
channel for a long as possible (in practically up to 1.5-2.0 LOA)
➢ Speed should be kept in safe and kick ahead movement utilizes for effective rudder orders
➢ On the completion of maneuvering, each ship should remain in the center of the channel as quick as
possible to avoid bank effect
➢ While passing the moored vessel, avoid to keep close passing other and continue to sail with safe speed
➢ Moored vessel shall keep all lines in tight position to avoid swing the bow or stern.
➢ While passing nearby the anchored vessel, passing vessel remain with safe speed and keep away from the
anchored vessel.