Newtonian Mechanics

M. Siddikov

October 4, 2019
Outline
Today’s topics:
Short recap
Principle of minimal action. Lagrangian
of the system.
Motion in central field. Kepler’s problem
Motion of pointlike mass in external field
The three laws of Newton describe all
the dynamics of the mechanical system.
The first law of Newton
If the net force (the vector sum of all forces Laplace’s determinism
acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity The dynamics of the particle is fully
of the object is constant. determined by its initial position and
velocities.
The second law of Newton
Newton’s formalism is universal, yet
direct solution of (1) sometimes might
d~p d~v ~ (~r , ~v , t) be challenging due to complicated
=m = m ~a = F (1)
dt dt differential equation, unknown reaction
forces etc.
The third law of Newton
All forces between two objects exist in equal Example: par- .
magnitude and opposite direction: if one ticle of mass m
object A exerts a force FA on a second object sliding without
B, then B simultaneously exerts a force FB friction along
on A, and F ~ A = −F
~B .
the wire in the
homogenous gravitational field. Reac-
tion force is unknown
Conservation laws in external field
Momentum conservation
The angular momentum of the particle
If the projection of the force F~ on some ~ = ~r × ~p satisfies
M
direction ~n is zero, then the projection of
the momentum ~p on this direction is dM~
~ ≡ ~r × F
=K ~,
conserved: dt
d~p ~ (1) ~ is called torque.
where K
=F
dt
Angular momentum conservation
d (~n · ~p )  
~ = 0 ⇒ ~p ·~n = const
= ~n · F ~ is zero, all components
dt If the torque K
of M~ are conserved. If projection of the
torque K~ on some direction ~n is zero,
Energy conservation
K · n = 0, then projection of M ~ on that
The pointlike mass m moves in the direction is conserved,
potential field U(~x ), so that the force
acting on particle is conservative, M · n = const
~ = −∇U. Then the energy of the system
F
Conservation laws (integrals of mo-
m ~v 2 tion) simplify consideration, and in the
E = + U (~x )
2 simplest cases allow to integrate the sys-
tem completely
is conserved along the trajectory.
Minimal action (Hamilton) principle
Formulation in terms of Equations of Newton
is useful, yet is not unique
Formalism of Lagrange in bibliography
Start with Lagrangian formulation and min-
imal action principle (we will see later) Symon: Chapter 9
Marion: Chapter 7
Comment on formalism of Lagrange Goldstein: Chapter 2
Very powerful tool Fetter, Walecka: Chapter 3
Equivalent to the 2nd law of Newton in Landau: Chapter 1
Cartesian coordinates
We will consider in parallel with both
More convenient & easy in curvilinear
approaches, based on 2nd law of New-
coordinates
ton and approach of Lagrange
Easy to implement conservation laws
We’ll consider it in parallel with 2nd law of
Newton to compare side-by-side and see the
advantages.
For central motion it allows to integrate
equations of motion much easier
Applicable only for conservative forces
~ = ∇U), not for dissipative forces
(F
 Assume that F[q] is a functional of
Functional and functional minimization
q(t) and its derivatives q̇, q̈,..., which
Function vs. functional
has a form
(Scalar) function f (~x ): mapping of space Z t2
R3 → R1 F[q] = dt L (q, q̇, q̈, ...)
Functional: mapping of the space of t1
functions to R1 . δF ∂L d

∂L

:= − +
δq(t) ∂q(t) dt ∂ q̇
E.g. if q(t) is some function, then
dn
 
∂L
Z t2 p ... + (−1)n n
F[q] = dt 1 + q̇ 2 (t), ... dt ∂q (n)
t1
The quantity δF/δq is called functional
derivative.
Examples of functional minimization problems If qe (t) is a local extremum (mini-
Shortest distance between two points mum or maximum), then
Trajectory which allows fastest travel from

δF 
= 0. for all t
(x1 , y1 ) to (x2 , y2 ) in a given field δq(t) q=qe (t)
[Brachistochrone problem]
(similar to what we have for the func-
Surface of minimal area connecting two
tions)
contours

(See e.g. Chapter 6 in the book of Thornton,

Marion for more examples)
Pointlike mass: Newtonian vs Lagrangian formulations
The first law of Newton Case of motion in potential field U(x):
If the net force (the vector sum of all forces
Minimal action principle
acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity
of the object is constant. For real trajectories the action S
Z t2
The second law of Newton S[q] = L (qi , q̇k , t) dt = min
t1

d~p d~v ~ (~r , ~v , t) • Lagrangian of the system (in

=m = m ~a = F (1)
dt dt Cartesian coordinates):
X m q̇a2
The third law of Newton L=T −U = − U(q)
a
2
All forces between two objects exist in equal
magnitude and opposite direction: if one • Extremum of the action:
object A exerts a force FA on a second object  
δS ∂L d ∂L
B, then B simultaneously exerts a force FB 0= = − , ∀a (2)
on A, and F ~ A = −F
~B . δqa ∂qa dt ∂ q̇a

(2) coincides with (1) since pa =

∂L/∂ q̇a = m · q̇a
Technical remarks
Neither value of action nor value of
lagrangian are physically observable: we’ve
Minimal action principle
seen that redefinition
For real trajectories the action S
d
Z t2 L→L+ f (q, t)
dt
S[q] = L (qi , q̇k , t) dt = min
t1 where f is an arbitrary function, does
not change equations of motion, but does
• Lagrangian of the system (in Cartesian change the value of lagrangian L and action
coordinates): S
X m q̇a2 When You solve problems, it is
L=T −U = − U(q) (1) not needed to rederive Euler-Lagrange
2
a equations. Just do the following:
• Extremum of the action:
  Steps to get Euler-Lagrange equations
∂L d ∂L 1) Write out the kinetic energy T and
0= − , ∀a (2)
∂qa dt ∂ q̇a
potential U, and construct lagrangian (1)
(2) coincides with 2nd law of Newton 2) Evaluate derivatives and write out
since pa = ∂L/∂ q̇a equations (2) in explicit form for all
coordinates qa .
Conservation laws in lagrangian formalism
Momentum conservation Formulation in Lagrangian formalism
If the projection of the force F~ on some Assume that potential U(q) does not
direction ~nx ≡ x̂ is zero, then the depend on variable qx , so the
projection of the momentum ~p on this lagrangian is invariant with respect to
direction is conserved: translations along x̂
d (~n · ~p )  
~ = 0 ⇒ ~p ·~n = const ~q → ~q + λ x̂, ∀λ
= ~n · F
dt
Then the component px = p · x̂ is
conserved (similar for other
components).

 

∂L d  ∂L 
 
−  =0
∂qx dt  ∂ q̇x 
|{z} |{z}
=0 =px
Conservation laws in lagrangian formalism
Energy conservation Formulation in Lagrangian formalism:
The pointlike mass m moves in the If the lagrangian of the system doesn’t
potential field U(~x ), so that the force depend on time explicitly,
acting on particle is conservative,
~ = −∇U. Then the energy of the
F ∀λ , L(~x , ~x˙ , t + λ) = L(~x , ~x˙ , t)
system
then the energy of the system
m ~v 2
E = + U (~x )
2 X ∂L
E ≡ q̇a −L=T +U
is conserved along the trajectory. a
∂ q̇a

is conserved

dE X ∂L X d  ∂L  dL
= q̈a + q̇a − =
dt a
∂ q̇a a
dt ∂ q̇a dt
X ∂L  H X ∂L
q̈ + Hq̇H −
=

a a
a  ∂ q̇a a
∂qHa
H
X ∂L X ∂L
H
− Hq̇H − q̈a  = 0

a
a
∂qH
Ha
a 
∂ q̇a
Conservation laws in external field
• According to definition,
Angular momentum conservation dM~  
~ · ~n
· ~n = ~r × F
If projection of the torque K~ on some dt
direction ~n is zero, K · n = 0, then • L does not change under rotations, so
projection of M ~ on that direction is
conserved, dL ∂L ∂ra ∂L ∂ ṙa ∂L
0= = + +
dφ ∂φ ∂φ ∂ra ∂φ ∂ ṙa
M · n = const |{z} |{z} |{z}
=Fa =pa
=0

Lagrangian formalism: ~ + (~n × ~v ) · ~p

0 = (~n × ~r ) · F
If lagrangian does not change under but
rotations around ~n:
(~n × ~v ) · ~p ≡ ~n · (~v × ~p ) =
∀φ, δ~r = φ~n × ~r , δ~r˙ = φ~n × ~r˙ , = ~n · (~v × m ~v ) = 0
L(~r , ~r˙ , t) = L(~r + δ~r , ~r˙ + δ~r˙ , t) 
~ = ~n · ~r × F

~ =0
⇒ (~n × ~r ) · F
then the projection of the angular
momentum M ~ · ~n conserved, ~ · ~n
dM
⇒ = 0, ~ · ~n = const
M
dt
M · n = const
Conservation laws in external field
Momentum in Lagrangian formalism
Assume that potential U(q) does not
depend on variable qx , so the lagrangian is
invariant with respect to translations
along x̂
~q → ~q + λ x̂, ∀λ
Then the component px = p · x̂ is
conserved (similar for other components).
Energy in Lagrangian formalism:
If the lagrangian of the system doesn’t
depend on time explicitly i.e. invariant
with respect to time shifts
∀t0 , L(~x , ~x˙ , t + t0 ) = L(~x , ~x˙ , t)
then the energy of the system
X ∂L
E ≡ q̇a −L=T +U
a
∂ q̇a
is conserved
Angular momentum conservation
If projection of the torque K~ on some
direction ~n is zero, K · n = 0, then
projection of M ~ on that direction is
conserved,
M · n = const
If the lagrangian does not change
under rotations around ~n:
∀φ, δ~x = φ~n × ~x , δ~x˙ = φ~n × ~x˙ ,
L(~x , ~x˙ , t) = L(~x + δ~x , ~x˙ + δ~x˙ , t)
There is a general theorem
Noether’s theorem
For any continuous symmetry of the
action S, there is a conserved quantity
(integral of motion).
We will see the proof a bit later.
Minimal action principle
Minimal action principle (Hamilton) Assume that now we make
For each dynamical system there is a transformation of variables (e.g. from
functional called “action” Cartesian system to spherical or
Z t2 cylindrical),
S= L (qi , q̇k , t) dt
t1 qx = qx (r1 , r2 , r3 ) ,
qy = qy (r1 , r2 , r3 ) ,
such that real trajectories correspond to the
minimum of the action. The function L is qz = qz (r1 , r2 , r3 ) .
called Lagrangian of the system.
Rewrite the lagrangian in terms of
3
X m q̇a2 variables ri in general case. Write out
L=T −U = − U (qa )
a=1
2 explicitly your results for the case of
transformation to spherical coordinates
Euler-Lagrange equations and for the particle moving in the field
δF ∂L d

∂L
 of central potential
0= = − p 
δq ∂qk dt ∂ q̇k U r = x2 + y2 + z2 .
Minimal action principle Transformation of variables:
Minimal action principle (Hamilton) qx = qx (r1 , r2 , r3 ) ,
For each dynamical system there is a qy = qy (r1 , r2 , r3 ) ,
functional called “action” qz = qz (r1 , r2 , r3 ) .
Z t2
S= L (qi , q̇k , t) dt The lagrangian in terms of variables ri .
t1
3
such that real trajectories correspond to the X ∂qa
q̇a = ṙb
minimum of the action. The function L is ∂rb
b=1
called Lagrangian of the system. 3
X µab (r ) ṙa ṙb
3 L=T −U = − U (ra )
X m q̇a2 2
L=T −U = − U (qa ) a,b=1
a=1
2
where
3
Euler-Lagrange equations
X ∂qk ∂qk
µab (r ) = m
∂ra ∂rb
  k=1
δS ∂L d ∂L
0= = −
δq ∂qk dt ∂ q̇k
Motion in central field
Transformation of variables
(Cartesian→spherical):
Minimal action principle (Hamilton)
For each dynamical system there is a qx = r sin θ cos φ,
functional called “action” qy = r sin θ sin φ,
Z t2
qz = r cos θ.
S= L (qi , q̇k , t) dt
t1
The lagrangian in terms of variables
such that real trajectories correspond to the r , θ, φ.
minimum of the action. The function L is L = T − U(r )
called Lagrangian of the system. where
3
X m q̇a2 (ṙ )2 + r 2 (θ̇)2 + r 2 sin2 θ (φ̇)2
L=T −U = − U (qa ) T =m
2 2
a=1

Euler-Lagrange equations
 
δF ∂L d ∂L
0= = −
δq ∂qk dt ∂ q̇k
Lagrangian formalism
The lagrangian in terms of variables ra .
Minimal action principle (Hamilton) 3
X µab (r ) ṙa ṙb
L=T −U = − U (ra )
For each dynamical system there is a 2
a,b=1
functional called “action”
Z t2 3
X ∂qk ∂qk
S= L (qi , q̇k , t) dt µab (r ) = m
t1 ∂ra ∂rb
k=1

such that real trajectories correspond to the

minimum of the action. The function L is Assume that now we will consider the
called Lagrangian of the system. new variables ra as generalized
3
coordinates and use them to write the
X m q̇a2 Euler-Lagrange equations
L=T −U = − U (qa )
a=1
2  
∂L d ∂L
− = 0 (2)
∂ra dt ∂ ṙa
Euler-Lagrange equations
  Demonstrate that the equations (1)
δF ∂L d ∂L and (2) are equivalent
0= = − (1)
δq ∂qk dt ∂ q̇k
Lagrangian formalism
3
∂L X ∂ra ∂L
Euler-Lagrange equations =
  ∂qk a=1
∂qk ∂ra
δF ∂L d ∂L
0= = − (1) ∂qk
δq ∂qk dt ∂ q̇k q̇k = ṙa
∂ra
3
∂L X ∂ra ∂L
Euler-Lagrange equations in variables ra : =
∂ q̇k a=1
∂qk ∂ ṙa
 
∂L d ∂L
− = 0 (2) 
∂qa dt ∂ ṙa ∂L d ∂L
− =
∂qk dt ∂ q̇k
Demonstrate that the equations (1) and (2)
3   
are equivalent X ∂ra ∂L d ∂L
= − =0
a=1
∂qk ∂ra dt ∂ ṙa
 
∂ra
If det ∂qk
6= 0, then (1) and (2) are
equivalent.
Lagrangian formalism
Equivalence of Euler-Lagrange equa-
tions means that we can write out the
Minimal action principle (Hamilton)
Lagragian and derive Euler-Lagramge
For each dynamical system there is a equations in any system (not only
functional called “action” Cartesian!).
Z t2
S= L (qi , q̇k , t) dt For this reason the variables qa in Euler-
t1
Lagrange equations are called “general-
such that real trajectories correspond to the ized coordinates”, and the derivatives
minimum of the action. The function L is ∂L
called Lagrangian of the system. pk ≡
∂ q̇k
3
X m q̇a2 are called “generalized momenta”.
L=T −U = − U (qa )
a=1
2
Note that with Euler-Lagrange
approach we do not need to write out
Euler-Lagrange equations forces, make their projections etc. This
δF ∂L d

∂L
 is a powerful approach, and below
0= = − (1) we will see how it helps to integrate
δq ∂qk dt ∂ q̇k
equations of motion for various systems
Motion in the plane (2D case)

The particle of mass m moves in a

potential field U(~r ) in 2 dimensions.
Write out the equations of Euler-Lagrange
in polar coordinates and demonstrate that
they agree with the second law of Newton.

Beware: In polar coordinates the kinetic en-

ergy term includes explicit dependence on
coordinate,
m 2
ṙ + r 2 ϕ̇2


T =
2
Motion in the plane (2D case)
. Orientation of
vectors ~e r , ~e ϕ
depends on r , φ:

~e r = cos ϕ~e x +sin ϕ ~e y

The particle of mass m moves in a
potential field U(~r ) in 2 dimensions. ~e ϕ = − sin φ~e x +cos ϕ ~e y
Write out the equations of Euler-Lagrange The lagrangian in terms of variables r , ϕ:
in polar coordinates and demonstrate that
2
they agree with the second law of Newton. X µab (r ) ṙa ṙb
L=T −U = − U (ra )
2
a,b=1
Use spherical system of coordinates
2
x = r cos ϕ,
X ∂qk ∂qk
µab (r ) = m
y = r sin ϕ, ∂ra ∂rb
k=1

Case of polar coordinate system:

Notations for basis vectors:
m ṙ 2 + r 2 ϕ̇2


Cartesian: ~e x , ~e y (some authors prefer
T =
x̂, ŷ ; Symon uses î , ĵ ) 2
Polar: ~e r , ~e ϕ (some authors prefer
r̂ , ϕ̂)
Motion in the plane (2D case)
Polar coordinate system:

The particle of mass m moves in a ~ = Ar ~e r + Aϕ~e ϕ

A
potential field U(~r ) in 2 dimensions.
Write out the equations of Euler-Lagrange ~
dA dAr dAϕ
in polar coordinates and demonstrate that = ~e r + ~e ϕ +
dt dt dt
they agree with the second law of Newton.
d~e r d~e ϕ
+ Ar + Aϕ
m ṙ 2 + r 2 ϕ̇2

dt dt
L=T −U = − U (~r )
2 . Orientation of
Euler-Lagrange equations: vectors ~e r , ~e ϕ
∂U depends on r , φ:
mr̈ = − +mr φ̇2
∂r
∂U ~e r = cos ϕ~e x +sin ϕ ~e y
m (r 2 ϕ̈+2r ṙ ϕ̇) = −
∂ϕ ~e ϕ = − sin φ~e x +cos ϕ ~e y
Derivative in Cartesian system:
d~e r d~e ϕ
~ = Ax ~e x + Ay ~e y
A ⇒ = ϕ̇~e ϕ , = −ϕ̇~e r
dt dt

dA~ dAx dAy The velocity in polar system is given by

= ~e x + ~e y
dt dt dt ~v = ṙ ~e r + r ϕ̇ ~e ϕ . Evaluate the vector of
since vectors ~ei are constant. acceleration ~a ≡ d~v /dt in polar coordinates.
Motion in the plane (2D case)
d~er d~eϕ
⇒ = ϕ̇~eϕ , = −ϕ̇~er
The particle of mass m moves in a dt dt
potential field U(~r ) in 2 dimensions. Velocity:~v = ṙ ~er + r ϕ̇ ~eϕ
Write out the equations of Euler-Lagrange
and demonstrate that they agree with the d~v
= r̈ ~er + (ṙ ϕ̇ + r φ̈) ~eϕ +
second law of Newton. dt
d~er d~eϕ
m ṙ 2 + r 2 ϕ̇2

+ ṙ + r ϕ̇ =
dt  dt 
L=T −U = − U (~r )  
2 = r̈ −r φ̇2 ~er + r φ̈+2ṙ ϕ̇ ~eϕ
Euler-Lagrange equations:
∂U Terms in red due to rotation of basis vec-
mr̈ = − +mr φ̇2
∂r tors
1 ∂U ⇒2nd law of Newton coincides with
m (r 2 ϕ̈+2r ṙ ϕ̇) = − Euler-Lagrange equations!
r ∂ϕ
Derivative in polar coordinates . Acceleration de-
composition,
~
dA dAr dAϕ
= ~er + ~eϕ + ω ≡ ϕ̇
dt dt dt
d~er d~eϕ
+ Ar + Aϕ Centripetal force: Fr = mr ω 2 = m vϕ2 /r .
dt dt
Coriolis force Fϕ = −2mωvr .
Motion in central field (3D)

The particle of mass m moves in a

time-independent central field U(r ) in 3
dimensions. Write out the equations of
Euler-Lagrange and demonstrate that they
agree with the second law of Newton. Identify
the integrals of motion and integrate the
system.
Motion in central field (3D)
Use spherical system of coordinates

The particle of mass m moves in a central qx = r sin θ cos φ,

field U(r ) in 3 dimensions. Write out the qy = r sin θ sin φ,
equations of Euler-Lagrange, identify the qz = r cos θ.
integrals of motion and integrate the system.
The lagrangian in terms of variables
r , θ, φ.
3
X µab (r ) ṙa ṙb
L=T −U = − U (ra )
2
a,b=1

3
X ∂qk ∂qk
µab (r ) = m
∂ra ∂rb
k=1

Case of spherical system:

 
m ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 + r 2 sin2 θ φ̇2
T =
2
Motion in central field
Explicit Euler-Lagrange equations:

The particle of mass m moves in a central d 2r ∂U 

2 2 2

mr̈ ≡ m = − +mr θ̇ + sin θ φ̇ ,
field U(r ) in 3 dimensions. Write out the dt 2 ∂r
equations of Euler-Lagrange, identify the
integrals of motion and integrate the d (m r 2 θ̇)
system. ≡ m r 2 θ̈+2mr ṙ θ̇
dt
m r 2 sin 2θ φ̇2
L=T −U = =
  2
m ṙ 2 + r 2 θ̇2 + r 2 sin2 θ φ̇2
= − U (r )
2 d (m r 2 sin2 θφ̇)
= m r 2 sin2 θφ̈+
dt
generalized coordinates: r , θ, φ
generalized momenta: +m r 2 sin 2θ θ̇φ̇+2m r ṙ φ̇ sin2 θ = 0

∂L -the terms in red in case of the second

pr = = m ṙ ,
∂ ṙ law of Newton appear due to rotation
∂L of the basis vectors (~e r , ~e θ , ~e φ ), similar
pθ = = m r 2 θ̇,
∂ θ̇ to what we have seen in 2D in the polar
∂L
pφ = = m r 2 sin2 θφ̇, coordinates.
∂ φ̇