3 : ABERRATIONS 3.1 ABERRATIONS The simple equations, derived a connecting object and image distance: assumption that the angles’ made by the rays of light with the axis are small. In practice, however,lenses are used:to form images of points situ. ated off the axis also. Further, the cone of rays of, light forming an image point is of finite size due to the finite: size of the lens. In general non. paraxial rays of light from an object point do not meet at a single point after refraction through the, lens. The refractive index and hence the focal lerigth of a lens are different for different wavelengths of light. For a given lens. the refractive index for violet light is more than for red light. Thus, if the light coming from an object point is not monochromatic, a number of coloured images are formed by the lens. These images, even though formed by paraxial rays, are at different positions and are of different sizes. The deviations from the actual size, shape and position of an image as calculated from the earlier simple equations, are called the aberrations produced by a lens. The aberrations produced by the variation of refractive index with wavelength of light are called chromatic aberrations. The . other aberrations are caused even if monochromatic light is used and they are called monochromatic aberrations. Lens aberrations are just the con sequence of the refraction laws at the spherical surfaces and not due 0 defective construction’ of a lens such as the surfaces being not spherical etc. : 32 FIRST ORDER THEORY To understand satisfactorily the theory of lens aberrations, it is nec essary to start with the expansion of the sines of angles into a power sere According to Maclaurin’s theorem the expansion of sin @ is given by 59-9 2,8 sin® = 8-sTtsi-7r ‘ ‘ ibid Scanned with CamScanner nd discussed in the earlier chapters, s, focal length etc. are based on the +e.Aberrations 7 When the value of @ is small, the series is a rapidly converging one ie, the value of any term is smaller than the preceding one. In case the slope angle is small, sin@ = © approximately. The equations developed on the basis that the sines of the angles are equal to the angles form the pasis of the first order theory. In Fig. 3.1, for small values of @ the eigtit of the perpendicular AC can be taken A approximately equal t0 the length of the arc i z A |) sing = 4€ _ AC _ AB ° - PAT or en are = 0 radians radius Table 3.1 gives the variation of sin @ with increasing angle. Fig. 3.1 The difference in the values of sin®@ and 6— is much smaller than sin ®@ and 8. =_ - -_ | one {am radians r 0. I73681 | 0 1745329 ’ 1 0. 1736158 2» | 03420201 0.3490658 | 0.3419770 0 0.500000, 0.5235988 | 04996742 0 0.6427876 _{ 06981316 | 33 THIRD ORDER THEORY If, in the formulae for reflection and refraction at spherical surfaces the first two terms of the series.are replaced for values of ses of angles, ‘he results obtained represent the third order theory. The formulae thus Sbisined give a fairly accurate accouni of the principal aberrations. In the thitd order theory, the aberration of a ray of light viz., its deviations from tbe path obtained from Gauss formulae, is denoted by five sums called the Seidel sums. A lens will be free from all the aberrations, if all the five sums are equal to zero. But in practice, no optical system can te made "9 Satisfy all the conditions at the same time. Let S,, S,. etc, denote the 'Ne Seidel sums. Then, spherical aberration is absent if S, = 0 ; coma is Scanned with CamScannera. | A Textbook of Opiie, 0, S, = 0, S, = 0 and 5, = 0. Finally if 5, is also equal to zero the image of an axial object will be free from distortion as wel), ‘These five defects of an image are called the monochromatic aberrations, 3.4 SPHERICAL ABERRATION AT A SINGLE SURFACE Fig. 3.2 illustrates the effect of spherical aberration produced by re- fraction at a convex spherical surface. XY is the spherical surface of radius of curvature R. Q is a point object on the axis and /’ and J” are the images formed by the axial and marginal rays respectively. C is the centre of cur. vatuire of the spherical surface: OA and OD are two incident rays. AI” “and Di’ are the refracted rays. AB is perpendicular to the axis and this measures the radius of the zone on the refracting surface with reference “to the point A. ac cc sina sin (180 R utR . : ee sina sini A) (s OC = ut) Similarly in the AACI” * fue wii) Dividing (f) by (ii), sin = (+R) _sinr sini (0-R) Scanned with CamScannerAberrations But In the AOAI", sinB _ OA sina = Ay” WR (04 v-R =H (#4) div) In the A.OAC, Mee 2AC-OC cos 6 = R4(U+R)-2R(w+R)cos® —.(v) From the cai ob aie a Pp cos = 1-5 and @ = & From equation (v) : oa Po ceray—teuse|1-£.| 2 ute) on - [Sree [Seen] =ull Pe +R) i " = ul lt aR approximately : Po) i fuk |. Pit F(a) Gi) Applying the sign convention, u is—ve,R istve Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook of Op, le _ [+ # (a2 ] oa =-ul 1455 GOR Sin length of the refracted ray, eol 14k ert af’ = 2%) Ita oR vii Applying the sign convention in equation (iv) Similarly th and taking _ Bl-4+x)] v(l+y) -uv (1 +y)+Ro(1+y) =— pu (1 +x) +puR (1 +x) Dividing by wR : the aa =nuen, nase) Scanned with CamScanneryr serrations ul According to the first order theory eee vou R ! a w « WR 1 Substituting thiy value of in equation (ix) 1p l (per y y ee a \ el (ih 7 ne ae For an object at infinity and for marginal ra \ : Ls cn) a For paraxial rays. Ue ips =# u Axia) ur From equations (xii) and (xiii) & for marginal rays is less than the pwanial rays. Hence, the marginal rays meet the axis at points nearer the surface as compared to the paraxial rays. Further, the second cxpression av the right hand side of equation (xi) measures the spherical aberratwon of the refracting surtace. . 33 SPHERICAL ABERRATION IN A LENS The presence of spherical aberration in the image furined by a single lem is illustrated in Fig. 3.3. Q is a point object on the axis of the lens Fig. 3.3 ad weft 1, are the images formed by the Paraxial and marginal ray te ely. It is clear.from the figure that the paraxial rays of light form mage at a longer distance from the lens than the marginal rays. The ng vaneg ©, sharp at any point on the axis, However, if the screen is Pach Perpendicular to the axis at AB, the image appears to be 4 circular } Of diameter AB. At Positions on the two sides of AB, the image patch Scanned with CamScanner- oS Optic, x2 A Textbook has a larger diameter, This patch of diameter AB is called jon.which corresponds to the position of the best imag. a ance {1 measures the longitudinal spherical aberration, The s® of the circle f least confusion measures the lateral spherical bey lt When the perure ofthe lens is relatively large compared to thea length of the lens, the cones of the rays of light refracted through the i ferent zoney of the lens surface are not brought to focus at the same Point 1. and the axial rays come to focus at a farther point 1. Thus. tor object point O on the axis, the image extends over the length 1,1. This effect is called spherical aberration : and arises due to the fact that dif- ferent annular zones have different focal lengths, The spherical aber- ration, produced by a concave lens is illustrated in Fig. 34 the Circle The spherical aberration pro- duced by a lens depends on the distance of the object point and varies approximately as the square of the distance of the object ray above the axis of the lens. The spherical aberration produced by a Convex lens is positive and that produced by a concave lens is negative 3.6 REDUCING SPHERICAL ABERRATION Spherical aberration produced by lenses is minimised or eliminated by the following methods. Fig. 3.4 1. Spherical ‘aberration can be minimised. by using ‘stops. which re- duce the effective lens aperture. The stop used can be such as to permit either the axial rays of light or the marginal rays of light. However. 3 the amount of light passing through the lens is reduced. correspondingly the image appears less: bright. : 2. The longitudinal spherical aberration produced by a thin lens fo" a parallel incident beam is given by xo [etek + 2? + Qu) +p — 2p? - 2 ‘a i Qu (a—1P =k where x is the longitudinal spheric s aperture and f, is the second pri : al’ aberration, p is the radius of the !e™ incipal focal length. * 7 x por, Scanned with CamScannerAberrations 83 where R, and R, are the radii of curvature. For given, values of BS, and p, the condition for minimum spherical aberration is dx dk Differentiating equation (i) and equating the result w zero HOH Dad “a w(Qu +1) From equation (ii), for a lens whose material has a refractive index = 0, I u'= 15, & =—<. Thus, the lens which produces minimum spherical ab- eration is biconcave and the radius Of curvature of the surface facing the incident light is one-sixth the radius of curvature of the other face. In gen- eral, the more curved surface of the lens should face the incident or emer- gent beam of light which ever is more parallel to the axis. A lens whose Ry , z, 6 |S called a crossed lens. This on ae in which the shape of the lens is changed without changing the focal length of the lens is called bending of the lens for minimum spherical aberration. A crossed lens . Al is shown in Fig. 3.5. It is clear from the figure that the de- viation produced by the two surfaces is the same and the axial and mar- ginal rays of light come-to focus. with minimum of spherical aberration. However, it should be noted that the spherical aberration cannot be Fig. 3.5 Completely eliminated in a lens with spherical surfaces: For a lens of re- factive index 1.5, focal length 100 cm and’ radius of the lens aperture '0 cm, the longitudinal spherical aberrations is 1.07 cm for the same values of focal length and radius of the lens aperture, if the val- 'es.oF and k are.2.,and + 1/5, the longitudinal spherical aberration re- ducts to 0.44 cm: be ees ee 3 “0 - Scanned with CamScannerPLP. ‘AN 84 A Textbook of On cy i ical instruments so as ses are used! in optical 0 a8 to 3. Plano-convex len: ree eran oe When the curve e lens faces berration, aht whichever is more parallel 10 the axis The spherival aberration in a crosseq the spherical at incident or emergent light aberration is minimum. + the spherical lens R ( in only 8% less than that of a plano-convex lens having thy same focal length and radius of the lens aperture.,.This is the reason why plano-convex lenses are generally used in place of crossed lenses withoy increasing the spherical aberration appreciably. * Fig, 3.6 represents the variation of longitudinal spherical aberration with'the radius of thé lens aperture. for lenses of the same focal length and e refractive index. The spherical, aberration will, however, be very large if the plane surface faces te incident light. The spherical aberration is a result of larger deviation of the marginal rays than the paraxial rays. If the, deviation of the marginal ial 2 rays of light is made minimum the focus f, for ee a parallel incident beam will shift towards f, the focus for the paraxial “© Nicht and the spherical aberration will be minimum. x— ta, As the deviation is minimum in a prism, when the angles of inci- dence and emergence are equal, similarly in a lens also, spherical aber- ration can be minimised if the total deviation produced by a lens is equally’ Fig. 3.7 nae ot aoa aiiepe In a plano-convex lens, when the plaie surface curved surface and hore pleht the deviation is produced only at the Keimee than When the cine, longitudinal spherical aberration (Fig. 3.7) is mor we curved surface faces the incident light (Fig. 3-6)- cc tat blac. — Scanned with CamScannerAberrations Hs In the latter the total dev fase the spherical aberration is less than the former, because Hon in the second case is divided! between the su surfaces He lens can be minimised ctor g of a lens is given Thus, the spherical aberration produced by asin by choosing proper radit of curvature. The shape by RER. gs aiid Corer Fig. 3.9 represents lenses oF tte same values of fo and p but of diferent shape factors calculated according, to equation tii. The longitu- slinal spherical aberration 1s represented along the Favis ant the shape factor along the | atNis. dD ‘1.04 \SERRATION + SHAPE FACTOR —____ Fig. 3.9 Spherical aberration for a double. convex lens (shape factor 05) is Minimum when the surface of smaller radius of curvature thee, the ins ASE Se ee Scanned with CamScanner2 y A Textbook of Oy, 54 cident parallel light, The spherical aberration for a plano-convey je. ) when the curved surface faces the incident tigh (shape factor +10 face f cory gliently mice sian te daubie, conver lens. Hence, planocone\ Tenses are preferred ‘4. Spherical aberration can also be made minimum by using yy plano-convex lenses separated by a distance equal to the difference inthe, focal length. In this arrangement, the total deviation is equally shareq i He Gro iene and dee cpbeml abeetion, [y oineem (Py 19 two plano-convex focal lengths f, and f, are separated by a distance d. Let 8 the angle of deviation produced by each lens (Fig. 3.10) lenses of Fig. 3.10 ZBFG=6 | and ZFBG =8 From A BGF, * ; BG = GF, or OG = GF, (approximately) Ee OG = 4O,F) =t¢,-4 For the second lens, F, is the virtual object and G is U Substituting these values of object and image distance in the form (u,v, f, are all +e) the real image ula | Scanned with CamScannerAberrations 87 Thus, the condition for minimum spherical aberration is that the dis- tance between the Owo lenses is equal to the difference in their focal lengths. - - 5, Spherical aberration for a convex lens is ve and that for a con cave lens is -ve. By a suitable combination of convex and concave lenses. spherical aberration can be made minimum 3.7 COMA The effect of rays from an object point not situated on the ‘axiy of the lens results in an aberration called coma Comatic aberration is similar to spherical aberration in that both are due to the failure of the lens to bring all rays from a point object to focus at-the same point. Spherical aberration refers to object pointy situated on the axis whereas comiutic: ab- eration refers to object points situated off the axis. In the case of spherical aberration, the image is a circle of varying diameter along the axis and in the case of comatic aberration the image is comet-shaped and hence the name coma, Fig, 3.11 illustrates the effect of coma. The resultant image 2 Fig. 3.11 of a distant point off the axis is shown in the side figure. The rays of light in the tangential plane are represented in the figure : bn it Scanned with CamScannerA a Textbook of Ont Fie, 2.12 illustrates the presence of coma in the image due to g i ha Int object situated off the axis of the lens. Rays of light getting refracted Uhroy ca the cehtre of the lens (ray 1) meet the screen XY at ithe point P. Rays 7 | 3, Fete. geting refracted through the outer zones: of the lens come to fooy, at points QR. Sete nearer the fens and on the screen overlapping fie patches of gradually increasing diameter are formed The resultant image oy the point is comet-shaped as indicated in the side figure. Let 1.27.3" ete. be the various zones of the lens (Fig, 3.13 (a),) Rays of light getting refracted through these different zones give fise t0 circulay a Fig. 3.13 patches of fight 1, 2 3.. The screen is placed perpendicular to the axis cof the lens and at the position where the central rays come to focus [Fig. 3.13 Un] Like spherical aberration comatic aberration produced by a single lens gan alo be corrected by properly choosing the radii of curvature of the fens surtace. Coma can be altogether eliminated for a given pair of Object and image points whereas spherical aberration cannot be completely corrected. Further, a lens corrected for cotna will aot be free from spherical + aberration and the one corrected for spherical aberration will not be free 1 Use of a stop or a diaphragm atthe proper position eliminates trom coma, Com is the fesult of varying magnification for rays refracted through different zones of the lens. For example, in Fig 3.12, rays of light getting refracted thieugh the outer zones come to focus at points nearer the lens. Hence the magnification of the image due to the outer zones is smaller than the infer zones and in this case coma is said to be negative: On the other hand ithe magnification produced in an image due tothe outer cones is greater, coma is said to be positive According to Abbe. a German optician, coma can be eliminated a lens satisfies the Abb’s sine condition viz. H,y, sin 8, = pi,y, sin 8, Scanned with CamScannerAberrations 89 where Hy, ¥, and 8 reter to the refractive inde. height of the objet above the avis and the stope angle of the Hy be Sumilarly medium. ingident ray ot i and @, reter to the verresponding quantities in the ir . : \ The magnification of the image is given by bind yp sind, Elimination of coma is possible if the lateral magnitig + <2 15 the same for all rays of light, irrespective of the slope-angles 0a sin 0 a og. iy a constant because Scores NV sin 8, MK ott Thus, coma be eliminated if, Jens, that satisfies th above condition is called an dplanure fees 38 APLANATIC LENS A spherical lens which is tree from the detects of spheric a! aberration and coma is called an aplanatic lens. A pair of conjugate points free trom spherical aberration and coma are called aplanatic pointy Fiz. 3.14 illus trates the property of an aplantic lens. Let O be the centre of curvature of the lens of refractive index jt and radius of curvature RP ix a point on the axis of the leny such thar PO £0 Tecan be shown tha: ail cays ‘ nt Q irre- : incident from the passing through the point P appear to diverge through the pe spective of the slope angle made by the incident rays. BA ist ray and AC is the retracted ray, The ray AC appears to diverse Point Q which iy the image of P. Let i and r be the angies of incidence and refraction and and B the slope apgles made be the incident and refracted rays. Scanned with CamScanner5 A Testhoog vw y Om, sini | Then ain feu \ sing POL RI ) Inthe \APOL ine oR o Brom () and (0) sing | Sind sinr sin % L£a22r tin In the APO. F Brir-0 “iy Substituting Zrinequation (iv) Prr-i or i=8 in sinr _ sinr 2, . QQ _ 00 Inthe SAQO in B * sini OA ~ R OQ = UR 1 1 wR, Thus, if the distance of the object point P is bh from the centre of curvature, then the distance of the image point Q is UR irrespective of the slope angles o and . The object and image distances of the conjugate points that satisfy the above condition are ap = Rok and BQ = R+4iR. An aplanatic lens is mostly used as the front lens of a high power microscope objective called the oil immersion objective. As it is not pos- sible to place an object inside a solid spherical lens,. the lens is ground a little and the object to be examined is embedded in between a drop of oil and the lens surface. The oil chosen is such that it has the same re- fractive index as that of the lens. 3.9 ASTIGMATISM «© Apstigmatism, similar to coma, is the aberration in the image formed by a lens, of object points off the axis, The difference between astigmatism and coma, however, is that in come the spreading of the image takes place in w plane perpendicular to the lens axis in astigmatism the spreading takes place along the'lens axis. Astigmatism discussed in this article iS . different from the one treated in defective vision, Fig. 3.15 illustrates the defect of astigmatism in the image of a point 8 situated off the axis. Two portions of the cone of rays of light diverginE from the point B are taken. The cone of the rays of light refracted throu? the tangential (vertical) plane BMN comes to focus at point P, hearer the Scanned with CamScannera“ pperrations a Jens and the cone of rays refracted through the sagittal (horizontal) plane ‘BRS comes to-focus at the point P, away from the lens. All rays pass through a horizontal line passing through P, called the primary image and also through a vertical line passing through ?, called the secondary image Fig. 3.15 The refracted beam has an elliptical cross-section which ends to a hori- zontal line at P, and a vertical line at P,. The cross section of the refracted beam is circular at some point between the primary and the secondary im- ages and this is called the circle of least confusion. If a screen is held perpendicular to the refracted beam between the points P, and P,, the shape of the image at different positions is as shown in Fig. 3.16. Pec ON0 ATP, ATC AT P2 Fig. 3.16 The focus of the primary images of all points in the object plane gives the surface of revolution about the lens axis and is called the primary image surface. The locus of the secondary images gives the secondary im- age surface. The surface of best focus is given by the locus of the circles of least confusion: The primary and the secondary image surfaces and the surface of best focus are illustrated in Fig, 3.17. P, and P, are the im of the abject point B, TPN and SPR are the first and the second image surfaces and KPL is the surface of best focus. The three surfaces touch at the point P on the axis. Generally, the surface of best focus is not plane but curved as shown . This defect is called the curvature of the field. The shape of the image surface depends on the shape of the lens and the po- sition of the stops. .If the primary image surface is to the left of the secondary image surface, astigmatism is said to be positive, otherwise a Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook of Om, cs tive. By using a convex and a concave lens of suitable fog len, and sepanited by a distance, it is possible to minimise the astigmatic < valle : ic di. ference and such a lens combination is called an anastigmat ie Fig 3.17 3.10 CURVATURE OF THE FIELD The image of an extended plane object due to a single lens is not 4 flat one but will be a curved surface. The central portion of the image AIS (ay fearer the xiv is in focuy but the outer regions of the image away from! the axis are blurred. This detect is called the curvature of the field. This Fig. 3.18 (by Scanned with CamScannerAverrations 93 jefect is de (0 the fact that the paraxial focal Length is greater than the inal focal length. This aberration is present even if the aperture of \ fhe lens iv reduced by a suitable stop, usually employed to reduce spherical i Fig 3.19 aberration, coma and astigmatism, Fig: 3.18 illustrates the presence of cur- vature of the field in the image formed. by a convex lens. A real image, formed by a convex lens curves towards the lens (Fig. 3.18 (a) and a vir- tual image curves away from the lens (Fig. 3.18 (b)]. Fig. 3.19 represents the curvature of the field present in the image formed by a concave lens. For a system of thin lenses, the curvature of the final image can. theoretically, be given by the expression . ify REE where R is the radius of curvature of the final image, yt, and J. are the refractive index and focal length of the nth lens. For the image to be flat, R must be infinity. UL, Correspondingly, the condition for two lens s placed in air, reduces to This is known as Petzwal’s condition for no curvature. This condition holds good whether the lens parated by a distance or placed in Contact. As the refractive indices py and py, are positive, the above con- dition will be satisfied if the lenses are of opposite sign. If one of the lenses is convex the other must be concave. are s secon tigmatism and coma are completely eliminated if the primary and or eaaty image surfaces are coincident and plane, In this case, the surface best focus will also be a plane one. But this cannot be achieved with We Scanned with CamScanneroF A Textbook a single lens, Astigmatism or curvature Gf the field can be mining introducing suitable stops on the fens axis. If the primary and the : dary image surfaces are" to have equal and oppose vatures (Fig. 3.20), the sup Of best Focus will be plang midway between them, Age! matism will, however, be u® sent. Astigmatism — can eliminated by having the same curvature for the primary ang the secondary image surface In this case curvature of thy field will be present (Fig. 3.21). Correction for coma is more imporany than astigmatism for object points having comparatively small angular di, tances from the axis . Hence telescope objectives, whose field of view is small are cor. rected for coma rather than for astigmatism. On the other hand a camera lens of wide field has to be necessarily corrected fr astigmatism, Fig. 3.21 3.11 DISTORTION PRIMARY IMAGE «\| (SECONDARY IMAGE SURFACE Pre. SURFACE OF BEST FOCUS 3.20 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY —*" IMAGE SURFACES The failure of a lens to form a point image"due to a point object is due to the presence of spherical aberration, coma and astigmatism. The Fe 8 OBJECT PIN CUSHION L SHAPED DISTORTION OA STORTION (a) ® : : Fig. 3.22 Scanned with CamScannerr— aperrations 2 variation in the magnification produced by a lens for different axial dis- tances results in an aberration called distortion, This aberration is not due fo the lack of sharpness in the image’ Distortion is of two types 612 (a) vn cushion distortion and (b) barrel shaped distortion. In pin-cushion dis- fortion, the magnification increases with increasing axial distance and the jmage of an object [Fig. 3.22 (a)] appears as shown in Fig 3.22 (b). On the other hand, if the magnification decreases with increasing axial dis- tance, it results in barrel shaped distortion and the image appears as shown in Fig. 3.22 (c) > In the case of optical instruments intended mainly for visual obser- yation, a little amount of distortion may be present but it must ba com- pletely eliminated in a photographic camera lens, where the magnification OBJECT (@) IMAGE ig 3.23 (a) of the various regions of the object must be the same, In the absence of stops, which limit the cone of rays or light striking the lens, a single Tens OBJECT IMAGE Fig. 3.23 (b) Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook of py %6 icy but, if stops are used, the resulting image jg g, ud betore the leas the distortion is barrel-shay. er aera stop is placed after the lens.the distortion jn pj, cha ype ie 524 th). To eliminate distrtion a stop is plac penveen tao symmetencal fenses, so that the pin-custion istortion py, sent hy the fat leas 15 compensated by the brrrel-shaped distortion pry “Javed by the second lens (Fig. 3.23 (e)]- Projection and camera-lenses ayy 1s free trom distortion. Ina stop iy place consteucted in this: way uy le IMAGE OBJECT Fig. 3.23 (0) 3.12. CHROMATIC ABERRATION The refractive index of the materi! of a lens is different for different wavelengths of light. Hence the focal farsth of a lens is different for dif- ferent wavelengths. Further. as the inagnit.est on of the image is dependent on the focal length of a lens, the size of the image is different for different wavelengths (colours). The variation of the image distance from the lens LONGITUDINAL CHROMATIC ABERRATION x LATERAL CHROMATIC ABERRATION Fig, 3.24 with refractive index measures axial or longitudinal chromatic aberration ane the eG i the size of the image measures lateral chromatic ab- emration. Fiz, 3.24 illustrates chromatic aberration present in ‘an image Scanned with CamScanneraberrations 7 formed by1a single lens /. AB is an object placed in front of the lens “g’ and AB” are the violet and the red images. The violet image is formed nearer the lens than the red image. The monochromatic aberrations are assumed to be absent in this case. The distance x measures the axial of longitudinal chromatic aberration and the distance y measures the lateral chromatic aberration. The images’ of intermediate colours between violet and red lie in between the images A’B’ and A”B” and their size increases from violet to red. At no one position the images are in sharp focus. Thus, a single lens produces a coloured image of an-object illuminated by white tight and this defect is called chromatic aberration. Elimination of this defect in a system of lenses is called achromatism 3.13 DISPERSION BY A PRISM A beam of white light, when it passes through’ a_prism is split up into its constituent colours and this is called dispersion of light. The image thus formed on a screen is called a spectrum (a) a <-@OO dh liv) Vina 4 «A js called chromatic dispersion of the material of the prism ‘The angular dispersion of the material of a prism depends on the angle of the prism ‘nd refractive index of the material of the prism. Using & spectrometer dnd the given prism, a graph is drawn between H and 2. (y along the Y-axis and 2 along the X-axis). The tangent to the curve at any point measures the chromatic dispersion i for that particular wavelength. Substituting this value of 4 in equation (iv) # can be calculated. 3.17 CAUCHY’S DISPERSION FORMULA incident on an atom or a molecule. the periodic electric force of the wave sets the bound charges into vibratory motion, The frequency, with which these charges °° forced to vibrate is equal to the frequency of the wave. The phase of this motion as compared to the impressed electric force will depend on the impressed frequency. Ie will vary with the difference between the impressed frequency and the natural frequency of the charges : . be explained with the concept of secondary waves that are produced by the induced oscillations of the bound charges. When 4 beam of light propagates through a twansparent medium (solid or liquid), the amount of lateral scattering: is extremely small. The scattered waves travelling in a lateral direction produce destructive interference However, the secondary waves travelling in the same direction as the pose on one another. The resultant vibration will de- fference between the primary and the secondary waves. This superimposition, changes the phase of the primary waves and this is equivalent to a change in the wave velocity. Wave velocity is defined as the speed at which a condition of equal phases is propagated. Hence, the variation in phase due to interference, changes the velocity of the wave through the medium. “The phase of the ‘oscillations and hence When an electromagnetic wave is Dispersion can incident beam superitny pend on the phase dil Scanned with CamScannerA Texibo 102 OF Op depends upon the impressed frequenc, ihe secondary waves UC rae i Wency, 1 oe oe that. the velocity of light in the medium varies With Nn frequency of light. ; Also, refractive index depends upon the velocity of light in the dium. Therefore, the refractive index of the medium varies with the fe. quency (wavelength) of light. ee The relative permittivity of the medium in the case of dynamic “ larizability is given by - Ne? Sonata te? tow Here N is the number of electrons per unit volume, e the charge ang m the mass of the electron, €, permittivity of free space, Strengths of the substance, ® is the angular frequency netic spectrum of the substance, « is the impressed Also rfl J, oscillator Of the electromag. angular frequency, and relative permeability in majo la rity of substances that transmit electro- magnetic waves is ‘equal to 1. ¥ w=e Assuming that there is only one atomic frequency @, where w< : ef m jz Dawe hepa) vey Re m \ey } (xiv) wl) Equation (1v) represents Sellmeier’s dispersion formula. Scanned with CamScannerCF 5, 7 >. Aberrations . ut 322 ACHROMATISM IN PRISMS Deviation without dispersion. The dispersive powers of the mate- rials of different prisms are different, The dispersive power of a flint glass prism 1S higher than the dispersive wer of a crown glass prism, ie, the angular separation of the spectral col- . ous in a flint glass prism is greater than that for a crown glass prism of the some angle. Further, when a composit= peam of light is passed through a pristi. the beam is dispersed as well as devi- aedIn 'Fig'333;> C!and’ Prare:two ae .. prisms of crown and flint glass of refracting angles a and a respectively. Let Hy Hy and H1,’, n'y" be the refractive indices of the two mate- rials for blue, yellow and red rays of light Then * for crown glass and for flint glass. The angular separation for blue and red rays of light is (6,-8) = u,-n) a for crown glass and 8-8) = (Hy - 4) for flint glass For no dispersion (8-8) +6,- or (d= p)at(uy—p’ a’ = 0 Ad) or Byo, HA B, mn sign shows that the refracting angles of the two prisms ae in opposite directions. If o is the refracting angle of the crown glass Prism, @” the refracting angle ef the flint glass prism can be calculated ftom equation (ii). The combination of two such prisms which satisfies quation (ii) is achromatic and a beain of composite light refracted through the two prisms will only be deviated and not dispersed. The angles 5 and 8 are given by Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook x6, i uz 5 = (t- 1) o and 8 = (n’-1) hy a Substituting these values ‘of o and a in equation (i) i (uy-H) 8 wn )e at en w-t "Wt BB, But, . naik = @ and wd+0'8' =0 - where «@ and @” are the dispersive powers of the materials of the Crown and flint glass prisms respectively. As for achromatism, the refracting angles of the prisms are differen the deviations produced by the two prisms are different and are in opposie directions. The deviation of the mean ray is D=5+5 . = U-Daty De i But, from equation (i) . HB, - a’ =-] 5 Io By -H, Substituting this value of a’ in equation (iv) . w’-D@,-H)@ D=(p-la- -1) w=) B-H, H,-#, But, ®= ay or, (u-1) = a (uy -H’) (y’-1) p= We O-Ha On a P= ow 5% Jo 0) 323 DISPERSION WITHOUT DEVIATION If the angles of the crown and flint glass prisms are so adjusted tha! Produce dispersion of the incident beam without deviation. Scanned with CamScanner| — 113 | yretions the and a” be the angles of the two prisms and 3 and 5 a Lat Othe mean rays at light, Then evans of tl b= (h-YNe Fs whe an For the deviation t0.be zero, 6+5 =0 natQ-De =0 iu a =-HoD g w we) ° (The negative sign shows that the refracting angles of the {wo prisms ae in opposite direction) The dispersions produced by the two prisms are given by 6-5, = (u,-B) ao : (ii) antl (uy, = Hy a (iit), The total dispersion (D, ~ D,) produced by the wo prisms is given by D,- D, = (HB) of = (H, — HL) (ihe dispersions are in opposite directions) = (@ - ©) (L- (iv) © and w! are the dispersive powers of the materials of the two fis, Fig. 3.30 illustrates the case of dispersion without deviation, As dispersive powers @ and oy are not equal, in such a combination there Will be ae ; ee dispersion and the final dispersed beam is parallel to the 3. 24 DIRECT VISION SPECTROSCOPE Wve tint vision spectroscope (Fig. 3.35) consists of three crown and Wee as Prisms of suitable refracting angles. The prisms are fixed ease Oe A collimating lens is fixed at one end of the tube and tia at the other. The angles of the prisms are such that the total oa” Produced for the mean rays in zero. The refracting angles of Pe Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook gy sms are in opposite directions. Thus, the ass prisms in one direction is equal ang 4 crown and flint glass pri produced by the crown B to that produced by evi, the flint glass prisms in the Opposite direction Tet It J ROWN CROWN CROWN coumarins LENS Fig. 3.35 will be resultant dispersion and the dispersed beam is almost parallel g the incident beam . The prisms are cemented together with Canada balsam (u = 154) to minimise the reflection losses at the interfaces. A spectro. scope of this. type is very handy and is used to study qualitatively the spectra of different sources of light. Use of more than two prisms increass the resolving power of the instrument i.e the spectral lines will appear well separated from one another. 3.25 CHROMATIC ABERRATION IN A LENS | When a parallel beam of white light is passed through a lens, he beam gets dispersed and rays of light of different colours (wavelengths) come to focus at different points along the axis. The blue rays of ligh come to focus at a point nearer the lens and the red rays of light at @ farther point (Fig. 3.36). f, is the focus for the blue rays and f, is the focus for the red rays. The colours in between blue and red come to focus be tween f, and f. The distance (f, — f,) = x is called the longitudinal or axial | chromatic aberration. a LOR AXIAL LONGITUDINAL OR CHROMATIC ABER! | Scanned with CamScanner‘Aberrations 3 The focal length of a lens is given by oi) ee 7 or (x R } fue =) oan Similarly, 5 wu) = wiv) and il = (iii) f avi) From equations (iv), and (vi) iil 7 ane fewer (uy-t-n +0 Healy Cnet) ff W-vDs Taking f, f, =f (here f is the mean focal length) f-f, Bo fo W-vs Hy -we? a Lh GF _ ayo wf ~ (-) =o-f evil) Thus, the axial chromatic aberration is equal to w f where 0 is the dispersive power of the material of the lens for blue and red rays of light and f is the focal length for the mean yellow rays of light. Further, it is clear, from the above, that can also be obtained by the method of calculus. Wy Where x iy the distance between the two lenses, Scanned with CamScanner| sed | persions 125 | pifferentiating this equation, es ee F hh Table Refractive indices and dispersive power | 11 for Fraunhofer Lines Dispe iF ~ 4 power i c D Foi Medium 6563 A | S890 A 4862 A | o Alcohol i o.nies Benzene 1497 1s 0.0338 Crown Glass | LSI4 1317 0.0193 Flint Glass =; 1.622 1.627 1.639 0.0271 i =p Dense Flint | L644 |) + 1.652 1.637 0.02961 Glass | ! i \ Water * | 1.334. 1.338 0.0180 ip }=o ” Also, Where w is the dispersive power of the material of the two lenses. Substituting @ in equation (ii) ; is a common factor, Jjlize RR ° or ee fies iii) Scanned with CamScanner— A Textbook o y 126 Om, ths of the crown and fiji late the focal lengt! - Example 3.2. Corr matic doublet of focal length $0 on i tens Nt re refractive indices for the Cand F lines are gp place , below : . oe crown We = SIS Wy = 1523 = 1.664 Flint Ye = 1.644 = I 1,523 - 1.515 = 1523-1515 _ OS TSO +1515 _ | 8x 327, a 8x37 1 yd S12X10f, ~ 50 - 1 fh f, = 24.79cm (Crown glass, comvex lens) 519 10 x 24.79 8x327 | =~49.19cm (Flint ghiss, concave le) | Example 3.3. Calculate the dispersive power for crown and fit Blass from the following data : From equation (i) f, =— | | c D F j Crown 1.5145, 1.5170 1.5230 | Flint Losaa 1.6520 1.6637 1.5230 1.5145 _ g.o164 15170-1 He=He + 1.6637 = 1.6444 = 0,02961 Hol 1.6520—1 — Scanned with CamScannerP ‘Aberrations 127 Example 3.4. Two glases, have dispersive powers in the ratio 2 :3. Theses glasses are to be used in the manufacture of an achromatic ob- gctive of focal length 20 cm. What are the focal lengths of the lenses ? : (Osmania 1972) For an achromatic objective, o, @, seo AG Here a = @, Also ae FORA or Example 3.5. The dispersive powers for crown and flint glass are 0.015 and 0.030 respectively. Calculate the focal lengths of the lenses (made of crown and flint glass) which form an ackromatic doublet of focal length 60 cm when placed in contact. @,= 0015 @, = 0.030, F = 60 cm or (i) or Scanned with CamScanner“A ‘ 7 2 & / SI. 128 a \ xy, f, = Mem From equation (1) f=-30x2 =- 60cm Example 3.6. The object glass of a telescope is an avhromat Of fe Length 90 em. If the magnitude of the dispersive powers of the five lena an (024 and 0.036, calculate their focal lengths. (LAS. 1976) Here , = 0024, @, = 0.036 F = 90cm~ or Also Example 3.7. Calculat ts dispersive poser Q.012) anda co es & cove lens of cre 2) and a conca i ispersiv ve 2 e lens of flint glass (dispersive Peed ) 30 that when placed in contact they je eae ante oes 8ing combination of focal length 30 cn” ara For achromatism, " (Punja Scanned with CamScannerins 0.012 , 0.020 h ake put i f fo =-20em re focal length of the convex ens is 12 em and the focal length tte concave lens is 20 cm ple 38. It is desired-to make a converging achromatic tens of m by using tivo lenses of materials A and, B. If ‘Aand Bare in the ratio 1: 2, find the focal length “(Mysore,1969) Exar vn focal length 30 © sdipersive powers of cach lens. @ 1 Also From’ the equation (i) 1. Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook of Op, ey oe ape imple dispersive powers of CrOWT. a — oS and 8 na at The refractive indices for the mean rays the flint glass lens is plane 165. If one of the surfaces of us pa rae radii yi me ware of the other surfaces of the two lenses whi, form an achromatic doublet of focal length 80 cm. @, = 0015, @, = 0.030, But For the flint glass lens. ie " F 1 —s l= 1 |- = Here, Rize and _A Scanned with CamScanner131 pverrations 4.cmare placed mple 3:10. Two lenses of focal lengths 8 cm and en the lenses if in distance apart. Calculate the distance betwe romatic combination. f= 8em, fy=4em, x= th 2 : Exal ga certal they form an acl q Here r= o 4 x= | or x= 6cm Example 3.11. Two thin lenses of focal lengths J, and J, separated by adistance d have an equivalent ‘focal length 50 cm. The combination ‘satisfies the conditions for no chromatic aberration and minimum spherical vin Find the values of f, . f, and d. Assume that both the lenses abert are of the same material. (Punjab, 1973) 1 ied) tee fo 0 Fe, Here F = 50cm For no chromatic aberration Ath dats ... (i) For mininwm spherical aberration d=S-f, = a) From (ii) and (iii) , 3d Tia ad a9 Substituting these values of f, and f, in equation (i) 3d. raul! 1 2 (2) ( tan at Scanned with CamScanner2 A Tetbook of Opi kd 3200 _ 12 fh = SREP = 100m 200 3 = 33.33cm Example 3.12. A converging achromat of 40 em focal length is tn be constructed out of a thin crown glass and a thin flint glass lens, the surfaces in contact having a common radius of curvawere of 25 cm Cal. culate the radius of curvature of the second surface of each lens. given that the values of the dispersive powers and refractive indices are 0.017 and 1.5 for crown glass, and 0.034 and 1.7 for flint glass. (Lucknow, 1969) @, = 0.017, © @, = 0.034 meals ps7 =0 50 = "y = 16.67cem i Scanned with CamScannerAberrations (i) For flint glass lens, R, = 25 em, R,’ = -233.33 em. Example 3.13. An achromatic doublet of focal length 20 cm is to be formed out of a combination of crown and flint glasses. The rattius of curvature of the faces in contact is 15 cm. Calculate, the radits of cur vature of the other faces, given the dispersive powers of the crown and fiint glasses as 0.02 and 0.04 and their respective refractive indices are 1.52 and 1.65. (Dethi (Sub.) 1977] = 0.04 Hy = 152, py = 165 = 20em =, =a = 0 f Bi Vetted an FORGE Dw 10cm " - 20cm Here Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook © Orne, 4 tot =~ = (152-1) x15} R, = 7.959 cm In the second lens Ry = +975em Example 3.14. An object of a telescope is an achromat of focal length 90 cm. The magnitude of the cispersive powers of the two ‘lenses are 0.024 and 0.036. Calculate their focal lengths, Was) | Here @, = 0.024 @, = 0.036 F = %cm | or oi) | Also | and The object glass is made a combination of convex lens of focal length 30 cm and a concave lens of focal length 45 cm. Example 3.15. The focal length of an achromatic combination af ? de in-contact is 150 cm. If the dispersive powers of the materials o lenses Scanned with CamScanneree - om 135 Aberrations Q the focal lengths of the two the WO lenses are 0.018 and 0.027, calculate the fo {Delhi 19911 lenses. Here ©, = 0.018 @, = 0.027 F = 150cm Also f, = 50cm 3h haa _ 3x50 aa = --75em 329 REDUCING SPHERICAL ABERRATION IN A MIRROR Paraboloidal metallic reflectors are generally used to obtain an ap- proximately parallel beam of light. With the paraboloidal mirrors also 2 completely, parallel beam of light cannot be obtained because only those rays passing through the focus of the mirror get reflected as a parallel beam. As the light source used is an extended one, rays of light reach ff the axis also. If the light source is small, the the mirrors from points o! allel for all practical purposes but it can never teflected beam will be par be a strictly parallel beam. Introduction of a lens with suitable radii of curvature can help in minimising the spherical aberration in a mirror, Fig. 3.41 illustrates the Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook of Op cs 136 Jie corrector, The jens is not meant for altering thy Sea * e the system. The function of the eo, herical aberration produced: by the mirror by jig With such a system. a parallel Beart) of Hight egy ne of the surfaces OF the correcting principle of the Schmit focal length or the mig! rector. is to annul the sp! ration ata single point. On own spherical abe be brought to focus ens Fig. 341 is plane and the second surface is convex towards the axis and concave at the ends. The avial rays are refracte.. towards the axis and the marginal rays are refracted outwards. All the refracted rays come to focus at F. Such elescopes where M is the ob- correcting lenses can be used in reflecti jective of the telescope. These correctors may be constructed from plastic materials also, where the material is pressed between well ground and pol- ished metal, dies, . ‘The grinding of one of the surfaces of a Schmidt corrector. is com- plicated and difficult. Maksutoy corrector avoids this difficulty. It consists of a thick meniscus lens as shown in Fig. 3.38. In a Maksutoy corrector both the surfaces are spherical but of unequal curvature. The radius of cv vature of the surface facing the incident parallel beam is less than the-Sec- gad surface. The course of © parallel beam of light due to refraction gh the lens and reflection from the figure throu; Scanned with CamScannerre IRE SE ES Aberrations 37 lens of the type (Fig 3.42). The parallel beam comes to focus at FL AL re, The mirrors Maskutoy corrector is simple and cheap to manufactul of fre. five from chromatic aberration but the correcting lenses used are not free from chromatic aberration, The effect of chromatic aberrauion is not, predominant in any of the above two types. JSION iscussion makes it clear that no single lens is free from all the aberrations (monochromatic and chromatic). It is also not possible to minimise all the aberrations simultaneously in a lens system A lens gystem needed for precision work must consist of a number of lens com ponents so that any aberration produced by some of them is cancelled by the rest. A high degree of correction for the aberrations can be achieved by increasing the number of lens components. These individual lenses cho- sen must be of required radii of curvature, focal lengths and dispersive powers. However. it is not always necessary to eliminate all the aberrations Simultaneously in all the optical instruments. Different instruments need vjative correction for different aberrations. Correction tor spherical aber- ration, coma and axial chromatic aberration is essential in the case of tele- scope objectives which cover a small angular field. On the other hand, a photographic objective which covers a wide field of view has to be cor- fected for astigmatism, distortion and curvature of the field. In general. images of high quality are produced only by lenses corrected for small angular field and small aperture. 331 RAINBOW Rainbows are formed by back is towards the, sun. Sometimes two rainbows are seen The rainbow known as the primary rainbow is a coloured band. having red on the outside and violet on the inner side. It is formed due to two re- fractions and one reflection of light falling on raindrops. The other rainbow: called the secondary rainbow is formed due to wo refractions and two refléctions of the sunlight falling on the raindrops. The rainbows are visible only when the altitude of the sun is less than 42°. No rainbows: are seen when the altitude is more than 42. A complete rainbow can be seen in an aeroplane flying at high altitudes. 332 PRIMARY RAINBOW Consider a ray of sunlight incident at the point B of a raindrop (Fig 343), The ray AB after refraction travels along BC and is reflected along CD and finally comes out along DE. The deviation of the ray AB aner tefraction is (i-r). The deviation of the ray BC after reflection at C is (180-37) and the deviation of the ray CD ‘after refraction at D is (i-r) a mae ea however. 330 CONCLI The previous sunlight falling on raindrops. The observer's mmon Scanned with CamScanner138 A Textbook Ope ta Therefore, total deviation = 2(i- : + (180 - 2r) 5 = 180+ 2i- For the angle of deviation to be maximum or minimum, the gin ential coefficient of & with respect to i must be zero, i FROM SUN ‘A Fig. 3.43 Differentiating equation (i), . & dr a 2A Ge dB Bi Bi ut G7 ° de 2-46 dr : or aon? (ii) Also, = sini Be Sine or Hsinr = sin i Differentiating, wos r = cos i , oe dre _ _cosi_ wAiii) | di ~ cos r | Equating (ii) and (iii) | cos i a1 | ineos 7 * 2 | 2 cost = Hi eos' r or 7 . Scanned with CamScanner4costi = yw? (1 —-sin?r) = pp? sin? r But Hsin = sini x 4cos'i = psi 3cosi HW ~(sinti+cos?) = p?-1 cos é vE=t iv) ‘Taking the refractive index of water for bed light = 1.329, 59.6" and 8 = 137.2 180 - 137.2 = 42.8° Taking the refractive index of water for violet light = 1.342, i= 58.8" and 8 = 139.2 | © 180-1392 = 40.8 _ These angles 42.8° and 40.80 are shown in Fig. 3.44 It is to be remembered that sunlight strikes the raindrops at different angles of incidence and undergoes different deviations. Only those rays produce a rainbow which have the angle of inci- dence corresponding to minimum angles of deviation. All such rays produce concentrated ef- fect of light.in the forma- tion of a rainbow. Also, as shown in the diagram, in the primary rainbow, the angle of inclination of ted light is more on the eye than the violet. Therefore, the outside of the rainbow appears bed and the inner violet. The other spectral colours lie in between violet and bed in their order. - Fig. 3.44 333 SECONDARY RAINBOW In the case of secondary” rainbow, there are two reflections and two refractions, Suppose a ray AB from the sun strikes the drop at B and after whton Bae Piong BC. It is reflected at C and D and after refraction ALE, finally emerges along EG (Fig. 3.45). ‘ Scanned with CamScanner140 : A Testb00k Of Ong, | The total deviation 8 = 2 (1-1) 4 2 (180 - 2r) = 3004 21-6 Lis The rays are concentrated around the direction of minimum devia. tion. Differentiating 8 with respect toi dé dr dg ai OG & Bu = 0 Ir 2-64 = 0 ; . or 5 Mii) Also, ps Sat or Hsin = Differentiating, : | weos rE = cos 5 di ac" hens : lil) Equating (ii) and (ii) | £08 i Hoos r = 3 | | or cost = Hi eos'r 9 % Yeosti = UPL sin? y = Bur wsinr = sing 9 cos*é Bcos?i Scanned with CamScannerAberrations 141 Toking H of water for bed light = 1329, the angle of deviation = 460 - 129.2 = 230.8. The acute angle = 230,8-180 = 50.8° (Fig. 3.42). Taking H of water for violet Tight = 1.342, the angle of deviation = 360- 125.48 = 234.52". The acute angle = 234.52-180 = 54.52" In Fig. 3.46, it is shown that the angle of inclination for violet rays js more than for red rays. FROM SUN Fig. 3.46 334 GENERAL DISCUSSION The primary rainbow is formed by light from the sun undergoing one internal reflection and two refractions and emerging at minimum de- viation. The inner violet edge subtends an angle of 40.8" and the outer Fig. 3.47 Scanned with CamScannerA Textbook 142 F Ope, 8°, The secondary rainbow j ted eae ma eo bral elton sod by light from the sun undergoing ee v0 ten tions and also emerging at minimum deviation. ae te ‘altiter than, the primary one and the -inner red edge subter ' an angle of 50.9 a the outer violet edge subtends an angle of 54.52°. Therefore the Colours in the secondary rainbow appear in the reverse order compared 10 those of the primary rainbow. All the spectral colours are Present in order be. tween violet and red (Fig. 3.47). Between the two rainbow, no bows are viewed because for this the angle of deviation should be less than the Toinj. mum in both the cases, which is not possible. Sometimes other bows are observed which are near the inner edge of the primary bow or near the outer edge of the secondary. bow. These an known as supernumerary bows and depend upon the size of the raindrops ‘These are due to diffraction just similar to diffraction at narrow slits, 335 HALOES When the sun or the moon is seen through a thin veil of high. cloud, haloes are formed. The common halo is the ting known as 22° halo. The radius of the ring subtends an angle of 22° at the eye, with the sun or Moon at the centre. The haloes are due to the refraction of light through a cloud of icy crystals which are in the shape of hexagonal prisms. Large number of these prisms are present in a cloud and the haloes are formed Fig 3.48 Scanned with CamScanner| ”- dition. (Dethi 1968 ; Puryab 1970 ; Mysore 1969) 19, Why is spherical aberration large in the case of a microscope objective even though its aperture is small ? (Rajasthan 1960) 20. Briefly explain the principal defects present in the images formed by spherical lenses. How can these defects be corrected 2? (Deliti 1962) what is chromatic aberration of a lens ? Explain clearly how it is re- moved ina photographic objective. (Dethi 1961) _—s Scanned with CamScannerAberrations 145 22. What is spherical aberration and how does it effect the definition of the image formed by a lens ? How can it be minimised in the case of com- mon eye-pieces ? (Mysore 1971 ; Punjab 1973 ; Agra 1960) 23. Explain fully how the errors due to spherical aberration have been over- come in the construction of objective glasses of high power microscope. (Agra 1962) 24, Obtain the condition for achromatism of two thin lenses of the same material placed at a distance apart. How is this condition realised in achromatic eye-pieces for optical instruments. (Mysore 1970 ; Agra 1968 ; Madras 1974) "25. What are spherical and chromatic aberration for a thin lens ? Describe without mathematical details, how these defects can be eliminated ? {Dethi Hons.) 1975] 26. Discuss the various defects from which images formed by a single lens suffer. Indicate, how these defects may be minimized ? [Delhi (Sub.) 1976) 27. Explain the formation of a primary rainbow. From what position does the rainbow appear as a full circle ? [Delhi (Additional Physics) 1976] 28. Describe, with suitable diagrams, the lateral and longitudinal chromatic aberrations. How will you achromatise a system of two thin lenses (a) of different materials and (b) of the same material (Agra 1966) 29. Describe and explain with the help of suitable figures (1) Longitudinal spherical aberration (2) Lateral spherical aberration : (Rajasthan 1966) 30. Explain what is meant by chromatic aberration. Deduce the condition for achromatism of two lenses separated by a distance. (Mysore 1971 ; Delhi 1963) What are the two main defects of optical images as formed by ordinary lenses.? Explain, how chromatic aberration may be removed in the case of a combination of two lenses of the same material ? Is such a combi- ation of lenses truly achromatic ? (Delhi 1973) 32, Obtain an expression for the longitudinal chromatic aberration of a lens. ‘A sysiem of lenses consisis of two thin convex lenses separated by a finite distance on a commédn axis. Derive the conditions under which the system is free from chromatic and spherical aberrations. * : ; (Bombay 1971) 22. vhat are spherical aberration, astigmatism and curvature of the field ? “vt iedhe cause of each of them and how may they be reduced to (Delhi B.Sc(Hons.) 1971) 31. ‘ i iil ~ Scanned with CamScanner146 34. 36. 37. 38 739: 40. 41 44. The dispersive powers for crown and flint glass are 0.01 respectively. Calculate the focal lengihs of the lenses made of crow? and flint glass which form an achromati wien placed an contact. Briefly explain spherical and chro What is an achromatic lens syst Obtain conditions for are in contact and (0) What is meant by mined ? State the five monochrom: lens, Explain how spheri- What are the inary lenses the case of a combination of (Delhi 1987 ; Delhi (Sub.) 1987) Briefly explain spheris tain conditions for acl © separated and (b) whet What is spherical aberration What is dispersion of ligh Give the theory for | Write short notes on ? A Texthook of Optics matic aberrations in optical ima ‘and how is it obtained in practice” 1 with two thin lenses (4) when they achroma ) when they are separated: (Dethi B.Se(Hons.) 19924 y dispersive power ? How is it experimentally deter. . (Osmania 1992) atic aberrations of a | | aberration arises and state the various methods of minimizing the (Bombay 1986) same. wunted coaxially are to have Two thin minimum spherical and chromatic al lengths and the separation jal and mot iberration. Find the between them in terms of 1 lenses of the sdme materi ratio of their focal heir focal lengths. (Bombay 1986) eas formed by oF two main defects of an optical imag 2 Explain how chromatic aberration may be removed in ff two lenses in contact. ation in’ optical images. Ob- n lenses (a) When they are {Delhi (Hons.), 1987) ical and chromatic abery Jhromatism with two thil n they are in contact. 2 Explain how it arises {Delhi (Add.Physics)] 1? Give its elementary explanation [Delhi (Add.Physics)] 1 the formation of primary rainbow. [Delhi (Add. Physics)) (). Aplanatism (Punjab 1990) (ii) Rainbow (Madras 1984 ; Punjab 1993 ; Agra 1992 + Delhi 1990) (iii) Direct vision spectroscope (Mysore 1990 ; Delhi 1988 ; Madras 1984) (iv) Chromatic ‘aberration. (Delhi 1985) (») Haloens 6 and 0.032 ic doublet of focal length 20 cm “Gh = + 10 cm, = 20 cm) (Berhampur 1992) Scanned with camscanner| “Aberrations 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 147 Two lenses of focal lengths 4.5 cm and. 1.5 cm are placed at a certain distance apart. Calculate the distance between the lenses if they form an achromatic combination. (d= 32cm) ‘A converging lens of focal length 35.0 cm and achromatic for the ¢ and-F lines is to be made with two lenses. one of hard crown and the other of dense flint glass placed in contact, Find the focal lengths of these lenses. The following data for the glasses are given Hard cfown : Pp = 1.5175; ME - pc = 0.00856 Dense flint : Wp = 1.6264: Mr - Hc = 0.01722 (ui is the refractive index for the mean ray.) {Ans Crown glass, convex lens, focal length + 13.94 cm, Flint glass . concave lens, focal length -24.67] What is spherical aberration of a lens ? Derive the condition for the longitudinal spherical aberration to be-minimum in the’case of a pair of co-axial lens system separated by a-distance d (Delhi, 1991) What are spherical and chromatic aberrations ? Two. thin convex lenses of focal lengths 3 cm and I-cm are placed coaxially in air 2 cm apart. Find the positions of all the cardinal points. Comment on the spherical and chromatic aberrations of, this combination. [Dethi 1991] What is ‘chromatic aberration’ ? Derive the condition for achromatism in an achromatic doublet. Discuss the v idity of the*condition for the choice: of the lenses. . [Osmania 1992] Distinguish between lateral and longitudinal spherical aberration. Men- two methods:for minimising spherical aberration. [Osmania 1992] tion Scanned with CamScanner