THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT

NAME: ABRAHAM CHANDA

STUDENT No. 22108152

PROGRAME: M.Sc. CHEMISTRY

COURSE: FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

CODE: CHA 550

TASK: ASSIGNMENT ONE – DRUGS OF ABUSE (COCAINE)

LECTURER: MR. DAKA P.S

DUE DATE: 30.05.2023

1.0 Introduction

According to World Health Organisation (WHO), drug is defined as any chemical entity
or mixture of entities, other than those required for the maintenance of normal health
(like food), the administration of which alters biological functions and possibly structure.
It may further be defined as any substance (with exception of food and water) which,
when taken into the body, alters the body’s function either physically and/or
psychologically. Drugs may be legal (e.g. liquor, glue, caffeine and tobacco) or illegal
(e.g. cocaine, heroin and dagga). Illicit drugs are those that are unlawful to possess
and use. Drug abuse refers to any use of drugs that causes physical, psychological,
legal or social harm to the individual and to others affected by the drug user’s behavior.
Use of drugs or chemicals in greater amounts than prescribed by a doctor or for
purposes other than those intended by the manufacturer. The habitual taking of illegal
or legal drugs/substances. Drug abuse is a compulsive, excessive and self-damaging
use of habit forming drugs or substances leading to addiction, dependence or serious
physiological injury. Addiction, which is a condition, a brain disorder or physiological
need) that can be pleasurable but the continuation of which interferes with ordinary
responsibilities and concerns such as leading a normal and productive life.

Drugs are related to crime in multiple ways. Most directly, it is a crime to use, possess,
manufacture, or distribute drugs classified as having a potential for abuse. Cocaine,
heroin, marijuana, and amphetamines are examples of drugs classified to have abuse
potential. Drugs are also related to crime through the effects they have on the user’s
behavior and other illegal activity in connection with drug trafficking. Illicit drugs not
only have dangerous health impacts but they are a significant contributor to crime, road
accidents, violent incidents, relationship breakdown and social dysfunction (Vidal,
2014).
Serious and organized criminals are at the Centre of the world’s illicit drug market,
motivated by greed, power and profit. We know serious and organized crime groups

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continue to generate significant profits from the sale of illicit substances, with the price
paid for illicit drugs among the highest in the world.
Illicit drug use cannot be addressed by law enforcement alone—a multi-faceted
approach
is needed from law enforcement, forensic services, health and academia, which inform
the understanding and assist in focusing the collective efforts to respond to the issue of
illicit drugs. A collective effort starting at the family level, learning institutions, the
church and governments is needed.
Therefore, in this literature review paper, we will discuss cocaine as a drug of abuse
under the following issues:
i. Generic name
ii. Scientific name
iii. Chemical formula and structure
iv. Chemical properties
v. Common source of drug to people
vi. Quick site test if any
vii. Detailed analytical technique commonly used and finally,
viii. Cite any recent article on such lab analysis

2.0 Generic name, Scientific name, Chemical Formula and structure of

Cocaine

Cocaine belongs to the family of substances called alkaloids. From a strictly chemical
point of view, “pure” cocaine may occur in two forms: base and salt. The cocaine base
molecule (C17H21NO4, benzoylmethylecgonine) consists of the “heart” of the drug and
accounts for its psychoactive effects, which include a sense of physical and mental well-
being, exhilaration and euphoria (Shesser, 2019). Cocaine in base form is available on
consumer markets in many world regions; it is mostly smoked. Cocaine salts consist of
larger molecules and, theoretically, can come in several kinds, such as cocaine
hydrochloride, cocaine nitrate, cocaine sulphate, and several others. However, in

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practice, cocaine hydrochloride is the salt which is most frequently encountered as an
end-product sold to consumers. Cocaine sulphate may occur in the intermediate
products of the cocaine production process (King, 2019).
Given that there are no indications of synthetic cocaine illicitly manufactured (or
diverted) on any consequential scale, it may be assumed that the cocaine consumer
products available on global markets have been manufactured from coca leaf. However,
it is important to bear in mind that such products typically do not consist of a “pure”
substance and therefore aspects such as impurities, physical characteristics and
methods of production and consequent residues are part of their defining
characteristics.

Drug: Cocaine
Generic name: Cocaine hydrochloride

IUPAC name:
(1R,2R,3S,5S)-2-(methoxycarbonyl)-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-3-carboxylic
acid methyl ester

Chemical formula: C17H21NO4

Chemical structure:

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Scientific name: Benzoylmethylecgonine
Depending on the main ingredient and the method of manufacturing, it is possible to
distinguish three main families of products derived from the base and salt forms:
(1) manufacturing process consumer products (MCPs) derived from coca paste and
cocaine base;
(2) freebase consumer products (FCPs) derived by converting cocaine salt back to base
form;
(3) consumer products based on cocaine hydrochloride (typically in powder form).

Cocaine, an alkaloid extracted from the leaves of two species of coca plant, is found
worldwide in a variety of consumer products that come in two chemical forms, as a
base and as hydrochloride salt. Nasal insufflation (“sniffing”, “snorting”) of cocaine in its
salt form, and the inhalation of the vapours when cocaine in its base form is smoked,
are the most frequently used routes of administration at global level, followed by
injection and oral use (Shannon, 2020).

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Production Processes Chemicals and Inputs Tradeable product

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3.0 Chemical properties of cocaine
Cocaine is a white, crystalline powder with a bitter taste. It is highly soluble in water
and organic solvents such as alcohol and ether.

Cocaine has local anesthetic properties and acts as a stimulant on the central nervous
system. The key chemical properties of cocaine include its potency, rapid onset of
action, short duration of effects and high potential for addiction. When ingested,
cocaine acts as a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, thereby increasing the levels of
dopamine in the brain, which is associated with feelings of pleasure, euphoria and
enhanced focus. Over time, the brain can become desensitized to the effects of cocaine,
leading to tolerance and the need for higher doses to achieve the same effects
(Raymon, 2021).

4.0 Common Source of cocaine to People

The most common source of cocaine to people is through illegal drug trafficking, where
the drug is smuggled into countries from cocaine -producing countries such as
Colombia, Peru and Bolivia. Cocaine may also be produced locally in clandestine
laboratories and sold on the streets. In some cases, individuals may obtain cocaine
through prescriptions from doctors for medical purposes, although this is less common

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due to the highly addictive nature of the drug. Additionally, social and recreational
settings such as parties, clubs and music festivals may also be a source of cocaine use.
Cocaine is a highly addictive drug that is extracted from the leaves of the coca plant
(Perez-Reyes, 2017). It is primarily produced in South America and is trafficked
worldwide. Cocaine is often sold in a powder form, which can be snorted, injected, or
smoked

5.0 Quick Site Test (Presumptive tests)-Scott test

The nature of the sample in a forensic case is one of the most important factors, since,
it determines the posterior analysis, helping to define or discard its identity. A
presumptive test is used as an initial screening test to detect the presence of cocaine in
a sample. However, it is not a confirmatory test. Therefore, further confirmatory tests
are required to confirm the presence of cocaine in the sample (Solimini, 2021). These
determinations usually occur, after a chemical reaction and a specific colour is
produced. A false positive is another substance reacting the same way, producing the
expected result.

The Scott presumptive test for cocaine is a technique used by National Food and Drugs
Control Laboratory, under the Ministry of Health in Zambia, whose clients are the
Zambia Police and Drug Enforcement Commission among many others.

Cobalt Thiocyanate Test (Scott test)

The Cobalt thiocyanate test for cocaine identification is based on the chemical
reaction between cocaine and Cobalt thiocyanate. When cocaine is mixed with
cobalt thiocyanate, it forms a complex that gives a blue colour, which is
indicative of the presence of cocaine.
The chemical reaction involved in this test is as follows:

Cocaine + Cobalt Thiocyanate → Cobalt Cocaine Thiocyanate +

water

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 C17H21NO4+ Co(SCN)2 →Co(C17H21NO4)(SCN)2 + H2O

This reaction produces cobalt cocaine thiocyanate, which is a blue-colored

complex, along with water. The reaction is a displacement reaction, where the
thiocyanate ion is displaced from the cobalt ion by the cocaine molecule, and the cobalt
ion then forms a complex with cocaine.

Procedure:

1. Place a small amount of the suspected material in a test tube.

2. Add one drop of 16% aqueous hydrochloric acid solution and shake the
test tube for ten seconds.
3. Add one drop of reagent of (Dissolve 2.5g of Cobalt II thiocyanate in
100mL of water) and shake for ten seconds.
Result:
Blue colour indicates the possible presence of Cocaine, including illicit
Cocaine base preparations such as “crack”
Remarks:
A similar colour may occur in the presence of other controlled
(methaqualone, Phencyclidine) and non-controlled drugs/precursors

6.0 Detailed analytical technique commonly used for Cocaine analysis

Gas Chromatography/Mass spectrometry (GC/MS) which is a powerful analytical

technique used to separate, identify and quantify chemical compounds in a sample.

The GC/MS technique involves two main components: the gas chromatography (GC)
and the mass spectrometer (MS). The gas chromatography separates the individual
components of the sample mixture by passing it through a column packed with a
stationary phase material. The stationary phase selectively interacts with the
components of the sample mixture, causing them to be separated based on their
physical and chemical properties. As the individual components emerge from the
column, they enter the mass spectrometer.

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The mass spectrometer then ionizes the separated components and separates them
based on their mas-to-charge ratio. The ionization process can be achieved through a
variety of methods, including electron ionization (IE), chemical ionization (CI) and
electrospray ionization (ESI). Once, the components are ionized, they are accelerated in
an electric field and passed through a magnetic field, which causes them to deflect
based on their mass-to-charge ratio. The deflected ions are detected by a detector,
which generates a signal that is proportional to the abundance of each ion (Raymon,
2021).

The resulting data is plotted as a mass spectrum, which is a plot of the abundance of
each ion as a function of its mass-to-charge ratio. By comparing the mass spectrum of
the sample to a database of known mass spectra, the individual components in the
sample can be identified.

Overall, the GC/MS technique is a powerful tool for identifying and quantifying chemical
compounds in complex mixtures, and is widely used in fields such as environmental
analysis, forensic science and pharmaceuticals.

•Most forensic laboratories have access to a combined gas chromatograph/mass

spectrometer (GC/MS).

GC-MS schematic diagram.

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7.0 Recent Articles on GC-MS
A recent article on lab analysis of cocaine: "Analysis of cocaine and its metabolites in
plasma and urine using gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry" by R. N.
Doering et al., published in the journal Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry in 2020.

Recent article on such lab analysis: "Rapid and sensitive detection of cocaine and its
adulterants using a gas chromatography mass spectrometer with paper spray
ionization" by Y. Li et al. (Analytica Chimica Acta, 2021). This article describes a novel
analytical method for detecting cocaine and its adulterants using. The study
demonstrates the accuracy and sensitivity of the method for detecting cocaine and
common adulterants such as levamisole and lidocaine in real-world samples. This
method has the potential for use as a rapid on-site screening tool for law enforcement
and public health officials.

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References

King, L. (2019). Drug content of powders and other illicit preparations in the UK.
Forensic Science International vol. 85 issue 2.
Perez-Reyes, M. D. (2017). Free-base cocaine smoking. Clinical Pharmacology and
Therapeutics, vol. 32 n° 4.
Raymon, L. a. (2021). The Possible Role of Levamisole in Illicit Cocaine Preparations.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology, vol. 33, n° 9.
Shannon, M. (2020). Clinical toxicity of cocaine adulterants. ,Annals of Emergency
Medicine, vol. 17, issue 11.
Shesser, R. J. (2019). The contribution of impurities to the acute morbidity of illegal
drug use. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, vol. 9, issue 4.
Solimini, R. R. (2021). Adulteration Practices of Psychoactive Illicit Drugs: An Updated
Review. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, vol. 18, n° 7.
Vidal, C. F. (2014). New psychoactive substances as adulterants of controlled drugs. A
worrying phenomenon? Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 6,issues 7-8.

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